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Brea king the Class Ceiling
Paraeduction dong
A National Study Conducted by
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
On Behalf of the
DeWitt Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
Acknowledgments
R
ecruiting New Teachers, Inc. gratefully acknowledges the support
of the DeWitt Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund's Pathways to
Teaching Careers Program for this project. In particular, the study
benefited greatly from the insights, perspectives, and experience of Dr.
Mildred J. Hudson, the Fund's program officer for the Pathways program.
The authors also wish to thank the dozens of project directors, paraedu-
cators, college/university faculty and administrators, classroom teachers
and school administrators, state and federal education agency officials.
union representatives, and other education professionals for sharinglinfor-
mation, stories, dreams, and ideas with us. Without their assistance and
cooperation, this study would not have been possible.
David Haselkorn, President
Elizabeth Fideler, Director of Policy
Recruiting New Teachers. Inc.
ISBN 1-884139-03-5
Copyright C 1946 by
Recruming New Teachers Inc.
385 Concerd Avenue
Belmont. MA 021 18
(617) 489-6000
Brief quotations from this report
m.) be reproduced without restrice
non. provided that acknowledgment
15 green as follows:
Breaking the Class Celling:
Paraeducation Pathways 1., Teaching
By David Haselkorn and
Elizabeth Fideler
A National Study Conducted by
Recruiting New Teachers. Inc.
On Behalf of the DeWitt Wallace-
Reader's Digest Fund
Additional copies of Breaking 11.
Class Ceiling: Paraeducator
Pathways to Teaching are available
from Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
Please see inside back cover for
ordering information
Breaking the Class Ceiling
DeWitt Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund
The mission of the DeWirt Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund is "to foster fun-
damental improvement in the quality of educational and career develop-
ment opportunities for all school-age youth, and to increase access to these
improved services for young people in low-income communities." In the
belief that "improving the quality of services for young people requires
investments in the adults who work with and on behalf of youth in schools
and community organizations," the Fund established the national Pathways
to Teaching Careers Program in 1989 "to increase the number of certified
teachers, particularly minorities, working in the public schools."
The Fund employs two major strategies to achieve this purpose: 1) pro-
viding scholarships and other support services to individuals interested in'
teaching careers, in return for which participants agree to work up to three
years in the public schools after earning their degrees; and 2) investing in
institutions that support teaching as a profession, including providing
resources to colleges and universities to restructure and update their course
offerings to meet the needs of prospective teachers in schools with large
populations of disadvantaged students.
Over a six-year period, the Fund has invested a total of $40.2 million in
the Pathways program. Starting with one project at Bank Street College in
New York City in 1989, the Pathways program soon expanded to other
colleges and universities, for an initial investment of $5.2 million.
Expansion to several southern states occurred in 1992 and, including sup
port for returning Peace Corps volunteers who prepare to become teachers.
cost $22.4 million. In 1993 the Fund invested another $9.8 million in
expansion of the Pathways program in northeastern and midwestern sec-
tions of the country. In 1994 the Fund approved another $2.8 million for a
series of second-level grants and a five-year ($1.5 million) program evalua-
tion to be conducted by the Urban Institute and the Educational Testing
Service. The estimated per person cost for a Pathways Scholar is $13,000.
The Pathways program operates according to the following premises:
1. Substitute and provisionally certified teachers, and teachers'
assistants and other paraprofessionals who are within two full-
time years of completing the bachelor's degree (in states where
that degree is acceptable for certification) should be encouraged
to become fully certified teachers;
2. Bachelor's and master's degree programs can be redesigned cre-
atively to meet more effectively the needs of urban teachers and the
students they serve;
3. Colleges and universities can ensure that urban teachers receive
outstanding training.
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
Striving to effect changes in the recruitment, preparation, and development
of educators, the Fund has targeted paraprofessionals and other nontradi-
tional groups (such as second career populations and noncertified teachers
working in the public schools) to become Pathways Scholars, obtain bache-
lor's or master's degrees, or meet other requirements for licensure. The Fund
is especially interested in identifying and supporting individuals from groups
underrepresented in teaching who are currently working in low-performing
urban schools. Some 2,200 individuals have been supported as Pathways
Scholars, of whom some 417 are/were paraprofessionals.
The Fund is the primary sponsor of 43 Pathways projects, 20 of which
serve paraeducators, among other groups. It is not unusual for Pathways
projects, such as the Tomorrou's New Teachers program at Cleveland State
University (sec Appendix A-9) and the Urban Paraprofessional Teacher
Preparation Program at Cambridge College (see box), to
A
receive additional support from other national and/or
992 grant of $880.000 from the DeWitt Wallace-
local funders.
Reader's Digest Fund allowed Cambridge College (Massa-
Dr. Mildred J. Hudson, a program officer for the
chusetts. to launch the Urban Paraprofessional Teacher
fund, has overall responsibility for the development,
Preparation Program (UPTPP) for 85 paraprofessionals as part
of the Fund's Pathways to Teaching Careers Program The
expansion, and supervision of the Pathways program.
UPTPF has since received funding for program expansion from
In addition to her responsibilities for the program
the L G. Balfour Foundation/Fleet Bank ($400.000). the
nationally, Dr. Hudson oversees Fund-coordinated
Ford Foundation the Rockefeller Brothers Fund the
Pathways programs in New York and Massachuserts.
AT&T Foundation the Boston Foundation Harcourt
"The DeWitt Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund," she notes,
General and the Philip Morris Companies
Cambridge College founded in 1971 "to serve working
"funds models and innovative programs that demon-
adults who did no: have access to traditional college and
strate to policymakers how schools and colleges can
graduate level education." views the UPTPP as "a powerful
do a better job of educating the students they serve.
learning lat to: everything the College believes in and tries to
Accordingly, the Pathways program is explicitly
accomplish-opening doors to meaningful careers, valuing
designed to work at a number of levels-individual.
the life and work experience of adults. celebrating the strengths
institutional, school district, and policy- to influence
that exis: in people and neighborhoods and in the many voices
that make UD American society today. modeling how a thought-
change." However, she also emphasizes the human
ful investment in caring. working adults can have a leveraging
dimension as a critical component of the Pathways pro-
effect on the health of communities."
gram, particularly the difference in children's lives that
The College ; innovative approach to adult education-
each Pathways Scholar will make. "When you drop a
students are awarded credit for experience and take only the
pebble into the center of a still pond," she says, "ulti-
courses they need to complete their degrees-and partner-
ships with Boston, Cambridge. and Lawrence public schools.
mately the ripples it makes will cover the entire surface.
make if an ideal site for a paraeducator-to-teacher program
Each Pathways Scholar will affect a thousand students
Program officer Dr. Mildred J. Hudson, who supervises this
or more across a teaching career. There is no telling
project for the DeWitt Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund. sees it
how far their influence will reach."
as "an opportunity to encourage people who are already in the
schools' and have a certain type of experience to increase their
Dr. Nathaniel Jackson, senior program officer of the
learning and share what they ve learned with children
Southern Education Foundation, coordinates Pathways
I think it IS a national model offering a unique way of learning
projects at several expansion sites in the south. Those
serving paraeducators are: Alabama State University and
Breaking the Class Ceiling
Auburn University at Montgomery;
LeMoyne-Owen College (Tennessee),
Armstrong State College and Savannah
PREAM
State College (Georgia), Norfolk State
University and Old Dominion University
(Virginia), Tulane University (Louisiana)
and Florida Memorial College.
Dr. Y. Nona Weekes directs the
Pathways projects coordinated by
Bank Street College of Education
for the Fund. The northeastern and
midwestern expansion sites serving
paraeducators are: Cleveland State
University (Ohio), Drexel University
(Pennsylvania), Harris-Stowe State
Dorothy Brown.
College (Missouri), Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Kean College of
Cambridge College graduate
(Dated L. Ryan photo.
New Jersey, Lesley College (Massachusetts), University of Louisville
The Boston Glube
(Kentucky), Wayne State University (Michigan), University of
Wisconsin/Milwaukee in partnership with nearby Alverno College.
According to Dr. Hudson, the Fund will await the results of the multi-
year program evaluation before drawing any conclusions about outcomes.
However, credible evidence of Pathways' effectiveness is accruing-notably
serving as a model for Morgan State University's federally funded minority
teacher recruitment initiative in Baltimore, as well as demonstrating how
universities (Hunter and Lehman Colleges, to be specific) can change to
work well with schools in low-income communities.
Ford Foundation
The Ford Foundation's support for paraeducator-to-teacher programs is
part of Ford's larger Minority Teacher Education initiative, which was
first conceptualized in 1988 by Dr. Barbara Hatton, then of the Founda-
tion. Ford's current program officer for education and culture, Dr. Joseph
Aguerrebere, explains that the initiative aims to: 1) attract able minority
teacher candidates, 2) prepare them well in institutions of higher education,
and 3) present an array of model programs for state policymakers and
administrators. To accomplish this, the program demonstrates ways to
identify talented minority students whose potential was not recognized by
conventional standardized tests. In addition, the program recruits these
students to selected sets of colleges committed to developing value-added
programs for their preparation, and assists the colleges in enhancing their
capacity to play this role. The program focuses on the needs of three ethnic
and racial groups that are underrepresented in the profession: blacks,
Hispanics (Mexican-Americans and Puerto Ricans), and Native Americans.
The Numbers Game
Ensuring Quantity and Quality in the Teaching Work Force
NASBE
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF
STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
The report of
the NASBE Study
Group on Teacher
Development,
Supply, and
Demand
THE NUMBERS GAME
ENSURING QUANTITY AND QUALITY IN THE
TEACHING WORKFORCE
THE REPORT OF THE NASBE STUDY GROUP ON TEACHER
DEVELOPMENT, SUPPLY, AND DEMAND
October 1998
Copyright © 1998 by the National Association of State Boards of Education. All rights re-
served. Additional copies of this report are available for $12.00 each + $2.00 shipping and
handling (prepaid) from NASBE Publications, 1012 Cameron Street, Alexandria, VA 22314,
(800) 220-5183.
NASBE Study Group on Teacher Development, Supply and Demand
William Byron Darden (Arizona), Chair
Morris Jones (Maryland)
Nancy Doorey (Delaware), Vice Chair
Walter Lee (Louisiana)
Robert Bartman (Missouri)
Terri Masters (Connecticut)
JoNell Caldwell (Arkansas)
Weaver Rogers (North Carolina)
Mary Jane Caylor (Alabama)
Russell Thompson (Missouri)
John Evans (Colorado)
Marina Tse (California)
Sheila Hamilton (West Virginia)
Sharon Williams (Missouri)
William Hanlon (Nevada)
Linda Holloway (Kansas)
NASBE Staff
Carla Claycomb
The Study Group would like to acknowledge the valuable support and expertise it received from the
members of its Advisory Panel, who are representatives of several leading organizations associated with
teacher development and teacher supply. Members of the Advisory Panel met with NASBE staff twice,
once prior to the first meeting and again after the final meeting of the Study Group. The Advisory Group
helped define important issues and questions to underlie the Group's work. Each member also had an
opportunity to attend Study Group meetings to meet Study Group members and participate in discussion
and were asked to review and provide comments on a draft of the final report. Finally, members of the
Advisory Panel generously contributed funds to help offset some portion of production expenses of the
Study Group report.
NASBE is extremely grateful for the assistance provided by the Advisory Panel and their efforts to work
with state boards as partners in improving teacher development and supply. However, the recommenda-
tions and findings in this report are solely those of NASBE and the Study Group on Teacher Development,
Supply and Demand and do not necessarily represent the views of the Advisory Panel or any other organi-
zation or individual associated with the work of the Study Group.
Advisory Panel
Joseph Aguerreberre, Education, Culture and Media Department, Ford Foundation
Karen Brosius, Director, Office of Corporate Contributions, Philip Morris Companies, Inc.
Drew Gitomer, Professional Education and Development Group, Educational Testing Service
Jeremy Price, Assistant Professor, University of Maryland and National Partnership for Excellence and
Accountability in Teaching
John Snyder, Director, Teacher Education Program, University of California at Santa Barbara
Table of Contents
Chapter I. Introduction: What it Takes to Ensure High-Quality Teachers for All
4
Students
The Complex Notion of an Impending National Teacher Shortage
A Closer Look at the Real Problems in Teacher Quality, Supply and Demand
Chapter II. Building a Standards-Based System of Teacher Development
9
Chapter III. High-Quality Teacher Recruitment and Distribution: Differentiated
13
Policies for Differentiated Needs
Our Nation's Monochrome Teaching Force
More of the Same, or More of What's Needed?
Going Where the Jobs Are
Chapter IV. Teacher Retention
23
Chapter V. Educating Teachers for High Standards
29
The Content and Format of Teacher Preparation
Teacher Induction Programs
Professional Development
Chapter VI. Teacher Licensure and Recognition of Accomplished Practice
38
Initial Licensure
Continuing Licensure and Recognition of Accomplished Teaching Practice
Appendix A. Evaluation and Program Improvement
44
Appendix B. Placing the Work of Every State in a National Context
45
References
47
4
THE NUMBERS GAME
I. Introduction: What It Takes to Ensure High-
Quality Teachers for All Students
One of the greatest challenges facing the
Systemic reform in teaching begins by ensur-
United States as it looks toward the new millen-
ing that every teacher in every classroom has the
nium is the development of human capacity-
skills, experience and tools they need in order to
specifically, the need for a highly educated,
help students learn what the state has defined as a
globally aware community of citizens who can
well-rounded education. The NASBE Studv
lead the country into an era of increasing techno-
Group on Teacher Development, Supply and
logical, moral, scientific, political and social
Demand contends that, although hiring and
complexity. Chief among the developers of our
placing teachers is a district and school responsi-
nation's human capacity are teachers, who, along
bility, ensuring a sufficient supply of high-quality
with parents, share responsibility for the growth of
teachers is fundamentally an issue of state policy
knowledge among the nation's more than 50
that requires far-reaching, systemic reform to
million school-age youth.
build a coherent system of teacher recruitment,
development and support. In most states, state
Just as we expect all of today's students to
boards of education have the authority to control
achieve high standards (previously expected of
access to the field through accreditation and
just an elite few), we must expect more from
licensure requirements and to set standards for
today's teachers. But so far the nation has fallen
continuing practice via certification and continu-
short in its attempts to produce a sufficient
ing education requirements. States can also
number of teachers who are fully trained and
provide incentives to attract more individuals to
capable of helping all students meet the new
the field or allow disincentives to deter individu-
standards. Indeed, there is growing evidence that,
als from entering. Finally, state boards in most
particularly in the area of teacher training, critics
states can set standards that define the purposes
of the overall quality of our teaching force may
and levels of all components of teacher develop-
be justified in some of their concerns. For ex-
ment. Using their far-reaching authority over
ample, nearly one-third of aspiring teachers in
teacher education, licensure and certification,
Virginia failed a basic skills test administered this
state board members have a responsibility to
year. When one New York district administered
build a system of teacher development and
an eleventh-grade reading test to applicants for
supply that elevates teaching and learning across
teaching positions, 75 percent failed.
the state to higher standards.
There is also evidence that critics of teacher
There is no question that upgrading the
recruitment and placement practices may have
teaching profession is paramount to any efforts to
genuine cause for concern. In California, half of
improve public education. Indeed, current reforms
all math and science teachers do not have even a
in schools to hold students to high standards will
college minor in their major field of teaching,
fail without skilled, well-trained teachers to guide
and over 10 percent of all new hires in teaching
students. Despite this fact, only a handful of states
have no pedagogical training at all. Across the
have developed comprehensive, systemic policies,
nation, over 70 percent of students taking physics
based on effective schools research and best
classes in high-poverty secondary schools are
practice models, to improve and support their
being taught by a teacher who does not have
teaching force.
even a college minor in physics.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
5
Many states resist building policies to im-
The truth is much more complex than most
prove the teaching force because they perceive
headlines imply. The United States will certainly
that there is currently an urgent need to increase
need more and more teachers over the next
the number of teachers in the state and they
decade. Student enrollments, expected to reach
believe that raising standards at a time of shortage
over 54 million by 2007, will be the highest in
is self-defeating. Historical evidence demonstrates,
history and will require growth among the teach-
however, that raising standards among teachers
ing force of about 800,000 over the next decade
actually has the opposite effect-attracting more
(NCES, 1997). Combined with an expected
candidates to the field of teaching rather than
increase in teacher retirements, districts may
fewer. Furthermore, the Study Group has found
actually need to hire as many as 2 million teachers
that assumptions about an immediate or impend-
over the next decade (NCTAF, 1997). This daunt-
ing teacher shortage need to be reconsidered in
ing estimate is one on which many theories of
light of overwhelming evidence that suggests,
impending teacher shortage are based.
against conventional wisdom, that the real prob-
lems of teacher supply and demand center around
Nonetheless, the teacher supply and demand
distribution, not shortage.
issue is not strictly an overall numbers game; for
the most part, states are preparing sufficient and,
The Complex Notion of an Impending
in many cases, overly-abundant numbers of
National Teacher Shortage
teachers (AAEE, 1996). In fact, each year nearly
twice as many teachers are prepared in teacher
The extent to which school districts are
preparation programs as actually enter teaching. In
working under conditions of teacher shortage
1994, among graduates who majored in educa-
matters. It matters because historically teacher
tion, 22 percent prepared to, but did not teach in
shortages have led, in the short term, to an easing
the year following graduation, and 51 percent of
of teacher licensure requirements to attract quick
bachelor's degree recipients in other fields who
and candidates into the field and subsequent
had also prepared to teach did not even apply for
assumptions on the part of many that "anyone can
teaching jobs. As recently as 1994 less than 1
teach." Easing requirements to enter the field
percent of teaching positions were vacant or tempo-
damages not only the professionalism of the
rarily filled by substitute teachers because suitable
teaching force, but also threatens the integrity of
candidates could not be found (NCES, 1997a).
the state's license to practice in education and
jeopardizes the quality of education available to
The picture of teacher supply and demand is
students across the state.
made more complex by the fact that there are
several sources of teacher supply besides newly
The media has been carrying stories of teacher
minted individuals from undergraduate teacher
shortages for some time, insisting that our nation's
education programs, the traditional and often
schoolchildren are at risk because of an impending
quoted measure of teacher supply; graduate level
shortage of teachers in our nation's classrooms.
teacher education programs, alternate routes to
USA Today claimed that alternate certification
teaching careers, and entrance into the field from
programs need to be streamlined "as the teacher
the "reserve pool" of certified but non-working
crunch arrives" (6/7/96, p. 14A). Time Magazine
teachers are also important sources of qualified
agreed: "With politicians slashing class sizes and a
new teachers. While undergraduate teacher
generation of teachers on the verge of retiring,
education programs continue to be an important
American schools face a crunch: they will have to
source of new teachers, more than half of newly
hire as many as one million new teachers over the
hired teachers in 1990 were not new graduates
next decade" (7/20/98, p. 24).
from traditional teacher preparation programs.
6
THE NUMBERS GAME
The reserve pool, often neglected in discussions of
teacher supply and demand, comprised one sixth
"Is the supply of teachers in the U.S.
of all new hires (Darling-Hammond and Sclan,
adequate to the demand? The data
do
1996)
not indicate national shortages of teachers
in general or within specific teaching
This is not to say that the U.S. does not have to
fields However, these data do indicate
contend with some serious issues in terms of
that schools serving larger proportions of
teacher supply. On the contrary, the Study Group
low-income students experienced some-
believes that most states are facing serious and
what greater difficulty finding qualified
complex problems in terms of supply and de-
teachers to fill vacancies."
mand, but these problems of "shortage" are
primarily a matter of distribution rather than of
National Center for Education Statistics.
absolute numbers of candidates in the teaching
(1997). America's Teachers: Profile of a
pool. Wealthy districts rarely experience short-
Profession.
ages; ow-income ones often do. As districts
experience localized shortages, they resort to
hiring individuals who are often unprepared and
unqualified to teach. As a consequence, even with
an overabundance of qualified teachers, over a
Standards and Quality-States have tradition-
quarter of all teachers enter the teaching force
ally made policies concerning teacher develop-
without proper qualifications in their major field of
ment and supply according to immediate needs
teaching (NCTAF, 1997).
rather than long-term plans. The result is usually
an ad hoc array of programs and policies for
A Closer Look at the Real Problems in Teacher
teachers, many of which have conflicting pur-
Quality, Supply and Demand
poses and may be based upon opposing concep-
tions of the purpose of teacher work, the content
To improve the quality and quantity of
of teacher knowledge, and the nature of teacher
teachers available to schools, state boards of
skills. Without developing clear, challenging
education need to simultaneously develop a
teacher standards and devising valid ways to
standards-based system of teacher preparation,
measure teacher effectiveness according to those
evaluation and development while continuing to
standards, states are likely to find it impossible to
recruit more promising teacher candidates to the
provide a pool of teachers possessing the skills
field and finding effective ways to encourage
and knowledge districts say they need. States
them to stay. Doing this may require state boards
need to develop systemic mechanisms, bound by
to consider new ways of allocating resources and
a set of clear and precise standards, for teachers'
professional authority to encourage change.
work and the work of those who support them in
order to ensure that policies build efficiently from
Regardless of the abundant number of teachers
one another and teacher quality is consistently
that are currently prepared and certified, many
first-rate.
states have difficulty meeting the staffing needs of
local districts. To truly meet the needs of schools
High-Quality, Diverse Recruitment and
and districts for an adequate supply of well-quali-
Distribution-Teachers are largely unrepresenta-
fied teachers, policymakers need to recast the often
tive of the diverse populations they serve and
publicized notion of a "teacher shortage" in order
often unprepared to accept teaching positions in
to direct policy more appropriately toward the real
the subjects and communities where they are most
problems of teacher supply and demand. This will
needed. For example, while one-third of all
require taking actions in the following areas:
students in U.S. public schools are children of
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
7
color less than ten percent of individuals prepar-
knowledge into a standards-based system of
ing to be teachers are members of a minority
teacher education.
group (NCES, 1997a). Furthermore, while many
states have a surplus of teachers overall, most
Licensure and Certification-Teacher licen-
states find it hard to place teachers in urban and
sure requirements have commonly failed to reflect
rural schools and in subject specialties such as
appropriate standards of knowledge and perfor-
special education and the sciences. Consequently,
mance among teachers. This makes it difficult for
states need to devise policies that fairly recruit and
states to carry through with their legal responsibil-
distribute a high-quality, diverse teaching pool
ity to guarantee to the public that individuals
across all districts.
admitted to practice have met meaningful licen-
sure requirements. States need to devise licensure
Retention-Estimates are that between one-
and certification criteria and measures that are
third and one-half of all beginning teachers leave
based on a system of high-quality content and
the classroom within the first five years. Not only
performance standards that can reasonably assure
does this mean that public resources are often
the public that individuals admitted to practice as
squandered on teacher candidates who contribute
teachers are indeed highly competent.
very little time to schools, but it means that
schools and districts are forced to expend enor-
Solving the real teacher supply issues requires
mous energies developing new teachers, who are
policies and programs that look very different than
likely to leave after only a few years and be
policies responding to a "general teacher short-
replaced by yet another new recruit in need of
age." It requires, first, recruitment, education and
special resources and support. This is a particular
training policies that are rigorous, coherent,
concern because high quality educational change
standards-based and results-oriented and second,
rests in large part on the quality of teachers in our
recruitment, education, retention and distribution
schools (Carnegie Forum, 1986; Holmes Group,
policies that are sufficiently flexible to respond to
1986 National Governors Association, 1986;
different needs of different types of districts.
Darling-Hammond and Sclan, 1996). Conse-
Finally, it requires states to produce policies that
quently, states need to invest in policies and
are supported by high-quality data about programs
programs that reward teacher knowledge and
and policies that work. Without a clear rationale
skills and build supportive school organizations to
for targeted and systemic policy decision-making,
improve the long-term retention of teachers.
states may find that their policies are overly
affected by political jockeying; with a clear ratio-
Education and Training-Preservice and
nale, on the other hand, policies are more likely to
inservice education for teachers has often been
be systemic and effective. This report examines
criticized for ignoring what teachers themselves
what a system of teacher development and supply
say they need to know in order to do their jobs
should look like in order to be rigorous, coherent,
more effectively. States need to devise ways to
flexible, standards- and results-oriented, and based
incorporate the best of education and training
on high-quality research.
8
THE NUMBERS GAME
Summary Recommendations of the NASBE Study Group
on Teacher Development, Supply, and Demand
STANDARDS: To improve the quality and quantity of teachers available to
schools, state boards of education need to simultaneously develop a standards-
based system of teacher preparation, evaluation and development while con-
tinuing to recruit more promising teacher candidates to the field and finding
effective ways to encourage them to stay. Doing this may require state boards to
consider new ways of allocating resources and professional authority to encour-
age change.
TEACHER RECRUITMENT: States need to formulate policies and programs ac-
knowledging that the problems in teacher recruitment and supply will not be
solved through blanket strategies but through targeted programs that strategi-
cally recruit teachers with particular skills and characteristics.
TEACHER RETENTION: Retention of high-quality teachers is one of the greatest
causes of teacher shortage. Therefore states should develop policies to improve
the support, services, and growth opportunities available to educators in order
to encourage truly good teachers to remain in the field.
TEACHER EDUCATION AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: States should create
policies that extend teacher education beyond traditional university teacher
preparation programs and facilitate a variety of high-quality ways in which
teachers and teacher candidates can develop the knowledge and skills required
to bring students to high standards. States should also consider various methods
of teacher education, such as alternate routes to licensure and preparation
programs beyond a bachelor's, that may attract candidates to, rather than deter
them from, careers in teaching.
TEACHER LICENSURE AND RECOGNITION OF ACCOMPLISHED PRACTICE: States
need to create policies that hold individuals to knowledge and performance
standards, more than rigid course and degree requirements, in order to receive a
license to teach. These standards should be applied to every teaching credential
issued by the state, regardless of short-term needs for individuals to fill vacant
classrooms. Furthermore, states should devise mechanisms to encourage experi-
enced teachers to develop their skills beyond those levels required for initial
licensure.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
9
II
Building a Standards-Based System of Teacher
Development
Traditionally, state initiatives to support and
sent what the people in a state have decided they
develop teachers have been characterized as
want in their teachers; that is, the standards
being a series of disjointed, conflicting policies.
describe the knowledge, skills, and dispositions
For example:
that each teacher should possess in order to be
competent-in order, that is, to effectively help
Class size reduction plans make it hard to put
students reach the state's learner outcomes.
a well-qualified teacher in rapidly increasing
numbers of classrooms;
Teacher standards are also critical to education
Teacher certification requirements that empha-
reform. Developing teachers to lead critical
size knowledge via paper-and-pencil tests,
change at the school level, rather than relying on
which may measure content knowledge, make
universities, professional associations, or bureau-
it hard to ensure that teachers have the neces-
crats, gives teachers a sense of ownership over the
sary instructional skills to be effective in
reform process and makes reform more likely to
classrooms; and
succeed. But placing teachers at the heart of
systemic reform requires teachers to have certain
Emergency certification programs in response
skills and knowledge that will enable them to
to immediate teacher shortages conflict with
participate meaningfully in changing the nature of
efforts to "raise the bar" to enter and remain in
their own work. Furthermore, defining and mea-
the field.
suring standards is the only way in which states
can ensure that the pool of teachers they certify,
The primary reason why policies concerning
and from which districts may select, is of high
teacher development have been so ad hoc is
quality. States need to have in place a set of stan-
because most states have no overarching priorities
dards for teacher preparation, support and devel-
or unifying definition of what teachers should
opment upon which a coordinated policy and
know and be able to do-thus, policies have been
programmatic system can be built (NASBE, 1996).
developed without broad, consistent focus. It is no
wonder, then, that states have historically had little
States across the country have begun to define
notion of what standards their teachers were
what teachers need to know and be able to do in
meeting, what teachers' assumptions were about
order to bring students to high standards. For
student learning, or how effective teachers were.
example, Ohio has adopted a set of teacher
standards and plans to make initial and continuing
Standards for teachers represent a state's
licensure dependent upon candidates' results on
commitment to parents and communities that their
rigorous performance assessments that are tied to
children's teachers are highly capable and have
the standards. North Carolina, in their Excellent
the knowledge and skills needed to nurture the full
Schools Act of 1997, established a system that ties
potential of all students. Forming concensus around
teacher licensure to state teacher standards across
what constitutes teacher competence is also the
a three-tiered system of initial, continuing, and
best way that teachers themselves can make good
advanced certification. All levels of teacher
on the promise of competence that they, and the
certification are tied to state teacher standards via
states that licence them, need to be able to make
a demanding performance assessment. The
to the public. Properly devised, standards repre-
Maryland State Board has adopted standards for
10
THE NUMBERS GAME
recognized standards for beginning teachers and is
The State Role in Teacher
implementing a portfolio assessment for beginning
teachers that is tied to the standards.
Development, Supply, and Demand
The Study Group believes that it is very
Historically, the job of placing teachers in
important for each state to go through its own
classrooms has been largely the responsibility
process of developing teacher standards that
of local districts. While the Study Group agrees
that local districts should continue to make
corresponds with each state's unique set of
student standards and that defines the norms and
specific teacher hiring and placement
decisions, the state also has important roles in
expectations of the particular citizens of each
enabling local districts to do their job:
state. When developed comprehensively, these
teacher standards include:
States, through rigorous preparation and
licensure requirements, need to ensure a
Expectations for colleges of education in terms
pool of high-quality teachers from which
of competencies, classroom experience
districts can pick and choose with
requirements and performance and knowledge
confidence;
requirements among their graduates;
States, by accrediting preparation programs
Expectations for graduates of teacher training
that emphasize the particular needs of
programs in terms of both knowledge and
local districts, need to compel programs to
performance;
prepare teachers to accept positions and
succeed in subjects and geographic areas
Expectations for continuing teachers in terms
where they are needed;
of professional development, skills and
States, through comprehensive research
knowledge; and
and evaluation programs, need to gather
Expectations for professional development
data about teacher demand and effective
providers defined in terms of student and
ways of meeting demand and use this data
teacher outcomes.
to inform program implementation;
States need to ensure that preparation
Devising comprehensive standards has impli-
programs that are re-approved have a track
cations for the spectrum of state education policies
record of preparing effective teachers; and
because standards move the focus of policy from
States need to premise the entire system of
inputs and processes to results. The actual pro-
teacher supply and development upon
cesses students, teachers and administrators
rigorous standards and assessments that
employ to achieve the defined standards become
have been developed via open discussion
less important from a policy perspective, and
with teachers, parents, researchers,
across the system individuals are evaluated
policymakers, and the general public.
according to the results they achieve.
Fortunately, not every state needs to "reinvent
accreditation of all teacher preparation programs
the wheel" when they devise teacher standards;
and for initial licensure of all teaching candidates.
there is considerable agreement already about
Usinglexisting national standards, Maryland has
necessary knowledge, skills and dispositions for
alsoladopted a set of standards for teacher profes-
teachers that have been developed by states and
sionalidevelopment. Maine has adapted a set of
by national projects such as the National Board for
national teacher standards to correspond with the
Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), the
students learning standards, and Rhode Island has
National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher
instituted a set of comprehensive, nationally
Education, (NCATE), and the Interstate New
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
11
and Sclan, 1996). Whether or not state policymak-
National Projects to Develop
ers decide to adopt components of existing teacher
standards or develop new standards, the Study
Teacher Standards
Group believes that policymakers need to be
aware of the rationale for and content of the
Producing performance standards for
important work that has been accomplished by
teacher licensing has been undertaken by
the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and
these existing projects.
Support Consortium (INTASC). To hold
teachers accountable for reaching the high
Finally, the Study Group found that when
standards they recommend, INTASC is
basing policy decisions on a coordinated system of
developing sophisticated authentic assess-
teacher standards, state policymakers need to keep
ments for teachers in their first years of
at least three things in mind:
practice. More than 20 states have either
directly adopted or modified INTASC stan-
Teacher standards need to be aligned with
dards for beginning teacher licensure. At
clear content and performance standards for
least 18 states have started creating com-
prehensive performance assessments based
students. Every student standard implies a
on INTASC or INTASC-modified standards.
particular notion of teaching and learning that
needs to be built into standards for teachers.
The National Board for Professional
For example, if students are being asked to
Teaching Standards (NBPTS) has developed
think thematically and link subject areas
high standards and comprehensive
assessments for advanced licensure of
across concepts, then teacher standards need
highly-accomplished, experienced teachers.
to clearly expect teachers to connect subject
Over half of all states, and some districts,
areas in thematic teaching.
have begun to offer financial and other
incentives for teachers to seek National
Setting high standards for students and for
Board Certification. Several states utilize
teachers morally obligates the state to provide
teachers with National Board Certification
the structures and supports that students and
as master teachers, tutors, and school
teachers need to meet the standards. Doing so
improvement specialists to work with
requires states to think differently about the
teachers and schools across the state.
ways in which resources are allocated, since
The National Council for the Accreditation
individual districts will likely require very
of Teacher Education (NCATE) has created
different kinds of support in order to meet
a set of demanding standards for teacher
standards.
education programs that incorporate the
performance standards developed by
Programs and policies designed to support a
INTASC. In 1997, 41 states had entered
standards-based system need to balance the
into partnerships with NCATE; nine
required all public institutions to be
need for implementing what we know works
NCATE accredited.
with what is promising, new and innovative.
State funds need to be allocated strategically,
as an incentive to keep effective programs
Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium
operating while at the same time encouraging
(INTASC). All of these initiatives share a view of
the design, implementation and evaluation of
teaching as a complex undertaking, "grounded in
promising new programs. Relatedly, state
decisions that are contingent on students' needs
policymakers need to know which policies
and instructional goals, and reciprocal, that is,
and programs have been proven effective in
continually shaped and reshaped by students'
order to make informed decisions about what
responses to learning events" (Darling-Hammond
to implement.
12
THE NUMBERS GAME
Removing Poorly Performing Teachers
A standards-based teacher development system needs to have mechanisms in place to
judge whether experienced teachers are meeting professional standards. Many school districts
have developed innovative programs that incorporate peer review and intensive support and
assistance from lead teachers and mentors in order to support beginning teachers or experi-
enced teachers who find it difficult to meet state standards. Teachers who are unable to
improve their practice are counseled out of the field.
Peer review and assistance programs represent new models of collaboration between
unions and school boards that have proven extremely effective at both improving teachers'
practice and dismissing teachers. Peer review and assistance programs have been imple-
mented by AFT and NEA locals in several cities in Ohio and in Rochester and Seattle. Each
program was established through collective bargaining agreements and is governed by a panel
of teachers and administrators.
Peer review and assistance programs credit their success to the fact that they review
teachers' practice more comprehensively than traditional "checklist" approaches. Colleagues
and administrators examine data on teacher and student performance to determine a teacher's
ability. Another reason for success is the way in which excellent teachers are freed from a
small portion of their classroom responsibilities to work intensively with their peers, both in
terms of evaluation and assistance.
In each case, peer assistance programs have raised standards, and more teachers have
received assistance to improve their practice (and more have been dismissed) than ever
occurred under previous teacher evaluation programs. For example, in Rochester about 10
percent of experienced teachers referred for "intervention" to improve their practice deter-
mined, through extensive work with their tutor, that they should leave teaching.
Source: National Commission on Teaching and America's Future. (1996). What Matters Most:
Teaching for America's Future. New York: NCTAF.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
13
III. High-Quality Teacher Recruitment and Distribution:
Differentiated Policies for Differentiated Needs
States need to formulate policies and programs
education is the key to effective teacher develop-
acknowledging that the problems in teacher
ment policy.
recruitment and supply will not be solved
through blanket strategies but through targeted
In large part, most states do not need to recruit
programs that strategically recruit teachers with
more candidates into teacher preparation pro-
particular skills and characteristics.
grams. Most states do not even need to attract
higher quality candidates to teaching; those
Once state standards are in place that define
admitted to teacher preparation programs are now
expected teacher knowledge, skills and disposi-
above average in terms of college entrance
tions, state policymakers have a moral obligation
qualifications (NCTAF, 1997). What states do
to develop policies that: 1) support the standards
need, however, are targeted programs that attract
functionally and philosophically; and 2) develop
candidates who are willing and able to meet the
and distribute resources in ways that help schools
needs of the schools in which they will be asked
and districts hire high-quality teachers who meet
to teach. The most dire needs faced by districts are
these standards. But providing high-quality teach-
for: 1) teachers who are racially, culturally and
ers to all students requires states to: recruit good,
ethnically diverse; 2) teachers who are qualified to
diverse prospective candidates who are able and
teach specific subjects in which teachers are in
willing to teach in high-demand subject and
short supply, and 3) teachers who are willing to
geographic areas; retain high quality teachers for
teach in high-poverty schools and schools serving
long-term careers in the field; and educate teach-
students of color, primarily in urban areas.
ers to meet high standards by providing effective
education and training across teachers' careers.
Our Nation's Monochrome Teaching Force
These are the critical elements of a comprehensive
Across the nation, over one-third of public
teacher development policy.
school students are individuals of color and about
five percent of students are limited-English profi-
Recruiting, retaining and educating sufficient
cient. Teaching students who contend with varied
numbers of high-quality teachers to work in every
and often challenging circumstances is a complex
type of school and district across the country is
task that requires input and intervention from
extremely complex. Just as the circumstances,
individuals who can understand and respond to
goals, priorities and expectations of schools vary,
the needs of an ethnically and racially diverse
so too do the difficulties they face in the recruit-
student body.
ment, retention, and education of their teaching
force. While state policies need to be standardized
There are several reasons states should want to
to the extent that everyone is held to high stan-
attract and retain a diverse cadre of teachers:
dards, they also need to be differentiated to serve
every school, in every circumstance, with every
Teachers of color and ethnically diverse
type, of goal, priority and expectation. The Study
teachers are often the most successful teachers
Group believes emphatically that this combination
in the neediest schools-those with high
of flexibility within high standards across policies
proportions of students of color (Howey &
of teacher recruitment, distribution, retention, and
Zimpher, 1993).
14
THE NUMBERS GAME
Diverse members of local communities are
often the most likely and willing candidates to
"The race and background of [students']
instruct students with limited-English profi-
teachers tell them something about power
ciency and other special needs (RNT, 1996);
and authority in contemporary America.
Studies make clear that teachers of color and
These messages influence children's
ethnically diverse teachers are often able to
attitudes toward school, their academic
forge more meaningful ties with local ethnic/
accomplishments, and the views of their
racial communities and demonstrate greater
own and others' intrinsic worth. The
understanding of the particular circumstances
views they form in school about justice
of racially and ethnically diverse students than
and fairness also influence their future
are white teachers (RNT, 1996);
citizenship."
Men and women who are racially and ethni-
Carnegie Forum on Education and the
cally diverse can provide valuable role models
Economy. (1986). A Nation Prepared:
not only to students of color, but also to white
Teachers for the 21st Century.
students;
There are indications that students of color and
The good news is that several successful
ethnically diverse students achieve more when
programs to attract individuals of color and
taught by individuals they believe are like
ethnically diverse individuals to careers in teach-
themselves in terms of race, class and culture;
ing provide helpful lessons in the necessary
and
components of an effective program to recruit
Teachers of color and ethnically diverse
diverse teaching candidates. Successful programs:
teachers may be more likely to encourage
insist that diverse candidates, regardless of their
students of color to enter teaching.
route of entry into teaching, be held to the same
Despite myriad reasons why ensuring a
standards as all other teacher candidates; provide
courses in local communities instead of exclu-
diverse teaching pool is important, the typical
graduate of a teacher preparation program is
sively on university campuses; provide financial
white, female, 21 years old, speaks only English,
support to enrolled students; offer classes in the
from aismall town and wanting to teach in the
evening and on weekends; provide extensive
same (AACTE, 1996). In recent decades diversity
academic and social support to diverse candidates;
among the nation's teaching force has actually
and often recruit teacher candidates from existing
decreased, particularly when compared to the
pools of school paraprofessionals. Graduate
growing diversity among public school students;
teacher preparation programs, particularly those
while over one-third of public school students are
that offer some of the program characteristics
individuals of color, only about 10 percent of
listed above, also attract above-average percent-
teachers are. Overall, the need for teachers of
ages of individuals of color.
color is so dire that in North Carolina, for ex-
ample, one report concluded that "if current trends
The Study Group believes that states need to
invest in what works to attract diverse candidates
continue, the average minority child could con-
ceivably have no minority teachers during the K-
to careers in teaching. Some states and local
12 years" (North Carolina Association of Educa-
communities have responded to the need for
tors, 1994). The few teachers of color who are in
diverse teachers with innovative programs that
the current workforce tend to cluster in particular
have proven successful at attracting non-traditional
schools, disproportionately teaching in urban
candidates to the teaching field.
schools and those serving students of color (See
South Carolina's Teacher Cadet Project
Figure 1).
involves teachers, administrators, and univer-
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
15
Figure 1.
Public School Diversity
60
50
40
Percent
30
20
10
0
All Schools
Central City
Large Town
Rural/Small Town
Minority Students
Minority Teachers
Source: U.S. Department of Education. (1993-94). Schools and Staffing Survey. National Center
for Education Statistics.
sity faculty in mentoring secondary school
sessions for program participants who need
students who demonstrate interest in teaching.
academic assistance. In operation since 1992,
Programs such as South Carolina's are particu-
the Latino Teacher Project has an extremely
larly promising because there is evidence that
low dropout rate and has produced significant
participants of early recruitment programs are
numbers of high quality teachers for Los
more than one-third minority (RNT, 1993).
Angeles schools.
Responding to the fact that over 90 percent of
teachers on the Navajo reservation are not
More of the Same or More of What's Needed?
Navajo, the Navajo Nation Ford Teacher
Evidence is clear that the nation's teachers are
Education Program recruits teachers from the
poorly distributed across subjects and specialities,
Navajo Nation to study with a consortium of
causing acute shortages in some fields of teaching
six colleges and universities. Participants
at the same time that there are sizable surpluses in
receive sizable scholarships along with
others. Not surprisingly, shortage areas are largely
stipends for transportation and child care
those fields in which higher paying career options
assistance, intensive academic advisement,
are available (such as the sciences) or in which
counseling, and support. The Program has
teaching placements are disproportionately in low-
successfully produced about 40 new Navajo
income schools and/or schools serving students of
teachers and over 200 Navajo-speaking
color.
teacher aides.
In Los Angeles, California, a consortium of
State policymakers are often quick to point out
colleges, local teacher unions, policy organi-
that teacher training programs are doing excep-
zations, and the Los Angeles Unified School
tionally well at producing teachers that districts
District operate a program to train Latino
don't need. For example, despite a surplus of
paraprofessionals to be teachers. This program
elementary teachers in every region of the coun-
offers strong academic and social support for
try, almost half of all education degrees, about
participants, including a cohort system of peer
50,000 in all, are conferred in elementary educa-
support, faculty mentors at each teaching
tion. On the other side of the spectrum, the nation
assistant's home school, and adjunct class
produced only 54 bachelor's degrees in bilingual
16
THE NUMBERS GAME
Alternate Routes to Teaching
Alternative routes for educating teachers is a fairly recent, but rapidly expanding initia-
tive that allows districts, colleges and universities, and other educational agencies to offer
licensure opportunities for teachers who complete a preparation program that may differ in
content, structure, recruitment strategy, or target population from traditional university
undergraduate programs in teacher preparation. Driving this trend is the desire to achieve at
least four important goals: increasing the pool of teachers competent in high-demand educa-
tional specialties, increasing the participation of under-represented racial/ethnic and cultural
groups; increasing staff levels of urban and high-poverty schools; and decreasing the need for
emergency credentialing to meet local teacher shortages.
Currently, most states allow some form of alternate routes, although alternate programs
can vary!widely according to regional needs and local resources. For example, some regions
with pressing needs for bilingual and special education teachers have found educational
paraprofessionals to be excellent candidates for alternate routes into teacher careers in those
fields. In regions with large military or business economies, some alternate routes have
catered to retired military officers or businessmen who often bring technical skills and
scientific knowledge to new careers in teaching.
Evaluating alternate routes according to the four goals above, several programs are
highly successful. Alternative routes to teaching increase minority representation in teaching.
In Texas, it is the primary means of attracting minority professionals into teaching. Not only
do Texas interns from alternate preparation programs have higher pass rates on certification
tests than' do traditional education graduates, but minority interns have higher pass rates than
minorities who were initially prepared through regular channels. Furthermore, the Los
Angeles Unified School District's Intern Program recruited minorities at a much higher rate
than the California state university system. New Jersey also experienced similar success with
their alternate routes to teaching. Teachers from alternate routes are also more likely to teach
in urban schools than teachers from traditional preparation programs, and there is evidence
that attrition rates both during program participation and after becoming a teacher are the
same or lower among alternate route graduates (RNT, 1996; Darling-Hammond, et al., 1989,
in Dill, V.S., 1996; Stoddart, 1990; Adams and Dial, 1993).
Today, well-constructed programs are no longer considered by most to be "back-door"
access to careers in teaching. As a matter of fact, entrance to some alternate routes have
become more rigorous and competitive than many traditional university preparation pro-
grams. In some "cases, as models proliferate, lines may blur between what was formerly a
universally defined 'traditional' model and its distinct 'alternatives" (Dill, 1996).
The evidence is clear: when judged by results, high-quality alternate routes to teaching
need not be viewed as a compromise in teacher preparation standards. On the contrary, an
effective standards-based system of teacher preparation welcomes innovations in "process"
that demonstrate promise in achieving the results states expect.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
17
education, when this field claims the third most
thinking creatively about who to recruit and how
severe shortage in the nation and is in short supply
to educate them.
in every region of the country (NCES, 1997b). (See
Table 1 on page 18.)
Several school districts offer free training to
prepare existing staff members to teach in
Although it may be tempting for policymakers
fields of shortage. About one in five school
to blame colleges and universities for preparing
districts offers free training for staff to prepare
individuals for teaching fields where there are
to teach in a shortage field.
already large surpluses, the Study Group asserts it
North Carolina established alternate certifica-
is the responsibility of the state through accredi-
tion programs in the 1980s that, by the end of
tation, more than colleges, universities or school
the decade, were preparing 15 percent of all
districts, to ensure that the pool of potential
mathematics teachers in the state (Dill, 1996).
candidates available to schools and districts is
Evaluations indicated that teachers in North
comprised of teachers who can meet their needs.
Carolina from alternate programs were as
States that continuously accredit programs and
competent and as successful on teacher
certify abundant number of teachers in surplus
examinations as teachers from traditional
fields when districts are desperate for specialists in
preparation programs.
shortage fields are failing to be accountable for
providing districts with the tools they need to
The California Mathematics and Science
bring students to high standards.
Teacher Corps Program was established
through partnerships between California State
Research has shown that successful programs
University and several corporations, which
for attracting candidates to high-need fields often
provide stipends for their retiring employees to
have: an uncompromising position that all teacher
enter teacher preparation programs. Coming
candidates, even those preparing in high-need
from companies such as IBM, TRW, and
subjects, meet high standards in order to be
Hughes, most participants have master's
licensed; financial incentives for currently practic-
degrees in math or science fields and several
ing or newly recruited teachers to become quali-
years of work experience as engineers.
fied in a high-need subject area; partnerships with
Going Where the Jobs Are
local businesses and the military to attract early
retirees and career-changers to high-need teaching
Not only are teachers demographically unrep-
fields; efforts to attract currently practicing para-
resentative and specializing disproportionately in
professionals, particularly in bilingual and special
fields where there is little or no need, but once
education, to teacher training programs; and
prepared to teach, individuals apply for and accept
effective recruitment and public awareness cam-
teaching positions in highly inequitable patterns.
paigns that emphasize the rewards of a career in
This causes severe local and regional shortages of
teaching. States that take seriously the necessity of
qualified teachers, particularly in urban and rural
attracting candidates to high-need fields should
high-poverty districts. For example, in 1990 almost
consider encorporating these criteria into their
one-quarter of central city public schools had
accountability and accreditation systems for
teaching vacancies that were impossible to fill,
teacher education programs.
particularly in the field of bilingual education
(CGCS, 1993). States need to develop policies to
Current projects undertaken by several states,
help all districts recruit high quality teachers to
districts, and private entities demonstrate that
work in their schools and to encourage teachers
states can increase the number of teacher candi-
to enter careers in states, districts, and schools
dates choosing to specialize in shortage areas by
with the most severe teacher shortages.
18
THE NUMBERS GAME
Table 1: Teacher Demand and Degrees Conferred, by Teaching Subject
Relative
Bachelor's
Mester's
Relative
Bachelor's
Master's
Demand
Degrees
Degrees
Demand
Degrees
Degrees
1996*
Conferred
Conferred
1996'
Conferred
Conferred
1995
1995
1995
1985
Considerable
Some Surplus
Shortage
Art/Visual
2.50
1,484
731
Speech
4.48
798
218
Education
Pathology
Elementary
2.45
46,840
13,256
Behavioral
4.33
312
231
Education-Pre-K
Disorders
Intermediate
2.41
1,397
615
Bilingual
4.32
74
286
Education
Kindergarten
2.33
6,236
2,021
Mentally
4.22
578
123
Health
2.22
1,746
868
Handicapped
Education
Some Shortage
Physical
2.05
11,829
2,961
Education
Learning
4.19
633
549
Disability
Social
1.94
3,067
602
Science/Social
Multiple
4.15
142
214
Studies
Handicapped
Education
**
Audiology
4.14
-
-
Physically
4.13
38
60
Impaired
Hearing
4.12
259
217
Source: National Center for Education
Impaired
Statistics. (1997). Digest of Education Statis-
Visually
4.05
40
11
tics and AAEE. (1997). Teacher Supply and
Impaired
Demand in the United States: 1996 Report.
Mathematics
3.85
1,756
837
Evanston, IL: AAEE.
English as a
3.81
45
1,634
* "Relative Demand" is based upon the
Second
Language
opinions of a national sample of university
directors of career services, deans of teacher
Technology
3.79
1,447
413
education divisions, and school district
Education
personnel administrators.
Computer
3.64
-
-
Science
** No data available.
Science
4.05-
-
-
3.49
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
19
Districts do not have equal ability to attract
In Connecticut and Kentucky, salary equaliza-
teachers for several reasons largely related to
tion programs among high-need and low-need
teacher working conditions. Wealthy districts often
districts have reduced teacher shortages in urban
report receiving hundreds of qualified applicants
and rural areas. In Connecticut, where this strategy
for a single teacher opening. But many high-
has been employed for over a decade, policymak-
poverty districts and schools cannot offer the pay,
ers have found that distributing state funds to
resources, or employment conditions to regularly
equalize beginning state salaries improved teacher
attract quality teachers. In general, these schools
standards overall and within three years of begin-
have higher student:teacher ratios, lower pay,
ning the salary equalization program the state
fewer classroom resources, more discipline
eliminated most teacher shortages.
problems, lower levels of student achievement,
lessieducated teachers and less administrator
Nevada plans to offer one extra year toward
support than other schools. It is little wonder that
retirement for every five years a teacher works in a
most teachers decide to teach elsewhere. Nor is it
high-need urban school. Not only does this plan
surprising that on almost every measure, high-
promise to help resolve teacher shortages in urban
poverty schools end up staffed with less edu-
areas, but it may attract experienced teachers to
cated, less experienced teachers who are often
urban schools rather than the young, inexperienced
teaching under difficult circumstances and are
teachers who traditionally staff inner-city-schools.
more likely to be teaching without the proper
qualifications.
Conclusion
Thinking of new ways to attract promising
The current ad hoc system of distributing high-
candidates to careers in teaching need not imply
quality teachers disproportionately to wealthy
any sacrifice in quality. On the contrary, some
schools and less-qualified teachers to poorer
states have found that alternate programs to attract
schools places high-risk, high-poverty students at
teaching candidates actually have higher standards
even greater risk of academic failure by giving
for admission and higher performance levels upon
them fewer instructional resources and fewer
completion than traditional teacher preparation
qualified teachers. Particularly in states with high-
programs. In a standards-based system of teacher
stakes accountability programs for students,
development, states are free to think flexibly about
unequal distribution of teaching resources may
ways in which candidates can meet the standards,
have serious implications for states as they work to
as long as the standards remain intact and all
ensure that all students meet academic standards.
preparation programs, regardless of their particular
purpose, are held accountable for them. In a
The Study Group believes emphatically that
standards-based system, then, states should
the state has a responsibility to see to it that all
narrow their potential teaching pool through
students, regardless of the community in which
quality indicators, codified in standards, and
they live, are taught by well-trained, fully quali-
enlarge their teaching pool by ensuring that
fied teachers. Providing such a guarantee may
every promising candidate, particularly candidates
require states to provide incentives to help districts
with qualities, knowledge, skills, and expertise
with greater need compete for high-quality teach-
most needed by schools, can see a viable way
ers. Some state and district programs have met
into the field.
with considerable success:
20
THE NUMBERS GAME
The Acute Needs of High-Poverty Urban Schools
Almost every cause of teacher shortage is magnified in high-poverty urban schools, which have
disproportionate difficulty recruiting and retaining teachers, some of the greatest need for diverse
teachers to support a diverse student population, and some of the most challenging teaching and
learning circumstances in the country. In general, high-poverty urban schools struggle with:
The youngest teachers with the least experience;
The highest percentage of teachers teaching out-of-field or without proper qualifications;
The highest rates of teacher burnout and teacher resignation;
The lowest levels of student achievement;
The highest levels of student dropout;
The highest class sizes;
The lowest teacher salaries, particularly at higher levels of the salary scale; and
The lowest measures of teacher autonomy and decision-making authority.
Students in high-poverty, urban schools are fundamentally shortchanged-denied high-quality
learning experiences with qualified teachers in supportive learning environments. Teachers in
these schools are shortchanged too-placed in jobs for which they are not qualified, asked to
contend with challenging community and student circumstances for which they are not prepared,
asked to teach with limited resources and restricted autonomy, rewarded with maximum salaries
well below those given to teachers in more affluent districts, and expected to assume responsibility
for an above-average number of students, many of whom may be performing below state stan-
dards.
States need to create policies that specifically serve teachers and students who find themselves,
by circumstance or by choice, in high-poverty urban schools. In an age where all students are
expected to learn to high standards, it is important to ensure that the opportunities students have to
learn are fair. One-size-fits-all policies will never serve urban schools like they do schools in
suburban and rural areas. States need to implement policies that will have a particularly positive
affect on the supply of highly-qualified teachers in urban schools. This means providing teachers
in high-poverty urban schools with more of the following components of good working conditions:
Effective professional development targeted to the needs of urban teachers, children and youth;
Smaller class sizes in high-poverty urban schools so student instruction can be appropriately
individualized;
More planning time for teachers who work in high-poverty urban schools to plan for instrution
of students with particular types of challenges;
Comprehensive teacher induction programs that pay attention to the realities of teaching in
high-poverty urban schools; and
High quality resources, materials and facilities to help teachers and students tackle the job of
teaching and learning.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
21
Selecting and Preparing Successful Teachers for Urban Schools
Martin Haberman has completed some of the most comprehensive work to-date on what makes a
successful teacher in an urban school, as defined by principals, administrators, supervisors, other teachers,
and parents and by student results on standardized tests and work samples. Fundamentally, Haberman
asserts that a successful teacher in an urban school is usually not the typical preservice teacher: a 25-year-
old white woman from a small town with an above-average grade point average who "always wanted to
teach." Nor does a successful teacher always have the highest standardized test scores and grade point aver-
ages. Instead, Haberman asserts that a successful urban teacher is one who possesses certain characteristics:
Did not decide to teach until after graduation from college;
Successfully undertook several jobs or careers prior to teaching;
Is between 30 and 50 years old;
Attended an urban high school;
Has raised children, is a parent, or has close, meaningful relationships with children;
Currently lives in a city and plans to continue doing so;
Is seeking and preparing for a teaching position in an urban school instead of any other kind of school;
Has had personal, continuing experience with violence and of living "normally" in a violent area;
Has majored in anything at a college or university;
May or may not have a grade point average that is above average;
Expects to visit the homes of the children in his or her class;
Has awareness or experience with the types of health and human services available in urban area;
Is likely to be a person of color rather than a person of Euro-American background; and
Expects the bureaucracy in schools to be irrational and obtrusive.
Haberman suggests that, taken together, these traits characterize (but do not explain) teaching success
in urban schools. Although successful urban teachers need to be bright and resourceful, the "best and
brightest" stereotype that connects high grade point averages and standardized test scores with potential
for high-quality teaching does not necessarily apply to the profile of a successful teacher in poor, urban
schools.
Based on over thirty years of working with programs to prepare urban teachers, Haberman suggests a
number of program elements for making traditional teacher education more effective at preparing teachers
to work in diverse urban schools:
Providing information about the relationship of language, culture, and learning, and teaching proce
dures for studying their own classrooms.
Seeing relationships between learning at home and at school.
Teaching candidates to adapt instruction and assessment to the students' background.
Exposing candidates to examples of successful teaching of diverse students.
Giving candidates community experience with various cultural groups.
Having students practice teach in schools serving diverse groups.
Helping candidates develop their own cultural identities.
Teaching dynamics of prejudice in the classroom and how to deal with it.
Teaching candidates about social oppression and economic inequities.
Teaching candidates about learning styles of various groups and the limitations of this information.
Haberman, M. 1994, 1995, and 1996.
22
THE NUMBERS GAME
Policy Options: Recruiting Diverse Teachers to Work in
High-Need Fields and High-Need Geographic Areas
State options for encouraging universities and other teacher preparation programs to attract diverse
candidates and prepare them to teach in high need fields and high need locations:
Accreditation-States may consider using accreditation to minimize duplication of overly-abundant
programs of study and maximize the number of programs in high-need subject areas, to require
teacher candidates to have diverse experiences as part of their training, and to require that teacher
education curricula accurately represent and prepare candidates for the types of teaching situations in
which individuals may be placed, including urban and high-poverty environments.
Financial Incentives-States may consider providing financial incentives to encourage colleges to
open teacher preparation programs in high-need subject areas or to run off-campus preparation
programs for non-traditional teacher candidates in high-need communities.
State options for enabling high-need schools and districts to attract diverse candidates who are qualified
and willing to teach in high-need communities:
Incentives to attract teachers to high-need districts-States may consider subsidizing reduced class
sizes, increased teacher planning time, increased professional development, early retirement bonuses,
or other incentives to attract teachers to schools and districts with chronic teacher shortages.
Funds to make salaries more equitable across districts-States may consider equalizing or subsidizing
salaries across districts, which has reduced teacher shortages in urban and rural areas in at least two
states that have tried it.
Programs to train practicing teachers in shortage areas-Districts have found that it is sometimes
easier to retrain a currently practicing teacher in a shortage subject than to search for a teacher on the
"open market" who is qualified to teach in a shortage area. Often, educating a teacher for a second
certification is funded by the district, but, states may consider subsidizing this cheaper and faster
method of qualifying teachers in shortage areas.
State options for encouraging high-quality, diverse candidates to the field of teaching:
Alternate routes to teaching - High-quality, accountable alternate routes have demonstrated success
in attracting and retaining diverse candidates to high-poverty, high-need schools and districts.
Early recruitment programs - Early recruitment among high school, and even elementary school,
students has helped some states develop a more diverse teaching force.
Support services in higher education for promising students with learning gaps - States may con-
sider providing support services for promising students who are willing to teach in high-need districts,
but who have learning gaps as a result of graduating from high-need schools. Because these students
often had gaps in their primary and secondary education and have had few college or university role
models in their communities, many may need academic counseling in order to remain in teacher
preparation programs and thrive.
Improved transition programs from two-year to four-year colleges-Many students of color are
enrolled in two-year rather than four-year institutions. Providing counseling, academic and financial
support, and teaching field experiences to students of color attending two-year institutions may
encourage more individuals to transfer into four-year programs of teacher preparation.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
23
IV. Teacher Retention
Retention of high-quality teachers is one of
work in schools with supportive environments.
the greatest causes of teacher shortage. Therefore
Second, they are likely to feel satisfied with their
states should develop policies to improve the
salary, and finally, they are likely to be teaching in
support, services, and growth opportunities
their field of expertise.
available to educators in order to encourage truly
good teachers to remain in the field.
Supportive School Environment
The manner in which schools organize teach-
States face a daunting problem in terms of
ers' and students' work has a clear and direct
teacher retention. Estimates are that approximately
one-third of all teachers leave the field within five
impact on teachers' decisions to leave or stay in
the field. When teachers feel supported and have
years of beginning as a teacher, a rate that rises to
more opportunity for collaboration, more say in
one-half among teachers in high-poverty schools
and schools with high proportions of students of
important educational decisions, and greater
flexibility in how they teach, and when they feel
color. Not only is teacher attrition a serious prob-
lem, but it is also on the rise; between 1988 and
less isolated from their peers and more included as
members of learning communities, they tend to be
1994, attrition grew from 5.6 percent of the entire
teacher workforce to 6.6 percent annually (NCES,
more committed to their jobs and more likely to
stay in teaching (Hart & Murphy, 1990, Johnson,
1997c). Beginning teachers, those who are aca-
1990, Sclan, 1993).
demically talented, those teaching in high-poverty
schools, and those with a disciplinary speciality in
high demand outside of education (such as math or
Some districts have created promising pro-
grams to support teachers and create supportive,
science) tend to leave teaching first (Sclan, 1993,
professional environments. For example, New
NCES, 1997c). These statistics are particularly
Haven Unified School District, a low-wealth
alarming because many fields with high attrition
district between Oakland and San Jose, California,
rates are those that are already in short supply.
has invested money, time, and resources in
For teachers to remain in teaching, the rewards
building a professional environment that focuses
need to outweigh the frustrations. With one-quarter
on student and teacher learning. Every week one
of all teachers who leave the profession saying
morning is set aside for teachers to meet in col-
theyrwere dissatisfied with teaching and/or wanted
laborative teams and learn from one another. The
a different career (a percentage that is even higher
district also gives teachers the time they need
among teachers working in high-poverty schools)
during the day to work with administration on
(NCES, 1995, 1997a), improving teachers' level of
curriculum, technology, assessments, student
satisfaction is a key component of improving
standards, and beginning teacher induction
teacher retention. The Study Group contends that
programs. New Haven Unified has found that its
improving the retention of teachers requires
emphasis on high standards combined with
states to address the reasons people choose to
student and teacher learning opportunities that
leave teaching in the first place.
include teacher internships and induction pro-
grams has given it exceptionally high teacher re-
Surveys point to several key components of a
tention rates and, in a state where many districts
"satisfying job in teaching" that can be addressed
find it hard to hire qualified teachers, an excep-
in policy. First, satisfied teachers are more likely to
tionally competitive hiring process (Snyder, 1998).
24
THE NUMBERS GAME
Figure 2.
Teachers who Plan to Stay in Teaching
By opinions of their work environment
50
40
Percent
30
High opinion
20
Not high opinion
10
0
Admin Support
Resource Provision Students Unprepared to Learn Student Apathy
Faculty Cooperation
Rule Enforcement Lack of Parent Involvement Student Disrespect
Source: U.S. Department of Education. (1993-94). Schools and Staffing Survey. National
Center for Education Statistics.
Student Motivation and Discipline
schools have had success with violence interven-
Teachers who feel that student motivation and
tion programs that emphasize peer tutoring and
discipline are problems in their school are less
stress management skills. Some schools have
likely to want to stay in teaching (NCES, 1997).
noted that school uniform policies, decreased class
Unfortunately, many teachers report such prob-
sizes, and smaller "schools within a school" have
lems, and others report that they feel ill-prepared
all resulted in reduced numbers of violent inci-
to effectively motivate or discipline students.
dents. Others have found that physical changes in
Consequently, it is important to address these
schools, such as increased lighting in parking lots
issues head on and find ways to prepare teachers
and open, instead of closed, stairways have
to be partners in motivating students and discour-
reduced violence and improved student discipline.
aging discipline problems in order to encourage
Finally, some schools have implemented extended-
more teachers to remain in the field.
day programs and comprehensive systems of clubs
and other extracurricular activities that keep the
The state of California is trying to do just that.
school community engaged productively in meet-
The School/Law Enforcement Partnership was
ing students' academic, recreational, social, and
formed by the state Department of Education and
psychological needs.
the Office of the Attorney General to provide
leadership in promoting safe schools through
The Study Group believes that although it is
interagency collaboration among social services
not the responsibility of a state policymakers to
catering to youth and families. The Partnership
implement one-size-fits-all programs and inter-
conducts regional workshops on safe school
ventions to improve student motivation and
planning, distributes grants to hundred of schools
discipline, state policymakers need to consider
to implement safe school plans, and has published
creating incentives to encourage schools and
a comprehensive "Planning Guide for Action" that
districts to effectively approach problems of
shows schools how to form interagency partner-
student discipline. Policymakers also need to
ships and develop safe school plans.
acknowledge that high-quality, targeted teacher
preparation and professional development can
Other types of interventions have also de-
give teachers the skills and knowledge they need
creased the incidence of student violence. Several
to better motivate and discipline students. For
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
25
example, states can provide incentive grants for
Across the nation, less than 70 percent of
local interagency collaboration and can model
districts require that all new hires hold full certifi-
collaboration with other agencieat the state level.
cation and hold at least a college minor in the field
States can also provide technical assistance in
they are to teach. As a result, fifty-six percent of all
developing, implementing, and evaluating local
high school students are taught by unqualified
programs in student discipline. Finally, states can
teachers in physical science, 27 percent are taught
produce voluntary standards for safe, healthy
mathematics by an unqualified teacher, and 21
schools that schools can use to measure the
percent are taught English by teachers that lacked
effectiveness of their own programs.
even a college minor in English (NCTAF, 1997). It
should come as little surprise that teachers who
Salary
lack even a minor in the field they are teaching are
Although less than five percent of public school
more than three times more prevalent in low-
teachers who actually leave the field do so because
wealth schools than in those with high wealth.
of money (NCES, 1997a), less than half of all
teachers say they are satisfied with their salary.
Some states have responded to the need for
Even more troubling, less than 30 percent of
qualified teachers in every classroom with inven-
teachers of color are satisfied, and the best paid
tive policies. For example, Missouri approved
teachers working in high-poverty schools earned 35
state salary reimbursements to districts only for
percent less than teachers in low-poverty schools.
their teachers who are qualified and licensed.
States may consider requiring local districts to
Some states have made strides in improving
publicly report each class that is taught by a
the salaries of teachers, particularly teachers with
teacher who does not hold at least a minor in that
needed experience and high-quality skills. For
field. States may also reconsider their current
example, North Carolina recently increased
certification categories to ensure that they are not
teachers' salaries by an average of 33 percent,
inordinately narrow and discounting well-qualified
which includes 12 percent increases in salary for
teachers in specific areas.
teachers who obtain National Board Certification.
The Study Group believes that, as is the case in
Where union agreements have allowed, some
North Carolina, state-supplied salary increases
districts have successfully experimented with
should be targeted to encourage teachers not
hiring qualified part-time teachers to cover classes
only to stay in the field but also to continue to
where there is no full-time, fully-qualified teacher
grow professionally across the course of their
career. States may consider targeting state salary
incentives to strategically recruit teachers to high-
Figure 3.
need schools and subjects, encourage teachers to
achieve advanced certification, and motivate
Out-of-Field Teaching Trends
teachers to participate in professional develop-
Percent of teachers out-of-field
35
ment experiences.
30
Percent
25
Out-of-field Teaching
20
15
Improving teacher retention rates requires
10
1988
1991
1994
attention to out-of-field teaching placements, not
Year
only because students are more likely to receive
high-quality instruction from a teacher who is
Mathematics
English
Science
Social Studies
properly qualified, but also because out-of-field
teaching imposes stresses on teachers by placing
them in jobs for which they are not qualified.
Source: U.S. Department of Education. (1993-94). Schools
and Staffing Survey. National Center for Education Statistics.
26
THE NUMBERS GAME
to which states continue to evaluate and license
"It is a mistake to assume, as has been
teachers based upon "inputs" (such as content
commonly done, that hiring difficulties and
knowledge, college courses, and degrees) rather
out-of-field teaching are the result of teacher
than "outcomes" (teachers' actual ability to bring
shortages in the conventional sense of too
students to high standards). Maintaining reciproc-
few candidates available and willing to enter
ity as a factor of "inputs," where states try to
teaching The demand for new teachers
ensure that all incoming teachers have met certain
comes about primarily because teachers
college course and content knowledge require-
choose to move from or leave their jobs at far
ments, is anathema to efforts in states to make sure
higher rates than do those in many other
practicing teachers are capable of performing well.
occupations the high rates of teacher
In trying to measure performance as a precondi-
turnover that plague schools are often a
result of two related causes: teachers dissatis-
tion for licensure, some states have begun to
fied with teaching and teachers seeking to
recognize any teacher with National Board
pursue another career."
Certification as eligible for a state license, believ-
ing that National Board Certification is an ac-
Source: Ingersoll, R. (1998). "The Problem
knowledged measure of good practice. The Study
of Out-of-Field Teaching." Phi Delta Kappan,
Group recommends that states begin to think
June.
creatively about ways to accept teachers across
state boundaries for provisional licensure based
upon the quality of their work, rather than the
available. The Study Group applauds district and
state in which they are licensed. Envisioning
teacher negotiators who have demonstrated their
reciprocity decisions in this way requires states to
commitment to student learning by making
implement performance-based evaluations, based
qualified teachers their priority in every clasroom.
on teacher standards, of out-of-state teachers in
States may consider supporting inventive school
order to judge the quality of their work as a basis
staffing models such as these with policy guidance
for full licensure.
or targeted, reform-based grants.
Conclusion
Reciprocity across States
States, in helping districts meet their need for
Of teachers who leave teaching, 35 percent do
teachers, should consider the important role that
because they move (NCES, 1997a). Further-
teacher retention has in sustaining a high-quality
more, teachers who are willing to move from a
pool of potential teachers. Every year, states lose
"surplus" to a "shortage" state often find that doing
excellent teachers unnecessarily, for reasons that
so would mean a loss of seniority, decrease in
can be remedied with attention to the conditions
wages, and sacrifice of their vested pension plan.
under which teachers work. Evidence suggests that
Mobile teachers face obstacles in large part
policies to build supportive school environments,
because state policies and programs continue to
build student motivation and improve discipline,
be based on the premise that teaching labor
reward excellent teachers with salary incentives,
markets are local, even though the growing
place teachers in teaching situations for which
movement is toward universalizing teacher
they are qualified, and welcome high-quality
recruitment through systems of nationally recog-
teachers to move freely across district and state
nized standards.
boundaries without necessarily having to take
additional courses could encourage promising
The Study Group believes that one of the
individuals to stay, rather than flee, careers in
largest obstacles in teacher reciprocity is the extent
teaching.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
27
Policy Options: Retaining High-Quality Teachers
State options for creating school environments that attract and support high-quality teachers:
Voluntary working environment standards-Establish voluntary guidelines that define professional
standards for teachers. These standards may include criteria in areas such as teachers' professional
development; materials and work space; planning and collaboration; class size; curricular and techno-
logical supports; involvement in school and district policy decisions; and professional growth opportu-
nities. States may also provide technical assistance to districts who want, but find it difficult, to apply
these voluntary professional standards.
Grants for innovative programs-Provide limited grants to districts with promising programs to profes-
sionally support their teaching staff. These innovative programs should include comprehensive evalua-
tion criteria so that the lessons learned from each program can inform the work of other districts.
Placing new teachers in good teaching situations-Evidence is clear that new teachers are commonly
placed in the most difficult teaching situations, often in classes with chronic discipline problems, in
subject areas outside of the field of licensure, and in schools with the worst facilities and least re-
sources. States may consider providing incentives for districts to place beginning teachers in less
difficult teaching situations, where they are not as likely to "burn out" and are more likely to have
opportunities to hone their skills rather than respond to constant crises.
State options for addressing issues of student motivation and discipline:
Voluntary standards for safe, healthy schools-States may consider developing voluntary guidelines for
safe schools and provide technical assistance to districts that choose to implement them.
Grants for interagency collaboration-Many districts and some states have found that well-planned
systems of interagency collaboration can improve schools and their communities. States may consider
spearheading a state-wide program of interagency collaboration and providing technical assistance to
districts that choose to implement programs of their own.
State options for making salaries an incentive to remain in teaching:
Salary equalization-Based on the success of salary equalization programs in Connecticut and Ken-
tucky, states may consider allocating funds to help low-wealth districts provide attractive compensation
packages to teachers across the spectrum of experience and qualifications.
Salary related to advanced qualifications-States can encourage teachers to study for advanced de-
grees, second licenses in high-need fields, or higher levels of certification (either defined by the state or
by the NBPTS) by providing salary incentives for teachers who achieve high levels of education and
demonstrate excellent performance.
State options for reducing out-of-field teaching:
Financial incentives-Require districts to hire qualified teachers to receive salary reimbursements, or
provide funds to help low-wealth districts train experienced teachers in high-need fields.
Reporting incentives-Require districts to publicly report the percentage of teachers who do not hold a
minor in their primary or secondary teaching field.
28
THE NUMBERS GAME
Grants and guidance for new models of school staffing-In districts where union agreements permit,
states may want to provide incentive grants or policy guidance for districts to experiment with new
models of school staffing that include part-time teachers in high-need areas and/or business partnerships
that train and place qualified individuals from other related professions in high-need subject areas on a
part-time basis.
Reconsideration of certification categories-In many states, individuals may be discouraged from
teaching in a particular field because certification categories define their skills so narrowly that they are
technically unlicensed in a field for which they are well-qualified. States may want to revisit their
certification categories to see if some specific types of certification can be viably combined into larger
teaching categories, providing more flexibility without compromising quality.
State options for improving interstate reciprocity:
Standards-based licensing-Base state licensure upon teacher performance rather than upon state-
specific university course requirements, so that high-quality teachers from any state are welcome to
practice in schools across the country. This may require states to issue provisional licenses to applicants
from other states and then evaluate these teachers with performance evaluations based upon state
standards.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
29
V. Educating Teachers for High Standards
States should create policies that extend
Building a standards-based system of teacher
teacher education beyond traditional university
education frees states to think creatively about the
teacher preparation programs and facilitate a
various ways aspiring teachers can be assisted to
variety of high-quality ways in which teachers
meet the standards. As with student standards,
and teacher candidates can develop the knowl-
how teachers develop competencies is much less
edge and skills required to bring students to high
important to standards-based policy than the fact
standards. States should also consider various
that competencies are developed. Focused on
methods of teacher education, such as alternate
results instead of processes, states are beginning to
route's to licensure and preparation programs be-
develop highly effective, innovative approaches to
yondia bachelor's, that may attract candidates to,
teacher preparation and development that some-
rather than deter them from, careers in teaching.
times look very different from the traditional ways
teachers have learned their craft.
Investing in high-quality teacher education
makes sense, not only because it has been shown
The Content and Format of Teacher
to have a significant impact on student achieve-
Preparation
ment, but also because teachers who are well-
prepared to enter classrooms are more likely to
Traditional teacher preparation programs have
remain in teaching and more likely to meet
been criticized in recent years for being out-of-
consistently high standards in their practice.
touch with both the knowledge and skills teachers
need to be effective in today's classrooms. In the
Overall, high-quality teacher education
past, and to a large extent even today, aspiring
matters. Across academic fields, teachers who are
teachers learn through lectures from professors
prepared and licensed in their discipline are more
who have not recently practiced in, or even
highly rated and are more successful with students
visited, a K-12 classroom. Subject matter courses
than are teachers without preparation. Teachers
often are disconnected from courses on teaching
with greater preparation in fields such as learning,
methods, which themselves are disconnected from
child development, teaching methods, and cur-
courses on learning and development. When they
riculum are also more effective than teachers with
enter their own classrooms, teachers are often able
less preparation (NCTAF, 1997). Not only does the
to apply little of what they learned from isolated
amount of education teachers receive matter, but
reading and lectures. Traditional undergraduate
the content and structure of teachers' educational
teacher preparation programs have also been
experiences has been shown to make a difference
criticized on a number of other grounds:
in the way teachers perform in the classroom,
particularly when teacher preparation includes
They do not provide adequate time for candi-
clinical experiences that are carefully planned and
dates to learn subject matter, child develop-
combined with coursework on teaching and
ment, learning theory, and effective teaching
learning at the preservice level; comprehensive
strategies;
mentoring and rigorous evaluation systems at the
They assume a highly Eurocentric model of
induction level; and curriculum-focused, standards-
teaching, learning, and knowledge;
based, on-going professional development oppor-
tunities across the careers of practicing teachers.
30
THE NUMBERS GAME
They segment important and systemic profes-
sional skills into separate courses;
"Teacher education has been woefully
They insulate subject-matter faculties in the
traditional and almost 100% Eurocentric. The
artsjand sciences from education professors;
assumptions of most coursework is that the
They continue to view the work of teachers as
student will be Caucasian, middle-income,
undertaken in isolation rather than in teams;
and economically stable. The courses, the
and
experiences, the readings, and the laboratory
assignments have been primarily without
They concentrate on chalkboards and text-
context and devoid of the richness of cultural/
books while ignoring electronic information
racial/ethnic diversity. Consequently, new
sources.
teachers enter public education with little or
no historical, sociological, or psychological
Over the past few years, research has defined
competency regarding the culturally different."
critical components of teacher preparation pro-
grams that educate effective teachers. Many of
James Boyer and H. Prentice Baptiste. 1996.
these elements require preparation programs to
become almost the opposite of what they have
been. For example, instead of segmenting knowl-
edge and skills, theory and practice, effective
others are developing various reform initiatives to
programs are built upon a clear and pervasive
help teachers develop the knowledge and skills
vision of good teaching that is the foundation of
states say they need to possess. In addition to
all coursework and every clinical experience.
alternate routes to teaching (see box on page 16),
Instead of spending cursory time on studying
the most promising of these initiatives either
subject matter, child development, learning
increase the amount of schooling a teacher candi-
theory, cognition, motivation and effective teach-
date must complete or increase the amount of
ing strategies, effective programs deliver a
hands-on experience teacher candidates have in
curriculum that includes substantial knowledge in
schools, or both.
all of these areas and requires students to apply
the knowledge in practical experience. Effective
Teacher Preparation beyond a Bachelor's
preparation programs also:
About 300 colleges and universities offer
graduate teacher preparation programs. Of these
Place students in clinical experiences of at
programs, some begin in undergraduate school
least 30 weeks that are combined with
and provide a program of preparation that spans
closely related coursework;
five years and in which candidates earn a
Are based on clear standards that focus
bachelor's degree in a subject discipline and a
coursework and guide evaluation;
master's degree in education. Other preparation
Build upon common knowledge and beliefs
programs that extend beyond a bachelor's are one-
among school and university faculty working
to two-year programs for college graduates from
in the program; and
any field. These programs commonly enable
students to concentrate exclusively on teacher
Make extensive use of portfolio and other
education, and most include a component of
types of performance assessments that
extended practice in schools taking 30 weeks or
require teacher candidates to apply knowl-
more that is closely tied to program coursework.
edge to practice (NCTAF, 1998).
Furthermore, since graduate preparation programs
As a response to the need for new types of
are often offered on urban campuses, the extended
teacher preparation programs, teacher educators,
experiences teacher candidates have are largely in
in collaboration with states, districts, teachers, and
urban schools with diverse student populations.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
31
Because of their emphasis on practice in schools,
teacher preparation institutions have been devel-
graduate teacher preparation programs have been
oping promising ways to work collaboratively
innovators in performance assessments that
across the span of a teacher's preparation program
require teacher candidates to demonstrate good
and create a continuum of high-quality theoretical
practice and think reflectively about the relation-
and "hands-on" experiences for individuals
ship between theory and experience. Finally,
preparing to teach.
graduate programs are not only promising because
of their amenability to components of high-quality
One promising development in this area is the
preparation, but also because they commonly
advent of professional development schools
attract nontraditional teacher candidates that
(PDSs), K-12 schools where teachers and adminis-
include recent college graduates, older entrants
trators work alongside university faculty and
that have already established themselves in other
teacher preparation students to influence the
careers, military retirees, and people of color.
development of their profession, to increase the
professional relevance of their work, and to
Several studies have shown that graduates of
undertake mutual deliberation on issues of student
preparation programs that extend beyond a
learning. School and university faculty share
bachelor's are rated by principals and their peers
teaching responsibilities, collaborate on research
as better prepared and more effective than gradu-
concerning educational practice, and coopera-
ates of four-year preparation programs and often
tively supervise prospective teachers and adminis-
are as confident and as effective as senior teaching
trators (Holmes Group, 1986). Based upon the
colleagues (Darling-Hammond, 1998). Further-
model of teaching hospitals in the medical profes-
more, the entry and retention rates of teachers
sion, PDSs focus on providing professional devel-
coming out of graduate programs are often higher
opment for both new and experienced teachers as
than those from traditional four-year programs.
well as developing research about teaching.
Finally, the student enrollments of most graduate
Although PDSs are new innovations, and therefore
teacher preparation programs are more diverse
there is little research evidence concerning their
than those of undergraduate programs, perhaps in
effectiveness, preliminary results suggest that PDSs
part because many graduate programs are located
may be effective ways to simultaneously reform
on urban campuses, have been aggressive about
public schools and teacher preparation. Currently,
diverse recruitment, and provide substantial
the status of PDSs can only be described as very.
financial aid.
active. For example, the state of Maryland is
launching 240 PDSs and will require all preparing
Programs with Extensive "Hands-On" Experience
teachers to complete a one-year internship there.
in Schools
When aspiring teachers embark upon their
Another innovation in providing teacher
"student teaching" experience, they usually find
candidates with extended experience in schools
there is a lack of meaningful collaboration be-
are district-based preparation programs. In larger
tween their elementary/secondary school and their
cities such as Dallas, Houston, New York City, and
teacher preparation institution. Not only is "stu-
Los Angeles, school administrators have found that
dent teaching" often separate from campus-based
by recruiting teacher candidates locally, training
teacher preparation experiences, but in some
teacher candidates with district staff, as well as
instances it is extremely truncated, lasting no
through partnerships with local colleges, and
longer than eight weeks. Aspiring teachers also
providing teacher candidates with extensive
find that their student teaching experience may
experiences in district schools, they can produce
include working with cooperating teachers who
well-qualified teachers who are more likely to
were chosen due to their availability more than
teach in urban schools and less likely to leave the
their quality. In contrast, some public schools and
profession. In many district-based preparation
32
THE NUMBERS GAME
programs, teacher candidates spend most of their
has identified seven essential components of a
course of study working in local public schools,
beginning teacher support system that include:
often receiving a stipend for their school-based
work.
A focus on beginning teachers-with attention
also given to school and systemic improve-
The Study Group believes that states should
ment;
welcome innovations in teacher preparation
Mentor teachers to work with beginning
programs, both in terms of content and structure.
teachers throughout the year;
Evidence is clear that there are methods of prepar-
ing teachers that may be more effective than the
A training component for mentor teachers or
traditional model of an undergraduate degree
support teams;
followed by a semester or less of student teaching.
An in-service program based on needs deter-
Recognizing that not every innovation is sure to
mined by both the beginning and mentor
succeed, however, the study group recommends
teachers;
that innovations be accompanied by rigorous
Additional funding from the state or district
evaluations of new models.
that is earmarked for supporting new teachers;
Teacher Induction Programs
A process to assess new teachers; and
A process to evaluate the effectiveness of the
Even with extensive pre-service teacher
support system and to determine needed
preparation, the beginning years of teaching
changes.
present many challenges that reflect a "steep
leaning curve" (Darling-Hammond, 1998). New
The Study Group believes it is important to
teachers are typically given the most difficult
add four components to this list.
assignments and often are left to flounder without
the kind of help provided by internships or "entry
First, all induction programs should be based
level" positions in other professions.
on clearly articulated, rigorous standards that
are aligned with teacher and student stan-
Not surprisingly, the attrition rate for begin-
dards. These standards should form the basis
ning teachers is high; as many as 30 percent of
for comprehensive evaluation, not only of
teachers) leave the profession in the first five years,
beginning teachers, but of the induction
a figure which is even greater in urban districts. It
system itself.
is little wonder that some observers have dubbed
Second, all induction programs should
teaching as "the profession that eats its young"
include every beginning teacher in the state.
(Halford, 1998).
In order to be taken seriously, standards need
to be applied uniformly. Induction programs
Recognizing that these problems exist, many
that apply rigorous standards to the work of
districts, states, and teacher preparation institutions
beginning teachers need to be applied evenly
are attempting to build stronger linkages from pre-
across the state, or teacher quality becomes
service preparation to the early years of teaching
localized and standards become meaningless.
and have developed induction programs to
support new teachers that include mentorships,
Third, the selection criteria, roles, and
formative performance evaluation, or other
functions of mentors, defined in terms of
teacher support mechanisms.
standards, should be clearly articulated, both
to mentors and to beginning teachers, and
The National Association of State Directors of
mechanisms should be in place to ensure that
Teacher Education and Certification (NASDTEC)
mentors meet these standards. Currently,
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
33
there is rarely consensus on the roles and
functions of mentors, which makes the quality
In the California New Teachers Project
of teacher induction experiences vary and
(CNTP), over 3000 first- and second-year
"standards" hard to apply, since mentoring
teachers received assistance from experi-
experiences are "unstandardized."
enced mentor teachers and were encouraged
Finally, teacher induction programs should
to attended innovative training sessions,
include performance assessments that hold
seminars, peer discussion groups, and other
beginning teachers accountable to knowledge
professional development sessions. When
and performance standards and provide them
support services were well designed and
with ongoing formative feedback to help
effectively delivered, induction programs
improve their practice throughout their
reduced the attrition of new teachers by
induction experience.
more than two-thirds and also achieved high
retention rates among minority teachers and
In 1991, 31 states had beginning teacher
teachers serving in hard-to-staff urban and
supports that complied with NASDTEC's seven
rural schools (Commission on Teacher
components; twenty-two states had implemented a
Credentialing, 1993).
support system with state funding, while six
implemented a system without such funding. But
only 18 states included all beginning teachers in
the program.
they need to respond to new requirements for
students and new knowledge in teaching and
Induction programs are becoming increasingly
learning. But high-quality professional develop-
popular. Among teachers with less than five years
ment doesn't come easily; on the contrary,
of experience, 55 percent experienced some kind
effective professional development needs to be
of formal induction program during their first year
carefully crafted to include several or all of these
of teaching. By contrast, only 16 to 17 percent of
critical elements (adapted from Sparks, 1995;
teachers with more than 10 years of experience
Abdal-Haqq, 1996):
had such help when they entered the profession.
The Study Group believes that new teacher
Is rigorous and ongoing, rather than consisting
induction programs should be in place in every
of simply a one-time workshop;
state and be adequately funded with state re-
has as its primary goal improving student
sources. Evidence concerning induction programs
learning, and is evaluated at least in part
isiclear: when well conceived, adequately funded,
according to its ability to meet this goal;
rigorously maintained and thoroughly evaluated,
includes training, practice, feedback, opportu-
induction programs raise standards among new
nities for reflection and group inquiry, and
teachers, provide effective professional develop-
coaching or other follow-up procedures;
ment for beginning and experienced teachers, and
lower attrition rates. Induction programs make
Is school-based, embedded in teacher work,
good state investments.
and based upon a clear vision for students;
Is collaborative, providing opportunities for
Professional Development
teachers to interact with peers;
Encourages school-based and teacher initia-
Professional development, when done well,
tives;
can significantly increase student learning and
improve teaching practice. High-quality profes-
Is rooted in the knowledge bases for teaching,
sional development is also an effective way to
subject matter, and student needs;
make/sure teachers have skills and knowledge
Is an important part of the normal school day;
34
THE NUMBERS GAME
Makes effective use of new technologies;
ensure that adequate resources are invested in
Incorporates constructivist approaches to
developing teachers. While the Study Group
teaching and learning;
commends states for ensuring consistent funding,
it believes that states need to think beyond funding
Recognizes teachers as professional adult
to develop quality and evaluation criteria for
learners and is often teacher designed and
professional development programs to ensure that
directed;
all teachers receive the professional support they
Provides adequate time and follow-up support;
need to implement standards. A few states have
and
thought creatively about ways to encourage
Is accessible and inclusive and helps teachers
teacher participation in high-quality professional
meet the needs of students who learn differ-
development.
ently.
In response to the consistent research finding
The reality is that most professional develop-
that sustained, on-going professional develop-
ment programs do not incorporate these criteria.
ment programs are more effective than one
Generally, professional development activities are
time workshops, Arkansas passed legislation
not curriculum-based, there are few follow-up
that requires districts to provide a minimum of
activities to help teachers use newly learned
200 minutes of scheduled time each week for
practices in their classrooms; teachers rarely lead
conferences and instructional planning. The
professional development, and professional
state hopes that having weekly time set aside
development activities are virtually never evalu-
will help schools build professional develop-
ated on how effectively they change teacher
ment from one week to the next that is sus-
practice or improve student outcomes. Moreover,
tained and related.
links between the content of professional develop-
Maine has developed regional coalitions of
ment programs and teachers' needs are weak, as
school improvement teams and school-
are links between one professional development
university partnerships to stimulate school-
activity and the next, between professional devel-
based change and encourage, appropriate
opment and supervision, and between teachers'
professional development.
work assignments and the professional develop-
California has created subject-matter
ment courses they take (CPRE, 1996-1997).
collaboratives to provide professional develop-
Finally, the content and method of delivery of
ment based upon the state's curriculum
most professional development rarely takes into
frameworks.
account that some of the most effective profes-
sional development occurs in collegial discussions
As an innovative professional development
of actual student work rather than via externally
activity that involves teachers statewide,
delivered programs. As a result, professional
Vermont encourages teachers to work with
development rarely has the positive effect that it
others in developing and scoring student
could on teacher practice or student achievement.
portfolio assessments.
In recent years, Kentucky has had the most
The Study Group asserts that in order to meet
widespread professional development oppor-
their commitment to provide every student with
tunities of any state. In 1994, more than 70
the tools they need to meet high standards, states
percent of teachers in that state reported that
must begin to ensure the quality and quantity of
they had pursued professional development
professional development available to their
opportunities regarding the uses of technol-
teachers. Some states have demonstrated an
ogy, teaching methods, student assessment,
interest in professional development by setting
and cooperative learning. Kentucky teachers
aside funds (or requiring districts to do so) to
also were more likely than most others to say
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
35
"Although there is much to be done, signs suggest that significant changes are occurring in how
professional development is being conceived. The changes are:
From individual development to individual development and organizational development.
From fragmented, piecemeal improvement efforts to those driven by a clear, coherent strategic
plan for the district, school, and the departments that serve schools.
From district-focused to school-focused approaches.
From a focus on adult needs to a focus on student needs and learning outcomes.
From training that one attends away from the job to multiple forms of job-embedded learning.
From an orientation toward the transmission of knowledge and skills to teachers by "experts" to
the study by teachers of the teaching and learning processes.
From a focus on generic instructional skills to a combination of generic and content-specific
skills.
From staff developers who function as trainers to those who provide consultation, planning, and
facilitation services, as well as training.
From staff development provided by one or two departments to staff development as a critical
function performed by all administrators and teacher leaders.
From teachers as the primary recipients of staff development to continuous improvement in
performance for everyone who affects student learning.
From staff development as a "frill" to staff development as an essential and indispensable
process without which schools cannot hope to prepare young people for citizenship and
productive employment."
that the professional development changed
ment can be effective at decreasing new teacher
their practice. Kentucky is also experiment-
attrition and improving teacher quality. As part of
ing with ways to evaluate professional
a standards-based system, effective teacher educa-
development programs in terms of their
tion may embed a focus on results across teachers'
effect on student outcomes.
careers. It also frees states to think creatively
about how teachers can best learn and approach
Conclusion
with flexibility the process of teacher learning
within a rigid framework of high-standards by
Evidence is clear that investing in teacher
which results can be judged.
preparation, induction and professional develop-
38
THE NUMBERS GAME
VI. Teacher Licensure and Recognition of
Accomplished Practice
States should create policies that hold indi-
ments can be an effective way to develop excep-
viduals to knowledge and performance standards,
tional teacher leaders. The Study Group believes
more than rigid course and degree requirements,
that state boards of education need to have a
in order to receive and retain a license to teach.
vision of high-quality teaching that clearly
These standards should be applied for every
articulates what teachers need to know and be
teaching credential issued by the state, to both
able to do. This vision becomes a yardstick by
novice and experienced teachers, regardless of
which all licensure requirementsland incentives
short-term needs for individuals to fill vacant
for accomplished practice are measured and by
classrooms. Furthermore, states should devise
which states can guide their oversight function.
mechanisms to encourage experienced teachers
to develop their skills beyond those levels re-
Initial Licensure
quired for initial licensure.
Traditionally, candidates to become licensed
Teacher licensure represents a state's legal
teachers have been measured according to three
responsibility to guarantee to the public that
primary criteria: the possession of a degree from
individuals admitted to practice meet minimum
an approved college or university; the completion
requirements, while those not qualified to be
of an approved program of teacher preparation
teachers are screened out by the licensure process.
including several weeks of student teaching, and,
But in practice, licensure processes in many states
more recently, satisfactory scores on a written test
require teachers to demonstrate intellectual
of pedagogical, subject-specific, and general
capacity on basic skills tests that is far below what
knowledge.
most experts agree is required to be an effective
teacher. Some licenses are issued to teachers for
These traditional criteria for initial teacher
life and require no demonstration of capacity to
licensure have been criticized on several fronts:
teach from the moment the license is issued. In
other cases, teachers are able to continuously
Initial licensure requirements that emphasize
renew their licenses by taking a number of con-
college courses, grades, and written test results
tinuing education classes, many of which have
do not take into account teachers' skills in
little or no relation to improving actual classroom
teaching. Evidence is clear that knowing facts
practice.
is very different from doing a good job, and so
licensing teachers based on their knowledge
There is a consensus forming among research-
cannot guarantee their quality performance in
ers'and policymakers that a key component of
the classroom.
ensuring that all teachers are of high quality is
Traditional licensure requires every teacher
redesigning licensure systems so they are able to
candidate to complete virtually the same
guarantee that those admitted to practice are
preparation process, regardless of differences
effective. There is also general agreement that
in pre-existing knowledge or related life
while sound licensure systems can ensure that all
experience that may give some teacher
teachers meet minimum standards, an incentive
candidates teaching competencies prior to
system that encourages teachers to extend their
entering teacher preparation programs. Basing
capabilities beyond minimum licensure require-
licensure on coursework rather than upon
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
39
demonstrated competencies may impose
circumstances in schools, which is best measured
unnecessary hurdles on qualified candidates.
using multiple lines of evidence over time.
In several states, teacher licensure tests consist
of minimum competency measures rather than
States that have developed standards-based
measures of advanced knowledge and skills;
initial licensure have found they need to rethink
therefore, these tests cannot guarantee high
the ways they evaluate initial teacher candidates.
quality among teachers.
Besides transcript evaluation and written tests,
states are beginning to require teacher candidates
Traditional licensure often allowed an indi-
to demonstrate skills through portfolio assess-
vidual to teach for life. Current thinking asserts
ments, mentorship programs, comprehensive
that even excellent teachers need to refine
observations, and self-evaluation States that have
their skills regularly. Consequently, permanent
implemented these methods of evaluation as one
licensure cannot ensure that experienced
component of initial licensure have found that
teachers build their knowledge and skills and
they can more reasonably measure teacher
place them in line with new thinking, new
effectiveness when the teacher's practice is
practice, and new expectations for students.
continuously evaluated rather than just evaluating
Traditional criteria for licensure have often
the teacher's knowledge. Furthermore, states have
been waived at times of teacher shortages,
found that implementing standards-based perfor-
making the concept of "ensuring minimum
mance assessments creates an environment where
requirements" for teaching highly relative and
standards are infused in teachers' discussion of
demeaning the purpose of state licensure.
their work, where teachers learn to measure their
practice in terms of standards, and where teachers
develop the habit of measuring their own success
In other words, the routes to initial licensure
in terms of the success of their students.
that states have depended upon for decades are
antithetical to a results-based system of high-
Finally, states have found that including
quality standards. Indeed, we know that measuring
teacher performance as a measure for initial
an individual in terms of college degrees and
licensure helps states: 1) demonstrate with cer-
course requirements hasn't produced teachers of
tainty that every beginning teacher licensed by the
consistent quality, and this has been problematic
state is of high quality; 2) increase their public
for teachers, who want to be perceived as profes-
credibility at the same time they improve teacher
sionals, for states, who want their licensure
quality and student outcomes; and 3) positively
process to have meaning, and for communities,
impact the content and rigor of teacher prepara-
who want to know that their teachers can consis-
tion programs. In other words, setting standards
tently teach well. It is also becoming clear, in large
and making them stick by implementing meaning-
part from the popularity of alternate routes to
ful measurement criteria makes the state more
licensure, that many promising individuals see
than purely a regulatory body; it places the state in
traditional licensure requirements as a deterrent to
a position of setting and maintaining a vision of
entering teaching.
excellent teaching and learning across the spec-
trum of schooling.
Under a standards system, it is insufficient for
prospective teachers to pass a certain number of
Connecticut, for example, has devised a
university courses (which can vary widely in
system of beginning educator support and training
quality and content) in order to be licensed. Nor
(BEST) that requires beginning teachers to com-
does a written test serve as the sole gauge of a
plete a portfolio and a series of teaching observa-
teacher's fitness. Rather, prospective teachers
tions, in close collaboration with an experienced
need to prove they have necessary knowledge and
teacher mentor, that demonstrates they have met
can apply that knowledge appropriately in real-life
40
THE NUMBERS GAME
or exceeded minimum performance standards in
"permanent licenses" and require teachers to
order to receive a license. The state has found that
demonstrate continuing education credits for
requiring new teachers to examine their own
licensure renewal on a periodic basis. While the
practice in reference to state standards has in-
study group applauds the departure. from perma-
creased the quality and stability of newly licensed
nent licensure, it believes that states need to go
teachers while simultaneously making teaching a
beyond "input" measures such as continuing
more desirable and competitive career within the
education credits to ensure that established
state overall. Other states as well have found that
teachers continue to demonstrate in their practice
the process of initial licensure gains more mean-
the outcomes embodied in state teacher perfor-
ing, more credibility, and more consistency when
mance standards.
it is tied to a set of clearly articulated expectations
for the performance of beginning teachers and to
Two promising developments exist in states
accurate measurements of those expectations.
that envision "learning to teach" as a career-long
process rather than an event culminating in
Finally, the Study Group believes it is impor-
completion of a preparation program or receipt of
tant to address "emergency licensure," a quick-
an initial license. First, several states have estab-
reaction to teacher shortages whereby a state
lished standards for advanced teaching practice
suspends teacher licensure requirements to rapidly
that often correspond with new categories of
get individuals, regardless of background or
licensure, salary differentiation based upon
training, into classrooms. The Study Group is
accomplishment, and higher levels of professional
opposed to all forms of emergency licensure,
responsibility for highly accomplished teachers.
which it believes degrades the profession of
Second, some states have created supports and
teaching and makes the establishment of rigor-
incentives for teachers to pursue "national certifi-
ous, high standards irrelevant. While the Study
cation," a system for evaluating teachers' knowl-
Group concedes that it may rarely be necessary to
edge and practice according to rigorous, national
staff classes with individuals who cannot meet
criteria. The Study Group believes that envision-
state teacher standards, these individuals should
ing gradations of teacher accomplishment as a
not be licensed. Furthermore, the study group
component of the state's formal system of
believes that careful, long-term policymaking can
professional recognition creates new expecta-
often make hiring unlicensed teachers unneces-
tions and incentives for teachers to continue as
sary: for example, states that pass widesweeping
learners throughout the course of their careers.
class size reduction policies, a common reason for
As a result, the Study Group encourages states to
sudden teacher shortages in elementary schools,
establish and evaluate systems of standards-based
need to simultaneously build policies to attract
continuing licensure and other methods of
sufficient teachers and place the implementation
recognizing and rewarding excellent teaching.
of class-size reduction on a timeline that realisti-
cally allows qualified teachers to be put into place.
State incentives for accomplished teaching
Over the last decade, individual states have
Continuing Licensure and Recognition of
devised a variety of ways to measure and reward
Accomplished Teaching Practice
accomplished teachers. Some of the most popular
and effective programs to date have included
Besides ensuring that all beginning teachers
career ladder programs and systems of advanced
posses knowledge and skills to bring students to
certification.
high standards, states are also beginning to think of
creative ways to encourage teachers to develop
Several states have experimented with "career
their knowledge and skills across their careers. As
ladder" programs that attach pay incentives to
a first step, most states have done away with
demonstrated performance among teachers rather
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
41
progress according to defined, objective criteria;
Teacher Education Program Approval
and accept greater instructional responsibilities. In
the most extensive evaluation of a career ladder
and Accreditation
ever undertaken in the U.S., Arizona found that
their program could be credited with increasing
The terms program approval and accredita-
student achievement, lowering dropout rates,
tion often are used synonymously, although
they are coming to mean very different pro-
increasing teacher satisfaction, and increasing
cesses in the approval or sanctioning of teacher
graduation rates. Several other states have come
preparation programs. Program approval
to similar conclusions: providing incentives for
describes a legal process in which the state
teachers to become accomplished raises the level
agency recognizes the teacher preparation
of teaching and improves student outcomes.
programs of an institution so that an individual
who successfully completes the program is
States have also begun to experiment with
issued a state license upon the recommendation
differentiated categories of licensure that recog-
of the preparing institution. Critics have
nize teachers for accomplished performance. In
attacked traditional methods of program
North Carolina, the Excellent School Act of 1997
approval as paying little attention to whether or
established a system of rewarding teachers for
not programs produce teachers who are willing
higher standards by creating a three-tiered system
and able to teach where they are needed, who
of teacher licensure and renumeration that is tied
are prepared to teach in subject areas in which
to teacher results on rigorous state performance
they are needed, or who are able to demon-
assessments. Ohio is also linking teachers' con-
strate that they have the knowledge and skills
tinuing licensure to their achievement on state
necessary to teach effectively. States are
performance assessments. Although licensure
beginning to consider new ways of approving
differentiation has yet to be evaluated in terms of
programs that take account of program quality,
its effect on teacher performance or student
the extent to which program graduates are able
outcomes, states that are establishing criteria and
to teach according to state standards.
measurements for standards-based licensure hope
that it will serve as an incentive for motivated
Accreditation is largely a voluntary process
in which a professional association provides
teachers to become even more! accomplished.
recognition to programs having met a particular
set of standards developed by the profession.
Certification
The single largest accrediting organization for
Although "certification" has often been used as
teacher preparation programs is the National
a synonym for "licensure," states and professional
Council for the Accreditation of Teacher
groups are beginning to discriminate between the
Education (NCATE), which has developed
two in much the same way other fields have. In
national standards for teacher preparation
general, "licensure" refers to the state acting on its
programs in four categories: design of profes-
authority to ensure that a practitioner has the
sional education, candidates in professional
necessary knowledge and skills to practice as a
education, professional education faculty, and
teacher without jeopardizing students, communi-
the unit for professional education.
ties, or schools. "Certification," on the other hand,
is largely a function of the profession itself ac-
than to years of service or levels of education.
knowledging those who demonstrate advanced
Arizona's career ladder, one of the first and most
capabilities.
successful of all career ladder programs, bases
career advancement upon the extent to which
The distinction between certification and
teachers demonstrate superior teaching skills in
licensure has become more evident with the
several observations; evidence student academic
creation of the National Board for Professional
42
THE NUMBERS GAME
Teaching Standards (NBPTS). Governed by a 63-
Whether or not states decide to adopt the
member board of directors, the majority of whom
NBPTS certification system or not, the Study
are classroom teachers, the NBPTS has established
Group believes that every education policymaker
high, rigorous standards for what accomplished
should be informed about the ground-breaking
teachers should know and be able to do and
work of NBPTS. The Study Group advocates
operates a national voluntary system of perfor-
offering accomplished teachers the chance to
mance assessments to evaluate experienced
receive advanced certification, whether via
teachers. Teachers who successfully demonstrate
NBPTS or some other state-developed measure,
accomplished practice through National Board
for several reasons:
measures receive a prestigious certification of
advanced practice awarded by the Board. NBPTS
Certification provides a system of promotion
certification is not considered an alternative to
that recognizes and rewards excellent teaching;
licensure, but rather is regarded as a highly
Certification requires states to forge agree-
advanced voluntary recognition of accomplish-
ments about what constitutes exceptional
ment and distinction among teachers. In 1996, 19
teaching practice; and
states provided one or more incentives for teach-
ers to pursue National Board Certification, includ-
Certification allows teachers the important
ing linking Certification to license portability,
professional opportunity to develop criteria for
renewal or status; reimbursing teachers for fees
judging excellence in their field.
associated with taking National Board assess-
Certification solves teacher mobility issues, as
ments; or financially rewarding Board Certified
national standards are shared across state
teachers.
boundaries.
Although the standards and assessments
Conclusion
created by the NBPTS are based on the best
available research in teaching and learning, the
Teacher licensing and certification policies are
results of the national certification assessment
changing as a number of states are attempting to
have not yet been evaluated sufficiently to attest to
hold teachers to high standards through new
the fact that the test is fair and valid. This does not
knowledge and performance requirements and
mean that states should resist participating in this
mandated assessments. The most significant
promising experiment. On the contrary, the Study
changes taking place are: 1) the increasing interest
Group believes that the standards and evalua-
in performance-based teacher licensing and
tions of the NBPTS warrant support and contin-
certification in which prospective teachers are
ued research. However, states deciding to partici-
required to demonstrate high-level standards that
pate in these early years of national certification
define the knowledge and skills that teachers need
should understand that the assessments, and the
to help students succeed; and 2) efforts to build
standards on which they are predicated, may
incentives, either tied to continuing licensure or
change as knowledge about excellent teaching
independently, that encourage teachers to demon-
and evaluation methods is refined. As with any
strate exceptional skill rather than minimum
other new initiative to improve the supply of high-
standards of practice. The Study Group encourages
quality teachers, the results of NBPTS participation
states to rigorously apply standards to their licen-
should be continuously evaluated.
sure process while considering ways to encourage
teachers to achieve beyond minimum standards.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
43
Policy Options: Teacher Licensure and Certification
State options for improving the quality of licensed teachers:
Build licensure programs that require teachers to demonstrate progressive knowledge and skills that help
students achieve high standards.
Tie program approval standards to K-12 standards, using program approval standards as leverage to make
certain that teacher education programs are producing the number and types of teachers needed, and
making quality and performance of graduates important indicators of program approval.
Supporting rigorous, standards-based routes to teaching that provide candidates with alternatives to
traditional preparation programs, e.g., district-based programs or those that take account of work experi-
ences.
Become familiar with INTASC standards for beginning teachers that emphasize teaching performance and
student achievement.
Refuse to issue "emergency licenses," which degrade the meaning of teacher "licensure" and systemati-
cally undermine all standards.
State options for using licensure and certification as incentives, rather than deterrents, to becoming a
teacher:
Streamline the number of licenses available, since some states have compartmentalized teaching so that
it is difficult to get a teacher to fill every position. (Myriad credentials may make it difficult for teachers
to move from state to state.)
Build performance-based licensure criteria that are based on the quality of teaching and the ability of a
teacher to help students meet standards rather than only textbook knowledge and university experience.
Make the licensure process as streamlined as possible, without sacrificing quality or security, so that
qualified teachers can get into the classroom more rapidily.
Consider developing or adopting criteria for advanced certification for excellent teachers and providing
incentives for experienced teachers to pursue advanced certification.
44
THE NUMBERS GAME
Appendix A. Evaluation and Program Improvement
Standards-based teacher development systems
Communications. Effective program evaluation
are costly, not only in financial terms but also in terms
provides information that can be shared with the
of educators' efforts and future careers of teachers and
public and interested constituents in order to encour-
the students they teach. If policymakers expect the
age dialogue. On the other hand, when an evaluation
public to support these costs, they must ensure that
points out a need for program improvement, a wide
the teacher development system is effective, efficient
range of special-interest groups may try to co-opt the
and equitable. This means that state boards need to
results for their agenda. To balance this, the state
implement responsive program planning, pay atten-
board needs to ensure that a communications plan is
tion to the implementation processes across the sys-
in place to help guide public conversation in con-
tem, ensure that individuals and institutions have the
structive ways.
necessary materials to carry out their particular mis-
sions and check to ensure that program intentions are
Using Results. Before undertaking program evalua-
realized in program outcomes. Answering these ques-
tion, policymakers must be confident that they have
tions requires a mechanism for program evaluation.
the money, resources and momentum at their dis-
posal to respond to the results effectively and make
Unfortunately, the norm today is that systematic
necessary program changes. Authorizing an evaluation
evaluation of a state's teacher development system
and then neglecting to respond to its conclusions is not
rarely takes place unless there is overwhelming
only a waste of time, money and resources, but it can
public or political pressure to do so. This is a mistake
jeopardize the public credibility of both the teacher
that can cost states dearly in terms of accuracy,
development system and of teachers themselves.
usefulness of their data, efficiency of their teacher
development program, fairness to teachers, students
Types of Evaluation. Several different types of
and schools, and credibility and public support. State
evaluation can inform program improvement at
boards of education need to hold themselves and the
different stages of implementation.
state education department accountable for both
Development evaluation consists of doing needs
understanding the effects of a teacher development
assessments and research reviews to define the
system and ensuring its success. Because evaluation
problems a particular teacher development
can greatly improve policy, policymakers need to
program needs to resolve;
consider program evaluation alongside policy develop-
ment. Doing so requires attention to several factors:
Design evaluation judges program design,
usually before implementation, and clarifies
Participation. In order to make evaluations more
program logic and feasibility.
valid and reliable, state boards need to give special
Process evaluation studies the implementation of
attention to ensure that those impacted by the results
the teacher development system and often looks
of any teacher development policy are invited to
for intended and unintended consequences of the
participate in the design of the program evaluation
system;
and in the evaluation itself.
Management evaluation looks for efficiencies
and inefficiencies in how the teacher develop-
Internal vs External Evaluators. Deciding whether to
ment system is managed; and
have department staff conduct an evaluation or
contract an external evaluator has many implications
Impact evaluation takes place after a teacher
for the evaluation itself. Assessments undertaken by
development system has been operating for
department staff are usually faster and cheaper, but
several years and examines the system in relation
external evaluations may be more objective and
to its long-term objectives.
further removed from any politics surrounding the
Adapted from The Full Measure: Report of the NASBE
teacher development system.
Study Group on Statewide Assessment Systems. (1997).
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
45
Appendix B. Placing the Work of Every State in a National
Context
Although it is important for states to work
dialogue about what constitutes good teaching and
within their borders to ensure that every district
learning.
has high-quality teachers in every classroom, it is
important for states to work across borders to raise
The National Council for Accreditation of
the quality of teaching and learning. Consider that:
Teacher Education conducts national accreditation
of teacher preparation institutions. Based upon a
Students flow daily from one state to another,
set of standards developed by the Council in
and so the quality of student learning in one
concert with member states, almost two-thirds of
state is directly related to quality in others;
all teacher candidates receive their education at
Teachers often seek jobs in states where they
institutions that are NCATE accredited. States that
did not receive their initial license. Coming to
require NCATE accreditation for teacher prepara-
general understandings across borders about
tion institutions have found that their affiliation
what teachers need to know and do regardless
helps them assure the public and prospective
of the state system in which they work or
students that the institution has met rigorous
received their education helps districts hire
external standards; it also helps institutions im-
from among a national pool of teachers to fill
prove the quality of classes they offer as they
shortages and recruit high-quality; and
modify requirements to reflect changes in knowl-
edge and practice; NCATE accreditation is also a
States often want to know how their teacher
useful mechanism to strengthen institutional self-
standards compare to neighboring states or
evaluation and spur program improvement.
states with similar demographics. Applying
national measures of teacher performance to
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support
state-wide pools provides data that can be
Consortium is comprised of state education
meaningfully compared across state borders.
agencies, higher education institutions, and
Fundamentally, the extent to which teacher
national educational organizations, including
and student standards are similarly articulated
NASBE, which are dedicated to reform in the
across states affects the extent to which teachers
education, licensing, and on-going professional
and students from one state will be able to con-
development of teachers. INTASC provides a
structively contribute in another state and the
vehicle for states to jointly formulate model policy
extent to which qualitative comparisons can be
to reform teacher preparation and licensing, and a
made across state borders.
mechanism for states to collaborate on projects
such as new performance assessments of class-
The good news is that states that want to
room performance. INTASC has developed model
meaningfully participate in national dialogues
standards for beginning teacher licensure that are
about standards have mechanisms through which
compatible with those of the NBPTS. The core
to do so. Several national initiatives are forwarding
standards serve as a framework for systemic
the cause of teacher recruitment, quality, and
reform of teacher preparation and professional
retention, as well as articulating what teachers
development. Subject-specific licensing standards
should help students know and be able to do.
have also been produced in mathematics, English/
language arts, and science. Work is in progress
States can benefit from working with one
for standards in elementary education, social
another on such national projects that build
studies, special education and, more recently,
common understandings and encourage national
arts education.
46
THE NUMBERS GAME
The National Board for Professional Teaching
compatible with the NCATE guidelines for school
Standards has established high and rigorous
administrators as well as with the major national
standards for what accomplished teachers should
reports on "reinventing leadership for tomorrow's
know and be able to do and operates a national
schools." Briefly, the standards focus on:
voluntary system tolassess and certify teachers
1) facilitating the development, articulation,
according to these standards.
implementation, and stewardship of a vision of
leading that is shared and supported by the
The NBPTS (1992) policy position is based on
school community;
five core propositions:
2) advocating, nurturing, and sustaining a
Teachers are committed to students and their
school culture and instructional program
learning.
conducive to student learning and staff profes-
Teachers know the subjects they teach and
sional growth;
how to teach those subjects to students.
3) ensuring management of the organization,
Teachers are responsible for managing and
and resources for a safe, efficient, and effective
monitoring student learning.
learning environment;
Teachers think systemically about their prac-
4) collaborating with families and community
tice and learn from experience.
members, responding to diverse community
Teachers are members of learning communities.
interests and needs, and mobilizing commu-
nity resources;
The National Association of State Directors of
5) acting with integrity, fairness, and in an
Teacher Education and Certification, a member-
ethical manner; and
ship association of which most states are mem-
6) understanding, responding to, and influenc-
bers, has been developing standards for more than
ing the larger political, social, economic, legal,
20 years in the areas of teacher preparation and
and cultural context.
licensure. In addition to standards, NASDTEC has
provided leadership in interstate license reciproc-
Subject areas standards. In addition to these
ity. The Interstate Certification Compact (ICC),
professional standards, a number of organizations
originally designed in the late 1960s, is now an
have developed subject-specific standards that in
important part of NASDTEC although it is gov-
several states define the subject-specific content of
erned by its own state representatives. Through the
teacher and student standards. Standards have
ICC, a central data base has been developed on
been developed in subjects as diverse as math-
individuals whose licenses have been denied or
ematics, history, science, social studies, English/
revoked in member states.
language arts, arts education and English as a
second language.
The Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consor-
tium has developed model standards for school
When it comes to such matters as preparing
leaders. Based on research on productive educa-
and hiring new and experienced teachers, states
tional leadership and the wisdom of practitioners,
do not exist in isolation. States, therefore, need to
the standards were drafted by personnel from 24
work with other state, regional, and national
state education agencies and representatives from
initiatives to insure that quality standards for
various professional associations. The standards
students and teachers are more than "buzz
present a core of knowledge, dispositions, and
words." It is the job of all public school teachers
performances that link leadership directly to
and administrators and college and university
productive schools and enhanced educational
faculty to deliver on their promises to develop and
outcomes. The standards were designed to be
implement these standards.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION
47
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Reach for the Power
TR
ПЛОП
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
385 Concord Avenue, Suite #103
Belmont, MA 02478
Telephone: (617) 489-6000
November 25, 1998
Fax: (817) 489-6005
rnt rnt.org
www.rnt.org
Cour they
Ms. Carolyn Schroeder
Office of Deputy Secretary
Board of Directors
U.S. Department of Education
40 Maryland Avenue, SW
Louis Harris, Interim Chairman
Retired,
Washington, DC 20202
LM Research, ino.
J. Richard Munro, Vice Cheirman
Dear Ms. Schroeder:
Retired Chairman & CEO
Time Warner, Inc.
A. Richard Beiding, Treasurer
Here is a copy of the proposal concept paper that we sent Kent McGuire (and
Headmaster
Green Fielda Country Day School
then Terry Dozier) for the Teacher Job Bank. A couple of things need to be kept in mind.
David Haselkorn, Secretary
President
1. The proposal deals only with the job bank and not collateral aspects of a fully
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
comprehensive clearinghouse that would include policy dissemination, data
Anthony Alvarado
Community Superintendent, District #2
collection, supply and demand projections, research, and counseling for
New York City Public Schools
prospective teachers earlier in the pipeline;
Martin Berkowitz
Senior Vice President & Comptroller
The Prudential Insurance Company of America
2. The proposal presupposed marrying RNT's existing Helpline, database with
Linde Darling-Hammond
the Web site already created by Troops to Teachers. However, our thinking
Professor, Teachers College
Columbia University
has developed somewhat since we initially floated this concept paper. We
now strongly believe the clearinghouse should go beyond a simple job bank
John Eaty. Jr.
Past President
and include additional aspects of information, policy development, and
National Association of Independent Schools
dissemination, such as those referred to above. Accordingly, the staffing
O. Milton Gossett
Retired. Saatchi and Basichi
capacity of the clearinghouse would need to be adjusted;
Advertising Wondwide
Edward James Olmos
3. In our original concept paper, we suggested a three-year start-up phase.
Dimos Productions
Ideally, we believe that at least five years of initial funding should be
Phylicia Reshad
provided along with adequate funds to evaluate the clearinghouse's efforts
David Rocksfeller, Jr.
both formatively and substantively;
Chairman
Rookefeller Financial Services, Inc.
Dr. John Wherry
4. Particularly given the emphasis in Title II with respect to loan forgiveness
President
Parent Institute
and recruitment (as well as any other additional legislation that might be
William Woodside
proposed in the 106th Congress), we believe that it is important to include the
Chairman
proposed job bank, which would allow school districts to post listings and
Sky Chale, Inc.
candidates to post resumes; an information Helpline, which would provide
assistance to individuals earlier in the pipeline on how to pursue pathways
into teaching; as well as a more robust outreach and dissemination
component that would "get the word out" to potential end users: school
districts. teaching candidates, and prospective teachers, in a comprehensive
way, via public service advertisements, new media, web banners, sub-transit
advertising, and the like.
N.B. The messages of any outreach campaign would need to stress both recruitment and
quality. The mantra should be every child in America deserves a qualified teacher every year.
The clearinghouse can work with a range of stakeholders at the national, state, and local levels
both to provide the nexus of information needed to support the massive recruitment challenges
facing the nation, as well as serve as a strategic catalyst for improved recruitment and induction.
Obviously, such an entity would need to work closely with organizations like the National
Commission on Teaching and America's Future, the National Partnership for Excellence and
Accountability in Teaching, the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, the
Council of the Great City Schools, the National Conference of State Legislatures, the American
Association of School Personnel Administrators, and state recruitment efforts like the South
Carolina Center for Teacher Recruitment and CalTeach, and the U.S. Department of Education.
Finally, an implicit goal of the outreach, clearinghouse, and job bank should be to
identify and expand the pool of prospective teachers, including a more diverse cadre of teachers
for America's classrooms. Outreach to and collaboration with a range of advocacy groups will be
important on the diversity question. Existing programs like the DeWitt Wallace-Reader's Digest
Fund's Pathways to Teaching Program provide an effective model as well as an important
network of stakeholders to mobilize on behalf of the goals of the Administration's initiative.
In essence then, you might wish to consider three levels of activity, which represent
elaboration and articulation of the original job bank spelled out in the attached concept paper:
A.
Job Bank
On-line Helpline
Ballpark start-up costs
$150,000
to
$250,000
Ballpark annual costs
250,000
to
300,000
Ballpark 5-year cost:
$1,400,000
to
$2,000,000
B.
Job Bank
On-line Helpline
Phone Helpline
PSA outreach
Ballpark start-up and ad production costs
$1,650,000
Ballpark annual costs
1,270,000
Ballpark 5-year costs
$8,000,000
C.
Job Bank
On-line Helpline
Phone Helpline
PSA outreach
Policy clearinghouse
Ballpark start-up and ad production costs
$2,000,000
Ballpark annual costs
2,000,000
Ballpark 5-year costs:
$12,000,000
N.B. As a yardstick, the South Carolina Center for Teacher Recruitment's annual budget is
over $1 million. CalTeach, California's statewide recruitment effort has a $1 million operating
budget, supplemented by an additional $2 million in paid advertising (and PSAs to boot). If paid.
advertising became a consideration, obviously costs could rise considerably.
I
hope this proves helpful. We see the job bank/clearinghouse concept as something that
needs to evolve in dialogue with the Department and other key stakeholders. That is why we
were somewhat concerned when our concept paper had been vetted internally as if it were a fully
"spec-ed" out proposal. As I mentioned on the telephone, we are working with one of our board
members (the CFO of the Prudential Company) to develop a process design that would spell out
in considerably greater detail the staffing, technological, and human resource needs of such an
enterprise - and the best way to constellate them both organizationally and in
collaboration/consortia with other stakeholders.
Yours sincerely,
DavidHarakon David Haselkorn
President
P.S. The draft I have enclosed is essentially the same as that we circulated earlier, with some
minor updating. However, it does not include the kinds of additions that I've discussed in this
cover letter. We are a little short-staffed because of the upcoming Thanksgiving holiday. We
certainly would appreciate the opportunity to develop a more fully articulated proposal from this
brief precis, if you and your colleagues believe the concept is worth pursuing.
DH/nac
Encl(s).
Reach for the Power
TEACH
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
385 Concord Avenue, Suite #103
Belmont, MA 02478
Telephone: (617) 489-6000,
June 12, 1998
Fax: (817) 489-6005
[email protected]
www.rnt.org
Board of Directors
Dr. Kent McGuire
Louis Harris, Interim Chairman
Retired,
LH Research, Inc.
Asst. Secretary for Educational Rsch. & Improvement
U.S. Department of Education
J. Richard Munro, Vice Chairman
Retired Chairman & CEO
555 New Jersey Avenue, NW
Time Warner, Inc.
Capitol Place, Room 600
A. Richard Belding, Treasurer
Meadmaster
Washington, DC 20208-5571
Green Fields Country Day School
David Haselkorn, Secretary
President
Dear Dr. McGuire:
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
Anthony Alvarado
Community Superintendent, District #2
We are writing to explore whether there might be support under the Fund for
New York City Public Schools
the Improvement of Education (or the Secretary's Discretionary Fund) for the
Martin Berkowits
Bentor Vice President & Comptrolier
following unsolicited proposal, designed to help address the department's goal
The Prudential Insurance Company
of America
of ensuring a qualified teacher in every classroom by the year 2006.
Linda Darling-Hammond
Specifically, we seek support to link Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.'s (RNT)
Professor, Teachers College
Columbia University
national recruitment, referral, policy, research, and dissemination activities
John Eaty, Jr.
with an existing Web site of teaching job openings, developed under the
Past President
Troops to Teachers program.
National Association of
Independent Schools
Dr. Jacqualine Jorden Irvine
We believe there are strong potential synergies in such a linkage for
Professor of Urban Education
Emory University
developing an important national clearinghouse of information on: teacher
Edward James Olmos
recruitment and preparation programs; job openings for prospective teachers;
Olmos Productions
as well as information on what works in teacher recruitment, retention and
Phylicis Rached
diversity initiatives that could serve a broader community of education
David Rocksteller, Jr.
Chairman
stakeholders.
Rockefeller Financial Services, Inc.
Dr. John Wherry
President
In our view, such a clearinghouse would provide 'one stop shopping' via both
Parent Institute
traditional and on-line means of communication including the following:
William Woodside
Chairman
Sky Chele, Ino.
A comprehensive job bank for prospective teachers
A database of candidates for college teacher preparation programs and
school district vacancies
On-line counseling and resource referrals
An on-line network for exchange of ideas, access to resources, and
dissemination of best practices
Technical assistance to states and school districts (Q&A service)
Outreach (e.g., Web site, direct mail)
On-line publications (e.g., program descriptions, directories, research digests, bibliographies,
newsletters, conference proceedings, research reports, etc.)
General reference and referral to conferences resources, & programs (at local, state, and
national levels)
Links to ERIC and other clearinghouses and their resources.
The attached concept paper outlines RNT's current programs and services and the scope of
Troops to Teachers' existing Web site. It describes our preliminary vision for linking these
resources via a Teaching Careers and Opportunities Web Site, as well as a rough prospective
budget for establishing and operating such a site over a five-year period. We hope these
preliminary ideas will be of interest, and would welcome the opportunity to discuss our proposed
activities (and budget) in considerably greater detail.
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
In the twelve years since it was established, RNT has emerged as a prominent national advocate
for improved policies and practices with respect to America's teacher recruitment, development,
and diversity challenges, and has become a crucial resource to states and school districts working
to solve some of the nation's most important educational issues. Our work involves tapping new
pools of teachers, including mid-career professionals, paraprofessionals, and promising high-
school and middle school students; launching aggressive public outreach campaigns;
orchestrating national media efforts; serving as an information clearinghouse; and convening and
fostering new collaborations among all of the key stakeholders involved in teacher recruitment
and development issues at the district, state, and national levels. Simply put, RNT is
increasingly recognized as a leading catalyst, convener, and nexus for information about meeting
America's teacher recruitment, development, and diversity challenges.
RNT's Careers in Teaching Helpline
The only service of its kind nationwide, the RNT Careers in Teaching Helpline has provided
counselor-assisted guidance and referral to more than 54,500 callers since its inception in 1993.
It is designed to serve prospective teachers from the nation's largest cities and thereby target a
larger, more diverse pool of teacher candidates who have an overall commitment to excellence in
urban education.
While our general outreach campaign attracts significant numbers of prospective teachers
nationwide, the Careers in Teaching Helpline provides a structured link between promising
teacher candidates and the information they need to plan an effective pathway into teaching.
Guidance and immediate, personalized feedback from skilled Helpline counselors has served to
bridge the goals of aspiring teachers with the needs of specific urban school districts and local
colleges. Research by Helpline staff has yielded a database of over 16,000 information resources.
According to Helpline respondent data over the lifetime of the service: 68% of respondents
indicate an interest in teaching in urban schools; 42% are persons of color; 38 percent are male;
93% are age 25 and over; 57% have a B.A. or higher degree, and 27% are currently enrolled in a
bachelor's or master's degree program.
The Careers in Teaching Helpline has sparked the interest of several states and school districts
that are considering replicating our model to serve their local teacher recruitment needs. In fact,
the Careers in Teaching Helpline is presently implementing a plan that tailors its services to
respondents from California.
RNT's Recruitment Partner Network
RNT's Recruitment Partner Network (RPN) forms the critical link between prospective teachers
and the broader universe of colleges of education and school district recruiters. Through the
RPN, potential teachers who contact RNT's 1-800-45-TEACH and Careers in Teaching Helpline
numbers are connected to more than 400 school districts, colleges of education, and other teacher
development organizations, which provide additional information about teacher preparation and
employment opportunities. Over the past eight years, more than 350,000 respondents have joined
the database; the names of current respondents are routinely shared with RNT's recruitment
partners. RNT collects demographic information, such as ethnicity, education level, teaching
preferences, and other teaching-related data, from people who have communicated to us a strong
interest in teaching. These include individuals in teacher education programs and those who are
certified teachers.
The database is maintained and updated regularly by RNT. Currently, out of more than 65, 000
people, 53% have college degrees; 42% are people of color; 69% have expressed interest in
teaching in urban areas; 89% are over the age of 25; and 19% are already certified teachers.
Further efforts to expand our database include outreach to pools of potential teachers that
include: talented and diverse high-school students, mid-career adults, returned Peace Corps
volunteers, transitioning military personnel, and graduates from innovative teacher recruitment
and preparation programs. RNT is currently launching new outreach efforts in California and in
urban areas to enhance our database of prospective teachers.
Recruiting New Teachers Web Site
Currently, RNT's Web site offers guidance and resources both for individuals interested in the
teaching profession, and the institutions/programs that recruit, prepare, and develop teachers.
Thus, in addition to reaching prospective teachers, the RNT Web site is designed to speak to an
audience that includes policy makers, program directors, school district administrators, college
and university administrators, and current teachers. The site provides relevant information
through the following components:
About RNT
This page summarizes the organizational mission, advocacy and recruitment initiatives, national
efforts and accomplishments of RNT, and answers, in brief, "Why American Needs to Recruit
New Teachers."
3
Conference
Here, visitors can find highlights of RNT's six previous national Pathways to Teaching Careers
conferences, as well as the most current information on upcoming conferences, with capacity for
on-line registration.
Facts
Here, visitors to the site can find facts and statistics on the following topics:
National Teacher Shortages
Minority Teacher Demand
Teacher Preparation and Qualifications
Teacher Workload and Preparation Time
Teacher Development and Salaries
Pathways Into Teaching
In this area of RNT's Web site, visitors will find an overview of teaching; descriptions of
different pathways into the profession, including precollegiate, mid-career, and paraeducator-to-
teacher programs, and alternative certification; and useful resources (e.g., financial aid contacts,
opportunities for persons of color, and RNT services) for prospective teachers.
Products and Services
Designed like a brochure, this page provides information regarding all of RNT's publications,
products, and services. Information is available in the following areas:
Education Policy
Precollegiate Teacher Recruitment
Recruitment Promotional Materials
Places to Call for Information
Other Sources of Information
Troops to Teachers Web Site
The Troops to Teachers on-line Internet Job Referral Program is a dual database job bank linking
prospective teachers and school districts.
The teacher database currently includes information about approximately 3,000 individuals who
have participated in a Troops to Teachers-affiliated teacher preparation programs. Data on
potential teachers includes their certification status, second language abilities, subject/level of
expertise, and contact information.
The school district database includes job postings from approximately 800 school districts, as of
April 1998. District administrators enter contact information and specific information about the
job openings in the fields provided. Postings are removed from the database every 90 days,
unless specified as a permanent or continuous opening.
Access to databases: The job bank is currently free-of-charge and school district job postings can
be accessed by any individual on the Internet (the site typically receives 50,000 hits per month).
4
Only school district administrators can post job vacancies or search the teacher database for
potential hires, by obtaining a password from Troops to Teachers.
Searches: School district administrators can search the database for potential teachers by
selecting criteria in easy-to-use fields, which include options for state, subject area,
teacher/teacher aide, teaching level, second language, certification by subject, or by last name.
Individuals can search for postings by selecting criteria by state, county, city, district/school, and
subject. Results from searches can be printed, although none of the data can be saved or
downloaded from the database.
The Teaching Careers and Opportunities Web Site
The Web site capacity developed by Troops to Teachers can be combined with Recruiting New
Teachers' national pool of prospective teachers and network of teacher recruitment partners to
create a "one-stop-shop" clearinghouse on pathways to teaching careers in America. We
envision a comprehensive, interactive Web site offering an array of services to prospective
teachers, school districts, colleges of education, teacher recruitment organizations, and
innovative teacher recruitment and development programs.
As noted above, the Troops to Teachers Web site currently maintains a database of about 3,000
prospective teachers and over 800 school districts posting job announcements. Thenew Web
site would add RNT's national prospective teacher database, which will attract an estimated
25,000 to 30,000 prospective teachers annually and its network of over 400 colleges, school
districts and teacher recruitment organizations. In addition, RNT's Careers in Teaching
Helpline, Recruitment Partner Network, and information clearinghouse services (as described
above) can be offered on-line via this new Web site. The Web site would include:
For Prospective Teachers
An enhanced job bank from school districts listing specific teaching opportunities across the
country as well as listings of teacher preparation opportunities, and special services;
A Teaching Careers On-Line Helpline service offering
A searchable database of thousands of resources - from state certification offices to
scholarship programs - to help the prospective teacher;
Personalized assistance to prospective teachers via live chat groups, with trained
counselors offering personal responses to questions via e-mail;
A "Resource Center" with comprehensive information about pursuing teaching,
answers to frequently asked questions, and hyperlinks to other teacher recruitment
and development resources.
5
For Institutional Partners
An enhanced searchable database of prospective teachers, who have a wide array of
backgrounds, skills, and teaching interests;
An enhanced job bank to post openings and/or teacher preparation opportunities;
A new ability to save prospective teachers' data on disk for the purposes of mailing and
follow-up;
A new on-line network for school districts, colleges of education, and other teacher
recruitment and development constituents which would include:
A searchable database of programs engaged in innovative teacher recruitment and
development efforts, designed to help programs find effective models, network with
similar programs, and identify efforts in local communities;
Chat groups and discussion forums designed to facilitate, an exchange of ideas,
strategies, resources, and issues around teacher recruitment and diversity;
Group networking for special partnerships or interest groups to network and
communicate (i.e., members of the Urban Teacher Collaborative or the DeWitt
Wallace Pathways to Teaching Programs)
A "Resource Center" with information and resources about teacher recruitment and
diversity, including on-line versions of RNT's Future Teacher newsletter.
A Policy Information Center that tracks state and local policies and practices, with
respect to teacher recruitment standards, induction, etc.
RNT's Capacity
Recruitment Programs and Services
RNT's Recruitment Programs and Services initiatives have aimed to expand the pool of
prospective teachers entering the teaching pipeline, especially teachers of color and teachers for
urban schools. Outreach strategies to attract individuals to the profession are complemented by
response strategies designed to inform and assist individuals on pathways into the profession. In
addition, RNT provides services to teacher recruitment and development programs to enhance
recruitment efforts and develop long-term, effective strategies and policies to ensure a qualified
and diverse teaching pool. Overall, RNT has:
Assisted more than 1.1 million prospective teachers who called 1-800-54-TEACH, with free
information on teaching careers;
Provided personalized counseling to more than 54,500 prospective teachers via the Careers in
Teaching Helpline telephone service;
Distributed more than 343,000 copies of the Careers in Teaching Handbook (most were
distributed free of charge), a flagship publication which has helped thousands of potential
teachers take their first step toward a career in teaching;
Distributed more than 100,000 copies of RNT's free brochure, "What it Takes to Teach," to
prospective teachers nationwide;
Reached key target audiences - almost 37% of RNT overall respondents have been people of
color; the Careers in Teaching Helpline has attracted an even higher 42% minority response;
6
Entered over 350,000 prospective teachers into our national database of PSA respondents;
Convened six national Pathways to Teaching Careers conferences to network and
disseminate knowledge acquired over the years about teacher recruitment and development
issues.
National Policy and Strategic Planning
RNT has developed much-needed resources for the field by publishing and distributing
information for educators, policy-makers, administrators, and others. Publications include:
The Essential Profession, a new national public opinion poll, released on November
17, 1998 on Americans' attitudes toward the teaching profession. A special California
cross sample was also taken.
Learning the Ropes (in press), a national survey of urban teacher induction programs
designed to assist, support, train, and assess teachers within their first three years in
the profession.
Measured Steps: An Evaluation Handbook for Improving Teacher Recruitment
Programs, a step-by-step guide, containing tips, illustrative mini-cases, instructions,
tear-out forms, worksheets to assess teacher recruitment programs.
Take This Job and Love It! Making the Mid-Career Move to Teaching, a practical
introduction to teaching for adults who are considering a career change to teaching.
Breaking the Class Ceiling: Paraeducator Pathways to Teaching, a comprehensive
research study that addresses the recruitment of teachers of color and focuses on the
promising pool of prospective teachers who are already working in classrooms.
Teaching's Next Generation: Five Years On and Growing, a groundbreaking report
on the status of precollegiate recruitment.
The Urban Teacher Challenge: A Report on Teacher Recruitment and Demand in
Selected Great City Schools, a snapshot of current supply and demand in the nation's
largest urban schools.
State Policies to Improve the Teacher Workforce, guidelines proposed by state
education leaders and policy makers for creating a teacher workforce qualified to
meet the challenges of a rapidly changing public school system.
Through comprehensive research, policy, and dissemination efforts; RNT has developed a strong
organizational knowledge base in the areas of teacher recruitment, development, and diversity as
well as the ability to apply its expertise to help the nation meet the challenge of strengthening
teaching across the career continuum. As a result, RNT has enjoyed a steady increase in the
level of state and national recognition for its efforts and initiatives. For example, in 1996, the
7
California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CTC), contracted with RNT to lead a
statewide task force on teacher recruitment. Co-sponsored by the CTC, the California State
University Institute for Education Reform, and the California Department of Education (with
supplemental funding by the Stuart Foundation), RNT facilitated a broad-based strategic
planning process that resulted in the creation and adoption of a comprehensive statewide
teacher recruitment plan. Passage of class-size reduction legislation in the state provided added
urgency to this project. The state will need to hire between 275,000 and 300,000 teachers over
the next 10 years.
RNT's strategic planning work with California led directly to the state's implementing
initiatives modeled after RNT's outreach efforts, including a California-specific PSA
campaign, a What It Takes To Teach in California" brochure, and a California Helpline.
(All are being implemented in partnership with RNT). From RNT's internal organizational
perspective, an additional outcome has been the creation of a model teacher recruitment and
development strategic planning process which can be replicated in other states and school
districts.
RNT has forged collaborations with some of the nation's leading educational and constituency
organizations: the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, the Council of
the Great City Schools, the Council of the Great City Colleges of Education, the National
Conference of State Legislatures, the American Association of School Personnel
Administrators, the National Education Association, and more. RNT also participates in the
federally-funded National Partnership for Excellence and Accountability in Teaching. The
point is that RNT has developed substantial visibility and standing in the field of teacher
recruitment and already serves as a significant resource to states and districts on meeting
America's teaching challenges. The expansion of our on-line capacity through the addition of
the Troops to Teachers Web site would build on this foundation to offer a unique and enhanced
resource to the education community and prospective teachers. Support/sponsorship by the
U.S. Department of Education would underscore its commitment to ensuring a qualified
teacher in every classroom, without burdening internal Department resources with the design,
management, and upkeep of the service. Obviously, the U.S. DOE's sponsorship role would
be prominently acknowledged on the Web. in publications and in all communications with
prospective end-users.
Conclusion
Through its efforts RNT has developed a knowledge base of teacher recruitment and
development constituencies and prospective teachers that is virtually unequalled. To date, RNT
has lacked capital to invest in the technology needed to bring these resources together in a
comprehensive on-line environment. A partnership with the Department of Education and
Troops to Teachers Web site would allow this to happen. Over the years we have worked well
with John Gantz and his colleagues at Troops to Teachers and anticipate good cooperation and
collaboration in this effort.
8
RNT would|need to build its technological capacity in order to fulfill this partnership. In
particular, we would need to modernize our current database systems in order to transition them
on-line. This would require upgrading existing equipment and/or purchasing new equipment,
such as a Web server. It would also require some incremental staff expansion (a Webmaster,
additional Helpline counselors, and a full-time researcher). Portions of additional managerial
FTEs would need to be allocated to set-up and provide ongoing oversight of operations, as
needed.
We believe, however, that the potential impact that such a service would have well justifies its
cost. The President has called for a qualified teacher in every classroom by the year 2006. The
nation faces an unprecedented teacher hiring demand. States like California, Florida, and Texas
are already under the gun; urban, rural, and low-wealth districts are struggling, too. We believe
the kind of information, resources, and access that on-line technology has to offer can help
address what Dr. Linda Darling-Hammond has termed "the maldistribution of teaching
resources" in the U.S. It would complement state-level practices to ensure a qualified teaching
force by substantially broadening the talent pool from which teaching's next generation can be
drawn, increasing access to teaching jobs and educational opportunities for tens of thousands of
individuals. We would welcome the opportunity to discuss these ideas with you or other
appropriate colleagues at your earliest convenience. In the meantime, please do not hesitate to
contact us should you have any questions, whatsoever.
Yours sincerely,
David Haselkorn
President
9
OVERARCHING QUESTIONS TO GUIDE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ESEA
TEAHER QUALITY PROPOSAL
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS 9/2/98
1) One of the largest expenditures of funds for teacher professional development are the
funds that teachers themselves spend for courses in order to move up the career
ladder. How can the knowledge that exists about effective means of professional
development and the skills necessary to implement standards in the classroom be used
to leverage these funds? For example, is there a way to make information available to
districts that would assist them in re-thinking the types of courses that are certified for
moving up the career ladder?
2) A second large source of funds for professional development is those spent by
districts? schools? for a 2-3 day in-service which typically occurs at the beginning or
end of a school year. Is there a way to influence how this time is used through the
dissemination of information? If yes, what types of information should be
disseminated and how should the dissemination occur?
3) How should we think of a teacher quality proposal in the context of Title I,
Vocational Education, and IDEA-each of which provides funds for professional
development?
4) What new types of approaches for addressing the teacher quality issue are developed?
5) The National Science Foundation has $300 million for teacher training in mathematics
and science. What can be learned from the NSF program? How should the
availability of these funds be taken into account in designing a teacher quality
proposal?
July W.
6) What entities are developing criteria or standards for quality teaching? Is this work
good? Should ED be supporting this work through the bully pulpit and other means?
7) How can technology be an integral part of creating a quality teaching force such as
the integration of technology into instruction and content, the use of computers to
support sharing of information among networks of teachers, and technology as the
deliverer of professional development?
lind t ima
8) How can support for educational leaders (superintendents and principals) be
provided?
FY 2000 budget- Paul Schietz - optras
9) Is there a way to stimulate teacher salaries and school environments to help attract
teachers to urban schools?
nz
10) What can be done to support professional development for pre-school teachers?
11) Can a teacher quality program be designed using the EOZ model where large amounts
of funds are provided for 5 or 6 year periods of time through a competitive process
overseen by an independent board for districts willing to
Related issues
1) What issues have been raised through the TCLF and other programs where funds are
distributed competitively to districts at the State level?
2) What can we learn from the NSF SSI and School-to-Work grant processes?
3) How can/should accountability be addressed in a teacher quality proposal?
$
and, to the extent possible, takes place at the school site." (Language from the
non-regulatory guidance.) Some districts do not understand the requirement.
OVERARCHING QUESTIONS TO GUIDE THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ESEA
TEACHER QUALITY PROPOSAL
Assumption: Teacher Quality will be a main component of the 1999 reauthorization of
ESEA. In exploring a teacher quality component, we have assumed that a significant
overhaul with perhaps greater flexibility at State and local levels, should be considered for
programs designed to build capacity for high quality teaching by combining several
programs--Titles II, III, and XIII of ESEA, as well as Goals 2000--under one new
authority This part would provides 2 pots of money-- one pot to ensure teachers are
equipped with the knowledge and skill to support district reform by implementing
standards in the classroom, and the second for class size reduction. The first pot of money
would replace existing programs for professional development, technology, and school
reform, and technical assistance.
Total Funding:
Teacher quality
$1.8 billion
Class size reduction
$1.1 billion
Funding Source:
Part 1 - Eisenhower, Goals 2000, TCLF, Technology Innovation
Grants, RTACS, Teacher Training in Technology, Title VI, CRACs, Eisenhower
Regional Centers, Class size reduction, America Reads, Goals 2000 Parent Assistance
Centers
1) Should the teacher quality component of ESEA target all funds on high poverty
Dept
districts/schools?
Sule
am drivery given
Pro: Attrition rates for new teachers and lack of depth in the subject matter
Tom Brill
taught are much greater in high poverty schools. Attrition rates are often higher
due to the fact that the schools most impoverished and at-risk of failing continue to
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be the schools where new teachers are assigned, provided heavy teaching
sndy
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assignments and given few resources to meet the challenges of students with the
greatest need (NCTAF 1996; NCES data).
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Con: The problem of teacher quality is pervasive. Teachers in all districts,
to to prime information
regardless of where they teach or the poverty level of their students, often lack
consetive
depth in the subject-matter they teach, master of content pedagogy, and sufficient
proym 5
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understanding about the diverse students they teach (NCTAF).
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2) Where on the continuum of teacher development (from pre-service to master teacher)
what love
should ESEA focus?
school donth figre A at
unw wodt The proposed Title II of the Higher Education Act focuses on teacher training and recruitment (verry)
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with a priority on training and recruiting teachers to teach in high poverty rural and urban
districts How can ESEA build on this base? Should ESEA focus efforts on those teachers
already in the classroom?
Option 1: In-service professional development
Pro: A research study conducted in Tennessee found that when comparing
students exposed to poor teachers and high quality teachers over a three years
period, 5th grade students' math scores averaged 50 percent higher for those
students exposed to the three years of high-quality teachers (Sanders and Rivers
1996). Unfortunately, a significant number of teachers, currently in the classroom,
lack depth in the subject-matter they teach, mastery of content pedagogy, and
sufficient understanding about the diverse students they teach, particularly those in
high poverty schools and those students with limited English proficiency.
(Shulman, 1987; Darling-Hammond, 1997; Villegas). If we do not focus on
improving the quality of teachers already in the classroom, we will continue to lose
cohorts of students to poor teachers and thus poor student achievement.
Con: In ten years, 50 percent of the teachers will be new teachers (due to
retirement of the aging teaching force and an increase in the number of teachers
needed in the teaching force) (NCTAF 1996).
Option 2: Induction and support for first three years of teaching
Pro: There is a need for 2 million new teachers in the next decade. Research
shows that induction programs, such as mentoring and linking to a teacher
preparation program at an IHE decreases the attrition rates of new teachers (cite?).
Con: One of the major focuses of HEA is teacher training including working with
new teachers in their first three years. How will this proposal enhance and build
on ESEA? Would it have a wider scope?
Option 3: Pre-service building on the HEA provisions
Pro: Resources for reform in the preparation of teachers are under funded and
lack essential connections between higher education and P-12 schools. There is a
serious discontent between the programs offered at IHEs and the needs of schools
who are challenged by higher standards. (Darling-Hammond; 1998) The National
Commission recommended focusing some resources on the front end of the
teacher continuum.
Con: The issue of addressing pre-service education is explicitly addressed in Title
II of HEA. With limited funding in ESEA for teacher quality, it is not a good use
of funds to spend a few dollars on pre-service education.
2) A--$hould it focus on specific content areas such as reading, mathematics and science in
order to affect changes in teacher quality based on research in these content areas (e.g.
general
NAS reading study, TIMMS)?
consensis for
some
Pro: TMMS and the NAS research and data indicate great need for professional
four
development and offer a context to develop research-based methods of
professional development in reading and mathematics. And, these are two of the
Secretary's top priorities.
in those want
Con: Local needs may be different from the priorities in the
statute.
areas
B--If yes, what content areas should be the focus and should there be more than one?
C- If yes, should the proposal be structured so that districts/schools determine the
amount to be spent in each content area (assuming there is more than one)?
3) Should the teacher quality component focus on particular professional development
strategies such as those recommended in research studies (TMMS and NAS)?
Pro: Research links changes in teacher practice and improvement in student
achievement with certain types of professional development (Cohen-Hill).
Con: Must be prescriptive to have an impact, and may not take into account other
strategies developed over time. Also limits flexibility.
4) Where should we focus our efforts on changing teacher practice-the State level, the
district level, or the school level?
5) To what extent should this part address the environment in which teachers work, e.g.
issues of time for professional collaboration around student work?
due
Pro: Time for teachers to collaborate, plan together, spend longer blocks of times
with the same students have all been cited as contributing to more effective
alrging
Con: It would be better to address school environment in a more comprehensive
via
manner in Part 3 as opposed to this part.
@tendar
7) How does technology fit into this design?
Principe Wadship- Juglita t Paul
options arow his 2 imput - unamersited
Reauthorization of ESEA and Goals 2000
OESE Core Group Retreat
Thursday Sept. 3, 1998
Agenda
Overview of Phase 2 - -Timetable and Strategies
( 15 min.)
12
The Proposed Framework
(30 min)
a) A walkthrough of the framework
ub) Review and discussion: How should writing teams organize their thinking
about the preparation of options in light of the alignment of Issues Papers to
the four categories? What questions should guide them towards decision
making about which options to select and which ones to suspend.
(Attachment labeled Outline)
3. A review of the Teacher Quality Proposal
(90 min)
(See attachment labeled Teacher Quality Proposal)
a) A review of the overarching questions.
b) Now think way outside the box-during the next 15 minutes we will
brainstorm ideas about how a new Teacher Quality Proposal could be
structured differently?
c) How do we bring technology into this framework?
d) What have you learned from program implementation, research studies
and other sources that can inform this proposal? How does your program
fit in this template and what would you like to see emphasized?
4. A review and discussion of issues raised at recent meetings with NEA/AFT
representatives and the Civil Rights groups.
( 30 min)
During these meetings advocacy groups had an opportunity to express their
concerns and to offer assistance in developing strategies for moving the agenda
forward. Several issues emerged in both sessions, including a plea from the Civil
Rights groups that we do more with the legislative power we now have to
accelerate and improve implementation of IASA at the state, district and school
level.
What could and should we be doing now to ratchet up understanding of and
compliance with the law, and in doing so, improve implementation of IASA?
Working Draft: Rationale for a restructured Goals 2000/ESEA - August 30, 1998
INTRODUCTION
We identified four approaches to restructure Goals 2000 and ESEA;
1. Retain the current structure, focusing Goals funds on implementing standards
in the classroom;
2. Combining Goals and ESEA with four broad program categories - equity,
quality teaching, school environment, excellence and innovation;
3. Combine Goals and ESEA and make funds available through programs for
elementary, middle, and high school levels; and
4. Have two block grants -- one containing all equity programs, the second for
everything else.
Our proposal focuses on number 2.
SUMMARY OF NUMBER 2
Part I - Equity: Service to the most educationally disadvantaged students. Titles
I,
VII, and IX remain as separate programs, with changes to increase effectiveness. - towler
Impat AD
Part II - Quality teaching: Goals 2000, Titles II, III and VI combined into one authority
with four foci - professional development, technology, and technical assistance. Major
(lladronse)
goal to bring high quality instruction to high poverty schools. Accountability for results
tied to system in Title I.
Part III - School Environment: At minimum, contains a revised Safe and Drug Free
Schools program and school construction initiative. Technology small closses desiness
Part IV - Excellence and Innovation: Combines funds from a number of small
categorical programs in one authority for Secretary's initiative and demonstration
programs related to parts I-III.
Unassigned programs: Impact Aid, Education of Homeless Youth, Immigrant
Education, and WEEA. Would retain separate program authorities.
Accountability: A single accountability system for Parts I and II. System will reward
effective school performance and address poor performance, perhaps through
intervention and incentives for improvement.
where to odd Choice technology?
printe school issue- Mindle Pogle
MESSAGES FROM MEETING WITH NEA/AFT REGARDING TEACHER
QUALITY (SEPTEMBER 1, 1998)
Their top priority was ensuring that Title I schools employed certified teachers
teaching in field. Specific suggestions to reach this goal included: phase-in this policy;
have a threshold percent of misassigned teachers, above threshold discretionary dollars
withdrawn.
Focus on induction of new teachers and newly assigned teachers in order to reduce
teacher dropout and improve teacher quality.
Alternative certification - ensure that all teachers, no matter which pathway they take
to become teachers, pass rigorous teacher certification and participate in some field
experience before entering teaching full-time.
National Board - do more to increase the number of National Board certified teachers
and use Board certified teachers as mentors.
Focus on peer assistance rather than peer review - give teachers the support they need
to Improve and then assess their improved performance (if not improved take
measures to phase out of profession).
Push concepts that are rigorous and research-based.
Focus on improving reading and math (and start early!).
CONTEXT OF TEACHER QUALITY PROPOSAL
Public Attention: The quality of teaching in our Nation's classroom has come to the
forefront of the public's attention with news accounts of teacher shortages, unqualified
substitutes receiving full-time jobs, prospective teachers in Massachusetts overwhelming
failing the literacy portion of a teacher certification exam, and continual stories about
schools hiring emergency certified teachers to fill their classrooms.
Research:
Research conducted over the past several years has begun to show a trend - the
quality of the teacher in the classroom makes a significant difference in student
achievement (Ferguson 1991, Ferguson and Ladd, 1996, Darling-Hammond 1996,
Snow 1998).
Most Districts offer incentives to teachers to participate in professional development
by allowing them to earn continuing education units in order to receive pay increases
along the way. These incentives often lead individual teachers to take classes that fit
their schedules and individual interests rather than participating in professional
development as part of a systemic plan to improve student achievement (CPRE 1995).
More than 30 states allow teachers to be hired on a temporary or emergency license
without having completed the licensing requirements (Darling-Hammond 1998).
1994 Reauthorization: The 1994 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act began to address teacher quality by improving the professional
development components of the law. The Eisenhower Professional Development program
expanded from math and science to include all core subject areas; focused professional
development around student content and performance standards; and, encouraged a
variety of professional development activities to promote on-going teacher learning linked
to improved student achievement.
HEA Reauthorization: With the 1998 reauthorization of the Higher Education Act, the
Administration continued its commitment to improving teacher quality with provision in
Title II that address teacher preparation, recruitment, and induction with a focus on
recruiting minorities and serving our highest poverty urban and rural districts
$300 million grants for:
State Teacher Quality Enhancement grants to improve teacher preparation and teacher.
quality, including reforming teacher certification or licensure requirements, providing
alternatives to certification, improving existing alternative routes, reforms that hold
IHEs accountable, developing and implementing mechanisms to ensure that schools
are able to effectively recruit highly qualified teachers - priority on innovative ideas for
reducing shortage of highly qualified teacher in high poverty rural and urban areas.
Teacher Training Partnerships - partnerships of IHEs, K-12 schools, SEA, early
childhood program, community based organization to provide pre-service clinical
experiences including mentoring of prospective teachers.
$37 million for Recruitment to provide scholarships, support services and follow-up
services for new teachers in their first three years of teaching. Intent is to recruit effective
teachers with emphasis on minority teachers based on needs assessment of LEAs in high-
poverty areas.
Findings from Preliminary Eisenhower Evaluation: One of the challenges the
Eisenhower Program has faced is that funds are spread too thin across every LEA in the
country Preliminary data that AIR has collected and analyzed for the national evaluation
indicate the following (please note that all of the national data have not yet been obtained,
aggregated or analyzed):
Preliminary data indicate that Eisenhower and Title I are generally more
coordinated in districts across the country than they were in the exploratory case
study districts.
According to the preliminary data, these are the five kinds of
Eisenhower-supported activities most commonly reported by districts: (1)
in-district workshops or in-district institutes; (2) out-of-district workshops or
conferences; (3) teacher collaboratives and networks; (3) teacher committees/task
forces; and (4) "mentoring/coaching/observing (other teachers). When all of the
data are aggregated, the top five may change: However, the first two-will
definitely remain among the top five.
Districts vary tremendously in their interpretation of the requirement that "80% of
LEA (Eisenhower) funds are to be reserved for professional development of
school-level staff in a manner that is determined by teachers and other school staff
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OUTLINE OF TEACHER QUALITY OPTION
TEACHER QUALITY OVERALL STRUCTURAL OPTION:
NATIONAL PROGRAM
(1)
Inter-state reciprocity
STATE-TO-STATE TRANSFER OF CREDENTIALS
PENSION PORTABILITY
(2)
Demo to high-poverty large urban districts for model systemic reform
projects to improve teacher quality (based on NSF grants)
(3)
National Recruitment piece - clearinghouse to connect quality teachers with
high-need districts
Furs to
equat that
FORMULA GRANTS TO STATES
no funds
Requirements:
Allanse Funds
(1)
Eliminate unqualified teachers
-no they at P sald
IMPROVE LICENSURE AND ASSESSMENTS OF TEACHERS AND ALIGN
Distance
WITH STATE STANARDS
warry
(OPTION FOR ADVANCED CERTIFICATION)
Teachrupsy as away
END EMERGENCY CERTIFICATION - THE LABOR DAY SPECIALS - lange
braye
PROVIDE INCENTIVES TO INCREASE THE NUMBER OF NATIONAL
BOARD CERTIFIED TEACHERS IN THE STATE
(2)
Improve on an integrated systemic approach to professional development, i.e.
funilite
consolidate professional development programs throughout ESEA into one
grant
Dism
wholl school
States would need to demonstrate how they are meeting the math and reading
Z
fundalite
professional development needs of their teachers and would have to provide
data-driven evidence of needs for professional development priorities in the
state.
(clanismis
(3)
Reduce the attrition rate of new teachers
Protect progress
Develop a quality induction program for all teachers
Computer to DTates)
Only 8 states both require and fund new teacher induction programs
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5
temp
suppy fun for them salems
(4)
Improve Teacher Salaries
mentres to explue unit Boous Lad
distration states
exemt.
COMPETITIVE TO LOCALS with priority to Locals that partner with IHEs
and/or businesses
- Allenn odden
Requirements:
poly leves
(1)
Provide teachers with opportunities for professional growth and
development in order to improve teaching and learning. Ensure teachers are
provided with incentives to connect their professional growth with the
mission of the school plan to raise student achievement
IMPROVEMENT PLAN
Districts would need to use data to support their professional development
needs.
Districts could be required to spend a certain percentage of their overall
budget on professional development (e.g. 10%)
INCENTIVES FOR TEACHERS TO CONNECT PD TO SCHOOL PLAN
Districts pay for p.d. credits and courses when connected to plan for school
improvement
(2)
Reduce the attrition rate of new teachers
Develop a quality induction program for all teachers
Only 8 states both require and fund new teacher induction programs
Allowances:
(1)
Structure the school day to support time for professional conversation and
team planning
NEED TO INTEGRATE:
PRINCIPAL LEADERSHIP PIECE - HOW DOES IT FIT IN?
PARAPROFESSIONALS - RESEARCH FROM CPRE - 7 vendy To
-TECHNOLOGY
Ten Amotance
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COMPONENT
THRESHOLD QUESTIONS FOR PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
COMPONENT:
I. Should teacher quality options paper focus solely on high-poverty schools, or should
we suggest that a portion be used for high-poverty schools? This approach has the virtue
of attending to many needy children (including children in special education programs,
children in limited English proficiency classes, and other children with special needs)
first and foremost. Put otherwise, what is the best use of the strategic leverage offered by
the six- percent or so of federal support for education?
Thirty-three years since the inception of the federal role in elementary and secondary
education, we must ask whether the original purposes of ESEA -- to overcome social and
educational inequities -- are still the lodestars of our programs. Does it not suggest the
need for bold vision and determination to direct our energies towards a more focused
dedication to educational justice?
II. Should professional development funds be contained in individual statutes (as now), or
should they be gathered into one new consolidated program? Bear in mind that Title I
professional development funds might well be considered for inclusion in this category.
This is especially so if ED concentrates on children in high poverty schools.
III. Should ED focus on all core subjects or target specific subjects such as reading, math
and science? (Should we limit states to specific subjects, at the same time that we
encourage states to adopt content standards in all core subjects, and to support teachers in
quality teaching to these standards?
SPECIFIC OPTIONS RELATED TO PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
If we agree to consolidate programs in part II and with portions targeted to high poverty
schools what would it look like?
Option A:
Award States professional development grants by formula and have Districts compete for
the funds to implement comprehensive professional development plans that help teachers
to teach to challenging State standards and further the systemic reform effort identified in
their State. By requiring a data driven needs analysis, the States may allow each
applicant to determine the content area where the professional development is most
needed Legislation should include language to ensure that teachers at the school base site
are part of the planning and implementation. Require States to target a portion of the
funding to professional development for using technology as an instructional tool for all
core subjects. A priority to work with beginning teachers over a three-year period with a
requirement to include teacher-training institutions as part of the professional
development training is recommended.
This option could include a combination of several programs: Eisenhower, Goals, Title
VI, Technology, CSRD and the Title I portion of funds for professional development.
Pros:
All States would receive funds for focused professional development. By
consolidating, all States would receive larger allocations.
Funds would be used where there is the greatest need. States would have the
flexibility to determine where the funds would be targeted, such as high
poverty areas.
Most States that apply for waivers in the Eisenhower Professional
Development Program tend to use the math/science waiver for language arts
and more specifically for reading. This suggest that States have made an effort
to look at the greatest need based on the data over time and determined that
PD funds should be directed to this content area. The waiver process requires
that the State provide data to support the request. Therefore, it is reasonable
to believe that States are in a position to work with Districts and local schools
to provide guidance about State reform goals and how they can help to shape
the district and local PD plan.
States could more successfully carry out the professional development plans
identified in their Consolidated Application. One strong criticism of the
current ESEA "stove pipe" programs, has been that it is difficult to effect
cross program collaboration. The Eisenhower Evaluation data revealed that
many Coordinators found it difficult to carry out PD activities with Title I and
other ESEA programs. This option could potentially force States to look more
broadly when implementing professional development activities for all
teachers.
This option would greatly reduce "stove pipe thinking" and thereby help to
focus more on essential program integrity issues and crosscutting technical
assistance.
Con:
Some will argue that formula funding directly to States could exacerbate the
issue of State control over local Districts
Experience demonstrates that grant-writing expertise is uneven and could
result in exclusion of neediest Districts
OPTION B
This option is similar to Option A, except that funding would be competitive directly to
Districts, bypassing the State.
Pros:
All Districts are on a level playing field.
Priorities such as school-based reform can be enhanced by this emphasis on
local control.
Cons:
ED asks States to advance comprehensive school reform and this approach
could impede those efforts
OPTION C
Retain and reconfigure Eisenhower. Title II, Eisenhower, is ED's primary and largest
program dedicated solely to professional development. Too few funds are available for
subjects other than math and science. Write the statute to reflect parity in funding that
allows States to determine -- without waiver -- priority content areas. See other
configurations suggested in the Eisenhower options paper.
OPTION D:
Create a new Eisenhower Professional Development Program that contains authorization
for Professional Development that cut across all ESEA programs. The new program
would be designed to work with all teachers in all core subjects and provide the
connections to pre-service and the efforts of Title II of the HEA.
This option would leave all ESEA programs with their separate authorities, but require a
percentage of their program funds to be earmarked for professional development. The
legislative language and authority would be contained in the Eisenhower Program for all
ESEA programs.
Example
Title II-
100% for leadership in PD
Title I-
50% earmarked for PD
Title VI-
Fold all 100% into PD
Technology- 50% earmarked for PD
CSRD-
-% earmarked for PD
Goals 2000 -% earmarked for PD
S&DF-
10% earmarked for PD
Priorities would be set to address the special needs of each program. A percentage of the
funding could be earmarked for schools with high poverty. National priorities such as
described in TIMSS and the National Research Council's report on reading would be
addressed.
This option may include discretionary and formula grants.
The Higher Ed. component of the current Eisenhower Program could be expanded to
work with the Partnership grants in Title II of HEA. This is a natural flow, since they
have already formed partnerships with individual school districts and school sites.
The opportunity to phase in special need areas of the Teacher Development Continuum,
such as Induction and School Leadership can be accomplished in a more coordinated
fashion.
Pros:
The proposed option provides an opportunity to build on already existing
legislation and create a stronger crosscutting PD program
Provides a formal structure for working with Title II of HEA
Forces a more coordinated approach
Allows for buy-in from each ESEA participating program
Cons:
By using the Eisenhower Program name, it could invite the field to think in
the old paradigm of a math and science program
OPTION FOR ADVANCED CERTIFICATION
Option or Strategy:
To provide incentives to state and local district levels to develop focused,
standards-based advanced study and professional development that support
teachers in reaching (a) advanced certification, and (b) salary credit
advancements.
State Level:
Provide competitive grants to states that propose realigning their advanced
certification requirements with state standards in reading (for classroom teachers,
not reading specialists), mathematics, and sciences (all grade levels). The
options afforded states would include having National Board certification as one
avenue to advanced certification.
Pros:
The advanced certification requirements would stimulate universities, to redesign
some of their Master's degree programs. The consumer market of teachers would
add substantial weight to the focus on programs aimed at increasing teacher
(rather than counselor, administrator or other non-teaching positions) quality,
specifically in high need subject areas.
Cons:
District Level:
To further the implementation of standards in the classroom and motivate teachers
and principals to target their professional development activities,
Provide competitive grants (for 3 to 5 years) to districts to:
develop and implement plans for faculty of high poverty schools to engage in
professional development experiences in specific subject areas of reading,
mathematics, and sciences (all grade levels.) related to the school's needs. These
P.D. experiences would be based on student data, teachers' knowledge and skills,
and the professional development plan at both the state and district level. These
experiences could include sustained high quality seminars, networks, coaching
teams, courses purchased from universities or approved other sources, etc.)
Background:
As Knapp and Florio (1998) stated after reviewing studies and evaluation reports,
Local policy leaders greatly underestimate what it takes to provide learning
opportunities grounded in challenging standards for all. In particular, they
underestimate the amount of new learning educators must do, and the extent of
support or technical assistance entailed. Local and state incentive structures, not
to mention those built into Federal programs have yet to focus on the importance
of professional learning and the allocation of effort or resources that are needed to
provide for this ongoing need. Local, regional, and state capacities for providing
the requisite support for educators' learning is often inadequate."
Added Data to support this option/strategy:
Teachers and principals have not been adequately prepared for the changes in
practice required to follow-through on the new education reform efforts (CPRE,
1996). "The current system of professional development is weak. fragmented and
often disconnected from proposed reforms. Reformers assume that more
professional development for teachers will lead to changes in classroom
practice but these efforts are not usually deep, challenging or well-focused."
(CPRE, Public Policy and School Reform, 1995) While 17 states report having
plans for professional development, and 13 states have standards for professional
development, there is little indication that professional development efforts are
linked to academic standards for students. (CPRE, survey, 1996) Some have
argued strongly that "states that instituted new standards and tests in the 1980's
without investing in teaching did not experience improved achievement."
(Darling-Hammond and D. Ball, 1997)
A CPRE study of 8 states engaged in "capacity-building" found that many of the
states turned to external infrastructures and groups to provide professional
development (e.g., intermediate education units or regional centers). States also
drew upon the expertise and support of state subject-matter associations or other
professional organizations, developed professional networks of teachers, schools
and districts, and encouraged universities to provide assistance to K-12 schools.
(Massell, 1998) This decentralized strategy was driven in part by resource
constraints and by the prevailing wisdom that people who are in regular and close
contact with teachers and schools are in a better position to offer advice and
assistance.
TRA NOTES
QT
Ray (tenolery) myers
OUTLINE OF TEACHER QUALITY OPTION
TEACHER QUALITY OVERALL STRUCTURAL OPTION:
CD@ integrate Rennology
Pre-semie
NATIONAL PROGRAM
in-seme +PD
(ANN WILL TRY TO FLUSH THIS SECTION OUT - WILL CALL ON OTHERS
FOR HELP)
7
What 'J vole technog
(1)
Inter-state reciprocity
STATE-TO-STATE TRANSFER OF CREDENTIALS
assy Qurters?
PENSION PORTABILITY
Suppory country there
Inle net / hether's
exterdstine
energie inceplyto date
(2)
Demo to high-poverty large urban districts for model systemic reform
projects to improve teacher quality (based on NSF grants)
Distance llamy
Lexthds commy
- fill in shanger
(3)
National Recruitment piece - clearinghouse to connect quality teachers with afterred tean
high-need districts
(Jhic rsorus)
(WHAT ELSE AM I MISSING FROM NATIONAL PROGRAM -
depeditor
DISSEMINATION OF BEST PRACTICES??)
HEA
FORMULA GRANTS TO STATES
(
allanse are
Requirements:
of has
(1)
Eliminate unqualified teachers (TERRY AND HEATHER W/HELP OF
CHUCK)
New form /- delm
very unp/anghi
Build on HEA, Title II
OPTION FOR ADVANCED CERTIFICATION) - see Audrey and Joyce's
help smith teachers angula
attached recommendation - is this something we should address in ESEA?
END EMERGENCY CERTIFICATION - THE LABOR DAY SPECIALS
Build a system of quality routes to alternative certification to get more quality
teachers into the c assroom
PROVIDE INCENTIVES TO INCREASE THE NUMBER OF NATIONAL
BOARD CERTIFIED TEACHERS IN THE STATE
Where are we with this option? I know it is part of HEA, but it was also part
of Ed Opportunity Zones and something that
ELIMINATE THE PROBLEM OF TEACHERS TEACHING OUT OF FIELD
DISTANCE LEARNING (CHUCK)
POSSIBLE OUTLINE FOR ESEA
HEA
I.
State Teacher Quality Enhancement Grants
a.
Strengthen teacher licensure and certification standards yophonal
Hold schools of education accountable
C. Create alternative pathways to teaching
induction is
d. Recruit high-quality teachers
Competi tive
NOT as
II.
Teacher Training Partnerships
a. Improve teacher education in high need areas
strong as
b. Strengthen collaboration between arts and sciences and faculty to improve
it needs to
content knowledge of teachers
C. Strengthen collaboration between IHEs and LEAs to ensure that prospective be
teachers are well prepared for the realities of the classroom
III.
Recruitment Partnerships
a. Meet the needs of local school systems for specific types of teachers
b. Design programs with the needs of teacher candidates in mind (scholarships,
support services, and induction support)
Induction is a small piece of both the teacher training and recruitment partnerships
ESEA
State well
ompetitivelv.
District Teacher Quality Enhancement Grants
a. Implement new compensation models
b. Internships/apprenticeships for mid-career people who have content
knowledge but no practical experience
C. Improving hiring practices
d. Peer review and accountability measures
e. Parents right to know
f. End the practice of out of field teaching (technology may be very helpful here
with distance learning and the Virtual High School; part-time positions, etc.)
ompetitivev. omper fiver.
Induction Program
a. Partnerships between IHEs and LEAs
b. LEA programs such as mentoring, reduced work load, etc.
completitive JeVI.
School Leadership Program
a. Address the role of principals as instructional leaders who support teachers in
their growth and development.
b. Recruitment, preparation, and ongoing support for school leaders (probably
involves partnership between IHEs and LEAs.
Formula VII.
Professional Development (in-service)
shit funs
a
Whole school/team of teachers addressing achievement goals or implementing
standards
b.
Narrow use of funds to require best practices outlined in II. #2 and/or focus on
student content anc performance standards
impetitive VIII. Technical Assistance? - yes
Murphy & Smith
9/1998
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
EXCERPTS FROM RESEARCH AND PRACTICE (BY TOPIC)
That support P.D. Options
What Defines Professional Development?
Professional development for teachers can be defined as activities in which a teacher learns
from others about how to improve his or her teaching.
(R. Herman, "Evaluating the Effects of Professional Development on Instructional
Practices"; 1998, American Institutes for Research [AIR])
"The goal of professional development for teachers is increased student learning."
(NEA, Statement of the NEA on Teacher Training submitted to the subcommittee on
oversight & investigations committee on education and the workforce, U.S. House of
Representatives; July 1998)
Adult learning is enhanced when adults are allowed to work with colleagues to solve a
work-related problem which they identified and that represents a collective concern.
Adult learners are able to achieve extremely high levels of implementation when support is
provided after initial training.
(D. Collins, Achieving Your Vision of Professional Development; 1997, SouthEastern
Regional Vision for Education [SERVE] regional education laboratory)
Values and shared beliefs often define professional development. Horsley, Hewson, Love,
and Stiles (1998) offer their values, as follows:
1. Professional development experiences must have students and their learning at their
core-by that All Students are meant.
2.
Pedagogical content knowledge-that is, knowing how to teach specific content
concepts and principles to young people at different developmental levels-is the
unique province of teachers and must be the focus of professional development.
3. Principles that guide the reform of student learning should also guide professional
learning for educators.
4.
The content of professional learning must come from both inside and outside the
learner, and from both research and practice.
5. Professional development must both align with and support system based changes that
promote student learning.
(Horsley Hewson, Love, and Stiles, Designing Professional Development for Teachers of
Science and Mathematics; 1998, The National Institute for Science Education)
Who are the Designers of P.D.?
Proposals for improving our school system have shifted from efforts to "fix" the efficiency
and effectiveness of the current system to fundamentally rethinking how schools are
designed, how teaching and learning are pursued, and to setting higher standards for
students and teachers.
The importance of continuing education of responsible parties in a support system for
professional development cannot be overemphasized. The quality of the staff
development program is determined by the quality of the decisions that drive it. Persons
new to decision-making roles regarding professional development are sometimes
unfamiliar with the area and start off with a limited "workshop" mentality. Their vision
needs to be expanded.
The selection or design of quality professional growth activities or approaches is a major
hurdle for many staff development planners. Success requires appropriate matching of
approaches to local needs (identified through a careful, but not overly complicated,
assessment process), thoughtful planning, and conscious application about what is known
about effective staff development.
Continuing to Learn: A Guidebook for Teacher Development; 1987, National Staff
Development Council
What are the New Paradigins for PD?
Legitimizing the Paradigms
Compelling findings about teacher learning and professional development provide
guidance for conceptualizing reauthorization language. As Florio and Knapp (1998)
concisely summarize the research findings, powerful professional development:
(1)
Focuses on challenging, standards-based teaching and learning in particular subject
areas and is guided by a vision of how all students can engage in that learning.
(2)
Embeds professional learning in the context of the school and the needs of each
school as a system with its own integrity.
(3)
Balances individual and organizational priorities in determining the content of
professional development activities.
(4)
Is grounded in principles of adult learning within professional, collegial
communities.
(5)
Supports and reinforces new roles and responsibilities for teachers and principals,
as lea of change, and master coordinators.
(6)
Supports educators' learning through an infrastructure that is more peer-based
than hierarchical and, whenever possible, at the work site.
Time for Professional Learning
A critical issue in planning staff development is time-in particular, how to find it.
Teacher learning must be viewed as an integral part of school life-rather than a frivolous
extracurricular activity-and time must be allocated for it.
Time is also a red herring. Sometimes the real issue is not lack of time, but better use of
the time that does exist. Sometimes the real problem is not lack of time but innovation
overload, too many new programs going on at the same time.
(Continuing to Learn, NSDC)
Designing/Planning Professional Development
The development and maintenance of professional development for teachers cannot be left
to chance or to administrative initiatives alone. Designers of P.D. must think
programmaticaly-developing and then working within a formal structure dedicated to
the ongoing development of teachers.
(Continuing to Learn, NSDC)
District roles in school reform
Too many districts assume that if schools are free to adopt unique, comprehensive,
schoolwide approaches to education reform, then there is little for the district to do. They
assume that reforms will occur only at the school level and that little change will be
required in the district; that is fact, the district's responsibilities may lessen because of the
roles assumed by design teams. The opposite is the case. Districts are crucial to making
school-based reform work and many will have to learn new ways of operating in the
process
(CPRE Policy Briefs, "States and Districts and Comprehensive School Reform", May
1998)
The District. 2 case provides compelling evidence that local districts can play an active and
influential role in mobilizing resources to support sustained improvement in teaching
practice Furthermore, the case demonstrates that local districts may have certain
"natural advantages in supporting sustained instructional improvement through
professional development. Districts can achieve economies of scale in acquiring the
services of consultants; they can introduce strong incentives for principals and teachers to
pay attention to the improvemen of teaching in specific domains; they can create
opportunities for interaction among professionals that schools might not be able to do by
themselves; and they can make creative use of multipocket budgeting to generate
resources to focus on instructional improvement.
However, it is also clear that very few districts currently play this role and that very
few local administrators have the knowledge, managerial skill, or apparent interest that is
required to play this role well. District 2 is a unique example of the will to change.
(R. Elmore, Investing in Teacher Learning: Staff Development and Instructional
Improvement in Community School District #2, New York City; August 1997, NCTAF
and CPRE)
Embedding the Use of Technology in Professional Development
Four principles surround the use of technology as it relates to teacher learning:
Effective classroom use of educational technology requires well-informed and highly
proficient teachers.
Professional development in the use of educational technology should be integrated
with other efforts to improve instruction.
Improvement of professional development, both preservice and inservice, should also
have as an objective the long-term systemic improvement of the providers.
For teachers (whether prospective or experienced) to use technology well, they must
have ongoing support and continued access to information on using it to improve
teaching and learning.
(Chuck Lovett, ESEA reauthorization options paper on "Technology Programs:
Professional Development Options", 9/21/98)
Addressing Teacher Development Continuum
Recognition of the embeddedness of education policy domains is critical to the
development of a new model for professional development. The significant
interdependencies between expectations for teachers' change and the various domains of
education policy-curriculum, assessment, evaluation, credentialing, and so on-have
obvious implications for teachers' ability and willingness to change. Expectations and
supports for teachers' professional development cannot be understood separate from this
broader context.
(Darling+Hammond & McLaughlin, "Policies that Support Professional Development in an
Era of Reform", in Teacher Learning: New Policies, New Practices edited by McLaughlin
and Oberman; 1996, Teachers College, Columbia University)
The Urgency for Quality Teachers
The nation's schools will need two million teachers during the next decade. Additionally,
while the U.S. loses about ¼ of all new teachers during the first 1-3 years of teaching, the
attrition rate of new teachers in high poverty schools is much greater than in other
population areas. Yet schools most impoverished and challenging continue to be the
schools where new teachers are assigned, provided heavy teaching assignments and given
few resources to meet the challenges of students with the greatest need. A great demand
for new principals is a simultaneous crisis.
(NCTAF, 1996; NCES data, 1994)
Many teachers lack depth in the content they teach, mastery of content pedagogy, and
sufficient understanding about the diverse students they teach, particularly those in high
poverty schools. A large percentage of teachers nationally report that they have never
participated in professional development activities to assist them in addressing the learning
needs of LEP students and students from culturally diverse backgrounds.
(K. Haycock, "Good Teaching Matters: How Well-Qualified Teachers can Close the
Gap", in Thinking K-16 by Education Trust, Summer 1998)
Out-of-Field Teaching (Secondary Level)
In recent years, more than 50,000 people who lack the training required for their jobs
entered teaching annually on emergency or substandard licenses.
Nearly one fourth (23%) of all secondary teachers do not have even a minor in their
main teaching field. This is true for more than 30% of mathematics teachers.
Among teachers who teach a second subject, 36% are unlicensed in the field and 50%
lack a minor.
Fifty-six percent of high school students taking physics science are taught by out-of-
field teachers, as are 27% of those taking mathematics and 21% of those taking
English. The proportions are MUCH higher in high poverty schools and in lower-
track classes.
In schools with the highest minority enrollments, students have less than a 50% chance
of getting a science of mathematics teacher who holds a license and a degree in the
field in which they teach.
(L. Darling-Hammond, "Doing What Matters Most: Investing in Quality Teaching";
November, 1997, prepared for the National Commission on Teaching and America's
Future)
Induction: The New and Beginning Teachers
Newly licensed teachers are prepared to begin to teach, but they are not thoroughly
proficient. They are also not ready to fine-tune their competence without assistance and
support. Almost a decade ago, researchers in the Association of Teacher Educators
(ATE) made a strong case for beginning teacher assistance programs.
"Beginning teacher assistance programs are part of a larger continuum of learning to
teach. They must be considered in terms of what occurred before and what is apt to occur
after the phase of teacher education they represent. Programs cannot realistically be
specified in terms of time. Different beginning teachers take different lengths of time to
achieve sufficient independence to function with only minimum support.
(Huling, O'dell, Ishler, Kay, Edelfelt, Assisting the Beginning Teacher; 1989, ATE)
How do we define induction programs for beginning teachers?
The National Commission on Teaching and America's Future (NCTAF) and prior to their
report, the Holmes Group, recommended that universities preparing teachers (at both the
undergraduate or graduate levels) add a 5th year of study, creating extensive internships
with master teachers in partnerships such as professional development schools. The
prototypes of extended clinical experiences (at least 30 weeks up to a year) are carefully
chosen sites that support the ideas and practices presented in simultaneous, closely
interwoven coursework between teachers and teacher educators. Some experts refer to
this extended, sometimes paid experience, as part of the Induction period.
Other educator groups define Induction as only the first year of a teacher's salaried
teaching experience, while others use the term to encompass the first three years of
teaching experience.
The NEA and AFT promote Induction support for any teacher who is new to a school,
regardless of previous teaching experience, or new to a grade or specific subject area.
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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Current provisions
Data
The 1995 National Education Goals Report showed that 40% of all teachers
reported they had LEP students in their classrooms, but only 29% had
received any training to teach LEP students. Further analysis of these data
points to several types of professional development needs for American
teachers. Secondary school teachers have a particular need for training in
methods to teach LEP students, as 43% of secondary teachers reported
having LEP students in their classrooms, but only 22% reported having
received any training to teach LEP students. Analysis by urban, rural, and
suburban setting showed similar gaps for each type of setting between
teachers with LEP students in their classrooms and those with training to
provide them services. There was also a substantial gap for teachers
teaching LEP students and having received training to teach them for
teachers with more than 10 years of experience. The overall trend shown by
these data points out to the increasing need for teachers in all grade levels,
all settings, and differing years of experience for learning how to teach LEP
students.
The 1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey showed that 25.8% of schools found
it very difficult or impossible to fill vacancies for ESL or bilingual education
(Table 7.4a). However, only 10.1% of districts provided free training to
prepare staff members to fill current or anticipated shortages in bilingual
education or ESL. (Table 7.5) (Schools and Staffing in the United States: A
Statistical Profile, 1993-94.)
According to 1993-94 SASS data, only 2.5% of teachers who teach LEP
students actually have an academic degree in ESL or bilingual education.
(1993-94 Schools and Staffing Survey: A Profile of Policies and Practices for
LEP students: Screening Methods, Program Support and Teacher Training.)
The number of public school vacancies in ESL or bilingual education positions
increased between the 1990-91 SASS and the 1993-94 one, from 7% to
25% (A Profile of Policies...)
87% of teachers who teach in classrooms where more than 50% of the
population is LEP have received training in teaching LEP students. Only
19% of teachers who teach in classrooms where fewer than 10% of the
population is LEP have received such training. (A Profile of Policies...) This
same pattern is reflected regardless of the subject being taught. (Are LEP
students Being Taught by Teachers with LEP Training?)
For teachers with less than 25% LEP students in their classrooms, English
teachers are more likely to have received training on teaching LEP students
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(Are LEP Students Being Taught by Teachers with LEP Training?)
..more teachers instructing LEP students in urban schools, in schools with 20
percent or more minority enrollments, and in schools with 20 percent or
more students receiving free or reduced-price lunches have received
training in teaching LEP students, compared to teachers in rural schools, in
schools with less than 20 percent minority enrollments, and in schools with
fewer than 20 percent of students receiving free or reduced-price lunches"
p.16 (A Profile of Policies...)
In the West region, where 12% of students are LEP, almost half their teachers
(47.3%) had receiving training in teaching them. This proportion decreases
with declines in LEP student population. In the Midwest region, where 1.4%
of students are LEP, 11.6% of their teachers had received training. In the
Southern region, where 5.1% of students are LEP, 29.0% of their teachers
had received training. In the Northeastern region, where 4.4% of students
are LEP, 21.5% of their teachers had received training. (Are LEP students
Being Taught by Teachers with LEP Training?)
The Ramirez study found that teachers questions to LEP students tended to be
straightforward requests for information, rather than questions that allow
students to cognitively construct language and content
Ramirez- teacher interactions limited LEP students opportunities to produce
language and complex language
Ramirez- teachers provided passive learning environments, limiting students
opportunities to produce complex language and develop higher order
thinking skills
Ramirez- The Ramirez report found differences in specialized training for
teaching LEP students among teachers in different types of bilingual
programs. Teachers in late-exit bilingual programs have had the most
specialized training to work with language-minority students than their
counterparts in early-exit or immersion programs.
The Ramirez report found differences in Spanish language proficiency in
teachers in different types of bilingual models. Late-exit program teachers
were more likely to be sufficiently fluent in Spanish to teach in it, but
teachers in immersion and early-exit programs were not sufficiently
proficient in Spanish to teach in it
"Teachers in each program also differ markedly in their attitudes on how limited-
English-proficient students should be taught, essentially concurring with the
underlying rationale of their respective instructional models."
The Ramirez report found differences in specialized training for teaching LEP
students among school administrators in different types of bilingual
programs. Administrators in late-exit bilingual programs have had the most
specialized to work with language-minority students than their counterparts
in early-exit programs, who in turn have received more such training than
their counterparts in immersion programs.
LEP students appear to be particularly at risk for reading difficulties, as low
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English proficiency is strongly associated with reading difficulties. LEP
students also posses other characteristics which individually are associated
with reading difficulties, such as SES, school quality, and home literacy
background. (NAS Reading Report)
Services oriented to training parents to enhance the home literacy environment
can improve children's development of skills necessary for reading. (NAS
Reading Report)
One key feature related to the success of Even Start Programs is using a
meaningful and useful curriculum, including the use of English-language
instruction. (NAS Reading Report)
"The social adjustment of Spanish-speaking children in English-medium
classrooms lagged behind that of other children in the same classrooms,
whereas that of the children in the Spanish-medium classroom was greatly
advanced over both groups. Given the power of preschool children's social
development to predict long-range outcomes, including literacy, these
results are striking." (p. 156 (NAS Reading Report)
Initial literacy in a second language is more likely to cause reading problems
and lower long-term literacy attainment than initial literacy in the first
language. (NAS Reading Report, p.234)
Culturally accommodating student instruction enhances student engagement
and participation in the classroom. (NAS Reading Report, p. 244)
" the process of determining appropriate [reading] interventions must take into
account the characteristics of students who are at risk for failuer" (p. 246
(NAS Reading Report)
"To the extent possible, non-English speaking children should have
opportunities to develop literacy skills in their homwe language as well as in
English" (NAS Reading Report, p. 246)
"In classrooms in which teachers use effective teaching and organizational
strategies and appropriate materials, most children make progress." (NAS
Reading Report, p. 278)
Teacher preparation on teaching how to read should include the process of first
and second language development, production, and understanding. (NAS
Reading Report, p. 284)
Teachers who work with LEP students need to have continued access to
training, research, and models of effective practice on how to work with LEP
students, along with specific training on reading instruction. (NAS Reading
Report, p. 295)
Teachers instructing LEP students on reading in a non-English language
should have an understanding, strategies, and techniques about teaching in
reading in the specific language. Specific features in different languages
may require different reading instruction techniques. (NAS Reading Report,
p. 297)
Teachers instructing LEP students on reading in English must be prepared to
help their students to learn to read in English at the same time they learn
English. (NAS Reading Report, p. 297)
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1 "Children who are at risk for reading difficulties should be identified as early
as possible." (NAS Reading Report, p. 318)
1 Learning to speak English first is important to learning to read in English. P.
324. LEP students should be given the opportunity to develop literacy skills
in their native language. (NAS Reading Report, p. 325)
1 State certification requirements and teacher education curricula should
incorporate information about the needs of LEP students, and how to teach
them to read; teaching students to read in another language, for teachers
that will work in those settings; and information on learning to read a new
language at the same time English is being learned, for teachers that will
work in such settings. (NAS Reading Report, p. 330)
1 Every school should have access to personnel with specialized experience
an training on overcoming reading difficulties, such as ESL teachers,
reading specialists, and clinicians. (NAS Reading Report, p. 333)
Title VII Teachers and Personnel Grants provided training geared towards ESL
or bilingual certification to 1,298 inservice teachers and 1,010 preservice
teachers in 43 projects during FY98. Ten projects also provide bachelors
degrees, 18 provide masters degrees, and 5 provide both bachelors and
masters degrees. Evaluations of previous reauthorization's training
programs showed that 93% of project graduates held a position as an
educational professional. 77% of program graduates held a position serving
LEP children.
The area of the professional preparation and development of teachers is
another critical problem. The shortage is not just limited to bilingual
education teachers, but also extends to teachers of all programs that serve
L.E.P. students. The recently completed efforts of the National Board for
Professional Teaching Standards to develop standards for Bilingual and
ESL Teachers should be applauded as the "deluxe" model, but the
magnitude of the problem is staggering when we look at the other elements
ofiprofessional preparation such as schools of education, state certificate
requirements, professional development models, and Title VII incentives. In
addition, current knowledge about the effectiveness of strategies for teacher
education and the assessment of teacher knowledge and skills is very
limited. Lawmakers should demand a systematic inquiry into ways to
understand, support and coordinate all of these efforts. Briefing by Dr. Kenji
Hakuta at the Aspen Institute: Seminar on bilingual education with
Congressional leaders (from Dr. Hakuta's website at Stanford University)
A well trained teacher must know, not only how to provide instruction to LEP
students, but also how to assess LEP students in a manner that reflects
what the students know and can do. LEP students at particularly low levels
of English proficiency will not be able to show their achievement in content
areas in the English language. In addition, these teachers must also be
able to assess students= English proficiency, in order to make judgements
about their students academic achievement, growth in English proficiency,
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and entrance into and exit out of bilingual/ESL programs. (misc/biledsec)
Concerns/Issues/Problems
Recommendations
Given that
LEP students tend to be concentrated in high-poverty schools
Low-income LEP students attend schools are poorer than those attended by
low-income non-LEP students
a large percentage of Title I students are LEP
Title I serves more LEP students than Title VII
There should be a specific requirement in Title I for teachers in Title I programs
to receive traning in teaching LEP students. This requirement might be tied to
-
a specific proportion of LEP students in the school
the proportion of non-English speaking minorities in the district or region
a trend showing a specific amount of growth in LEP students in the district or
school
specific changes in the needs assessments and other plans.
Add language in Title I that makes an allowable expense to use funds for
standards development to set up or enhance certification requirements for
bilingual education or ESL professionals in the state.
NAS reading study
Given the increasing numbers of minorities involved in substance abuse, the
Safe and Drug Free Schools Programs should contain a requirement for
professionals to receive training in dealing with the needs of minorities and LEP
students in the community
Ramirez - The quality of training programs for teachers of LEP students needs
to be improved in both pre-service and inservice training. This training should
be geared to helping teachers provide active learning environments for their
LEP students.
Ramirez- Disseminate effective training models that help teachers provide a
more active learning environment.
Non legislative recommendation: Convene states that do not presently have
certification requirements for bilingual education or ESL professionals to
discuss how the state could establish them.
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SEP 08 '98 11:43AM
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DEPARTME OF
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
OFFICE OF ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
GOALS 2000 Office
Portals Building, Room 4000
1250 Maryland Avenue, SW
Washington D.C. 20202
Fax # 202-205-0088
FAX
TO: ann O'Lary /Jurry Dozur
FROM: JOYCE A. MURPHY
Phone #: 202-205-9198
DATE: 9/8
Number of PAGES:
3 sent in 2 sets
SUBJECT AND COMMENTS:
Sorry for The delay, we were
called into a planning session
for the Reading Jayce Summet
There bringing other papers
& data sources with us. at
1:00
600 INDEPENDENCE AVE.. S.W. WASHINGTON. D.C. 20202
Our mission is 10 ensure equal access to education and to promote educational excellence throughout the Nation.
SEP 08 '98 11:44AM
P.2/12
PROPOSED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
OPTIONS FOR ESEA REAUTHORIZATION
Fig. 1
ProfessionalDerelopment
50-60%
Direct services to children's families
Models adoption
Standards É assessment
Technology
40-50%
Recommended: A new federal organizational structure focused on comprehensive
reofrm functions. The chart (Figure 1) above represents how the funds from the
selected OESE programs are merged under a common standards-based reform
vision. It is proposed that a larger investment (50-60%) of all program funds in this
unit be directed to standards-based professional development for educators who
work in or aspire to work in high poverty schools. All research emphasizes that for
successful implementation of standards-based reform, professional development for
teachers and principals is essential.
SEP 08 '98 11:44AM
P.3/12
Recommended: A new federal organizational structure focused on comprehensive
reform functions. This proposed unit would guide the ESEA program work with
States and local districts. This type of structure would enhance the implementation
of standards-based reform for the most vulnerable students in high poverty schools.
The proposed options range from structures of coordinated 'stove piping' of
programs to a new configuration that merges programs. Option 1 maintains the
current programs, however, all options propose that 50-60% of the combined funds
be used for professional development activities for educators who work or aspire to
work in high poverty schools. The following chart attempts to display three options
for a comprehensive reform unit.
Fig. 2
Federal
Level
Comprehensive Unit Reform
50-60% for
Prof. Develop
Tilles I,
Titles I, I
III, Goals,
Titles
TLCF CSRD
Ii, Goals,
TLCFECSRD TLCFi
IiV, Gails
TLCF CSRD
Title I set aside added for
paraprofessional carcer
paths to teaching
SEP 08 '98 11:44AM
P.4/12
PROPOSED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
OPTIONS FOR ESEA REAUTHORIZATION
(National Level)
COMPREHENSIVE
REFORM UNIT
50 to 60 20 for RD
Titles I, II, & VI,
Titles II, & VI,
Titles I, II, &
Goals, TLCF
Goals, TLCF
&CSRD
VI, Goals, TLCF
&CSRD
&CSRD
OPTION 3
OPTION 1
OPTION 2
Allocate total funding to state, flow through
Retain current program
Allocate small % to SEA and
with 1/2 to local school districts for PD in
Statutes and create legislation
provide funding directly to
high poverty areas, and
To require each program to
districts with greater percentage
1/2 to universities/colleges who prepared teachers
Allocate 3% of funds to
flow through to high poverty
Professional Development for
to work with high poverty students.
schools.
[formula and discretionary]
Educators for high poverty
[formula and discretionary]
Schools [formula and
Discretionary]
SEA 10%
SEA 10%
SEA 10%
Admin;
Admin;
Admin.;
Initiatives:
Initiatives:
Initiatives:
a Alignment of licensure to
a.
Alignment of licensure
a. Alignment of licensure
K-12 standards
to K-12 standards
to K-12 standards
c. Research on best
b.
Research on best
b. Research on best
Practices
Practices
Practices
LEA 45% (or RESA')
LEA 90% (or RESA's)
LEA 45% Cor RESAS)
10% LEA
10% LEA
10% LEA
Admin.
Admin;
Admin.
Initiatives
Initiatives:
Initiatives
Developing
Developing
Developing
Results-based P.D.
Results-based P.D.
Results-based P.D.
35% to High Poverty Schools:
35% to High Poverty Schools:
80% directly to high pov. schools:
for Inservice,
for Inservice,
for Inservice,
including, principals
including, principals
including school leaders
for Induction-new
for Induction- new
(networks, partnerships,
teachers, mentors
teachers, mentors
teacher research,
Higher ED 45%
Higher ED 45%
NBPTS certification)
Teacher preparation &
Teacher preparation &
for Induction-new
faculty development;
faculty development;
teachers (with mentors)
Principal preparation;
Principal preparation;
Partner with IHEs to
Induction
Induction
influence prep programs
Recruitment
Recruitment
& recruitment, induct.
SEP 08 '98 11:45AM
P.5/12
Option 2: Pros and Cons
Pros:
Channeling funds directly to the school building level, especially high poverty schools, will
support the idea of putting money where it will have the most impact.
The number of teachers teaching outside of their fields of expertise could be more directly
addressed. The number of new teachers who may require additional supports can be
better served through the larger percentage for induction activities.
Maintaining a small percentage at the State level for administration and State-wide
initiatives will reinforce the State as the central unit for providing leadership and
in
standards
demonstration activities for distriets
baced
reform
Providing funds to the areas with the highest levels of poverty will address the shortages
that exist for experienced, qualified teachers.
The partnership between LEAs and IHEs will stimulate the design of programs
customized to the needs of particular high poverty communities. can also serve to
inform the higher education community about the areas in which teacher candidates need
to be prepared
option
It
This will encourage districts and schools to conduct thorough professional
development planning based on the results of a,needs assessment ,
data
driven
Cons:
There would be relatively fewer federal funds for professional development in non-poverty
areas.
SEAs may argue that a higher percentage is needed to provide leadership activities for
large numbers of LEAs, especially in States that have larger student populations.
SEP 08 '98 11:45AM
P.6/12
OPTION 3:
Allocate total funding to State, flow through with ½ to local school districts for professional
development in high poverty areas, and ½ to universities/colleges who prepared teachers to work
with high poverty students. Formula and discretionary grants.
Pro:
This option is crosscutting forcing coordination of program resources and collaboration at
the Federal level.
This option would make an investment in the community, there would be a greater
retention of teachers in high poverty schools, and a greater commitment for local
paraprofessional to obtain teacher licensure to remain in the community providing needed
role models for ethnic diverse populations.
This option would stimulate partnerships between colleges and universities and schools to
design programs that are customized to the needs of particular high poverty communities.
This option could provide the impetus to the State to align teacher certification
requirements and preservice training with academically challenging State standards.
This option could permit the provision of incentives for teacher effectiveness tied to
student outcomes.
This option would strengthen the relationship between schools and universities and
colleges to enhance the skills of administrators in high poverty school districts.
This option could help fund resources to ensure access to technical assistance and
information on research into proven data-driven practices.
This option could have the effect of upgrading teacher training programs in colleges and
universities.
This option encourages teachers to give back to the community while addressing the
disparity and abundance of teachers who are attracted to more school districts.
SEP 08 '98 11:45AM
P.7/12
This option encourages teachers to give back to the community while addressing the
disparity and abundance of teachers who are attracted to more school districts.
Con:
The teachers with the weakest credentials and most limited experience would be assigned
to schools in greatest need of experienced high calibre instructional staff.
This could place a burden on school districts to acquire and fund substitute staff while
existing paraprofessional staff are in training.
This option might diminish support for at the SEA and LEA levels if it is not seen as
having the same focused impact as the old categorical programs (i.e. Title II).
Political support would be support diminished by Congress members whose constitutents
who would not directly benefit from funding that focuses on already established poverty
formulas.
There is no guantee that the research would provide quantifiable, valid information to
measure the effectiveness of teacher training practices.
This might cause a backlash from legislators who believe that more funding should be
targeted to the elementary and secondary levels.
There is potential for less of a partnership among SEA, LEA and IHEs and possibly
bypassing decisionmaking and planning at the LEA level.
Although setting aside monies for professional development appears attractive, the
question is whether the monies will bring about positive results. Will the funds upgrade
the quality of teachers (paraprofessionals) or will it fatten the wallets of college,
universities and private consultants?
SEP 08 '98 11:45AM
P.8/12
Professional Development Options for Reauthorization
The Vision: To ensure that all teachers and school leaders in every State
and local school district are provided access to powerful professional
development opportunities in order to support challenging, standards-
based teaching and learning by all students, pre-K through 18.
This vision that supports teacher quality is based on the body of knowledge presented
repeatedly by practitioners, researchers, policy-makers, professional association leaders,
and service providers.
I. What do we know about professional development?
Compelling findings about teacher learning and professional development provide
guidance for conceptualizing reauthorization language. As Florio and Knapp (1998)
concisely summarize the research findings, powerful professional development:
(1)
Focuses on challenging, standards-based teaching and learning in particular
subject areas and is guided by a vision of how all students can engage in that
learning.
(2)
Embeds professional learning in the context of the school and the needs of each
school as a system with its own integrity.
(3)
Balances individual and organizational priorities in determining the content of
professional development activities.
(4)
Is grounded in principles of adult learning within professional, collegial
communities.
(5)
Supports and reinforces new roles and responsibilities for teachers and principals,
as learners, leaders, designers, team players, managers of change, and master
coordinators.
(6)
Supports educators' learning through an infrastructure that is more peer-based
than hierarchical and, whenever possible, at the work site.
B. Why hasn't our knowledge of professional development more effectively supported
standards-based reform?
Recent emerging evidence tells a story about why the standards-based reform supported
by Federal and State education leaders has moved far more slowly than anticipated. The
"lessons learned" (Florio and Knapp, 1998) include these poignant ones:
(a)
Local policy leaders greatly underestimate what it takes to provide learning
opportunities grounded in challenging standards for all.
SEP 08 '98 11:46AM
P.9/12
(b)
In particular, they underestimate the amount of new learning educators
(including themselves) must do, and the extent of support or technical assistance
entailed.
(c)
Local and state incentive structures, not to mention those built into Federal
programs (e.g., within accountability systems), have yet to focus on the
importance of professional learning and the allocation of effort or resources that
are needed to provide for this ongoing need.
(d)
Local, regional, and State capacities for providing the requisite support for
educators' learning is often inadequate.
(e)
The needs are especially acute in districts serving the most vulnerable children.
and
(f)
A serious and entrenched disconnect between preK-12 systems and higher
education continues to be reinforced by Federal legislation and funding. The
divisiveness conceived by the first ESEA in 1965, mitigates against "shared
responsibility" for teacher quality, and indeed, against the alignment of content
standards at all education levels. (Hawley, [NPEAT]; AACTE; ATE, 1998)
"In short, Federal programs have yet to send a compelling message to the local level
about integration of effort across programs and about the nature and support of
professional learning in pursuit of standards-based reform goals. Moreover, there is little
evidence that, as currently configured, Federal investments in professional learning help
to amass a sufficient pool of resources in the most productive ways possible." (Florio
and Knapp, 1998)
C. What critical issues must be considered for Professional Development?
Make Professional Development.a major purpose of Federal investment in ESEA
and in all Departmental Offices.. Professional development is cross-cutting and
must be supported in all programs in order to achieve implementation of
standards-based reform. This will require planning and coordination among
Departmental principal offices in yet unprecedented ways. For example, it is time
for technology to merge with professional development to improve teaching and
learning. What Federal program design could foster greater focus on P.D.
across all POCs?
Provide Incentives for Accountability in Professional Development. Districts
and schools should be encouraged to develop processes for assessing the link
between professional development and student achievement. It is exceedingly
difficult to create and conduct a research study that convincingly links staff
development and student achievement. So many factors can affect
achievement-such as physical conditions of schools, economic conditions of the
community, the number of schools a student attends-that singling out the effects
of staff development is almost impossible. (Killion: National Staff Development
Council, 1998) Linking teacher preparation to student achievement presents an
even more complicated dilemma. (Darling-Hammond, 1998)
What incentives could be used to have districts focus on P.D. accountability?
SEP 08 '98 11:46AM
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Support Capacity Building through Increasing Standards-focused Technical
Assistance. Teacher and principal quality is dependent upon a larger technical
assistance system which includes capacity building of both school-based and
university-based educators and those persons who design, create policies for, and
provide funds for professional development. (Loucks-Horsley, 1998; Sparks,
1998; Darling-Hammond, 1998; Florio and Knapp, 1998; and others) If Federal
dollars are to reach the high poverty classroom in order to support teacher
networks, partnerships, teacher research, National Board Certification, and school
improvement teams involved in indepth discussions about student work, then we
must focus the Federally supported efforts. Incentive structures and related
technical assistance must be improved to meet the serious demand for qualified
teachers and principals in schools for high poverty. What program incentives
can support technical assistance for professional development in high poverty
schools?
Scale up Activities that Improve the Infrastructure for Teacher/Principal Quality.
Most important will be the critical need to attend to the infrastructure that
supports professional learning. Without a coherent infrastructure, Federal efforts
will continue to be inadequate for implementing a challenging, standards-based
educational system. As "research has shown teacher and principal performance
has a profound effect on student learning, so reform efforts should concentrate on
improving teacher performance. The continuum of teacher education must be
considered in order to affect teacher performance. This continuum includes
recruitment, initial teacher preparation, beginning teacher needs, and continuing
professional development." Academic and professional standards must include
knowledge about best practice and current research. (Association of Teacher
Educators [ATE], 1998) The same recommendation was forwarded by the
National Commission on Teaching and America's Future, 1996. Data from a
variety of sources spanning over decades have shown that a fragmented approach
to teacher/principal quality have little impact. How could the programs be
designed so that the infrastructure needs are addressed in multiple ways?
Use New Program Strategies to Ensure Greater Equity It is well documented that
schools in high poverty areas with concentrations of special needs students
consistently have the least experienced teachers, and the greatest attrition of
educators (e.g., high number of out-of-field teachers and unlicensed teachers;
lowest salaries, few opportunities for high quality professional development, lack
of mentoring, coaching, access to networks, and fewer resources.) Statistics also
show that recruitment needs to be focused not only on ensuring that we have
enough teachers, but on also on recruiting a diverse teaching force that represents
the American population if majority and minority students are to experience
diverse role models. (NCTAF, 1997) The need to focus professional development,
preservice and inservice, on high poverty areas and special needs students is
urgent How should programs funds focus the greater portion of Professional
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Development monies on districts and schools that serve the most vulnerable
children (high poverty areas and special needs students)?
D. What Strategy should Elementary and Secondary Education use in its
Continued Support of Effective Standards-Based Reform?
Background: During/1994, educators committed funds and substantial effort to the standards reform
agenda. Only four years later, there are numerous gains in this agenda; however, we
recognize that much remains to be done to impact teaching and learning at the classroom
level. We know that change takes time, moves through different phases, and requires
new learning by all the people involved. Therefore, there is consensus that the OESE
will continue to be guided by the goals of 1994. The mission remains the same, but the
reauthorization strategies need reshaping. Findings from evaluation of professional
development in the Eisenhower program, for example, indicate that the funds were too
limited, too unfocused, and dispersed too broadly to have the needed intensive effect on
standards-based professional development. It is clear that in most cases the funds are not
reaching the targeted groups with the most urgent needs (teachers in high poverty
schools, especially beginning teachers and their mentors, and university faculty preparing
teachers and principals.)
"As set forth in its 1994 reauthorization, ESEA already places clear emphasis on
standards-based teaching and learning. With appropriate adjustments in the
reauthorizing legislation, these programs collectively could offer schools a major
professional development resource, far beyond what they use at present. In SO
doing, these programs would go a long way towards achieving not only their
particular legislated purpose, but also the larger goal of offering a high-quality,
challenging education to all students in the nation's schools. "(Florio and Knapp, 1998
insert- How proposed options complement the proposed Title ?
The Options
The four issue areas discussed above set the base for the following options. The
proposed legislative options frame the actions to be taken by the State and local levels, as
well as the Federal level. The options will be organized around two major concepts (also
proposed by Florio and Knapp, 1998):
1) Concentration of Resources for High Poverty Areas
2) Enhancement of the Infrastructure for Teacher/Principal Quality
These two organizing concepts respond to the unanimous comments from the field, from
educational experts in professional development, and an intensive review of current
literature and evaluations. To avoid a continued "stovepipe" configuration by ESEA
programs and fragmented policies and funding regarding professional development, the
Professional Development Reauthorization (PDR) group recommends that each Option
presented in this paper be organized around a Comprehensive Unit. The proposed Unit
would combine Goals 2000 and selected ESEA programs around a common vision. Each
Option suggests which programs might best comprise the Comprehensive Unit. Two of
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SEP 08 '98 11:47AM
the proposed Options recommended would merge the programs into a different
configuration. One Option recommended would maintain current program identity.
Option 1.
Retain current individual program statutes and create legislation to require each program
to allocate 50% - 60% of funds to standards-based professional development. Funds will
be both formula and discretionary.
What is the structure and purpose of the unit in Option 1?
1.1
Create a comprehensive standards-based reform unit, combining several ESEA
programs with common purposes to ensure that the vision of powerful
professional development opportunities is achieved for educators who currently
are working with or aspire to work with high poverty schools and special
needs students.
The purpose of the comprehensive reform unit would be to provide oversight of
standards and assessment development, making professional development the
majority portion of the Federal investment. While each program in the unit would
continue to operate with broad program statutes, the comprehensive reform unit
would provide direction to meet national priorities. Funds (50 60%) would be
earmarked from these selected programs to foster integrative mechanisms and
incentives for professional learning in the implementation of standards.
What programs would comprise this unit under Option 1?
Within this Option, the comprehensive unit would be comprised of the following
programs: Title I, Title II, Title VI, Goals 2000, TLCF, CSRD, and would use
40 - 50% of their funds to carry out their specific statutory requirements other
than professional development. The exception would be the Title II program,
which would devote 100% to P.D.