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HRC Background File, Somoza, Anastazia [1]
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HRC Background File, Somoza, Anastazia [1]
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Records of the First Lady's Office (Clinton Administration)
Elizabeth "Liz" Bowyer's Files
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To
KIM
To
KJM
Date 4/7
Time 1102
Date
4/8
Time 200
WHILE YOU WERE OUT
WHILE YOU WERE OUT
M ELAINE HOLLAND
M JIM BOTTON
of
EDUCATION DEPT.
of DEPT of EDUC
Phone
401 0419
Phone 205 8239
Area Code
Number
Extension
Area Code
Number
Extension
TELEPHONED
PLEASE CALL
TELEPHONED
PLEASE CALL
CALLED TO SEE YOU
WILL CALL AGAIN
CALLED TO SEE YOU
WILL CALL AGAIN
WANTS TO SEE YOU
URGENT
WANTS TO SEE YOU
URGENT
RETURNED YOUR CALL
RETURNED YOUR CALL
Message HOW SAN
Message
RE: SOMAZA
20-9079 Larges
205-9439 tRy
Operator
Operator
AMPAD
23-021 200 SETS
AMPAD
23-021 200 SETS
EFFICIENCY®
23-421 400 SETS
CARBONLESS
EFFICIENCY@
23-421 400 SETS
CARBONLESS
PHOTOCOPY
PHOTOCOPY
PRESERVATION
PRESERVATION
(202) 484-2660 Jason
(703) 841-7031
452 West 57th Street, #
New York,
N.Y. 10019
May 11th 1993
Dear Kim,
I wish I had good news about Alba and her school but as
you can see by the enclosed letter, the Board of Education is
still making my life impossible. I was informed this morning
that they needed all this paperwork, and the review is scheduled
for to-morrow at 1 p.m.
Obviously we had to cancel and I feel
really' terrible for the professionals who were volunteering
their time.
The President sent Anastasia a beautiful hand written letter
which she will treasure for the rest of her life.
I know he
is extraordinarily busy and I do not want to bother him at this
time.
I just wanted you to know what is going on and to keep
you informed.
We will keep him in our prayers these days because we know
from the heart what an exceptional human being he is.
Best wishes,
Mary
Users Somoza Somora
Mr. Jack Colombo,
Mary Somoza,
Chairperson,
452 West 57th Street
Committee on Special Education,
New York,
330 West 18th Street,
N.Y. 10019
New York,
N.Y. 10011
(212) 307-9010
May 11th 1993
Dear Mr. Colombo,
It was with great dismay that I was informed by my advocate
this morning about the additional requirements needed for my
scheduled review for my daughter Alba Somoza for to-morrow.
As you can imagine, it is impossible for me to produce eye
examinations, medical examinations and an "explanation" of
her physcological testing within twenty four hours.
I do not understand why, if you had in your possession
my childs phys cological reports since early March, it is only
now you inform me you need clarification. Why was I not informed
months ago when I applied for this review to supply a medical
examination, particularly when you have one on record from my
triennial?
Why an examination from the State College of
Optometry is vital to my childs review and placement is also
bewildering to me, particularly as it has never been required
for placement before.
The professionals attending the review on my behalf went
to great effort to organize their schedules to be able to attend
on my behalf to-morrow, now I must call them to cancel. I find
it very discourteous and unprofessional for the Committee on
Special Education to spring this on me at the last moment. I
feel that due to all the media attention surrounding my daughters
meeting with President Clinton, this last minute change might
not necessarily have been your direct decision. I do know however
that the CSE has asked many people to attend this review and
I do not want it to turn into a circus. I initially had planned
to attend with just my advocate and attorney, however, you insisted
my physcologist and communication specialist be present and they
agreed to attend. I would appreciate receiving a list of persons
you intend to have present when we finally sit down to discuss this
placement.
With much hardship and the obvious delay to the resolution
of my case, I will supply you with the required documents and
appreciate the earliest possible review date for my daughters case.
Yours sincerely,
Mary
May Somoza Somora
C.C. President Clinton
Mr. Richard Riley - Secretary of Education
Mr. Alan Bergman - Governmental Activities UCP
Mr. Gayland Kirkland - Advocates for Children
Ms. Ellen Gallagher - Ms. Joan Harrington AFC
THE PRESIDENT HAS SEEN
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
93MAR26 P 23
March 26, 1993
INFORMATION
MEMORANDUM FOR THE PRESIDENT
FROM:
Kim Tilley
XT
Department of Communications Research
55 T 3 is
SUBJECT:
Update on Anastasia Somoza
I.
SUMMARY
At the ABC Kids' Town Meeting, Anastasia, the nine year old suffering from
cerebral palsy, requested that her twin sister, Alba, be allowed to attend classes
with her. Although both Anastasia and Alba have cerebral palsy, Alba is in a
special education class because of her speech difficulties. The twins live in New
York City and attend Public School 234.
II. DISCUSSION
I spoke with their mother, Mary Somoza, who reports that Alba is still in special
education classes. Mrs. Somoza believes the immense amount of press following
the February 20th Kids Town Meeting has aggravated the situation to the point
where she has experienced hostility from the school's principal and is suspicious of
the care provided by Anastasia's school-appointed Personal Aide.
The Somozas plan to continue their struggle, but will proceed carefully because of
the possibility of further retaliation against Anastasia. They have requested an
evaluation of Alba; the school is delaying although they are required to do so by
law. While waiting for the official school evaluation, the Somozas plan to have a
private evaluation conducted.
The Somozas remain very positive and feel the Town Meeting was "one of the
most important things that's happened in our lives." According to Mrs. Somoza,
the community and media support has been overwhelmingly favorable, and has
been helpful in heightening public consciousness of the situation facing special
education students in New York.
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
4-7-93
Dear Auartation
Thanks in much fn
the womenful message from
you are your friends.
& have ashul sonn prople
to look was your scitis school
situation. & hope we can help.
Keep your chining. you
an a remarkeba person,
Sincerely
Biu cimbra
DeeDee
June 8, 1993
212/307
MEMORANDUM
Kim Tilley (x2131)
EOLG
FROM:
SUBJECT:
ABC News Interest in Anastasia Somoza
Linda Pattillo of ABC News called regarding Anastasia and Alba Somoza. She is
working on a story for this evening for "World News Tonight" with Peter Jennings.
She is inquiring because Anastasia's hearing last week did not go well and there is a
hearing tomorrow for Alba. Mary Somoza, their mother, referred her to me.
towny
Specifically she wants to know what has been the President's involvement with the
Somozas since the Kids Town Meeting? She is aware of the letter the President sent in
April, but she wants to know if there has been any contact with the Education
Department, or has the White House intervened on their behalf in any other way?
Linda Patillo can be reached by calling 1 800 SKY TALK (PIN 521-9900#) and then
leaving a voice message. A message can also be left at 212-456-4040.
How do you wish to handle this?
06-05-93 01:02FM
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
UNITED STATES of OFFICE
OFFICE OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL AND INTERAGENCY AFFAIRS
June 8, 1993
TO:
Kim Tilley
Communications Research
The White House
FROM:
Elaine Holland
Office of Intergovernmental and Interagency Affairs
Department of Education
SUBJECT: New York Case of Anastasia and Alba Somoza
I wanted to alert you to a development in the Somoza case.
Jim Button, with the Office of Special Education and
Rehabilitative Services at the Department of Education, spoke
this morning with Alan Bergman of United Cerebral Palsy
Association (202-842-1266). Mr. Bergman reported that ABC news,
or a local affiliate, is covering Mrs. Mary Somoza and her
daughter Alba as a news angle surrounding the Somoza's
Individualized Education Program (IEP) meeting to be held today.
Though ABC will not attend the IEP meeting, they will be speaking
with the Somoza's prior to the meeting and do a follow up segment
after the meeting.
When I spoke with you on May 12, 1993, I relayed a
conversation that Mr. Bergman had with Mrs. Somoza. According to
Mrs. Somoza, the day before Alba's IEP meeting scheduled for
early May, the New York school system called the advocacy group
that is assisting the Somoza's to request more information and
tests (a new medical exam and opthmalogical exam.) Mrs. Somoza
was extremely angry about this last minute request, which she
believes was unneccesary. It delayed the IEP meeting until
today.
I hope this information is helpful. As always, the
Department of Education is happy to assist you. Please call me
at 202-401-0419 if we can be of any help.
CC: Ray Cortines
Assistant Secretary Designate, OIIA
Post-It™ brand tax transmittal memo 7671
of pages
/
To Kim TILLEY
From Elaine Hollard
Co. WH Communication Co.
Dept Educ
Dept.
Phone
401-0419
Fax
456-2239
Fex
400 MARYLAND AVE., S.W WASHINGTON. D.C. 20202
MEMORANDUM
OF CALL
Previous editions usable
TO:
Kim
YOU WERE CALLED BY
JoannaMolloy - NY Daily News reparter
YOU WERE VISITED BY-
OF (Organization)
referred by. Mary Samoza
PLEASE PHONE
FTS
AUTOVON
212.210.1568
WILL CALL AGAIN
IS WAITING TO SEE YOU
RETURNED YOUR CALL
WISHES AN APPOINTMENT
MESSAGE
re: Children's visit to WH
(one girl in wheelchair helped
little girl to get twin sister
in same class 4 adecision
RECEIVED BY
was made today) DATE
TIME
6.8
12:15
63-110 NSN 7540-00-634-4018
* U.S.G.P.O. 1992 312-070-40024
Prescribed by GSA
STANDARD FORM 63 (Rev. 8-81)
FPMR (41 CFR) 101-11.6
ABC covering meeting
ProB wl terimposition
Sup of Pres.
401- 0419
Elaine Hollard
MEMORANDUM
OF CALL
Previous editions usable
TO:
Kim
YOU WERE CALLED BY NY
YOU WERE VISITED BY--
OF (Organization)
JoannaMolloy - Daily News reparter
referred by: Mary SOMOZA
PLEASE PHONE
FTS
AUTOVON
212.210.1568
WILL CALL AGAIN
is WAITING TO SEE YOU
RETURNED YOUR CALL
WISHES AN APPOINTMENT
MESSAGE
re: Children's visit to WH
(one girl in wheelchair helped
Little girl to get twin sister
in same class 4 adecision
RECEIVED BY
was made today) DATE
TIME
6.8
12:15
63-110 NSN 7540-00-634-4018 STANDARD FORM 63 (Rev. 8-81)
Prescribed by GSA
* U.S.G.P.O. 1992 312-070-40024
FPMR (41 CFR) 101-11.6
DELICATION OF EDUCA ATION DEPA
ASSISTANT SECRETARY FOR
INTERGOVERNMENTAL AND INTERAGENCY AFFAIRS
INTER STATES C UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
april 27, 1993
Kim N
These articles appeared in
a special section of the april 21
USA TODAY. d thought you might
be interested in them of you
hadn't seen them already
also enclosed is a letter
which Presedent Clinton pent to
anastasia on april 7. Jim
Button received this via fox
Cerebral Palsy association. It's
from his friend at United
just FYI. Call of we can help!
Elaine Holland
- Special assistant
202-401-0419
Can inclusion De intrusior
Kidswith disabilities'enter regular classrooms
By Dennis Kelly
USA TODAY
CEDAR FALLS, Iowa
Teacher Jacky Venenga puts
third grader Ben Sayder, on
the spot with a question about
fractions. Ugh!
What's one-sixteenth taken
1
sixteenths?
"Six-sixteenths," Ben says
in words muffied by his
problems. Nothing un-
about this classroom
except that Ben has ce-
rebral palsy. uses a specially
designed chair that helps him
sk up straight, and in many
U.S. schools would never be
in a class with the "regular"
school kids. He'd be assigned
to a special school for stu-
with disabilities or put
in a "pull-out" program that
him in a regular class
part of the day, but pulls him
for special instruction.
But Hansen Elementary
ALL FOR a
School here is part of a grow-
sense of Hansen Elementary School In Cedar
Ing attempt nationwide to
Falls, Iowa Ben Snyder gets help from
that even the most se-
teaching aide D Shannon; cole
verely mentally and physical-
Bengston hugs p Jim Jackson; below, Carrie Petersen,
by disabled students should
left, Sonya Foutch and Lindsey Dodd sit close in class.
be in regular classrooms.
Mainstreaming to the max.
year son, B.J., into main-
Ir's called the "inclusion"
stream classes even though
movement, but it's another
cerebral palsy causes him to
:
e of controversy in the
function at the level of a 5-
often angst-ridden debate
year-old. At times, he's sat in
about the best way to help the
the front of a classroom with
4.3 million U.S. students with
no supervision or instruction
disabilities.
"Tm saying the best inten-
There were almost no
tions still may not be benefi-
schools mainstreaming kids
cial to the severely handi-
Special section
with severe disabilities five
capped," Clemans says.
ago. Now those that do
The National Center for
number about 300 to 400, says
Learning Disabilities says it's
I Stainback, education pro-
not opposed to Inclusion, but
r. University of North-
it takes thorough training of
ern Iowa He and wife Susan
teachers and others to
Stainback, also an education
it work something not
professor there, are strong in-
pening now, Ellis says.
clusion advocates.
Further, there are con-
"In the last year or two,
cerns that states and local dis-
we've seen more and more
tricts are using inclusion to
interest than ever before in
dump responsibility for spe-
the US," Bill Stainback says.
cial education students.
But other educators and
"There's a sense that the
parents say the reality is that
whole issue is being used to
some kids must have special
save money, by eliminating
schools, and that by forcing
services (not necessary when
4/21/93
certain kids into regular
grams to special schools.
have Down's syndrome. Sev-
vide individual care for the
there's inclusion)," Ellis says.
classrooms, the inclusion
Hansen Elementary edu-
eral aren't toilet trained.
children in class virtually all
But Stainback argues that
movement has gone too far.
cators think their program is
So there are always con-
day.
the failures of school systems
"We made a terrible mis-
proof that inclusion works.
cerns when schools consider
"We haven't spent any
to provide resources for dis-
take at one time in our histo-
Their program focuses on
full inclusion. Hansen princi-
more money," Jackson says.
abled kids is not an argument
ry by saying all children with
those with severe disabilities.
pal Jim Jackson says teach-
"We have the same staffing
against inclusion, but a rea-
disabilities should be pulled
Children with learning prob-
ers say they're not trained
we would have if we had self-
son for more vigilance.
out and placed in special set-
lems such as dyslexia or at-
well enough to cope. Others
contained classrooms."
"We have to continue our
tings or classes." says James
tention deficit disorder are in
fear these children will take
Others think that's not real-
advocacy to be sure money
M Kauffman, education pro-
USA TODAY
a "transition program" with
up too much class time with
istic for every child.
and resources and people
fessor at the University of
part of their schooling in the
disruptive behavior or aca-
"If you do that across the
now in special education are
Virginia -I think we may be
regular classrooms and part
demic deficiencies.
board in every school across
integrated (into the regular
00 the verge of making an
in pull-out sessions.
Teachers here say they al-
the country, the cost factor is
classrooms)." he says.
equally appalling mistake by
Some Hansen kids have se-
ready have wide disparities
enormous," says Bill Ellis, di-
Hansen's principal Jackson
assuming that now all of
rious physical and mental
in academic levels to which
rector of professional ser-
says inclusion is just the right
them. no exceptions. belong
problems like second grad-
they have to teach. And be-
vices, the National Center for
thing to do.
: regular classrooms."
er Nicole Bengston, 8, who
havior problems exist among
Learning Disabilities.
"What we really believe is
Federal law says students
because of encephalitis at age
non-disabled kids, too.
Some parents think inclu-
that everyone belongs in a
with disabilities should be in
3 cannot walk or speak
Jackson says other schools
sion is a wonderful ideal, but
regular school," says Jack-
the least restrictive environ-
words; or Sonya Foutch, 11,
can do what his did: Take
doesn't work for everyone.
son. "That's W it takes, an
ment possible. But it allows
who, because of a brain inju-
money spent on special
Bonnie Clemans, a parent
attitude that everybody can
for so-called "continuum of
ry, was left paralyzed on her
schools and transportation to
in Azusa, Calif., said her
belong, that we need to figure
services" from pull-out pro-
right side. Other students
pay for associates who pro-
school system pushed her 16-
out how to teach them."
In Educating Peter,' the whole class learns a lesson
Glenn Comeau, HBO
WORKING OUT WELL: Teacher Martha Ann Stallings helps Peter Gwazdauskis in Blacksburg, Va.
The class' year was documented in the Oscar-winning 'Educating Peter,' airing on HBO May 12.
Special Section
By Nicole Carroll
seen by millions of TV viewers.
me and already pulled my fin-
She began expecting more
USA TODAY
Her class was chronicled for
ger back, so I didn't really start
out of Peter, too. When the
Educating Peter, a documenta-
off to like him."
class was writing about the en-
Peter Gwazdauskis rolls on
ry premiering May 12 on HBO
Stallings says she knew
vironment in their journals, Pe-
the classroom floor, his legs
that won an Academy Award
something had to change. Pe-
ter would cut and paste pic-
caught in a chair. A few feet
last month.
ter had an assistant teacher
tures of the sun, a frog, the
away, his third-grade class
"We didn't know what was
with him at all times. And a dis-
snow in his. When they would
works on a science project
going to happen when we start-
abilities specialist spent an
give oral reports, Peter would
No one comes to help. Peter
ed." says documentary produc-
hour a day with him. But the
introduce the speakers.
is learning to help himself.
er Gerardine Wurzburg "We
kids needed more say.
He became part of the class.
He has Down's Syndrome.
wanted to honestly let the cam-
"We decided as a class to
And he knew it.
And this is his first year in a
era show you what happened.
concentrate more on the posi-
The outbursts stopped. Coop-
regular public school.
"As a human being, I have a
tive than the negative," she
eration began. A scene later in
"I really thought Peter could
lot of faith in kids. I thought
says. "If he took the lunch
the year catches Peter playing
come in the first day and with
some positive things would
count and came back without
soccer. From the sidelines, his
help continue to do what he
come out of it."
interrupting anyone, we'd be
class cheers: "Let's go, Peter,
needed to do," says his teacher,
The kids weren't S0 sure.
real proud of him."
let's go. Let's go Peter, let's go."
USA TODAY- 4/21/93
Martha Ann Stallings. "It soon
Opening scenes show Peter
Every time Peter did some-
"He changed because we
became clear that Peter's not
lunging for boys in the bath-
thing well, Stallings would put a
changed," says Jill, who sat
going to sit in his desk when the
room, kicking a friend during
check on the board, meaning
across from Peter all year. "He
other kids do. He's not going to
phys ed and grabbing a violin
the class got one extra minute
changed because we changed
feel comfortable sitting in a
out of the hands of a classmate
of recess. Kids stopped trying
our minds about him."
corner with the other kids
during show and tell.
to do everything for Peter, and
The last day of school finds
when I'm reading a story."
"I was really kinda scared of
Stallings stopped doing every-
Peter with his arm slung
Stallings' school. Gilbert-Lin-
him cause he was making`
thing for them.
around his new best pal, Artie.
kous Elementary in Blacks-
these really loud noises," one
"It was difficult at first," she
"You think you're teaching
burg Va, had just begun en-
boy tells the camera. "Why do
says. "But soon I could sit back
Peter things. But really, Peter's
rolling special needs kids. It
we have him in our class? He's
and see it was going to be
teaching you things," Jill says.
was going to be a learning ex-
probably not going to learn
solved. The whole class jelled
"We might be teaching him
perience for everyone. But
anything."
and seemed to watch and care
stuff like how to do things. But
Stallings had an extra chal-
Artie, the boy kicked during
for each other and seemed to
he's teaching us more how to
lenge - her year would be
P.E. says: "He had strangled
know what was best for Peter."
think and how to react."
INTO THE MAINSTREAM
Colleges widen the realm of careers
Available services;
By Tamara Henry
"We had a blind student
USA TODAY
graduate from the medical
things to ask about
school. A severe cerebral pal-
Traditionally, the rule of
sy graduate with bonors from
All colleges and universities
kies to work on campas.
for counselors work-
the physics program," she
are required under the Amen-
ing with college students who
says. Temple has always
cans with Disabilities Act to re-
Questions to
are disabled was: psychology
had students cross those tra-
move physical and other barn-
A student who uses a wheel-
or social work for those with
ditional lines. The reason
ers. Here are some available
chair. Are the campus
vision problems; computer
they are able to do that is be
services:
more. the main Mbrary and me
programming for those using
cause of the academic and
Educational Support. The
student union accessible? How
wheelchairs; printing for the
non-academic support ser.
Association on Higher Educa-
about the counseling center, the
hearing impaired.
vices they receive from the
tion and Disability says many
sports arena, the health sen-
Forget science. math,
school."
institutions help with preregis
vices? Do some of the buildings
medicine or engineering.
Students have transferred
tration and provide interpreting
have elevators that operate
"But we now have hope,"
here because other schools
services for the hearing im-
with keys and how could I get a
says Virginia W. Stern of the
haven't given them support
paired, reader or note-taking
key?
American Association for the
services they need, she adds.
services, personal care assis-
A student with a hearing im-
Advancement of Science.
John Sorenson, 28, Is satis-
tants. taped textbooks, adaptive
pairment What systems do
Stern points to the Ameri-
fied with the University of
testing and equipment, targe
your signing interpreters use?
cans with Disabilities Act of
Maryland's support services
print materials, braille materi-
Are there oral interpreters? is
which adds a new cate-
as he works towards a major
als, talking calculators or
there a TTY/TDD available to
to the Civil Rights Act of
in radio, television and film.
Braille printers.
IDE on campus? Do any of the
1964. The ADA toughens and
The main difficulty for Sor-
Psychiatric Disabilities.
televisions in the dorms have
broadens the federal Reba-
enson, who has juvenlle rheu-
The State University of New
closed-captioning?
bilitation Act of 1973.
matoid arthritis, is maneuver-
York at Purchase, through its
A student with a
à
AB colleges are required to
ing around the campus radio
Supported Education Program,
ability: is there turning avail-
make campuses access ble as
studio where he works week-
teaches students with psychiat-
able and who pays? Can I get
well as provide the special
ly as a disc jockey. He says
ricidisabilities academic skills,
extended time for taking lests?
*s, equipment and
most of the equipment is de-
such as preparing for exams
A student with a
be
personnel so students with
signed for persons sitting in a
and note-taking as well as spe-
pairment: If I need a reader,
can have experi-
By Carol T. Powers
high chair or standing up. He
cific interpersonal skills like ne-
who is responsible for finding,
ences equal to their peers.
ON THE AIR: John Sorenson, whose juvenile rheumatoid arthritis makes it hard to reach some
has an assistant while on the
godating with professors. The
training, schedulling, and paying
For example, colleges
equipment, nonetheless works as a DJ at the University of Maryland campus radio station.
air, but he cannot make com-
program is patterned after a
someone to help me out? Are
academic pro-
mercials or reach all the
program model developed at
there talking calculators, or
grams E accessible buildings,
vided quadriplegic students
school because of a state re-
not asking to be a surgeon.
equipment needed for the
Boston University.
actornated reading machines
and buy technology, hire sign-
with lab assistants, but only
quirement to perform cardio-
I've limited my options to
job.
Peer Orientation. Ball
such as Kurzwell available?
language interpreters and
30% could promise accessi-
pulmonary resuscitation.
things my disability wouldn't
"I have the base knowl-
State, Muncie, Ind., offers a net-
A student with a health prob-
take other steps to ensure
ble labs or special equipment.
Post, with "a burning de-
interfere with," be says.
edge for these skills but I'm
work where new students with
teac Can I get a permit to bring
that academic programs are
Only 16% could offer a note-
sire" to become a psychia-
Renee Kirby, assistant #
not adept at them. I don't
disabilities are matched with
my car on campus and park
available to the disabled.
taker, and only 10% offered
trist, has reapplied, hoping
rector for Disabled Student
have the opportunity to prac-
upperclassmen with similar dis-
closer to the buildings to which
Also, shuttle buses must be
to accommodate students
the ADA will help.
Services at Temple Universi-
tice them. That may certainly
abilities. Also, the school eo-
my classes are held?
open to those with disabilities.
during tests.
"Tm not asking to be an
ty. says her school has had a
limit me when I'm seeking a
courages students with disabil-
- Tamara Henry
What the new law means to
Students with disabilities
emergency room doctor. I'm
very diverse program.
DJ job," be says.
Stern is that budding scien-
often were forced to ap-
tists and engineers can't be
proach professors, explain
easily derailed.
the nature of their disabilities
Greg Fowler, an engineer
and suggest the adaptations
who is blind. tells of the diffi-
needed for the course. "This
culty be
"inding people
assumes, however, that the
who
read material in
student already knows the
engineering, physics" and the
course and the laboratory
other courses be took during
content, which is rarely the
the 1970s as an undergradu-
case," says the study.
ate as Michigan State Univer-
Bill Scales, director of Dis-
sity
as a graduate student
abled Student Services at the
at Stanford University.
University of Maryland, says
"I was never openly dis-
statistics he's collected over
couraged by anyone within
12 years found gradual im-
the university." says Fowler,
provements in campus envt-
40, who works at Clsco Sys-
ronment for students with dis-
terms in
Park, Callf.
abilities, especially within the
"There were people I spoke
last few years.
to but they never said
"Nowadays with all the
that's not an area you st ould
technology that we have and
go into."
the legal requirements to ac-
CLAIN'S group found in a
commodate students, you
study that students with
find them majoring in every-
physical disabilities face the
thing, all across the board."
highest hurdles to science. In
Jim Post, 22. of Wilkes-
1988.
94,000 scientists
Barre, Pa. who was injured in
and engineers had a physical
a 1985 diving accident at a
disability. accounting for 2%
Boy Scouts camp. has a stight-
of the science/engineering
ly different problem. He was
workforce. There are about
encouraged throughout his
1.5 million engineers.
four years at King's College
Other findings were that:
and graduated last May with
Many campus disabled
honors from its pre-med
services offices had trouble
program.
adapting laboratory settings
Now, however. he is the
or technical texts to meet spe-
only pre-med graduate not
cific
Nearty 90% nm-
VPI accepted hv A medical
USA TODAY 4/21/93 Special Section
Understanding flourishes at
mainstreamed Iowa school
By Dennis Kelly
the non-disabled? In first grade, Ben Jensen, a
USA TODAY
Down's syndrome child, pulls the hair of a girl
beside him. She shakes her head and he stops.
CEDAR FALLS, Iowa - Staff and parents at
That's minor stuff, but teachers insist regular
Hansen Elementary School here clearly believe
students present behavior problems, too, and it's
in full inclusion of students with disabilities.
just a matter of dealing with those.
No amount of skepticism about how it works,
Educators also point to another benefit: that
and whether it always does, seems to derail their
non-disabled students grow up with greater un-
support for the idea.
derstanding - - and less fear - of the disabled.
Consider, for instance, that many of the se-
The kids in Trina Brewer's fifth-grade class
verely disabled students at Hansen school are se-
proved that as they sat around a library table
riously behind in academic achievement
with classmate Sonya Foutch, 11, who is para-
In the fourth-grade class, for instance, teacher
lyzed on her right side from a birth trauma that
Linda Hunsen leads her students through long
also caused neurological damage.
division problems involving three-digit numbers.
"At first, it was hard to accept people with dis-
Meanwhile, Steven Mondt, a Down's syndrome
abilities," says classmate Amy Boyce. "Except
child, sit; with an associate - a staffer caring
now I treat them the same as everybody else."
for his needs - simply trying to identify num-
Adds Carrie Petersen, "I kind of have come to
bers like 8 or 12.
appreciate her. I've gotten to be really good
Aren't such disparities arguments for putting
friends with Sonya."
students with disabilities in separate classes?
Sonya smiles as she listens to it all. "My
Not at all say Hansen and other teachers who
friends are just great," she says.
argue that in any classroom there are students
Monica Bengston, mother of Nicole, 8, who
of wide academic ability.
became disabled from encephalitis at age 3, says
By Harry Baumert
"I have (non-disabled) students having prob-
she had no idea what "full inclusion" was until
STUDENT GETS A BOOST: First grader Ben
lems doing long division," she says. "Should I put
the school offered it Now she's glad it's here.
Jensen, who has Down's syndrome, gets a
them back in third grade?"
"I just know in my heart I wanted her to be in
steadying hand at the blackboard from classmate
But what of behavior problems that distract
a regular school," she says.
Hilary Weber at Hansen Elementary School.
USA TODAY - 4/21/93 Special Section
DESIGNS THAT WORK: Milwaukee
School
of
ABILITYLINE
Engineering seniors used to make designs for hypothetical
problems. Then, last year, professor Dan Brandt thought,
"Why not a real project that will benefit" someone? The
idea was welcomed by the Southern Wisconsin Center for
LOOK AT EFFORTS UNDER WAY TO HEL KIDS WITH DISABILITIES
the Developmentally Disabled, which is shifting from rec-
reation to helping people "find some success in doing
work," says the center's Bill Baker. For students, the chal-
HAVE BIKE, WILL TRAVEL: Kramer Lar-
lenge is to make tools that require minimal effort - such as
gent, a 7-year-old who has spina bifida, will soon own a
pushing a lever. Among items now in use: a paper shredder
three-wheeler, custom-made at the University of Tulsa in
and a device that cuts milk cartons so they can be recycled.
Oklahoma. He's tried other bikes for kids like him, but
couldn't maneuver them. The new model requires leg use
BONDS OF BUDDYSHIP: College students get
only. The project started when Kramer's dad, former Seat-
companionship and more with Best Buddies, which pairs
tie Seahawk Steve Largent, talked to a mechanical engi-
them with a mentally retarded person. Started in 1987 by
neering professor, who turned the idea over to a student
Anthony Kennedy Shriver (son of Sargent and Eunice),
team. "It's really rewarding to see Kramer riding around,"
then at Georgetown University, the program has 138 chap-
says Stefan Radloff, 21. "His father told me once that this is
ters, with about 3,500 pairs of volunteers. Many "come in
like giving wings to a bird." Largent may try to market the
saying, T'm really going to help these kids,'' says Shannon
bike - and wants to call it "Wings."
Oliver, a junior at the University of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill. But she says they find they, too, have much to learn.
FIRST PERSON:
graders in Charlotte, N.C.,
get a taste of what it's
GREAT EXPECTATIONS: You need a ham-
like to have a disability
mer, you go to a hardware store. You need a catcher's mitt,
through a "Celebration
you go to a sporting goods store. But where do you go if have
of Ability." It got its roots
cerebral palsy and need school supplies? Jackie Brand be-
10 years ago when Cindy
gan that search 12 years ago for daughter Shoshana, now
Teal's wheelchair (she
18, who has limited vision. It took three years. "Kids can't
has multiple sclerosis)
wait three years," Brand says - which is why she started a
inspired questions from
center where people can get access to the latest technology.
her son's classmates.
Today, her Albany, Calif.-based Foundation for Technology
Teal spoke to her son's
Access operates 46 such centers nationwide.
class; other teachers
asked her to come to
their classes. Now, stu-
dents spend a day on the
subject, during which
they put on devices to
simulate a particular dis-
ability (eye patches for
blindness; mitts for cere-
bral palsy). Kids "learn
very quickly that they
could put on a shoe or
feed themselves (even
with) a mitt on their
hand," says Teal, who
now lives in Camden,
Multiple Sclerosis Society
S.C. That's the point, she
TEAL: Talk emphasizes the
abilities of the disabled
says: "We emphasized
not what people couldn't
do, but what people could do."
A DANCING TURN: Mary Verdi-Fletcher takes a spin with
Dancing Wheels, a Cleveland-based dance company.
WHEELS IN MOTION:
Maybe
you
love
dance.
Maybe you have a disability. Mavbe you're curious. It mat-
ters not to Mary Verdi-Fletcher why you watch a dance per-
USA TODAY. 4/21/93
formance by Dancing Wheels. It just matters that you enjoy
IL Verdi-Fletcher, 37, founded the company 13 years ago
when she decided spina bifida. a condition that means she
uses a wheelchair. need not deter her from dance. the pas-
Special Section
sion that "kept calling" even when she tried not to listen.
Today. the Cleveland-based company of dancers with and
without disabilities" gives about 150 demonstrations a year.
By Mary Beth Marklein
Taking a chance
and excelling
By Mary Beth
Marklein
Special for
USA TODAY
Bobby Walsh says
he "would like people
to know they should
give kids with disabil-
ities a chance." It's a
message he imparts by
words and example.
Walsh, 22, was born
with cerebral palsy.
He cannot walk, talk
or use his hands. Aban-
doned at birth, he was
raised for many years
in institutions and fos-
ter homes. Because he
could not communi-
cate, he was labeled
"learning disabled"
ACHIEVER: Joseph Walsh pushes
and placed in special
his son, Bobby, around campus.
education programs.
But Walsh, of Scranton,
lows him to speak or print out
Pa, did not lack the ability to
words on a machine.
learn. And through the perse-
Eventually, Walsh says, "I
verance of Joseph and Cath-
would like to be successful,
erine Walsh, who adopted
get a job and get married."
him in 1982, he went to public
He's already been offered
schools, equipped with a com-
two jobs after he graduates,
puter system that allowed
one by the Pennsylvania As-
him to work alongside his
sistive Technology Center, a
classmates. There, despite
state office that provides
initial fears among teachers
equipment and services to
and administrators, he flour-
people with disabilities.
ished: At West Scranton High
Walsh says he's keeping his
School, he was a National
options open, but computers
Honor Society member, and
are his passion. His mother
named homecoming king
once confided that she would
and most popular boy of his
"literally have to turn the
class. He graduated last year
computer off and take the
26th of 191.
equipment from him to get
Now a freshman at
him to go to bed," says the
Marywood College, Walsh
technology center's Kristen
earned a 3.25 GPA last se-
Swengel.
mester. His dad, who retired
Swengel says Walsh is an
last June, takes his son to
inspiration - and a "very
school, carries books, takes
successful example" of what
notes and records lectures.
happens when a person is giv-
"He gets all the same books
en a chance.
and everything that the other
"He is above and beyond
kids get," says the elder
the disability," she savs. "He
Walsh. His son uses a commu-
does not perceive of himself
nications device he operates
as (disabled). I don't think
with an optical pointer at-
that's how anybody perceives
tached to his head. That al-
him."
USA TODAY -
4/21/93
Special
Section
Programs that impart sensitivity
By Michelle Healy
USA TODAY
Sandra Gordon realized there was a huge
frieed to change non-disabled students' atti-
tudes about their peers with disabilities
when she began her career teaching special
education in the late 1960s.
My kids were basically ostracized" by ev-
Eryone in the school, recalls Gordon, now a
senior president with the National East-
er Seal Society.
Not only did other kids make fun of
them, but so did other teachers and the prin-
cipal, too.-I saw what did to the self-esteem
of the disabled students. It was horrifying'
From that experience, Gordon became
determined to create "something to change
the way non-disabled kids, their parents and
teachers think about kids with disabilities."
That something is Friends Who Care, East-
er Seals' five-year old disability awareness
curriculum for elementary through junior
high students
It is one of several projects designed to
educate and sensitize non-disabled students
to people with special needs.
The number of these programs has grown
in recent years as people have become more
conscious of those around them with disabil
ities, says George E. Ayers, executive direc-
By Mark Elias, AP
for, The Council for Exceptional Children.
LESSON IN BLINDNESS: Teacher Ronna Pritikin-Berk blindfolds Brian Pollack, 12, to teach
That visibility is heightened in schools,
kids about visual impairment at Martin Luther King Jr. Laboratory School in Evanston, BI.
Ayers says, as more: communities have
adopted mainstreaming, and now, inclusion
The heart of the program, says Gordon, is
disability awareness programs include:
policies that bring disabled students into gen-
very frank conversation intended to make
The Kids on the Block. One of the old-
eral education classrooms.
kids as young as 8 "confront their own feel-
est and best known programs, it also tackles
Kids are ideal audiences for this kind of
ings" about being judged, ignored, or teased
differences bluntly via an unusual tool: a
education, he says, because compared with
because of a disability.
multiracial team of 3½ foot tall puppets.
adults, "they tend to be more open and re-
You can't do this "in a soft way," she says.
"The program started out as disability
ceptive to those with differences. As we get
'You can't just say, Don't call kids names."
awarenesss only, but has expanded to in-
older, we tend to be more judgmental."
Ronna Pritikin-Berk, an Evanston, III.,
clude programs on social concerns, educa-
Like similar awareness curriculums,
teacher who's used Friends Who Care with
tional differences and medical differences"
Friends Who Care mixes classroom discus-
her elementary class at Martin Luther King
such as sexual molestation, gifted and talent-
sions, guest speakers, nuts and bolts facts,
Jr. Laboratory School, was impressed that it
ed learners, and AIDS, says Jennifer Bolden
video, posters. and simulation activities to
didn't confuse acceptance with pandering
of the Columbia, Md., based Kids on the
help kids learn about vision, hearing. learn-
"A really nice thing was that the kids start-
Block education company.
ing, and physical disabilities.
ed to see the other children as human beings
"The use of puppets breaks down barri-
In the section about vision disabilities, for
who are not that fragile. Instead of being too
ers," freeing kids to ask any question about a
example, kids work in pairs to learn to be
polite or too nice, they could see them on the
character's disability, says Bolden. "They
sighted guides: they also try to read through
same level. Not a pedestal."
forget the puppeteers are there."
wax paper to understand vision impairment.
A sampling of other nationally available
Including All of Us. A guide for intro-
more
USA TODAY - 4/21/93 Special Section
Programs that impart sens
By Michelle Healy
USA TODAY
Parents can'
pitch in, too
Teaching kids sensitivity to people
with special needs isn't just a job for
classroom instructors. Parents can
also share the responsibility.
"One way to begin is by reaching
out to parents of children with dis-
abilities," says Stanley Klein, pub-
lisher of the Boston-based Excep-
tional Parent magazine.
Most likely "they'll want your
friendship and an opportunity for
the kids to establish a relationship"
- getting together for birthday par-
ties, play groups, sleepovers or other
ANDIAL
after-school activities, he says.
HOSPITAL
If you're concerned about provid-
ing for a disabled playmate's special
needs, talk to the parent about what
you may or may not need to do, says
NEW KIDS ON THE BLOCK: Multiracial
Sandra Gordon, National Easter
puppet shows help pupils understand the
Seal Society. Don't hesitate to "admit
feelings of people with disabilities.
that you're a little nervous."
Adults who get to know people
ducing disability issues to the very young
with differences as individuals pre-
preschoolers through grade 2
sent a model "that's critical" to rais-
"A lesson on transportation would also in-
ing unbiased, understanding kids,
clude wheelchairs," says Merle Froschl,
says George E. Ayers of The Council
Educational Equity Concepts, a New York
for Exceptional Children.
consulting firm. "A unit on the senses would
"If (parents) convey that attitude
talk about options for people who don't hear
to children, the kids themselves will
well or see well" The key is "letting these
be more open," he adds.
issues become a part of kids' world view."
Parents can also model aware-
The National Multiple Sclerosis Soci-
ness and sensitivity by working to
ety's annual READaTHON. A fund-raising
ensure that their community is ac-
effort that combines reading, disabilities
cessible for people with disabilities,
awareness and volunteerism. Through as-
from churches and synagogues to
sembly presentations and classroom work-
recreation programs, Klein says.
shops conducted by local MS chapters, stu-
He also recommends using im-
dents are introduced to the realities of
ages and story lines in the media fea-
having a disability and encouraged to identi-
turing characters with disabilities -
fy and change community barriers.
such as TV shows like Life Goes On
Jamie's Great Discovery. A curricu-
or advertisements for Sears - as op-
lum guide/video program designed to sensi-
portunities to talk about differences.
tize third- and fourth-graders to kids with
"It's very important to talk about,"
communication disorders.
says Klein. "It's important to empha-
Developed by the Rockville, Md.,-based
size that this is a child just like you
American Speech-Language-Hearing Associ-
who just can't do certain things, and
ation, it covers the science of hearing and
that all of us have areas where we
speech, hearing prevention, and the prob-
can't do certain things."
lems of those with communication disorders.
USA TODAY
INTO THE MAINSTREAM
Athletics for disabled brings out the good sports
By Anita Manning
USA TODAY
MINNEAPOLIS
At the
top of the sixth there's a runner
on first. Jim Christy, coach of
the South High Tigers, whizzes
his electric wheelchair around
the edge of the indoor playing
field to offer a word of advice
to the player on first.
A batter moving up toward
the plate uses a metal walker
to brace her steps. When she
makes a hit, a teammate will
run for her.
While players on the bench
and fans in the stands keep up
the usual patter of encourage-
ment and free advice heard at
any sporting event, the plastic
whiffle ball is thrown The bat-
ter whacks it and the runners
take off. Final score: Tigers, 15;
Osseo 79ers, 6.
This is the season opener for
the Minnesota Association for
Adapted Athletics' softball
league, which Christy believes
is the only high school inter-
PLAY BALL: Richard Jackson pitches to teammate Corey Johnson, 17, who then wheels to first
scholastic league for disabled
base as the South High Tigers win their adapted softball game. Johnson has cerebral palsy.
kids in the USA
Softball is one of three inter-
ma, coordination disorders,
kids playing anywhere.
though, is their love of the
scholastic high school sports,
congenital bone disease and
They feel the fever of com-
game. "It's what sportsmanship
along with hockey and soccer,
spastic cerebral palsy.
petition, tempered by a level of
and athletics were a long time
offered for students with dis-
In the stands sits Ernie Burn-
good sportsmanship that in-
ago. They come out here and
abilities. There are two divi-
ham, a burly man in an athletic
spires their fans, coaches and
do the best they can."
sions, one for teens who are
jacket, whose son, Ernie
officials.
Burnham says since his son
mentally handicapped, with
("Bud"), 18, a tall, blond senior,
"They've got the real spirit
Ernie started playing floor
games designed to be more
is on the field. "I get more en-
of the game," says umpire Car-
hockey and now softball, "I've
physical but less complex, and
joyment watching these kids
ter Holmes, who has been offi-
seen him progress, just being
one for those with physical im-
play than watching so-called
ciating high school sports since
able to compete."
pairments. with adaptations in
'normal' kids," Burnham says,
1969. "It's wonderful to see
For the athletes, "it's fun and
the rules and playing field.
keeping one eye always on the
what they can do. Some kids
it gives me something to do,
Seven players are on South
action. "I don't consider them
are really very athletic. They
other than staying home," says
High's softball team six boys
handicapped anymore."
do wheelies in their wheel-
catcher Justin Eckblad, 16, a
and a girl Their physical im-
It doesn't take long to get be-
chairs and turn in another di-
South High sophomore. "We're
pairments range from the mild
yond the idea that these ath-
rection just like that"
out to win, but we're out to
:o the severe. including asth-
letes are different from any
What impresses him most,
have fun, too."
More
USA
TODAY
21,
1993
INTO THE MAINSTREAM
Athletics for disabled brings out the good sports
and others hope will bring It to
the attention of more young
athletes.
As a coach, Christy says,
"Tve always played to win, but
winning wasn't my primary
goal." His overall goal is to pro-
vide a competitive experience
and build self-esteem in his stu-
dents. Still, he confesses,
"when the game starts, I want
to win."
The team is good not only
for the players but for every-
one at South High, Minneapo-
lis' largest high school with
1,800 students, Christy says.
"It's one more way for other
kids to see that just because
these kids are physically dis-
abled, they have the same de-
sire of playing and winning"
he says. "It's one more avenue
kids can relate on. It shows
how people are alike."
Getting to know his team-
Photos by Kathy Strauss, AP
mates is the biggest benefit of
WHO'S ON FIRST: Coach Jim Christy moves around the
participating, says Thad Le-
baselines in the Tigers' season opener in Minneapolis.
siak, 18, a senior who competes
in shot put and discus with the
Coach Christy, who has cere-
asked my teacher why we
regular high school team. A
bral palsy, has seen that first-
couldn't play other schools,
disease affecting his knees
hand. a The kids have a real re-
like other phys ed kids did," he
keeps him from playing foot-
spect for each other and each
says.
ball or baseball for the regular
other's ability," he says. He re-
While in college, Christy and
team, but he qualified for the
calls a floor hockey game
a friend rewrote the NCAA
Tigers.
when "one of the kids from
hockey rules for adapted play,
"I like coming out and being
South had fallen. An opposing
and in 1974, a league of four
with these people," he says.
team member stopped and
teams was formed, two from a
With a sensitivity beyond his
picked her up, and they went
Minnesota high school and two
years, Lesiak says, "people
on playing That's something
from a local camp for handi-
tend to push people who are
you don't see in other leagues.
capped kids. Since then, it has
different aside. They'll set
The program has its roots in
grown and gained respect.
them apart in special ed or
Christy's youthful love of
Starting next fall, the leagues
group homes or whatever.
sports. When he was in eighth
will be sanctioned by the state
They're SO frightened by the
grade. be was in a gvm class
high school athletic associa-
way (disabled) people look
playing adapted floor hockey,
tion, a formality that Christy,
that they don't get to know the
a game designed for students
chairman of the Minnesota As
person inside. And that's the
with physical disabilities. "I
sociation for Adapted Athletics,
best part."
ДАСРОП
american academy for cerebral
palsy and developmental medicine
news
P.O. BOX 11086 / 1910 BYRD AVE.. SUITE 100 / RICHMOND. VA. 23230-1086
VOL. 42. NO. 3 / NOVEMBER 1991
The Hospital for
Every five hours, a baby is born weighing less
Sick Children
than 5.5 pounds.
A D.C. infant dies every 33 hours (267 infant
For 108 years there has been a transitional
deaths in 1989).
care hospital in the District of Columbia prepared
More than 25 children a day are reported
to respond to diverse and changing needs of the
abused or neglected.
city's children: the Hospital for Sick Children. A
me in three children lives in poverty - a rate
unique and cost-effective resource holding is
40 percent higher than the national average.
special spot along the continuum of care. the
Like scores of U.S. cities, the District of
Hospital has been a vital link between the acute
Columbia has been hard hit by the drug and AIDS
care system and the home.
epidemics of the 1980s. Many of the young
Today it is still the only transitional care
patients at the Hospital for Sick Children were
hospital serving the Washington metropolitan
horn to mothers with drug-related problems or
area. That uniqueness. however. poses a dilemma
AIDS. These mothers received little or no prenatal
in the face of increasing demand for beds.
care. Patients. consequently, are beset with
Due to a 40 percent increase in admissions
multiple diagnoses as well as pervasive economic
since 1986 which is expected to continue into the
and social problems.
next decade. the 80-bed Hospital is expanding its
The most common diagnoses for patients at
capacity and services to accommodate 130 beds.
the Hospital for Sick Children include prematurity.
The $19 million expansion and renovation project
bronchopulmonary dysplasia. dysfunctional feed-
is scheduled for completion by 1993.
mg and failure to thrive. fetal alcohol syndrome.
While the Hospital treats children from
post-traumatic injury rehabilitation. infectious
infancy to 21 years of age 82 percent of its patients
diseases. and neuromuscular disorders.
.4 speech-language pathologist teaches a patient
are under five years old. Patients are referred by
to communicate via computer.
local acute care hospitals and stay. on average.
The Staff
between four and six months. More complex cases
can require Hospital stays of up to one year.
The Hospital for Sick Children is starfed on
In addition. the Hospital staff is trained to
The Hospital for Sick Children emphasizes
:1 full-time basis by four board-certified pediatri-
recognize children who may have been affected
a multidisciplinary approach to patient care.
cians and 43 board-certified subspecialists with
by maternal drug or alcohol use. Treatment pro-
Teams of physicians. nurses. social workers. and
medical staff privileges, including a pediatric
grams can be tailored according to these children's
therapists evaluate all aspects of a child's develop-
pulmonologist. The 300-person staff also includes
special developmental needs. and can help to
ment. and design individual treatment plans.
registered nurses (some with rehabilitation train-
mitigate physical and cognitive impairments.
These include periodic evaluations of social.
ing). respiratory therapists. and a range of social
emotional. and physical progress to ensure that
service and therapy professionals.
Family Services
therapies address the child's changing psycho-
The Hospital staff understands that parents
social and developmental needs.
Programs and Services
need ongoing support in meeting the difficult
Constance U. Battle, M.D., the Hospital's
With a focus on caring for the "whole" child.
requirements of their child's condition. Therefore.
Chief Executive Officer and Medical Director since
the Hospital's programs and services cover a range
parents and medical professionals collaborate at
1973. is committed to family involvement in the
of medical and developmental needs. Therapeutic
every step of the child's care.
patients care. The "familv-centered" approach to
services include: physical. occupational. respira-
There are parent support groups. a valuable
care ipromoted by the Association for the Care of
tory. recreational. and speech and hearing. The
resource for families who are preparing to care for
Children's Health) involves close collaboration
Hospital's expanded facilities will include specially-
their children's special needs. The groups give
between the patients families and the Hospital's
integrated therapy treatment rooms allowing for
parents a chance to share fears and concerns and
medical teams.
multi-specialist observation and treatment. There
to learn from each other about coping with their
will also be two 25-bed step down units for children
child's illness.
The Patients
with less-intensive rehabilitation needs.
Another important family program is the
In conjunction with the therapies is a develop-
weekly "Kids to Kids" support group. The group
A study released in September 1991 by the
mental intervention program which fosters normal
gives siblings of hospitalized children. an often-
Children's Defense Fund entitled "Bright Futures
childhood development in the Hospital setting.
overlooked group. an opportunity to verbalize
or Broken Dreams painted an alarming picture
This development is accomplished through the
anxieties. share fears. and learn from one another.
for the District of Columbia:
use of carefully planned cognitive, social and
Recognizing that parents will always need to
A teenager gives birth every four hours (2.100
motor stimulation geared to reaching the child's
learn new care-giving skills. the Hospital's
births in 1989).
normal developmental state.
expanded facilities will include a crucial feature
November 1991 American Academy of Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine
Printed on Recycled Paper
- a family training apartment. In this fully
by the year 2000. In light of current and antici-
equipped. realistic setting parents. under medical
pated needs. the Hospital for Sick Children
supervision, will have a chance to practice caring
embarked on a $19 million renovation and expan-
for their child. This "training ground" will improve
sion project in 1991. The project will not only
parents' confidence for the day they take their
bring the bed total to 130. a 60 percent capacity
child home.
increase. but it will mean significant gains in space:
growth from the current 49.000 square feet to
The Costs
116,900 square feet.
The Hospital fir Sick Children is a cost-
The project will also create critically needed
effective resource for the community. is welcome
feature such as private consultation rooms. an
feature in these davs of boundless deficits and
education center. a hydrotherapy pool. new isola-
harsh cutbacks. The Hospital maintains an overall
tion rooms. separate dining and play areas. and
cost-per-day of approximately $600 per patient.
more efficient administrative space.
which includes physician and ancillary services.
The funding for the project is coming from
and room and board. This IS one-half to one-third
a variety of sources. A two-year Capital Campaign
the costs of other racilities in the District of
has. to date. raised over $1.8 million towards a $2.5
Columbia.
million goal. This money has come from a com-
In 1990. the Hospital's iperating budget was
bination of foundation grants. individual dona-
$13 million. Nearly all 197 percent) of its patients
tions and corporate contributions. The bulk of the
depend on Medicaid to pay the costs of their care.
funding. however. was derived from a private
Since Medicaid payments fall short of costs. the
bonding issuance.
Hospital relies on an intensive fund raising pro-
The project. launched at a ceremony featur-
gram to make up the difference.
ing President George Bush. First Lady Barbara
Bush. Secretary of Health and Human Services
The Future
Louis Sullivan. M.D.. and U.S. Surgeon General
Antonia Novello. M.D., promises to make the
Experts project that the Washington. D.C.
District's unique healthcare resource a vital part
area will require at least 200 transitional care beds
of the future.
Washington
BUSINESS JOURNAL
VOLUME 10. NUMBER 39
ONE DOLLAR
WEEK OF FEBRUARY 24, 1992
Healing the handicapped: Dr. Con-
stance U. Battle. head of The Hospital
for Sick Children. with Kimmi, an 18-
month-old patient.
PHOTO JIM LOSCALZO
Battle has special insight into the strug-
Constance Urciolo Battle
gles of the handicapped: Her eldest child.
Ursula, is severely disabled by cerebral
palsy. born breach 24 years ago when Bat-
tle was in the middle of her residency at the
Work with disabled children
University of Rochester.
Battle said she never seriously consid-
ered pulling back her career, even though
her mother said she should. "The only
influenced her career path
thought I had in my head was what would
help Ursula. I felt I could become more
knowledgeable." Battle said, showing a
family picture of herself with Ursula and
her two sons, 20-year-old Bill and 16-year-
By 11 JISA SHEPARD ESCOBAR
old Chris.
onstance Urciolo Battle's resume
That led her ultimately to become chief
C
Battle, 51, is one of those women who
runs 16 pages. but it was a tem-
executive officer and medical director of
has managed to do it all. Divorced in 1979.
porary job that didn't even make
The Hospital for Sick Children, where for
she has raised her three children in her
the list that set the direction of her
19 years she has been orchestrating care of
Potomac home. One of the many seminars
career.
severely disabled children in transition
she conducts is titled: "The Professional
In the late 1960s when her then-husband
from the hospital trauma unit to their par-
Woman as Mother."
decided to finish his residency at the Uni-
ents' homes.
How did she manage?". always say, and
versity of Illinois in Chicago, Battle took a
Dr. Robert Parrott. former director of
I'm not being silly, just barely."
job at the dental school's center for cranial
Children's Hospital, National Medical
Battle said she doesn't know if she
facial anomalies. She ended up mediating
Center, encouraged Battle to take over
missed out on anything, but she does
meetings of 30 or more doctors to decide
leadership of the struggling hospital when
always feel under pressure. "It's kind of a
treatment for children with malformed
she came to him for advice in 1973. She
style of mine," she said. "I always liked it.
faces.
had just returned to D.C. after a two-year
being under fire."
"It turned out to be fantastic. I learned
fellowship in health administration at Uni-
Her position puts her in that line. The
how to coordinate a big team of subspe-
versity of Chicago's business school.
fact that Battle is both a physician and a
cialists to orchestrate the care of a child
"I was struck then by her intelligence,
hospital administrator is unusual, outside
whose condition is incredibly complex,"
and her hard work, but particularly her
large teaching hospitals. For example, she
said Battle. "I had a taste of sitting at the
dedication to children with disabilities,"
is the only physician on the board of the
core, sitting at the hub, and making it hap-
said Parrott, now director emeritus of Chil-
D.C. Hospital Association, and is chair-
pen."
dren's.
woman-elect.
PAGE 12
WASHINGTON BUSINESS JOURNAL
Week of February 24. 1992
JOURNAL PROFILE
"There is a real tension between admin-
tating children who have gone through sig-
Battle grew up in D.C., her father a pro-
istrators and physicians, often vying for
nificant trauma - a premature birth, or an
fessor with a double doctorate in linguis-
power. often distrusting one another's
auto accident - and preparing them and
tics and philology. She attended George
group. If you act as a CEO and as a physi-
their parents for life.
Washington University School of
cian, that confounds the whole scenario,"
"We don't make heroic cures here, and
Medicine, graduating in 1967, went to
Battle said. "1 happen to be quite comfort-
we hardly ever diagnose things heroically
Rochester for her internship and residency
able with the fact that it puts me in a unique
here, but we do enable a child to become
and then to Chicago where she was the
position and vantage point."
more functional, to reach his potential
only physician and only female awarded a
That Battle is a woman in her position
here," Battle said. "We do help a family
fellowship from the U.S. Department of
puts her in an even smaller group. Accord-
adjust to him and take care of him and
Health, Education and Welfare at the Uni-
ing to the American College of Healthcare
ready itself for him."
versity of Chicago Business School.
Executives, last year 12 percent of the
Under construction outside Battle's
Battle teaches at George Washington,
chief executives of U.S. hospitals not affil-
window is an 80-bed wing expected to
Howard and Children's, and leads semi-
iated with a religious order were women.
admit patients by January. Six years in the
nars at her hospital. She also writes papers,
Battle has been a leader of women in
works, it will be for the sickest children,
dozens of them. One landed her on nation-
medicine, locally and nationally. She ded-
and will have an array of new equipment
al television - Prime Time Live, 48
icates several mornings a week to tutor a
and services, including a small apartment
Hours, 20/20 - about caring for disabled
female medical student through a mentor
for families to live for several days, to learn
infants kept alive by high-technology
program set up by the American Women's
to care for their disabled children. The
medicine.
Medical Association.
existing building, constructed in 1926 and
"We have the power to save babies," she
Not only the students look to her as a
modeled after a French chateau, will be
said. "We have to keep trying, but we have
mentor. Dr. Lillian Gonzalez-Pardo, a
used for administrative offices, and 50
to do it in a concerted way, and if it doesn't
pediatric neurologist at the University of
beds for children needing longer-term
work for some, we have to take care of
Kansas, asked Battle to speak as a role
rehabilitation.
them throughout their lives."
model at her induction as association pres-
ident last year.
In her letter Gonzalez-Pardo wrote:
"You are a prime role model in your pro-
fessional work. the compassion you have
Her own disabled child fueled Dr. Battle's
for the patients and families you deal with,
as well as your personal strength in caring
for your own daughter who has a major dis-
passion for the welfare of sick children
ability. but I know brings joy to you and
your family.
"You had trust and confidence in my
work and abilities, even though I had my
self-doubts; you encouraged me to be
"This is my fourth baby," Battle said of
strong and believe in myself."
the expansion.
Battle herself has had role models, like
Fundraising is on target, with $15 mil-
the classmate, 20 years her senior, who
lion borrowed and $3 million donated so
encouraged Battle not to give up her career
far. almost reaching the $19 million need-
when Ursula was born. And the former
DOSSIER
ed. she said.
head of George Washington University
Battle led the charge to convince the city
Medical Center, who gave her gentle
to approve the expansion, armed with stud-
Constance Urciolo Battle, M.D.
encouragement and a great recommenda-
ies of D.C.'s children, and the hospital's
tion. And Parrott, who pointed her toward
The Hospital for Sick Children
long waiting list.
The Hospital for Sick Children.
Even though most of their care is paid by
"I saw the great opportunity here. It was
Title: Chief Executive Officer and Medical
Medicaid, the hospital is financially
in dire straights, it was in a mess, but it had
Director
healthy. partly because it is not drained by
such potential." she said.
a trauma center. Battle said the hospital has
Age: 51
Battle turned the ailing hospital around,
a 2 percent to 3 percent positive operating
bringing in a medical staff that is commit-
Spouse: Divorced
margin.
ted to transitional care, and boosting the
Although she never dreamed of being an
Residence: Potomac
hospital's ragged reputation.
administrator, Battle knew she wanted to
"She's certainly a very efficient admin-
Noteable Quote: "There is a real tension
be a doctor when she was five years old and
istrator. She's very skillful, and has a great
her parents brought her back a doctor's bag
between administrators and physicians,
sense of direction." said Dr. Roselyn Epps.
and nurse's cape from a trip to New York
often vying for power, often distrusting one
member and former director of the non-
City.
another's group. If you act as a CEO and as
profit hospital's board. "She is a very hard
"I was intrigued by what doctors did,"
a physician, that confounds the whole sce-
working person who is able to face chal-
she said. "I remember when I turned six
nario. I happen to be quite comfortable with
lenges and move forward."
and I reached the average weight for a per-
the fact that it puts me in a unique position
The hospital is only one of a couple
son of my age. I just found it all fascinat-
and vantage point."
dozen of its kind in the country, rehabili-
ing."
Printed on Recycled Paper
MONDAY. NOVEMBER 13. 1989
TECHNOLOGY
THE WALL STREET JOURNAL R25
PAYING THE PRICE
PRISONERS OF TECHNOLOGY
Modern science has rescued these children,
but for what kind of life?
By CATHY TROST
HE
TECHNOLOGY
T
that gives life to pre.
mature and sick babies
sometimes becomes
their captor.
At the Hospital for
Sick Children 111 Washington
D.C., a seven-vear-old girl lies
motionless in hed. her legs
cradling a stuffed rabbit. She
wears a pretty green dress.
vellow ribbons are tied care.
fully 111 her hair. On the wall
are posters of a tropical island
HORACIO CARDO
and a white kitten.
The child was born with a
serted by parents who are un-
machines and medicines that
touched or pushed." it says.
degenerative neuromuscular
willing or unable to cope. Fos-
keep her alive. Breathing
Another boy has a rare in-
disease that has left her more
let homes and other facilities
tubes run from the ventilator
testinal disorder that requires
helpless than a newborn.
are ill short supply already: in
into her neck and a feeding
pumping nutrients through
some cases. state of local reg.
tube cuts into her stomach
At birth. "it was assumed
the heart and bypassing the
ulations even make It impossi-
above the tiny bear cartoons
stomach. Almost two years
she would die and she didn't.
bie to place a child with a
on her diapers. She gets nine
old. he sits in a high chair.
says a doctor. "She survived
breathing or feeding tube in a
different types of medications
isolated in a special room.
only because of technology."
group home And few couples
Tubes fastened to a ventilator
daily to treat her kidney and
playing with a Mickey Mouse
are willing to adopt and care
pop-up toy. At night. the doc.
pump force oxygen into her
respiratory problems. includ-
for a child who may always
ing steroids that puff out her
tors say. he plays with his
lungs and keep her trachea
be at the mercy of a machine.
moist: a winking blue panel
tiny cheeks. and drugs to
tubes and punches the but-
And 50 they stay on. And
keep her calm.
tons on his feeding pump.
records her heart and respira-
on. I waik through the halls
tory rate. Another tube feeds
The daily schedule posted
They hope he will improve
every dav and see the lives
her.
over her crib reads like Army
and go home to his parents.
these children lead long after
maneuvers: "0001-aerosol
But the future is less bright
The child has been in hos-
the drama and giamour of
[medicine spray]. cpt [chest
for a girl nearby, born with
pitals since birth-in this one
treatment decisions have been
pats to loosen secretions]. SX
the same disorder. whose fam-
since 1984 "She is fully tech.
made." Constance Battle. the
[suctioning]. meds, vital
ily is unstable and probably
nology-dependent." says Olga
medical director at the Hospi-
signs." Doctors say she used
meapable of caring for her.
Byll. a hospital official. "She
tal for Sick Children. wrote
10 be so agitated by noises
The hospital has had
may react to a specific staff
two years ago in a medical
that if they stood by her bed
many successes, rehabilitating
member or recognize a per-
journal 1 watch the children
talking. her heart rate would
and sending children home to
son's voice. but we're not sure
whose tamilies have gone on.
zoom and she would have a
families and lives of hope. and
what she recognizes and
who have become emotionally
bronchial spasm. Work-shift
Dr. Battle makes a point that
doesn't recognize." What can
distanced and moved on (with
changes would leave her SO
technology performs miracles.
she do? "Nothing." says Ms.
guilt and self-recrimination) to
rattled It would take hours to
too. The medical staff tries
Byll.
new chapters in their lives.
get her to breathe normally
hard to make the hospital a
And probably never will
"And I witness and think
again.
home There are playrooms
For the young girl is one of
of the long lonely Saturday
Though there's no evi-
and outdoor playgrounds. a
an increasing number of chil-
afternoons when many of the
dence in her case. such be-
developmental program to
dren who are prisoners of
nurses and therapists are gone
havior can indicate maternal
help the children move for-
technology -patients who
and the children are slowly
drug abuse. To soothe her.
ward and learn new skills.
would have died at birth
passing the time. minute by
lights are dimmed. soft music
trips to fast-food restaurants
without life-salvaging technol-
minute It IS at those mo-
turned on. and screens placed
and amusement parks. and
Ogy but who can't stay alive
ments that I berate the tech-
around her bed to muffle
weekly family-style dinners.
without its continuing assis-
nology that has allowed us to
noise. Her parents visit, and
Doctors give the children bar-
rance.
create a new agony. an exis-
doctors hope she may be able
rettes and new clothes. and
tence somewhere between life
to go home someday.
volunteers come in to cut and
Manv are children who
and death."
Next to her bed is a two-
were born too soon and too
perm their hair.
In this nether world one
year-old boy whom nurses are
small. or with grave diseases.
"There's not a child some-
day. a three-year-old-boy. who
carrying back from group
or both. Modern science has
one hasn't fallen in love
at birth weighed barely half a
rescued these children: now
therapy They carry him. his
with." savs Margaretia Jack-
pound. leans on a special de-
society has (1) decide whether
portable oxygen unit and his
son. a senior attending physi-
vice to prop himself up. He is
stomach tube. A splint helps
that's a blessing or a curse.
cian. "But [the staff] still goes
a case study of the ravages of
straighten his legs. and he
home after eight hours and
The luckiest children even-
extreme prematurity. He has
cries out. pushing his glasses
ikes vacations. It's not the
tually go home with their
upper respiratory problems
down around his nose and
same thing as having a
breathing and feeding tubes.
and feeding tubes. and SO lit.
twisting angrily in his bed A
mother."
nighttime breathing alarms.
the muscular tone that he
nurse rubs his head sympa-
suction machines and other
needs help (1) stand. Emotion-
thetically, saving he's proba-
And the children keep
medical paraphernalia. But
ally. he IS a 10-month-old.
bly angry because he doesn't
coming. The 80-patient hospi-
many are (00) damaged 10
smiling and blowing bubbles
want to come back to bed.
tai has plans to add 50 beds.
ever go home. Others are de-
at the nurses who nuzzle him
Over his crib is posted a sign
Savs Ms. Byll: "The projec-
as they pass by
telling nurses about his devel-
tion is the numbers will just
Ms. TROST IS A STAFF REPORTER
In the infant room, a 14.
opmental progress and needs.
keep increasing." ##
IN THE WALL STREET lot
month-old girl born prema-
"Give him toys that rock or
WASHINGTON BI REAL
turely lies surrounded by the
make music when they are
The Washington Post
TUESDAY, APRIL 21, 1992
S
This Corps Fights to Give Something Back to the Community
of community, said John Amsterdam, the
By Patrice Gaines-Carter
Washington Post Staff Writer
corps director.
"So many young people are increasingly
It happened to Joanna Harriston while
alone
Over the last few generations
she was at the Hospital for Sick Children.
we have become less connected to our com-
"The therapist just wanted a little girl to sit
munities," Amsterdam said. "Whatever ca-
up for a minute, but he couldn't get her to
reers they choose, we want them to be con-
do it. I don't want to brag, but I got her to
nected to their communities, to recognize
sit up for two minutes," the 18-year-old
there is an undisolvable bond that says, 'I
said, smiling broadly.
am who I am because the community al-
For Kevin Brown, 23, a greater under-
lowed me to be this.'
standing of what it means to give came
In the corps, young people ages 17 to
while he was working with the elderly at
23 spend September through June work-
the U.S. Soldiers' and Airmen's Home.
ing for a stipend of $100 a week and the
Brown recalled: "Mr. Reynolds won Bingo. I
promise of $2,000 in scholarship money
said, 'Mr. Reynolds, yell Bingo!' He strug-
and assistance in applying to colleges.
gled. He said, 'B
B
Bin
Bin-
They paint shelters for the homeless, till
DC
go!'
gardens in city neighborhoods, tutor chil-
As members of the D.C. Service Corps,
dren and help elderly people feed them-
Harriston and Brown have spent seven
selves. Money to support the program
months doing large and small services for
comes from private donors.
some of the neediest people in the city. The
Of the 30 members of this first group, 26
corps has 30 members, most of whom grew
are high school graduates. Four are work-
up in the Washington area and many of
ing on their general equivalency diplomas,
whom still live with relatives. They joined
and six have attended college. They come
the corps for different reasons: to keep busy
from diverse racial, social and economic
and off the streets, to ponder what next, to
backgrounds.
learn about worlds they would otherwise
Each workday begins with calisthenics at
never enter or to earn a little tuition mon-
8:30 a.m. at Freedom Plaza on Pennsylva-
ey.
nia Avenue NW. Amsterdam said the ses-
But by the time they leave it in June, all
sions are "a chance to start the morning
BY DAYNA SMITH-THE WASHINGTON POST
of them should have gained a lasting sense
See CORPS, B5, Col. 2
Corps member Seeky Hernandez helps Paul Turner at the Soldiers' and Airmen's Home.
D.C. Service Corps Looks to Instill Ser se of Caring, Con munity
CORPS, From B1
spasms. Then he held up a cup of
community service in the lives of
ground came up the other day and
Meeting an elderly Italian Amer-
chocolate milk and carefully put a
his father, who went to Mississippi
said, 'I don't like white people.' I
ican woman in a nursing home has
with high energy, to bring everyone
straw in the man's mouth.
to work in the civil rights move-
didn't know what to say.
made him feel better about himself.
together and to be seen by the pub-
"I decided to join the corps be-
ment, and his mother, who works
"I feel the corps is a chance to
"I never understood a word she
lic."
cause it would help me stay out of
with battered women.
expose them to white people," Wil-
said," Carter said, referring to the
They end the sessions with hugs,
the street," said Hernandez, who
On stage, he told the high school
liams said, "and if I have a positive
woman's thick accent.
high fives and handshakes. Then
came to Washington from El Sal-
students of his own work at Birney
impact, maybe these kids will look
He paused, then went on. "I go to
they catch buses and subway trains
vador when he was 11 and
Elementary School in Anacostia.
at white people differently."
see her every Saturday now. She
to three work sites.
dropped out of school in the eighth
"It's an all-black school and
I
Corps member Dan Carter, 20, a
looks forward to seeing me. It
Recently, the corps went to Bir-
grade. He is working on getting
was real scared to go there," Wil-
Ballou High School graduate, didn't
makes me feel good about myself. I
ney Elementary School, the U.S.
his diploma and wants to become a
liams said. "The kids would say,
tell the students that he once sold
can't explain it. You have to do this
Soldiers' and Airmen's Home and a
teacher.
'Yo, Vanilla Ice! White men can't
drugs, but said he was "part of the
kind of work yourself to under-
On a dreary, misty day, corps
jump! This little boy on the play-
problem."
stand."
members cleared land and built a
compost bin at Montana Terrace,
"If I have a positive
where the Department of Recre-
ation and Parks' Youth and Urban
impact, maybe these
Gardens Program gives free plots
and vegetable seeds to residents.
kids will look at
Corps members hoed for Barbara
Queen, a 63-year-old resident
white people
whose arthritis prevented her from
doing it.
differently."
Queen, who dreamed all winter of
- Corps member Joss Williams
a garden, said of the volunteers, "I
couldn't do this without them."
garden in the Montana Terrace
Amsterdam already is recruit-
public housing complex in North-
ing the next corps, which will con-
east Washington.
sist of 100 youths working year-
round. He said he searches for
At the home, corps member
idealism, optimism and a balance
Seeky Hernandez helped feed vet-
between what candidates can offer
erans in the hospital.
and what they can gain from the
Hernandez, an 18-year-old with a
experience.
mop of curly hair, put a napkin in
He has asked current members
the lap of an elderly man sitting in a
to help find their replacements.
wheelchair.
Last week they took their "show" to
"You like spinach? Makes you
the auditorium of the Washington
stronger," he said, gingerly placing
International School in Cleveland
a forkful of the vegetable in the
Park.
man's mouth.
Before going on stage to speak to
A few minutes later, Hernandez
the audience of teenagers, Joss Wil-
put a towel at the neck of a man
liams, 18, said he joined the corps
whose head moved back and forth in
because he had seen the value of
Zena McClain helps
ontana Terrace resident Barbara Q
garden. "I couldn't do this without tl
"
Qu
1 said.
DC Service* Corps
Slater School
45 P Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 234-2057
Fax (202) 667-5299
PROGRAM SUMMARY
In September of 1992, the D.C. Service Corps launched its second year-round youth corps.
One hundred young people came together from all over the District of Columbia to work
to improve their communities. From September until June, Corpsmembers will perform
a variety of community service activities throughout Washington, D.C. and will also
participate in an intensive youth and leadership development program.
The D.C. Service Corps is a nine-month comprehensive program that integrates
community service with focused learning activities to develop empowered young leaders
with strong social values, such as responsible citizenship, respect for others, and a
commitment to community service.
Corpsmembers are recruited to reflect the wide diversity of the District of Columbia, and
come from a wide variety of racial, ethnic, socio-economic, and educational backgrounds.
Working together and learning from each other, they make an impact on their community,
as they develop and strengthen their own ideas about leadership, social responsibility, and
the value of community service.
The mission of the D.C. Service Corps reflects the conviction that young people can make
a difference in our communities. As an organization, the D.C. Service Corps has three
central objectives. We aim to develop the potential of a diverse group of young people
to become socially responsible, empowered, participating citizens and leaders. We also
seek to accomplish productive community services, including hands-on physical
improvements and direct human service work, that cannot be completed with existing
resources within the District of Columbia. In addition, the D.C. Service Corps works to
develop relationships between existing community organizations that will expand and
support the concept and application of youth as resources for community development.
The Corps accomplishes both physical improvement and human service work that meets
a demonstrated need, but cannot be accomplished with existing resources. In no case do
work projects displace existing workers.
Corpsmembers spend approximately two-thirds of their time each week directly involved
in community service activities. Therefore, projects are carefully selected to maximize
the development and enrichment of the Corpsmembers. Physical work projects range from
painting school classrooms to clearing and landscaping community gardens. Human
service projects include tutoring elementary school children, providing companionship and
support to the elderly, and working with the homeless.
To complement their service work, Corpsmembers also participate in a comprehensive
leadership development program. This educational component integrates the
Corpsmembers' community service experiences with focused learning activities to
strengthen social values such as responsible citizenship and commitment to the
community.
Corpsmembers participate in an intensive series of seminars, discussions, and workshops
that are designed to develop and enhance their communication skills, critical thinking
aptitudes, and leadership abilities. Special programming focuses on the exploration of
personal and societal values, issues of multiculturalism and diversity, and goal-setting and
planning for the future. Corpsmembers share in the responsibility of designing and
facilitating meetings and workshops for the entire Corps.
Corpsmembers are also challenged to reflect upon their work and service experiences in
the larger context of social problems and civic responsibility by keeping journals, holding
corps-wide meetings, and making presentations to community leaders.
In exchange for their hard work, Corpsmembers receive a weekly stipend of $100 to help
defray their living expenses. During their year of service, Corpsmembers have the
opportunity to continue and broaden their education. Corpsmembers who successfully
graduate receive a post-program financial award to be used for postsecondary education,
technical training, job entry, or career development.
The D.C. Service Corps is guided by the philosophy that young people are a valuable
resource and can make a significant difference in their community. Corpsmembers are
volunteers motivated by the belief that young people can shape the future. The D.C.
Service Corps provides an opportunity for these young people to explore and strengthen
their own beliefs and values, while offering them the chance to make a positive difference
in their community.
DC Service* Corps
Slater School
45 P Street, NW
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 234-2057
Fax (202) 667-5299
What Corpsmembers Say about the D.C. Service Corps
"I joined the Corps to get a better understanding of our community and to further my education.
What I enjoy most about DCSC is that everyone works together like one family.'
- Changa Cooke, 19 years old
"It isn't the pay or the $2,000 scholarship for me, because I could make that at a fast food joint. It is
knowing that what I get up every morning to do will be greatly appreciated by my community. My
favorite memory is helping a little boy learn to read and write correctly. Seeing him smile when he
finally got it right was my biggest reward."
- LaChanda Medley, 19 years old
"My experience in DCSC will affect my future life and my willingness to accept responsibility for
myself and to commit myself to the community."
- Jutata Basnight, 19 years old
"The combination of service, work, and education has helped me to mature in ways that a strictly
academic environment could not satisfy. I've established a lot of contacts, a solid foundation of
commitment and reliability, and a sense of being a part of something special that will hopefully continue
forever."
- Len Davis, 19 years old
"With DCSC I was able to go places in the City I otherwise never would have. The work that I
did and the things I saw will help me address issues of poverty and prejudice with a more
informed, developed perspective."
- Genevieve Preer, 18 years old
"My DCSC experience has clarified my need to be conscious, helped me see my role as a leader, and
helped me realize where and what I must do next in my life."
- Amir Thornell, 20 years old
"Before I joined DCSC I used to pass homeless people on the street and not really notice them. Now
that I understand my community better, I feel closer to these people. I stop and talk with them now,
think about my work in shelters, and hope to someday find solutions to our city's problems."
Joss Williams, 19 years old
"Working with DCSC I have accomplished my goals. Now I am someone who seeks for the highest
point in life. I am a person who is dedicated and committed. I am one who will succeed. I have
become a mature and patient person. Most importantly, I've learned to not be a follower but a
leader in life."
- Chartrina Gray, 18 years old
PA.
Service la ion
A SECT
Key Clinton proposal
will include job training
D 1993 Sam Planeer Press (Northwest
and reform of welfare,
but it's already facing
problems with funding
BY ELLEN WARREN
WASHINGTON: In the last few
years, Tony Wright had been
thrown out of high school, shot
twice and busted on a cocaine
charge. This was not a guy with a
good-looking future.
Pamela Davis, on the other
PRESS
hand. worked her way through a
small Maryland college and was
looking toward graduate school.
It is hard to imagine two more
different young people.
Davis, it seems, is an Ideal
candidate for President Clinton's
national service program.
But so is Wright.
Wright, 20, a black city resi-
dent, and Davis, 24, a white sub-
urbanite, now work in an inner-
city youth corps, a pilot program
that is a model for the national
service program that Clinton says
is a top priority for the first year
of his administration.
ToM HORAN/ TRIBUNE
Clinton's plan to help young
people pay back federal college
D.C. Service Corps member James Banks helps Marlon Taylor with physical
PAUL
loans through public-service jobs
therapy at the J.B. Johnson Nursing Home In Washington. The program is a
got the attention during the presi-
model being studied by planners of President Clinton's national service corps.
dential campaign. But it turns out
that the national service program
introduce them to the rewards of
being developed at the White
QUOTE
eral budget deficit, scores of other
helping others, keep them off the
House - albeit smaller than
costly Clinton campaign promises
government dole and, for some,
many expected - Includes a
and tough economic times -
MINNESOTAS FIRST NEWSPAPER
give bonuses to help pay off col-
whole lot more than loan pay-
"I graduated from college
leave only an esumated $1 billion
lege loans.
backs. It also has elements of wel-
to $2 billion for this top Clinton
"People In the D.C. Service
last spring, and I wasn't
fare reform and job training and
priority.
Corps are living out the dream,"
can reach from high school drop-
quite sure what I
The commission estimates that
said William Galston, deputy as-
outs to college graduates.
sistant to the president for domes-
wanted to do
look
at $2 billion, there would be
Listen to Tony Wright:
100,000 full-time participants, a
tic policy and a top adviser to
"I'm on parole, was looking for
at this as an internship
goal that could be reached in is
Clinton on national service.
a job. I didn't join this as a fall-
It is a dream that pays $100 a
a learning
few years. That would barely be-
back. Actually, I did - but now
experience. It provides
gin to fill the need. About 5 mil-
week, won't take excuses and be-
I'm glad. I grew up in the streets
lion of about 12.5 million college
SAINT
gins every day on a plaza in view
with kids, hanging out
us with the opportunity
I
undergraduates have government
of the U.S. Capitol, where 100
want to become a CPA."
young people dressed In Identical
to be competitive and
loans to pay back, and millions
And Pamela Davis:
successful.'
more young people have dropped
khaki pants and navy blue Jackets
"I graduated from college last
out or just finished high school.
are leaping up and down, doing
PAMELA DAVIS
spring, and I wasn't quite sure
Clinton advisers. such as Gal-
the requisite calisthenics that pro-
employee in an inner-city
what I wanted to do. I could have
ston, say the president never in-
mote a team spirit and start their
youth corps
gotten a menial job, but I wanted
tended that the program would be
day of community service.
to do something productive. I look
up and completely operating early
These corps members signed
at this as an internship
a
nity-service leaders who can help
in his presidency.
up after responding to fliers like
learning experience. It provides us
enlarge service programs nation-
Said Milton: "Even if there
this one:
with the opportunity to be compet-
"You are 17 to 23 years old.
wide.
were all the money in the world. it
itive and successful in the work-
Congress has appropriated
would not be wise to go to 500,000
What will you be doing this year?
place. We're continuing the legacy
College? Job hunting? Working?
more than $150 million for the
participants now. There are limits
that JFK started with the Peace
on the number of people who
Hanging out?
A group of
commission's efforts, and last
Corps."
year the commission awarded
know how to make quality pro-
concerned young people will begin
The two are working together
changing the world. You could be
grants to 153 community-service
grams. It's got to be done slow.
on projects ranging from painting
ly."
one of them."
projects, including a $1 million
a school to helping the elderly
grant to the D.C. Service Corps.
with physical therapy to teaching
Becoming productive
allowing it to grow from 30 to 100
Getting the best chance
kids how to settle differences.
participants.
In a sixth-grade classroom in a
The D.C. Service Corps, a 2-
Jon Amsterdam, program di-
White House and other officials
battered section of Washington,
year-old program modeled on the
rector for the D.C. Service Corps,
say the president also wants to
Wright is telling one of the kids,
successful City Year program,
said his project "will help to write
avoid a new, top-heavy bureau-
"Whatever it was, it's not worth
which began five years ago with
a passage 10 adulthood" for the
cracy. Clinton is determined to en-
fighting over, right?" He ought to
private funds in Boston, may be
young people who finish the rigor-
courage states and local govern-
know. He has gunshot scars on his
the turning point for Wright.
ous nine months and win the
ments to match the federal
face and chest to prove it.
With skilled supervisors, after-
$2,000 stipend at the end.
contribution and hopes to urge in-
work classes to earn a high school
In addition, by mixing college
novation.
Living out the dream
equivalency diploma and college
kids and high school dropouts,
"Kind of an invitation to the
counsellng, the corps could steer
street-smart hustlers and subur-
imagination," Wofford said.
Sen. Harris Wofford, D-Pa.,
Wright away from a lifetime of
banites, blacks, whites and His.
DeMarco Wells sees It In star-
said Clinton has long believed
government dependency or push-
panies on jobs In schools, hospi-
ker terms. Wells, 18, who dropped
that, for national service to be
ing drugs on the street toward
tals, nursing homes and the like,
out of school after the ninth grade.
10, 1993
effective, it must cut across race,
becoming a wage-earning, tax-
"we can usher in the final chapter
ME 144. NUMBER 289
education, class and even age
paying accountant.
of the civil-rights movement,'
is learning skills by working with
lines.
the maintenance man at a city-
"Some of these programs can
Amsterdam said.
owned nursing home as part of his
"It's a larger vision," said
mean, literally, the difference be.
Wofford. a co-founder of the Peace
Problems aplenty
job in the D.C. Service Corps.
tween life and death for these
With two arrests on his record
Corps and a national service au-
kids," said Catherine Milton, ex-
and a future that spelled bleak
thority who is working with White
ecutive director of the Commission
Currently, those lotty goals are
with a capital B, Wells put it this
House officials drafting legislation
on National and Community Serv.
butting up against a string of un-
way:
that will be the foundation for
Ice, an Independent, nonpartisan
pleasant realities. White House of-
"I was on the streets and stuff
Clinton's national service plan.
federal agency set up by Congress
ficials acknowledge that the na-
like that I wanted to change, and
Wolford and others knowledge-
in 1990, pre-Clinton.
tional service program - which
1 thought this would give me the
able about the president's thinking
Its mission Is to "engage Amer-
Clinton said would be "the best
best chance."
said the program that Clinton en-
Icans of every age and back-
money we will ever spend" will
visions will include such projects
ground In service to their coun-
have to start small.
as the D.C. Service Corps, pro-
try' by encouraging model
The problems of starting such
grams that put people to work,
programs and developing commu-
programs coupled with the fed.
VCU
17 to 23 years old?
Interested in working with a diverse
group of people?
Willing to work for a better
community?
Able to make a full-time 9-month
commitment from September to
June?
IF so
CALL (202) 234-2057
Joinus!
-
DC * Service * Corps
Young People in Service, Shaping the Future
DCSC
Phone Sheet
5_ Anstedn 301-369-6114 -
Beeper message II
50m Amsterdo WIC 234-2057
the 588-8118
message # 301-369-6114
will Be in Philaselptin with
Friding 8:pm - - Sanday 3 pm. 3
Call at (215) 735-5357
732-1830
473-1042
or
Cull JAMES Willie at
588-8118
What they say about the
DC Service Corps
The DC Service Corps is planting the seeds of
community involvement in the minds of
young and thoughtful DC residents.
The Washington Post
I commend the young people of the DC Ser-
vice Corps for their outstanding performance
DC
working with us in Anacostia. The group
symbolized excellence and created an atmo-
sphere of unity in their efforts to help us
Service
build stronger communities.
Brenda Lee Richardson
Executive Director
Corps
Anacostia/Congress Heights
Partnership for the
Prevention of Homelessness.
Our hats are off and our faces are beaming
with appreciation for your contribution of
volunteer services. The refreshing atmo-
For more information or for an
sphere created by DCSC volunteers provided
application, please contact:
us at the Meyer Elementary School with a
DC Service Corps
"shot in the arm" and hope.
45 P Street, NW
Barbara King Lyles
Washington, DC 20001
Principal
Telephone (202) 234-2057
Meyer Elementary School
FAX (202) 667-5299
Two important objectives of the DC Service
Corps are to mobilize youth to carry out
productive community service and to instill
in diverse groups of young adults a sense of
"Young People in
empowerment, leadership, and public re-
sponsibility. It is fitting that we recognize this
Service, Shaping
organization for its contributions and efforts.
the Future"
Mayor Sharon Pratt Kelley
On proclaiming October 7, 1991
DC* Service* Corps
DC Service Corps Day
A Private Non-Profit Organization
EDICATED AND
What from the Corps is a feeling
when help a
want to
md together
the makes me feel great every
The DC Service Corps
time can get someone to smile
Activities
Dan Carter
Corpsmember 20 years old
is a full-time urban Peace Corps for young
Tutor children in schools
people 17-23 years old. DCSC Corpsmembers
Supervise Day Care
dedicate a year to furthering their education,
developing leadership skills, and making a
OMMITTED TO
Conduct community surveys
difference in their community through serving
Working in the physical therapy unit at a
Renovate housing and shelters
others.
mirsing home, 1:get satisfaction at the
Assist the mentally and physically
end of each day, because know that 1
disabled
Corpsmembers Must Be
have made a contribution to my com-
mimity. The Corps helps me go out and
Transform rundown parks
make $ difference and at the same time
17-23 years old
Care for the elderly
gives me chance to search for a future
Committed to community service
careet that will make me happy
Lead younger youth
Kaltraba Dullose
Participate in civic events and ceremonies
Interested in working with a diverse
Corpsmember 17 years old
Meet with community, business, and
group of people
ERVICE IN THE
national leaders
Self-motivated and responsible
The facility that'stic with me about the
Able to make a 9-month commitment
Birst my team worked in
Program Benefits
"Svorked really had
Ready to grow, learn, and to lead
that day and not nice done. By the time we
Weekly Stipend of $100
left 1 felt that made lot of new friends
and H made and
College Scholarship or Community
Basic Requirements
Elisa Vidnfrich
Service Award upon graduation in June
Corpsmember years old
Include
Year-long workshops on writing skills,
communication, and leadership
Daily hours 8:00-5:00 Monday through
Special training in serving children, the
Friday from September to June
OMMUNITY
disabled, and the elderly
Performing a wide variety of community
What and about the Corps is being
College and career guidance
service projects with a team of 10-12
with my team members everyday, be
tause they are all unique and differ-
Experience working in groups
members
the year we were sent to
Attendance at retreats and conferences
Participating in weekly trainings,
clean up Name in S.E. Washington
and we learned for the first time how to
Unique experience that will stand out on
seminars, and educational workshops
won the as group and about the
college applications and professional
Documenting experiences in an ongoing
resumes
journal of writings
Marc Shipp
Corpsmember 19 years old
An opportunity to make a difference
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
LIBRARY
OLD EXECUTIVE OFFICE BUILDING
Room 308
x7000
TO:
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ROOM:
DATE 4/14
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THE scheol
ADMINISTRATOR
1912
CONTENTS
FEBRUARY 1992
NUMBER 2 VOL. 49
FEATURES
The Struegle
Inclusive Practices Transform
Richard Schattman
8
sand Strides into
pecial
Special Education in the 1990s
and Jeff Benay
education
David Hornbeck on the Changing
An Interview by
14
Face of Special Education
Nancy Kober
Cover: The cry for equity among
How Four Communities Tackle
students nudges special education
into the limelight. Starting on page 8.
Mainstreaming
Photo by Henry Gasque © 1992.
Aligning Our Beliefs With Action
Maurice Conn
22
Editor
Ending Our Practice of
J. David Cloud
24
Barbara M. Bell
Compartmentalization
Managing Editor
Building New Capacities To Overcome
Mark Wolak, Jennifer York,
26
Jay P. Goldman
Tradition-Bound Practices
and Nancy Corbin
Editorial Assistant
Surmounting the Disability of Isolation
Howard P. Blackman
28
Sharon A. Shinault
Helping Teachers Manage the
Barbara Ayres and
30
Editorial Secretary
Inclusive Classroom
Luanna H. Meyer
Derrick Johnson
Under the Microscope: Children
Kellye Carter
38
Director of Marketing
of Superintendents
Alice Potosky
State Formulas Don't Add Up
Nick Penning
45
Advertising Traffic
Marion Hunt
DEPARTMENTS
Art Director
Barbara Gasque
Letters
4
Sr. Assoc. Executive Director
Across the Nation
5
Gary Marx
President's Corner
6
Guest Columns
Editor's note: We welcome your com-
Sorting Out Roles for School
Daniel L. Burke
47
ments on our articles. Send all letters to
Board Members
Editor, The School Administrator,
Fantastic Theatrics of the
Michael Battaglia, Gary
48
AASA, 1801 N. Moore Street, Arlington,
VA 22209. Phone: 703/875-0772.
Superintendency
Buehler, and Lauren French
Advertising information: Call Robert
Focus
Solomon, 15 East 26th Street, New York,
How To Anticipate Medical Needs
Howard L. Taras
50
NY 10010. Phone: 212/683-7905.
Multiple Ways To Reflect On Practices
Thomas P. McGarry
51
THE SCHOOL
Help Parents Instill Values
Maureen M. Pitta
53
ADMINISTRATOR
1992 AASA Convention Exhibitors
57
Resource Bank
60
Book Reviews
61
(ISSN 0036-6439) is published eleven
times per year-monthly except in July-by
People
62
the American Association of School
Administrators, 1801 N. Moore Street,
Profile: Lois Adams-Rodgers
63
Arlington, VA 22209.
Viewpoint
Thomas Sobol
64
Subscription: $5.00 a year included in
AASA membership dues and available
AASA OFFICERS 1991-1992
(terms
expire
March
of
the
year
indicated
only to AASA members. Second-class
President: William P. Morris, first vice president, Kemper Capital Markets, Lansing, Mich. (1992).
postage paid at Arlington, VA and addi-
Vice President: Robert P. Fox, superintendent, Hanover Public Schools, Hanover, Mass. (1992).
tional mailing offices.
President-Elect: Paul W. Jung, superintendent, Community Consolidated School District 62, Des Plaines, III. (1992).
Past President: Erling W. Clausen, superintendent, Berkeley Heights School District, Berkeley Heights, NJ. (1992).
Postmaster: Send changes of address to
Executive Committee: Wayne Blevins, executive secretary, Teacher Retirement System of Texas, Austin, Texas.
The School Administrator (Membership
(1993). Wayne W. Doyle, superintendent, Gateway School District, Monroeville, Pa. (1994). John W. Duncan,
Division, AASA), 1801 N. Moore St., Ar-
superintendent, San Ramon Valley School District, Danville, Calif. (1993). Lewis W. Finch, superintendent, Jefferson
lington, VA 22209. Views expressed do
County Public Schools, Golden, Colo. (1994). Roland C. Haun, superintendent, Fort Knox Community Schools, Fort
not necessarily reflect those of AASA or
Knox, Ky. {1992}. Chuck McKenna, superintendent; ladue School District, St. Louis, Mo. (1992). Lee Etta Powell,
its members.
professor, George Washington University, Wash. D.C. (1992). Joan Stipetic, associate professor, University of New
Hampshire, Durham, N.H. (1993)
American Association of School
AASA EXECUTIVE STAFF:
Administrators, 1992.
Executive Director: Richard D. Miller
Deputy Executive Director: Gail M. Stephens
The
Senior Associate Executive Directors: Bruce Hunter, Gary Marx
Audit
Associate Executive Directors: Lee Christiansen, Lewis A. Rhodes
Bureau
Johnson City, N.Y., Schools; Carol Berrigan
nclusive Practices
Transform
BY RICHARD SCHATTMAN and JEFF BENAY
ver the past decade, while reform efforts
Concerns over the placement of chil-
in regular education have made front-
dren in separate schools and special
page news, the reform of special education
classes within regular schools were
has been discussed primarily within the pro-
based on evidence that segregated
fessional and political communities.
practices were inherently discrimina-
Special education refòrm has focused on issues re-
tory, racially biased, instructionally inef-
lated to the placement of children with disabilities, with
fective, socially and psychologically
terms such as "mainstreaming," "least restrictive envi-
damaging, and compromising to a
ronment," "the regular education initiative," and "full
school's ability to provide equality of
inclusion" describing various aspects of the movement.
educational opportunity to all students.
This article will briefly review the history of special
With the passage of the Education
education reform, discuss current ideas related to best
of the Handicapped Act (since re-
practice, and illustrate a number of organizational
named The Individuals with Dis-
characteristics typical of schools now using exemplary
abilities Education Act) in 1975, the
special education models.
efficacy of segregated placement
practices in the 1970s was further
A Look Back
evaluated and the notion of "main-
Although special education was mandated through
streaming" gained currency within
federal legislation in 1975, special education services
the educational community. Main-
have been part of American education for much
streaming enabled students in sepa-
longer. During the 1960s, special education em-
rate programs to interact with non-
braced a segregated model whereby eligible children
handicapped peers, usually during
were served in separate classes or separate schools.
non-academic activities.
Brown v. Board of Education, the 1954 Supreme Court
While the word "mainstreaming"
decision abolishing the legality of school segregation
never appears in the text of the PL 94-
0580
for blacks and whites, set the stage for emerging con-
142, its meaning is derived from the
cerns about segregated educational models for stu-
law's least restrictive environment
dents with disabilities.
clause, which mandates the following:
8
THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
Integration Strategies
Change School Operations
Professional Roles
education
To the maximum extent appropriate, handi-
capped children, including children in public or pri-
vate institutions or other care facilities, are educated
with children who are not handicapped; and
Special classes, separate schooling, or other re-
moval of handicapped children from the regular edu-
cation environment occur only when the nature and
severity of the handicap is such that education in reg-
ular classes, with the use of supplemental aides and ser-
vices, cannot be achieved satisfactorily.
Before long, the efficacy of mainstreaming was ques-
tioned. Special education reform considered more in-
clusive models where children with disabilities would
participate with non-handicapped peers in both aca-
demic and non-academic areas. A new phase of special
Rum River, Minn., Special Education Cooperative
education reform began to take form in the early
1980s, referred to as integration, full inclusion, and the
regular education initiative.
Full inclusion, where allstudents are educated in the
same schools and the same classes, evolved from the ef-
forts of parents, educators, and federal bureaucrats in
the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special
Education Programs.
Those advocating for the reform of special educa-
tion and the adoption of inclusive approaches were
motivated by concerns similar to those of reformers in
the early 1970s. Both groups were concerned by segre-
gated practices that denied students with disabilities
FEBRUARY 1992 '9
Vermont, teachers, administrators,
ninclusive
and community members discussed
their beliefs regarding the mission of
the school for two years before devel-
schools,
oping a written statement.
This ongoing communication en-
couraged the consideration of varied
district
perspectives and contributed to a
high degree of investment in the
school mission.
mission
The Swanton mission states: "The
Swanton school community believes
statements
that given enough time and appropri-
ate instruction, students will achieve
what is considered necessary to learn.
speak to
We recognize that students arrive at
school with differing backgrounds,
influences and needs. We are commit-
the needs
ted to the concepts of fairness and jus-
of all
children."
equal educational opportunity.
Currently, there is debate within the
educational community as to the value
of inclusion. Even so, many school dis-
tricts throughout the United States
and Canada are using inclusionary
models where all children, regardless
of their type or severity of disability,
are fully educated in regular educa-
tion classes.
School Characteristics
Schools that have adopted an inclu-
sive approach to special education dif-
fer from each other in size, location,
and wealth. Despite these differences,
Rum River, Minn., Special Education Cooperative
there are a number of common char-
acteristics of which three will be
examined here:
The relationship between inclu-
sion and the broader issues of school
reform;
other reform or restructuring efforts.
tice which reflect a concern for each
The use of teaming approaches
As a result of these efforts, schools em-
individual's development, dignity and
for problem-solving and program
bracing inclusive approaches often
growth potential. Approaches to social
implementation; and
embrace well-articulated mission state-
responsibility will promote behavioral
Changes in the roles of profes-
ments that reflect the values and be-
changes which empower students to
sionals and parents in inclusive
liefs of those involved in the school
understand their obligations to others
schools.
community.
as members of a democratic society."
In inclusive schools, district mission
The Swanton mission established
Thoughtful Missions
statements speak to the needs of all
standards and goals for the school sys-
Schools that embrace fully inclusive
children. For example, in the Swan-
tem and then undertook a number of
approaches often are engaged in
ton School District in northwestern
fundamental changes to meet those
10
THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
standards. The reforms modified how
Team Problem-Solving
a child's educational experience, few
teachers participated in governance
Schools embracing integrated or
schools organize themselves in ways
decisions, how parents participated
inclusive models, such as the Swanton
that make them accessible to most
with professional staff in issues related
district, often use a teaming approach
parents. Teams allow parents to meet
to instruction, how children were
for problem-solving, planning, and
with professionals on a regular basis,
grouped, and how practices in special
program implementation.
share responsibility, and develop a
education were to be delivered.
The traditional organizational struc-
meaningful relationship.
The Swanton district's practice of
ture, whereby a teacher is solely re-
Finally, teams are important as they
sending children with disabilities to
sponsible for all the children in class, is
enable the group to share responsibil-
special education classes out of the
limited in its ability to address the di-
ity. No one member of a team has all
the answers. When a group of individ-
uals work together with common
goals, complex programs can be de-
veloped and implemented in regular
education classes.
Teaming, therefore, allows teach-
ers, parents, related service providers,
and administrators to recognize the
complexity of the task at hand and or-
ganize personnel and resources in a
manner which allows for success.
Adoption of a team-based model re-
flects a more holistic view of the sys-
The Council for Exceptional Children
tem, whereby teachers, administra-
tors, and parents must be linked in an
interdependent manner to succeed.
The adoption of teaming strategies
not only alters a school's approach to
the education of children with disabil-
ities, but fundamentally changes how
schools operate, how decisions are
made, how instruction is delivered,
and how individuals relate to each
verse needs of a diverse student body.
other.
Schools that include all children
In a team-based approach, the roles
have broken the professional isola-
of teacher, administrator, and parent
Rum River, Minn., Special Education Cooperative
tion by linking teachers, parents, and
are different than they appear in
administrators with one another.
more separate and segregated mod-
Student-centered planning teams
els. Thus, another characteristic of
have been considered essential for
schools embracing an integrated ap-
the implementation of inclusive edu-
proach to the education of all chil-
cational programs for a number of
dren is that the traditional roles of
important reasons. First, teams pro-
teachers, administrators, and parents
vide all parties with a support net-
change.
work. No one individual has all the
skills needed to meet the educa-
New Responsibilities
tional needs of children with severe
Schools that do not use teaming
disabilities.
strategies often have a high degree of
Second, teams are a powerful tool
specialization among professionals. In
for problem-solving. When a collabo-
a team model, teachers, parents, and
community raised questions over the
rative team approach uses specific
administrators share responsibility for
lack of alignment between belief and
problem-solving techniques, solutions
a range of activities and embrace par-
action.
to complex issues are more likely to
ents as equal partners. The parent's
Teachers, administrators, and par-
emerge. In addition, the quality of
role is elevated in its importance and
ents agreed to explore other means
outcomes resulting from multiple per-
function and the professional roles ex-
for providing educational support to
spectives is usually greater than those
pand from specialist to generalist.
children with significant disabilities
resulting from unilateral efforts.
Where this role transformation has
within the local school. By 1986, all
Third, teams involve parents in a
occurred, teachers and administra-
children living in Swanton were placed
meaningful way. While educators long
tors have discovered a team approach
and supported in age-appropriate reg-
have recognized the relationship be-
is both professionally enriching and
ular classes regardless of disability.
tween a home-school partnership and
more efficient.
FEBRUARY 1992
11
In inclusive schools, administrators
lated services. Teachers in integrated
members, including parents. Strate-
report they participate on teams, are
schools also participate in training
gies include linking with other dis-
involved in instructional decisions,
colleagues.
tricts, giving teachers and parents time
and share responsibility for achiev-
The role of a special education
to meet, involving staff with institu-
ing collaboratively established goals.
teacher in an integrated school also
tions of higher education, and partic-
These administrators no longer are
changes. In a segregated special
ipating in professional organizations.
responsible for making unilateral de-
class or "pull out" model, the spe-
cisions related to resource allocation
cial education class teacher pro-
Multiple Benefits
or accessing outside technical assis-
vides direct instruction to a limited
Inclusive education offers the child
tance and support.
number of students in a controlled
with disabilities the opportunity to be a
When administrators of inclusive
environment.
meaningful member of the community,
schools share their power with the
In an integrated or inclusionary
to have exposure to talented teachers,
team, the benefits are clear. Decisions
model where the special education
to develop social relationships with
are more child-centered, they reflect
teacher is a member of a team, the spe-
non-handicapped peers, and to have
the multiple perspectives of those in-
cial education teacher co-teaches with
quality educational programs taught in
volved, and all parties are invested in
regular class teachers, shares in the re-
a "normal" school setting.
the decisions made because all have
sponsibility of providing training, sup-
Inclusive education offers teachers
participated.
port, and supervision to paraprofes-
the opportunity to use their skills with
Richard Villa and Jacqueline Thou-
sionals, and participates on teams as
a wide range of students, to join other
sand, in Strategies for Educating Learners
an equal member with parents, class
teachers for support, to work with ad-
with Severe Disabilities within their Home
teachers, and administrators.
ministrators on decisions that affect
Schools and Communities, identify a
In a number of school districts in
their ability to teach, and to link with
number of important roles for the
northern Vermont, including the
parents.
building and central administration
Winooski, Milton, and Swanton dis-
Inclusive education brings admin-
in a team-based model supporting
tricts, responsibilities of regular and
istrators into the arena of instruction
fully inclusive practices. They include:
special education teachers have be-
as members of a team. Inclusive
Challenging teams to make deci-
come less distinct. Participation in a
education links administrators with
sions that align with the mission and
team process has resulted in teachers
teachers and parents so quality deci-
philosophy of their school;
learning skills from each other. The
sions may be made that benefit all
Modifying master schedules to
process of moving from teacher spe-
children.
support teachers with the time needed
cialist to teacher generalist reflects an
Inclusive education offers parents
to meet as teams;
upgrading of skills among all profes-
the opportunity to develop ongoing
Creating job descriptions that re-
sional staff.
relationships with a small group of
flect the new roles of professionals
Teaming is a strategy that encour-
school professionals working on be-
working in a team-based system;
ages this outcome. When teaming re-
half of their child. For parents to be
Hiring personnel who embrace
sults in a professionalization of all
meaningfully involved, and for schools
the district's philosophy and have ap-
staff, integration is modeled by adults
to benefit from their insight, parents
propriate technical and communica-
to students. In districts where student
must have an ongoing relationship
tion skills;
and staffintegration has occurred, all
and a forum for open and honest
Supervising and evaluating staff
instructional staff are regarded as
discussion.
in a manner that supports the dis-
teachers rather than special education
The student-centered planning
trict's commitment to all children;
teachers, regular education teachers,
team enables this level and quality of
Setting the agenda for staff meet-
speech language pathologists, and
involvement to occur.
ings and include items that relate to
psychologists.
Finally, inclusive education offers
support needs of all children; and
Several factors have contributed to
the school the opportunity to be truly
Arranging for inservice and
these transformations. Two of the
effective. Ultimately, if a school is to
training for staff.
most important are new knowledge
be successful it must provide equity
and staff development.
and excellence for all children. Edu-
Blurring the Roles
Districts implementing integrated
cation in a democratic society re-
In addition, administrators need to
approaches have an increased need
quires no less.
support staff in the self-evaluation of
for ongoing staff development. Most
their performance as a team and ad-
districts have an enormous supply of
dress their inservice needs related to
expertise on staff, and can tap into it
improving teaming skills. As with the
to provide training. Yet traditional or-
Richard Schattman, a faculty member
at the University of Vermont, is a re-
administrator, teacher roles also
ganizational strategies often isolate
search associate with the National
change in schools embracing inclu-
staff from each other and make it less
Study of the Implementation of Least
sive practices.
likely they will share knowledge and
Restrictive Environment, a national
In an integrated school, the teacher
expertise.
policy study group. Jeff Benay is
provides direct instruction, consults
Districts that have embraced inclu-
director of Indian education in the
with other team members, supervises
sive practices assign a top priority to
Franklin Northwest Supervisory Union
in Swanton, Vt.
paraprofessionals, and coordinates re-
the staff development needs of team
12 THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
11-09-25 39PM
P01/**
OF LION
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
INTERD STATES UNITED STATES of AMERICA
OFFICE OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL AND INTERAGENCY AFFAIRS
April 12, 1993
TO:
Kim Tilley
Communications Research
The White House
FROM:
Elaine Holland
Office of Intergovernmental and
Interagency Affairs
The Department of Education
SUBJECT: New York Case of Anastasia and Alba Somoza
Per your request, attached is a biography of Ramon (Ray)
Cortines, OIIA Assistant Secretary Nominee. Ray is a former
superintendent of schools in California who knows the New York
State Commissioner of Education personally. Ray offered to speak
with him about this issue informally. This may be a good tact to
take with this sensitive issue. Please let me know if this
sounds like an interesting option.
My phone number is 401-0419.
-
OPTIONAL FORM 99 90;
FAX TRANSMITTAL
# of pages
2
10 Kim Agency TILLEY
From
Dept
ELAINE HOLLAND
Phone
Fax #
401-0419
456 2239
Fax #
NSN 7540-01-317-7358
5099 101
GENERAL SERVICES ADMINISTRATION
400 MARYLAND AVE.. S.W. WASHINGTON D.C. 20202
11-09-25 07:40PM
P02/**
STATEMENT OF EDUCATION EDUCA
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
WASHINGTON. D.C. 20202-
ORLIND
STATES
AMERICA
of
RAMON C. CORTINES
U.S. Department of Education
Mr. Cortines has been a school teacher and an administrator
since 1956. He has taught at the elementary, middle, and senior
high school level. He has held numerous positions in public
schools, that of assistant superintendent, principal,
administrative director, and others.
He has served in four school districts starting in 1956 as a
teacher in Aptos, California; then as teacher and administrator
in Covina, California; as an administrator and superintendent in
Pasadena, California for eleven years; as superintendent in San
Jose, California for two years; and he is now retired after
serving as superintendent in San Francisco, California, for six
years.
He has a Bachelor of Arts in speech and education, and two
master of arts degrees in school administration and in adult
learning.
He was conferred an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters by
San Francisco State University and was conferred an Honorary
Doctorate of Laws by Golden Gate University in San Francisco.
Appointments include:
Associate in Education, Harvard University Graduate School
of Education;
Honorary Adjunct Associate Professor of Education by
Trustees of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York;
Consulting Professor at Stanford University and Associate
Director, PEW Forum on Educational Reform, Stanford
University.
Presently, Mr. Cortines serves as a consultant to U.S.
Secretary of Education Richard Riley.
Withdrawal/Redaction Marker
Clinton Library
DOCUMENT NO.
SUBJECT/TITLE
DATE
RESTRICTION
AND TYPE
001. letter
From: Galen Kirkland; To: Anna Switzer [partial] (1 page)
9/15/93
b(6)
COLLECTION:
Clinton Presidential Records
First Lady's Office
Liz Bowyer
OA/Box Number: 3989
FOLDER TITLE:
HRC Background File, Somoza, Anastazia [1]
2014-0483-S
sb446
RESTRICTION CODES
Presidential Records Act - |44 U.S.C. 2204(a)]
Freedom of Information Act - (5 U.S.C. 552(b)]
P1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRAJ
b(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA|
b(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of
P3 Release would violate a Federal statute |(a)(3) of the PRA]
an agency |(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
b(3) Release would violate a Federal statute |(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
b(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P5 Release would disclose confidential advice between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors |a)(5) of the PRAJ
b(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy |(a)(6) of the PRA]
b(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA|
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed
b(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
of gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
PRM. Personal record misfile defined in accordance with 44 U.S.C.
b(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
2201(3).
concerning wells [(b)(9) of the FOIA]
RR. Document will be reviewed upon request.
ADVOCATES FOR CHILDREN
of New York, Inc.
24-16 Bridge Plaza South
Long Island City, N. Y. 11101
Tel.: (718)729-8866
Fax: (718) 729-8931
Galen D. Kirkland
Executive Director
April 5, 1993
Anna Switzer, Principal
Public School 234
292 Greenwich Street
New York, NY 10007
Dear Ms. Switzer:
Thank you for the recent meeting on March 24, 1993 with you, the Special
Education Supervisor for P.S. 234, the District 2 Administrator of Special Education, a
representative from Advocates for Children of New York (AFC) and Mrs. Mary Somoza.
As you know, Mrs. Somoza has requested AFC's assistance in an effort to obtain
appropriate educational services for her twin daughters, Alba and Anastasia Somoza.
Toward that end, we are writing to reiterate several unresolved issues discussed on
March 24th, and to emphasize our interest in cooperating to serve the best interests of
Alba and Anastasia.
First, according to Anastasia Somoza's current educational program, she is
entitled to receive the services of a one to one paraprofessional. This individual is
supposed to help Anastasia accomplish a variety of tasks including adjusting and/or
(b)(6)
001
Mrs. Somoza has already brought these concerns to your attention and requested
your intervention on behalf of Anastasia. In fact, she has identified another
Dedicated to the protection of every young person's right to an education
Anna Switzer, Principal
Page Two
April 5, 1993
paraprofessional who is very interested in working with Anastasia. To date, you have
not addressed nor resolved these problems. Based on our interaction at the March 24th
meeting, AFC is extremely concerned that your negative response to Mrs. Somoza's
expressed desire to obtain an inclusive education for Alba, and to the media coverage
associated with this issue, is contributing to the school's failure to provide appropriate
services to Anastasia. In fact, Mrs. Somoza has repeatedly expressed her appreciation
for the many beneficial actions taken by the school on behalf of her daughters.
Finally, we are eager to work with you to resolve these problems and improve the
vital working relationship between school staff, Mrs. Somoza and her children. We look
forward to your prompt reply.
Sincerely,
HalenD. Kirkland
Mary Somoza
Galen D. Kirkland
Parent
Executive Director
C: President Bill Clinton
Joseph A. Fernandez
Luis Reyes
Howard Tames
Anthony J. Alvarado
Pamela Sorocchio
Helene Soloff
INC
ADVOCATES FOR CHILDREN
PM NY 112
of New York, Inc.
24-16 Bridge Plaza South
5 APR
Long Island City N.Y. 11101
1993
BKLYN.NY 112 22:24:04/05/98
President Bill Clinton
C/O Kim Tilley
Old Executive Office Bld.
The White House
Room 197
Washington, D.C. 20500
OF EDUCATION
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
OFFICE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AND REHABILITATIVE SERVICES
THE ASSISTANT SECRETARY
APR 9 1993
NOTE TO KIM TILLEY
FROM : Jim Button qun Button
SUBJECT: BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON INCLUSION
Kim: My intent is to provide a number of articles that will give
you the overall flavor of the assumptions behind, and the benefits
of, inclusion without keeping you busy for the next month.
Obviously, we have a number of technical articles that address
curriculum adaptations, teacher training and other features
required for the implementation of such inclusive systems. I will
provide any of these more technical documents, if you wish.
I have organized the material into 4 sections:
SECTION 1. Articles on inclusion
There are several articles--one is very general (Davern and
Schnorr) ; and a series of articles from the School
Administrator that provide a general look at how several
school districts are approaching inclusion. I have also
provided you with three more technical articles--but they
relate to the inclusion of children with more severe
disabilities (Giancreco/Evans/Ferguson)
SECTION 2. Support from the field
I have included the "Winners All" document from NASBE, which
supports inclusion, and a description of New Mexico's policy
on full inclusion.
SECTION 3. Information on technology
There is an AMERICA 2000 Daily Conference Call that sets the
stage for the application of technology (Shane/Morris). This
represents the basic theme that we spoke about yesterday--
that Alba can be included in the regular classroom, and the
creative use of technology will be a principle vehicle to
provide the supports necessary for inclusion to succeed. In
addition, Howard Shane sent me a fax about a school district
that was implementing such technology that I have included in
400 MARYLAND AVE., S.W. WASHINGTON, D.C. 20202-2500
this section.
SECTION 4. Articles on realignment.
As I indicated to you when we spoke on the phone, the broader
issue is basically the realignment of special education (and
all the other separate educational systems--Chapter 1,
bilingual, migrant and others) and regular education. I have
included two articles from a recent issue of Educational
Leadership on integrating regular education and special
education and a article on providing comprehensive
educational, social and health services, written by the
Assistant Secretary Designee for OESE.
SECTION 1
Public Schools Welcome
Students with Disabilities
as Full Members
by Linda Davern and Roberta Schnorr
4+4+ 8
"Our dreams for our kids are the same
dreams you have for your kids."
0
0
"Inclusive classes teach an important
lesson that is sorely missing today values.
How do we treat each other? value each
other? And how do we teach that? My daughter
is an equal in her class. Kids like her just
the way she is."
--Parents of students with disabilities'
growing number of schools and
tant for the general knowledge develop-
additional support). The appropriate place
A
districts across the United
ment of these children and young adults as
for such preparation is regular classes and
States and Canada are moving
well as the following:
activities in schools. It is here that chil-
in the direction of welcoming
dren can learn from each other. Every par-
all children-regardless of their learning,
Language/Communication Develop-
ent and teacher knows that children and
physical or emotional characteristics
ment. If we expect students with special
young adults imitate each other. In order
(including students with the most severe
needs to develop effective verbal language
for students to develop the critical social
disabilities)- full members of their
(or other forms of communication), these
skills which are vital for success in work
school communities. Full membership
students need to be immersed in rich lan-
and personal life, children and young
means that children are based in regular
guage environments with their nondisabled
adults need role models throughout their
classes and participate in a variety of
peers.
day and throughout their school years.
learning activities with children without
disabilities while pursuing individual goals
Social Skills Development. A long
Building Friendships. Friendship is
appropriate to their success in the present
term goal for our children is to live and
very important in the life of a child or
and future. The parents of these children
work successfully in their communities.
young adult. It is an integral part of their
and the school staff involved in such
For children with disabilities, this same
sense of well-being. In order to develop
efforts believe that "inclusion" is impor-
goal applies (although they may need
friendships. children need daily shared
CHILDREN TODAY Volume 20 Number 2
21
time and experiences with others their age.
work in the home where he lives.
come all students as full members are
Schools can be a source of friendships that
They're going to help him scrub his
finding ways for students to work on the
last a lifetime.
teeth, participate in selecting what he
individual goals which are important for
It is interesting to listen to what parents
wears, and comfort him when he is ill-
them. while remaining with students with-
have to say about "inclusion" and their
they'll be involved in very personal and
out disabilities throughout the day. To
children:
intimate ways in his life. Some of them
show how teaching staff achieve this, we
"Now what has integration meant for
will be growing into positions of respon-
will present information on Jamal, a first
my son Daniel?² Well first of all, Daniel
sibility. They'll be running the program
grader.
likes sameness and familiarity. He has
he's in. Some of them are going to be
In Jamal's first grade class there are two
been able to walk in the exact same
moving into positions of bureaucracies
teachers. Six students with special needs
footsteps as his brother and sister,
they'll be directing policies that will
are members of the class. One of the
which is something I never imagined
determine the kinds of programs he's
teachers is certified in special education
was possible when he was two years old.
in. I think they will serve him better
and one is certified in both special and
Both his older brother and sister went
and be richer human beings themselves
regular education. Schools and districts
to [the same elementary, middle and
because they've had the opportunity of
moving in this direction have worked out a
high school] and it has been just lovely
spending time with students like
variety of staffing arrangements to meet
that Daniel has been able to follow the
Daniel-because that was part of their
the needs of students. Sometimes a con-
same pattern of schools. The develop-
normal school career."
sultant teacher will periodically meet with
ment of language has been just tremen-
the regular class teacher to assist in plan-
dous because he has been surrounded
How Are Individual Education Pro-
ning for a student(s). In some situations, a
by normal speech-bombarded with it
grams Carried Out in Regular Educa-
teacher assistant will help in the classroom
six hours a day.
tion Settings?
all or part of the day.
"What has integration meant to our
By law. each child and young adult who
Jamal's teachers believe it is important
family? First, it has made a big dif-
is identified by a school district as having
to create an atmosphere where all children
ference in how isolated and different
a "handicapping condition" has an Indi-
can learn actively. have fun doing it, and
and lonely and set apart we felt-
vidual Education Program (I.E.P.)
leave feeling good about themselves and
because we really did feel that way
developed by school staff and parents (and
others at the end of the day. These
when he was young
I
would
say
hopefully students). Schools which wel-
teachers are open to new approaches and
what is most important is that his school
and work experiences combined have
taught us as a family that Daniel is
capable of leading a reasonably ordi-
nary day-to-day life-like the rest of us.
When he was little it seemed impossible
that he could lead a kind of 'regular
life.' It has helped us feel hopeful and
guardedly optimistic about his future."
How does the presence of students with
special needs affect other students at
school? The majority of students in our
public schools learn very powerful lessons
when students with special needs are sepa-
rated from them. Since they do not get to
know these students well. they often come
to believe that these children and young
adults are different and scary, and should
be separated from them. When students
with differences are not in their class-
rooms. these classrooms do not reflect
society and do not adequately prepare our
children for the future. If we want gradu-
ates who welcome others-regardless of
their learning. physical or emotional
characteristics-as neighbors. co-workers
and friends, daily shared experience
among students will be essential. As one
parent expressed it:
"These [graduates] are going to be his
job coaches; they may be the staff that
Practice makes perfect with the help of a fellow musician.
22
are always changing and improving how
use of a notebook.) Jamal and the other
him and ask him to pick up the blue one to
they organize their classroom and
first graders have a few minutes to
color with. He is learning a lot about lan-
activities.
"cruise" the room. There are lots of
guage in this and all class activities.
Jamal has individualized goals on his
books and activities around the room and
10:00 All students take a break for the
education plan. A sample of some of the
it's a great time for kids to connect with
bathroom and a drink at the water fountain
goals follows:
each other.
at this time. Jamal will line up with the
indicating choices in a variety of
8:45 The entire class divides up into part-
other children. but will need assistance
situations:
ners who read books together for a few
and may take longer in the restroom.
minutes. Jamal's partner brings two books
10:15 There are a variety of activities dur-
responding to greetings with a wave
over. and he picks one of the two by
ing reading time. Sometimes children
or a "high five" (he has no verbal
pointing to it. He will turn the pages while
develop a class "big book" with a page
speech);
she reads aloud. She (or a teacher) may
about each of them. His teacher may write
learning to tap people on the shoulder
ask him to point to pictures. Since the
home to ask what Jamal's favorite TV
when he wants their attention;
class desks are placed in clusters of four.
show is. or what he likes to do with his
using a "'language board" with pic-
children spend a lot of time during the day
family so that his page can be completed.
tures and a few words on it (for example.
talking and learning from each other in
Since his classmates are getting to know
"yes," "no"):
both formal and informal ways.
him so well, they can fill in some informa-
9:00 On some days, students are paired
tion like. "What's my favorite food?" He
understanding an increasing number
for "class jobs. On this particular day.
can use the '`yes/no`` section on his lan-
of gestures and "signs" (for example.
Jamal and a partner will take the atten-
guage board to tell them if they are right.
"now," ``later.`` "more," "finished"):
dance cards and messages down to the
and to answer questions about other read-
attending to books and being able to
office. These jobs teach all students to
ing stories.
turn the pages (it is unclear how much
take responsibility for the smooth func-
11:15 Jamal needs to visit the nurse to
reading ability he has):
tioning of the classroom. After this. the
receive his medication. An adult points to
whole class reviews the calendar and
using a picture schedule of activities
the picture of the nurse on his schedule to
for the day and moving towards the proper
schedule for the day. At the same time. an
make the destination clear, and they walk
activity area when needed:
adult or a student will help Jamal put his
together to the nurse's office. Afterwards,
schedule pictures in the proper order for
he returns to class, walks down to the
handing a money pouch over to the
his day.
lunchroom and sits with friends. An adult
lunch cashier when he gets his lunch:
9:30 During a penmanship lesson, the stu-
assists him with getting his lunch, paying
progressing with his toilet use skills:
dents sit in groups of six. Jamal will pass
the cashier and developing his eating
out the papers to each child in his group as
skills.
picking up and chewing his food; and
directed by the teacher. He is learning to
12:00 All children are involved in Learn-
other motor development goals. such
associate their names and faces. He is also
ing Centers-centers set up in the corners
as using his forefinger and thumb to grasp
working on his "grasping" skills. Later,
of the room with educational activities for
things, and sitting on the floor and getting
an adult will put two colors of crayons by
individuals or small groups. Sometimes an
up as needed.
Many of the goals above are considered
functional skills' is. skills that are
important in his day-to-day life. Oppor-
tunities to address these functional skills
already exist in the daily routines of all
students (e.g., taking care of personal
belongings. taking off and putting on coats
and hats, using the restroom, using the
cafeteria and eating lunch). Jamal receives
more focused instruction during these rou-
tines than most of his classmates who are
independent in these activities.
COT CENTER
In developing his daily schedule, his
teachers and therapists have looked for all
possible opportunities throughout the day
to work on the goals mentioned above.
STRACUS
Below is a schedule of a typical day:
8:30 Jamal arrives at school, greets his
classmates (with help), and receives
instruction unzipping the pack he carries
back and forth to school, getting his lunch
money out, and bringing his notebook to
the teacher's desk. (His parents and
teachers communicate daily through the
"How about right here?"-students enrich each other's work.
CHILDREN TODAY Volume 20 Number 2
23
occupational therapist will join a small
inclusive programs is not limited to young
It's pretty good to have her in class. we I
group at a Learning Center to work with
children. In inclusive education programs.
was kind of helping her in the beginning.
Jamal on specific skills. On other days,
students with special needs continue to
She sat at our table because her
his teachers prepare a "cooperative learn-
progress from grade to grade with their
[wheel]chair didn't fit at the other ones.
ing" lesson. The class is divided up into
classmates. When they complete elemen-
One time, I was helping her and she was
small groups which include students of
tary school, students transition to middle.
helping me-you know how she does it. I
different race and sex, as well as different
and later, high school with familiar
think we were doing abstract or asym-
learning and personality characteristics.
classmates.
metrical forms on paper. And she was
Group membership sometimes remains
Students with disabilities in middle and
having a fun time."
the same for several months so that the
high schools have individual schedules
students develop a sense of group cohe-
like other students. Teachers and parents
This student viewed her classmate as a
sion. Students learn positive interdepend-
help students select courses which will
"fun person.' She didn't even mention
ence by sharing goals and materials, and
allow them to address their individual
Terry's disabilities. Terry is accompanied
taking on different role assignments.
goals and interests. In some cases. an
to class by a teacher or assistant for sup-
Jamal is also given a role when these
additional teacher or teacher assistant is
port in her work. Terry is a young woman
lessons occur. although the way he partici-
assigned to a class that includes one or
who has severe physical disabilities and
pates may look different from his peers
more students with significant needs in
does not speak. This girl and other class-
(e.g.. he uses a name "stamp" to sign his
order to provide support or make adapta-
mates describe her not as "handicapped,"
name, he gives members a "high five" to
tions in the curriculum. Some older stu-
but as "outgoing. friendly, and fun."
encourage them. instead of using words).
dents may receive instruction in functional
One of the teachers provides support to
skills in the community for one or more
What Do Students with Disabilities
him and his group.
periods a day in addition to the regular
Learn in Regular Middle and Second-
12:55 Jamal joins his classmates for art.
classes they take (e.g., weekly instruction
ary School Classes?
music, library or physical education class
in a community workplace. learning to use
Secondary students also have Individual
at this time. A variety of rich learning
the grocery store). Since the community is
Education Programs with specific goals
experiences occur in these classes.
a rich environment for learning for any
determined. Students do not need to learn
1:30 Students usually have a math activity
student. some teachers involve students
the same content at the same level as their
at this time. On some days. Jamal leaves
without special needs in such instruction,
classmates to benefit from attending regu-
the room for a session with a related serv-
and pose challenges to them related to
lar classes. Many regular classes in middle
ice provider (e.g., speech therapy, physi-
their goals in school (e.g., applying math
and high school offer rich learning
cal therapy). On other days. his teachers
and health concepts in a grocery store).
environments for modified academic and
develop ways to incorporate him into
other related skills (e.g., communication
small group instruction. One day he works
Do Middle and High School Students
and social skills)-as well as positive role
as a "checker" for his math group. The
Accept Classmates Who Have
models.
Disabilities?
six children are using small cubes to solve
Dave is a middle school student who
number problems such as "eight minus
Many students are both positive and
has autism. In his seventh grade social
four.' After the children determine the
supportive of their classmates who have
studies class. many of his individual goals
answer, Jamal and his teacher will touch
disabilities. Many students who have been
were drawn from the same content as his
each block and count from one to four in
in "inclusive" education classes in ele-
classmates-although he is not expected to
order to "check" the answer. He is learn-
mentary school believe that students with
learn as many facts and details about
ing one-to-one correspondence through
disabilities should continue to be members
American history as most of the other stu-
this activity.
of their classes.
dents. Participating in small group
2:00 Jamal begins to prepare for dismissal
activities and listening to his teacher's
by getting his backpack off his hook and
"Before I came here, they were in all our
presentations and class discussion contrib-
bringing it to his desk. He will put his
classes in elementary school. They're
uted to his learning. particularly since his
notebook in the pack and re-zip it (with
people too, just like us
They
should
reading skills are different from most oth-
assistance). On this day. his class will join
be in more [regular] classes here."
ers in his class.
another class to have a sing-along. He will
-a middle school student who has a
Dave was also enrolled in seventh grade
need to sit on the floor and get up after the
classmate with autism in one of his sev-
math. but received individual instruction
singing is finished. He greatly enjoys the
enth grade classes⁴
from a support teacher within the class. In
songs and often claps along. At dismissal,
Yet this kind of acceptance can also be
addition to his math goals. much of what
he walks with a partner and an adult to the
heard among older students who have
Dave learned in this class centered around
bus.
classmates with disabilities for the first
staying "focused" and learning appropri-
It is clear that the "typical day" of this
time in middle or high school. A high
ate social behavior in group settings. The
first grade offers many opportunities for
school girl describes Terry. a classmate
seventh grade math teacher commented on
Jamal to learn and grow.
she met during her junior year. Terry had
what Dave had learned by the end of the
always been in special education classes
school year:
What Happens When Students Get
prior to this year.
"His skills and behavior are much better
Older?
"She's real nice, you know. The way she
than when he came in at the beginning of
Shifting from ``special`` classes to
used to walk in and yell 'hi' to everybody
the
school
year
In the very beginning
24
of the school year when he came to class,
not have verbal speech. After his first year
positive effect on non-disabled people and
I didn't think I was going to make it
in a regular class, his teacher reported that
the general community.
He would hit himself or he would make
he "is well-liked and has made a number
All students can benefit from regular
noises
or he would get out of his seat
of friendships. School is one of the few
class activities even though the individual
and ask me something
He
would
talk
places this student has opportunities to
goals for some may be quite different.
out loud instead of whispering
His
make friends with people his age. One of
Such efforts are not always easy to imple-
growth over this year has been phenome-
his classmates. a sophomore. described
ment, and depend on adequate support for
nal
It is unbelievable that he is the
the relationship:
both students and school personnel-but
same young man. He still demonstrates
"Sam hangs with us-me, Tom, Leon,
the benefits for all students are substantial.
those behaviors
He still has those
Ted. And we like rap, and he raps
As one regular education teacher noted:
days. But his productivity has tripled
He's
pretty
cool
He's fun to be with
I mean he can sit through a class and
And he knows what we're talking
"Above all, we want our kids to show
work
Now, he can work through the
about
Everybody wants Sam there.
concern for others, now and in their
distractions of the class. He can produce.
When he's not there, everyone's like,
future days. Typical kids in integrated
There's a tremendous amount of
'Where's Sam?'
classrooms benefit because these goals
improvement
Sam's music teacher discussed the
are as much a part of their daily class-
impact his presence had on other members
room experience as the 'academics.' In
"At the beginning of the year, I ques-
of this high school class:
reality, I believe the academics are
tioned whether he should be here
But
"If we learn to deal with it [disabilities]
enhanced because of these goals."⁶
the interaction, the "feeling" part of the
and associate with it, and identify with it,
And this teacher observed:
class, the knowledge of the need to func-
then it's much easier for us to cope
"I believe that all kids have a right to be
tion within a group. even if he's doing
There are kids that learned to love him
in inclusive classrooms-to be educated
something totally different
to
be
able
and accept him that probably never had
with their peers. When everybody in a
to walk into a crowd and do what you
to deal with handicapped people at all.
class is considered equal, some very great
need to do-I mean that's part of every-
And just the environment itself-it
things will happen."
day living
And I think that as educa-
changed. Learning to 'read' [his]
tors, placing him in situations like this
sounds, be it good sounds or bad sounds,
Linda Davern is the Coordinator of the
five different times a day can only
and people are willing to accept these
Inclusive Education Project (a collabora-
help
hopefully it will transfer into
forms of communication
These
tive project between Syracuse University
everyday functioning in groups and
things all had an impact."
and the Syracuse City School District).
crowds-and being able to deal with
Syracuse University. Division of Special
other people."
Summary
Education and Rehabilitation, Syracuse.
As noted in a parent newsletter. the
New York. Roberta Schnorr is a graduate
One high school student. Sam. who had
inclusion of children and young adults
associate with the Inclusive Education
always been in special education classes.
with disabilities with other students in our
Project, and is currently involved in
began taking a regular music class during
schools will result in "an ever widening
research related to the inclusion of sec-
his third year in high school. This young
circle of people who believe that dis-
ondary students.
man lives in a state institution for people
abilities are a part of life. that people with
with developmental disabilities. He has
disabilities are a part of |our| natural
1. These and the two quotes from parents
extensive physical disabilities and appears
environment who should not be isolated.
that follow are drawn from A. Ford. E. Erwin.
to have intellectual disabilities. He does
and that people with disabilities can have a
L. Davern. R. Schnorr. D. Biklen and J. Black
(Eds.). Proceedings of the School Leaders'
Institute on Inclusive Education. Inclusive
Making School Integration Work:
Education Project, Syracuse University and
Additional Resources
ing Children with Special Needs into Regular
Syracuse City School District.
Classrooms, The Centre for Integrated Educa-
2. The names of students have been
The following list of resources is geared for
tion: Frontier College Press, 1989.
changed.
those interested in learning more about inclu-
C. B. Schaffner and B. Buswell, Opening
3. D.W. Johnson, R. Johnson. E. Holubec
sive education:
Doors: Strategies for Including All Students in
and P. Roy. Circles of Learning, Alexandria.
D. Biklen, Achieving the Complete School:
Regular Education, Colorado Springs: Peak
Va.: The Association for Supervision and Cur-
Strategies for Effective Mainstreaming, New
Parent Center, Inc. (6055 Lehman, Colorado
riculum Development. 1984.
York: Teachers College Press, 1985.
Springs, Colorado 80918), 1991.
4. These and the quotes that follow were
D. Biklen (Executive Producer). Regular
S. Stainback. W. Stainback and M. Forest
gathered as part of a research project related to
Lives (Videotape), Washington. D.C.: State of
(Eds.), Educating All Students in the Main-
regular secondary classes which include stu-
the Art, Inc. (WETA. P.O. Box 2626. Wash-
stream of Regular Education, Baltimore: Paul
dents with disabilities.
ington. D.C. 20013). 1988.
H. Brookes, 1989.
5. P. Mosser and L. Sommerstein (Eds.).
J. Dobbins (Producer/Director). Jenny's
J. York, T. Vandercook, C. Macdonald, C.
Parent Network Connections: Parents Help
Story (Videotape), Islington. Ontario: Integra-
Heise-Neff, and E. Caughey, Class Integration
Parents. 3 (2), p. 1. Summer, 1989.
tion Action Group (19 Rivercave Drive.
of Middle School Students with Severe Dis-
6. This and the following quote are taken
MOB4Y8), 1987.
abilities: Feedback from Teachers and Class-
from the Proceedings of the School Leaders'
J. O'Brien, M. Forest, J. Snow and D.
mates, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota,
Institute on Inclusive Education, Inclusive
Hasbury, How to Improve Schools by Welcom-
Institute on Community Integration, 1989.
Education Project, Syracuse University and
Syracuse City School District.
CHILDREN TODAY Volume 20 Number 2
25
Johnson City, N.Y., Schools; Carol Bèi
a
C usive sform Practices
BY RICHARD SCHATTMAN and JEFF BENAY
ver the past decade, while reform efforts
Concerns over the placement of chil-
in regular education have made front-
dren in separate schools and special
page news, the reform of special education
classes within regular schools were
has been discussed primarily within the pro-
based on evidence that segregated
fessional and political communities.
practices were inherently discrimina-
Special education reform has focused on issues re-
tory. racially biased. instructionally inef-
lated to the placement of children with disabilities, with
fective, socially and psychologically
terms such as "mainstreaming," "least restrictive envi-
damaging. and compromising to a
ronment," "the regular education initiative," and "full
school's ability to provide equality of
inclusion" describing various aspects of the movement.
educational opportunity to all students.
This article will briefly review the history of special
With the passage of the Education
education reform, discuss current ideas related to best
of the Handicapped Act (since re-
practice, and illustrate a number of organizational
named The Individuals with Dis-
characteristics typical of schools now using exemplary
abilities Education Act) in 1975. the
special education models.
efficacy of segregated placement
practices in the 1970s was further
A Look Back
evaluated and the notion of "main-
Although special education was mandated through
streaming" gained currency within
federal legislation in 1975, special education services
the educational community. Main-
have been part of American education for much
streaming enabled students in sepa-
longer. During the 1960s, special education em-
rate programs to interact with non-
braced a segregated model whereby eligible children
handicapped peers. usually during
were served in separate classes or separate schools.
non-academic activities.
Brown v. Board of Education, the 1954 Supreme Court
While the word "mainstreaming"
Runn River. Mean your Libication Cooperative
decision abolishing the legality of school segregation
never appears in the text of the PL.94
for blacks and whites, set the stage for emerging con-
142. its meaning is derived from the
cerns about segregated educational models for stu-
law's least restrictive environment
dents with disabilities.
clause. which mandates the following:
SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
Integration Strategies
Change School Operations,
Professional Roles
education 1990s
To the maximum extent appropriate, handi-
capped children, including children in public or pri-
vate institutions or other care facilities, are educated
with children who are not handicapped; and
Special classes, separate schooling, or other re-
moval of handicapped children from the regular edu-
cation environment occur only when the nature and
severity of the handicap is such that education in reg-
ular classes, with the use of supplemental aides and ser-
vices, cannot be achieved satisfactorily.
Before long, the efficacy of mainstreaming was ques-
tioned. Special education reform considered more in-
clusive models where children with disabilities would
participate with non-handicapped peers in both aca-
demic and non-academic areas. A new phase of special
Rum River, Minn., Special inducation Cooperative
education reform began to take form in the early
1980s, referred to as integration, full inclusion, and the
regular education initiative.
Full inclusion, where allstudents are educated in the
same schools and the same classes, evolved from the ef-
forts of parents, educators, and federal bureaucrats in
the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Special
Education Programs.
Those advocating for the reform of special educa-
tion and the adoption of inclusive approaches were
motivated by concerns similar to those of reformers in
the early 1970s. Both groups were concerned by segre-
gated practices that denied students with disabilities
FEBRUARY 1992
9
"In inclusive
Vermont, teachers, administrators,
and community members discussed
their beliefs regarding the mission of
the school for two years before devel-
schools,
oping a written statement.
This ongoing communication en-
couraged the consideration of varied
district
perspectives and contributed to a
high degree of investment in the
school mission.
mission
The Swanton mission states: "The
Swanton school community believes
statements
that given enough time and appropri-
ate instruction, students will achieve
what is considered necessary to learn.
speak to
We recognize that students arrive at
school with differing backgrounds,
influences and needs. We are commit-
the needs
ted to the concepts of fairness and jus-
of all
children."
C
equal educational opportunity.
Currently, there is debate within the
educational community as to the value
of inclusion. Even so, many school dis-
tricts throughout the United States
and Canada are using inclusionary
models where all children, regardless
of their type or severity of disability,
are fully educated in regular educa-
tion classes.
School Characteristics
Schools that have adopted an inclu-
sive approach to special education dif-
fer from each other in size, location,
and wealth. Despite these differences,
Rum River, Minn., Special Education Cooperative
there are a number of common char-
acteristics of which three will be
examined here:
The relationship between inclu-
sion and the broader issues of school
reform;
other reform or restructuring efforts.
tice which reflect a concern for each
The use of teaming approaches
As a result of these efforts, schools em-
individual's development, dignity and
for problem-solving and program
bracing inclusive approaches often
growth potential. Approaches to social
implementation; and
embrace well-articulated mission state-
responsibility will promote behavioral
Changes in the roles of profes-
ments that reflect the values and be-
changes which empower students to
sionals and parents in inclusive
liefs of those involved in the school
understand their obligations to others
schools.
community.
as members of a democratic society."
In inclusive schools, district mission
The Swanton mission established
Thoughtful Missions
statements speak to the needs of all
standards and goals for the school sys-
Schools that embrace fully inclusive
children. For example, in the Swan-
tem and then undertook a number of
approaches often are engaged in
ton School District in northwestern
fundamental changes to meet those
10 THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
standards. The reforms modified how
Team Problem-Solving
a child's educational experience, few
teachers participated in governance
Schools embracing integrated or
schools organize themselves in ways
decisions, how parents participated
inclusive models, such as the Swanton
that make them accessible to most
with professional staff in issues related
district, often use a teaming approach
parents. Teams allow parents to meet
to instruction, how children were
for problem-solving, planning, and
with professionals on a regular basis,
grouped, and how practices in special
program implementation.
share responsibility, and develop a
education were to be delivered.
The traditional organizational struc-
meaningful relationship.
The Swanton district's practice of
ture, whereby a teacher is solely re-
Finally, teams are important as they
sending children with disabilities to
sponsible for all the children in class, is
enable the group to share responsibil-
special education classes out of the
limited in its ability to address the di-
ity. No one member of a team has all
the answers. When a group of individ-
uals work together with common
goals, complex programs can be de-
veloped and implemented in regular
education classes.
Teaming, therefore, allows teach-
ers, parents, related service providers,
and administrators to recognize the
complexity of the task at hand and or-
ganize personnel and resources in a
manner which allows for success.
Adoption of a team-based model re-
flects a more holistic view of the sys-
The Council for Exceptional Children
tem, whereby teachers, administra-
tors, and parents must be linked in an
interdependent manner to succeed.
The adoption of teaming strategies
not only alters a school's approach to
the education of children with disabil-
ities, but fundamentally changes how
schools operate, how decisions are
made, how instruction is delivered,
and how individuals relate to each
verse needs of a diverse student body.
other.
Schools that include all children
In a team-based approach, the roles
have broken the professional isola-
of teacher, administrator, and parent
Rum River, Minn., Special Education Cooperative
tion by linking teachers, parents, and
are different than they appear in
administrators with one another.
more separate and segregated mod-
Student-centered planning teams
els. Thus, another characteristic of
have been considered essential for
schools embracing an integrated ap-
the implementation of inclusive edu-
proach to the education of all chil-
cational programs for a number of
dren is that the traditional roles of
important reasons. First, teams pro-
teachers, administrators, and parents
vide all parties with a support net-
change.
work. No one individual has all the
skills needed to meet the educa-
New Responsibilities
tional needs of children with severe
Schools that do not use teaming
disabilities.
strategies often have a high degree of
Second, teams are a powerful tool
specialization among professionals. In
for problem-solving. When a collabo-
a team model, teachers, parents, and
community raised questions over the
rative team approach uses specific
administrators share responsibility for
lack of alignment between belief and
problem-solving techniques, solutions
a range of activities and embrace par-
action.
to complex issues are more likely to
ents as equal partners. The parent's
Teachers, administrators, and par-
emerge. In addition, the quality of
role is elevated in its importance and
ents agreed to explore other means
outcomes resulting from multiple per-
function and the professional roles ex-
for providing educational support to
spectives is usually greater than those
pand from specialist to generalist.
children with significant disabilities
resulting from unilateral efforts.
Where this role transformation has
within the local school. By 1986, all
Third, teams involve parents in a
occurred, teachers and administra-
children living in Swanton were placed
meaningful way. While educators long
tors have discovered a team approach
and supported in age-appropriate reg-
have recognized the relationship be-
is both professionally enriching and
ular classes regardless of disability.
tween a home-school partnership and
more efficient.
FEBRUARY 1992
11
In inclusive schools, administrators
lated services. Teachers in integrated
members, including parents. Strate-
report they participate on teams, are
schools also participate in training
gies include linking with other dis-
involved in instructional decisions,
colleagues.
tricts, giving teachers and parents time
and share responsibility for achiev-
The role of a special education
to meet, involving staff with institu-
ing collaboratively established goals.
teacher in an integrated school also
tions of higher education, and partic-
These administrators no longer are
changes. In a segregated special
ipating in professional organizations.
responsible for making unilateral de-
class or "pull out" model, the spe-
cisions related to resource allocation
cial education class teacher pro-
Multiple Benefits
or accessing outside technical assis-
vides direct instruction to a limited
Inclusive education offers the child
tance and support.
number of students in a controlled
with disabilities the opportunity to be a
When administrators of inclusive
environment.
meaningful member of the community,
schools share their power with the
In an integrated or inclusionary
to have exposure to talented teachers,
team, the benefits are clear. Decisions
model where the special education
to develop social relationships with
are more child-centered, they reflect
teacher is a member of a team, the spe-
non-handicapped peers, and to have
the multiple perspectives of those in-
cial education teacher co-teaches with
quality educational programs taught in
volved, and all parties are invested in
regular class teachers, shares in the re-
a "normal" school setting.
the decisions made because all have
sponsibility of providing training, sup-
Inclusive education offers teachers
participated.
port, and supervision to paraprofes-
the opportunity to use their skills with
Richard Villa and Jacqueline Thou-
sionals, and participates on teams as
a wide range of students, to join other
sand, in Strategies for Educating Learners
an equal member with parents, class
teachers for support, to work with ad-
with Severe Disabilities within their Home
teachers, and administrators.
ministrators on decisions that affect
Schools and Communities, identify a
In a number of school districts in
their ability to teach, and to link with
number of important roles for the
northern Vermont, including the
parents.
building and central administration
Winooski, Milton, and Swanton dis-
Inclusive education brings admin-
in a team-based model supporting
tricts, responsibilities of regular and
istrators into the arena of instruction
fully inclusive practices. They include:
special education teachers have be-
as members of a team. Inclusive
Challenging teams to make deci-
come less distinct. Participation in a
education links administrators with
sions that align with the mission and
team process has resulted in teachers
teachers and parents SO quality deci-
philosophy of their school;
learning skills from each other. The
sions may be made that benefit all
Modifying master schedules to
process of moving from teacher spe-
children.
support teachers with the time needed
cialist to teacher generalist reflects an
Inclusive education offers parents
to meet as teams;
upgrading of skills among all profes-
the opportunity to develop ongoing
Creating job descriptions that re-
sional staff.
relationships with a small group of
flect the new roles of professionals
Teaming is a strategy that encour-
school professionals working on be-
working in a team-based system;
ages this outcome. When teaming re-
half of their child. For parents to be
Hiring personnel who embrace
sults in a professionalization of all
meaningfully involved, and for schools
the district's philosophy and have ap-
staff, integration is modeled by adults
to benefit from their insight, parents
propriate technical and communica-
to students. In districts where student
must have an ongoing relationship
tion skills;
and staff integration has occurred, all
and a forum for open and honest
Supervising and evaluating staff
instructional staff are regarded as
discussion.
in a manner that supports the dis-
teachers rather than special education
The student-centered planning
trict's commitment to all children;
teachers, regular education teachers,
team enables this level and quality of
Setting the agenda for staff meet-
speech language pathologists, and
involvement to occur.
ings and include items that relate to
psychologists.
Finally, inclusive education offers
support needs of all children; and
Several factors have contributed to
the school the opportunity to be truly
Arranging for inservice and
these transformations. Two of the
effective. Ultimately, if a school is to
training for staff.
most important are new knowledge
be successful it must provide equity
and staff development.
and excellence for all children. Edu-
Blurring the Roles
Districts implementing integrated
cation in a democratic society re-
In addition, administrators need to
approaches have an increased need
quires no less.
support staff in the self-evaluation of
for ongoing staff development. Most
their performance as a team and ad-
districts have an enormous supply of
dress their inservice needs related to
expertise on staff, and can tap into it
Richard Schattman, a faculty member
improving teaming skills. As with the
to provide training. Yet traditional or-
at the University of Vermont, is a re-
administrator, teacher roles also
ganizational strategies often isolate
search associate with the National
change in schools embracing inclu-
staff from each other and make it less
Study of the Implementation of Least
sive practices.
likely they will share knowledge and
Restrictive Environment, a national
In an integrated school, the teacher
expertise.
policy study group. Jeff Benay is
provides direct instruction, consults
Districts that have embraced inclu-
director of Indian education in the
with other team members, supervises
sive practices assign a top priority to
Franklin Northwest Supervisory Union
in Swanton, Vt.
paraprofessionals, and coordinates re-
the staff development needs of team
12
THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
How Four Communities Tackle
lainstreaming
Editor's Note: Across the nation, public
leaders in four communities to describe
school leaders are attempting to support
how they are mainstreaming students
the education of students with disabilities
with disabilities of all types into regular
in regular education classrooms. This
classes with non-disabled students. They
'inclusive' education movement is having
were asked to discuss some of the lessons
a dramatic impact on special education.
they have learned about their odyssey.
The School Administrator invited
Saline, Michigan
Aligning Our Beliefs with Action
BY MAURICE CONN
Superintendent. Saline Area Schools
hen our school district con-
W
ducted a self-evaluation as
part of a school improve-
ment process during the 1986-87
school year, we observed a clear dis-
crepancy between our beliefs and
practices.
While our mission statement as-
serted the belief that all students can
learn and "we will equip all students
with knowledge, technological profi-
ciency and the personal skills neces-
sary to succeed," our assignment of
students with disabilities indicated the
contrary.
Bill Gandino, Syracuse Univ. Photo Ctr.
We had to treat all of our students
equally. We had to invite all of our stu-
dents back to the neighborhood
schools. We had to change.
Students with severe disabilities and their "typical" peers participate in opportunities to learn and
socialize together throughout their school day at Morgan Road Elementary School in Liverpool, N.Y.
Accepting a Challenge
school service provider, the Washte-
staff and visit schools in Ontario and
Since the mandatory special educa-
naw Intermediate School District.
Vermont where integration models
tion laws were enacted, our school dis-
In January 1987, five of our families
had been in existence for a number
trict has integrated fully most mildly
accepted our invitation to send their
of years. Teachers and other staff
or moderately impaired students in
children, ages 6 through 10, to a spe-
from those schools provided us the
the general classroom. Therefore,
cial, cross-categorical room in one of
initial training to develop our own
our challenge was to develop strate-
our elementary schools. We found
model.
gies to integrate students with the
the student outcomes so favorable
In the summer of 1989, borrowing
severest handicaps.
that we decided to pursue and were
pieces from the schools visited, we de-
In the 1986-87 school year, 19 of
awarded a state department of educa-
veloped Saline's inclusive community
our 3,000 students were classified with
tion grant to assist in further develop-
model. We trained every teacher, ad-
moderate and severe handicaps and
ing alternatives to the traditional spe-
ministrator, support staff member,
were educated in off-site, centralized
cial education delivery system.
and parent who would be involved in
programs administered by a regional
We used the money to train the
the program. Ten families elected to
22
THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
return their children with severe
Parental involvement with all parts of
ing the 1990-91 school year, two more
handicaps that fall.
the student's schooling is essential.
students joined the program, so the
Parents are part of the team, which
latest evaluation focused on 12 stu-
Guiding Principles
meets at least once each month or as
dents in our inclusion model.
To implement the process, we adopted
often as once each week.
The second-year evaluation con-
proven instructional and administra-
No. 9: Staff development. Without
firmed the findings of the first: in-
tive practices, developed support net-
training, the staff cannot acquire the
creased positive attitudes of staff
works for teachers, provided addi-
skills and confidence to implement
and students; increased willingness
tional support for teachers and others,
the program.
among teachers to advocate for stu-
and developed support networks for
No. 10: Team collaboration. The
dents with handicaps, receive train-
students.
adults who work together to direct
ing, and assume additional responsi-
We adopted 11 best practices to
and provide the education of the
bilities related to integration; no
guide the management of the pro-
student must be trained in the skills of
adverse effect on academic achieve-
gram, based on the research litera-
team management, collaborative de-
ment of general education students;
ture. We took some from many differ-
cision-making, and group dynamics.
positive anecdotal reports of special
ent authors, especially Jacqueline
No. 11: Systematic evaluation of ed-
education student achievement; in-
Thousand of the University of Ver-
ucational and related services. Evalua-
creased comfort and satisfaction by
mont, to create our own set:
tion serves as the best tool for change
general education teachers in inte-
No. 1: Age-appropriate placement in
and communicating accurate infor-
grated classrooms; and high special
local public schools. We use a general
rule of thumb for classroom place-
ment of plus or minus two chronolog-
ical years.
Placement of Students with Disabilities
No. 2: Integrated delivery of educa-
tional and related services. All services to
in Regular Classrooms
the handicapped are offered in the
general classroom often with the par-
ticipation of students who are not
Top 5
Regular
Resource
Separate
classified special education.
States
Class
Room
Class
-No. 3: Social integration. Social
Vermont
79.4%
8.1%
8.9%
support of the handicapped student
North Dakota
74.0
10.4
12.3
is provided with "Circle of Friends,"
Nebraska
60.0
22.7
14.2
"Peer Buddies," and other tools.
No. 4: Transition planning. Collab-
Massachusetts
59.4
15.8
18.0
orative efforts among the adults con-
Oregon
59.0
26.8
11.1
cerned with the handicapped young-
ster guide the transition of a child
Bottom 5
from centralized program to the reg-
ular classroom, from elementary
States
school to middle school, or from one
Alabama
0.0%
71.6%
26.3%
grade to another.
Georgia
11
69.7
26.7
No. 5: Community-based training.
Texas
3.9
78.7
10.0
From the earliest years, students are
New York
7.1
36.3
introduced to the world around them
43.8
and the community outside the
Arizona
9.9
62.9
22.9
school. As the students mature, they
are nurtured and taught in the com-
Note: Remaining students, ages 6-21, in each state were served in separate
munity environment to foster the
facilities or homebound.
highest degree of independence and
interdependence.
Source: 1991 Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of The Individuals
No. 6: Curricular expectations. The
with Disabilities Education Act.
regular education curriculum is
adapted to a level that best challenges
the handicapped student.
No. 7: Systematic data-based instruc-
mation to the community at large.
education parent satisfaction.
tion. Documenting successes and
Computing the comparative costs
progress in surmounting educational
Comparative Costs
of educating a handicapped student
and social challenges assures maxi-
The Department of Developmental
in a fully integrated setting versus a
mizing consistency of appropriate in-
Disabilities at Wayne State University
centralized program is almost entirely
struction over time.
in Detroit conducted the evaluation
dependent on three major factors:
No. 8: Home-school partnership.
as a stipulation of our state grant. Dur-
labor agreements, severity of a stu-
FEBRUARY 1992
23
dent's impairment, and the features
For this program to succeed, the su-
els of organizational change in the
of the adopted model. Also, our dis-
perintendent and the board of educa-
writings of C. Bell, W.L. French, N.
trict's transportation costs have been
tion must be convincing when they
Haring, and M. Helmstetter.
reduced drastically with the inclusion
convey the belief that all children can
We began this process of change
program.
learn and all students must have ac-
with the belief that heterogeneity is
Bearing in mind those caveats, we
cess to fully integrated schooling. For
beneficial to us all and that it will en-
have computed our actual costs in
most districts, translating those beliefs
able attainment of the goals of public
centralized programming at approxi-
into action requires a complete sys-
education. This program has vali-
mately $19,000 per student versus
tems change. In our schools, we have
dated our beliefs.
$13,000 in the integrated program.
been guided by the theoretical mod-
Ontario, Oregon
Ending Our Practice of Compartmentalization
BY J. DAVID CLOUD
Superintendent, Ontario School District
H
istorically, educators have cre-
Arbitrary Norms
ties into the regular classroom. They
ated separate programs and
systems to address unique stu-
Integration implies that people of
spoke from the perspective of the
child, the teacher, and the classroom.
dent needs. This compartmentaliza-
diverse ethnic origins, skills, and
tion of responsibilities has created de-
needs are together. It also implies that
They began with a discussion of val-
what is taught has a sense of unity of
ues common to educators every-
partments and agencies with their
purpose and content.
where, highlighting the inconsisten-
own organizational needs and de-
cies between our stated values and the
mands. It also has increased dramati-
In public education, we systemati-
day-to-day management practices in
cally the costs of transportation, facil-
cally have fragmented both the soci-
our schools.
ities, and management.
ety of the school and the curriculum
When I returned to Oregon, I
For the Ontario School District,
to rationalize or departmentalize the
began discussing the possibility of re-
considering the impact of this com-
management of our responsibilities.
turning students from a centralized
partmentalization or specialization of
We have institutionalized the rejec-
education service district to the neigh-
services on students was important.
tion or segregation of those whose at-
borhood schools. In that the ESD
We saw migrant students being
tributes are outside some arbitrary
serves several districts, any change had
bussed past one school to attend an-
norm.
to be a compromise of views. In our
other because services were located at
In Ontario, we began reintegrating
case, we decided to serve Ontario's
one and not the other. We saw stu-
students closest to the norm. Those
children in their neighborhood
dents with severe disabilities being re-
who were non-English proficient,
schools and support the existence of a
strained in vans and transported an
mildly retarded, or physically chal-
centralized service model for those
hour each way to the nearest center
lenged boarded the bus with their
districts whose administrators and par-
that specialized in their education.
neighbors and went to school with
ents wanted that resource.
We saw students and teachers at-
them.
tempting to transfer student skills
We made sure they received the
Budgetary Implications
learned in a resource room, reading
support they needed to be successful
The 1990-91 school year was a year of
room, or talented and gifted room to
there. The talented and gifted stu-
preparation. We began with the school
the regular classroom.
dents stopped traveling to another
board and the administrative team,
In addition, we saw educational
school and their classroom teachers
discussing the issues from a philosoph-
plans with as many as 12 adults as-
were provided the means to teach
ical and theoretical perspective.
signed to help a single student and
them at the appropriate rate and level
In November, board members had
wondered how confusing this must be
of learning.
the opportunity to hear a presenta-
to the student. We saw students iden-
In the summer of 1990, the Oregon
tion by personnel from Lincoln
tified as talented and gifted pulled
Department of Education gave me a
County schools, a district in Oregon
out of their classes to be transported
chance to attend a two-week work-
with a long history of instructing stu-
to another school for one day each
shop at McGill University in Mon-
dents with special needs in general
week and wondered about the impact
treal. During this time I listened to
education settings. This was the point
their absence had upon their class-
George Flynn and Brian Cullan of
at which our discussion shifted from
mates and teacher and about the lack
Kitchener, Ontario, talk about inte-
the theoretical implications to the de-
of integration of the two curriculums.
grating students with severe disabili-
tails of budgeting and planning.
24 THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
We identified individual students
were crafted to place students where
found in the people.
who would be coming home to their
they would find success and support
You will see students who were
neighborhood school. We assessed
with their age peers.
quiet and withdrawn exhibiting a
their needs and the ability of the
greater sparkle and enthusiasm for
school to support their education.
Lingering Concerns
life. You will see a student who had
With the close support of personnel
Some issues will continue to need our
been violent initiating positive con-
from the Oregon Department of Ed-
attention. For example, there are ser-
tact with adults and students.
ucation, we identified and provided
vice district employees and local dis-
You will see parents, once grateful
staff training between January and
trict staff who work with the same stu-
for any kind of program, now more
the start of school last September.
dents. Lines of communication and
involved in the school and optimistic
The state also provided specialists on
role definitions sometimes become
about the future of their child. You
site to help plan the transition and
confused.
will see members of the student body
train staff members.
In addition, there are staff members
exhibiting human worth and caring,
We used the first months of our
who still perceive the new student as
not pity and charity.
budgeting cycle to create the fiscal
someone else's responsibility, stating,
You will see adults reacting more to
support for the change in service
"These are my students, that one is
the humanity of a student and less to
model. Structural changes dictated by
yours." This is a human response to
a description of the person's condi-
individual needs were incorporated
perceived role enlargement and re-
tion.
into the maintenance and remodel-
flects industrial notions of departmen-
The answer found in these people
ing budget. Transportation routes
talization and the fragmentation of re-
is, "Yes, it was worth the effort."
were modified. Supply inventories
sponsibility into discrete assignments.
were compared to the needs of these
Given time, training, and experience,
youngsters and additional purchases
we are optimistic staff will perceive all
David Cloud acknowledges the help
were made.
students as their responsibility.
of Ron Guyer, district director of stu-
The analysis of the net cost of the
You might be wondering, "Was this
dent services in Ontario, in preparing
this article.
change reveals increased expenses in
worth the effort?" The answer is
personnel, reduced cost in transporta-
tion and facilities, and only nominal
change in the supply costs. Modifica-
tion of the neighborhood schools was
funded through a three-year serial levy
passed in 1989 to bring the district's
COMPETENT?
facilities into compliance with stan-
dards for handicapped access.
COMMITTED TO KIDS?
Yet planning didn't cover every
contingency. For example, staff train-
ing and site preparation were based
CURIOUS?
upon the identified students and
their residence at the time our plan-
CONTACT US.
ning occurred. By late August, chil-
dren had changed neighborhoods or
moved out of the district, while oth-
Mesa Public Schools is Arizona's largest school district,
ers moved into the community. We
with 64,000 students, 7,000 employees and still growing!
made late adjustments to accommo-
We're located just east of Phoenix, in a suburban, residential community
date their needs and support the
that's supportive of education.
schools' teaching staff.
Because of retirements over the next few years, we anticipate 25-30
At the high school, the formerly
administrative vacancies at all levels. Current salary ranges, based on
segregated students and their parents
experience and education: $43,500 - $68,000
were invited to an evening open
Quality administrators, please contact
house. After initial introductions and
Dr. Janice Bowers
obligatory comments, the adults
Assistant Superintendent for Personnel
began a tour of the building and high
Mesa Unified School District
school students escorted the new stu-
546 N. Stapley Drive
dents on a separate tour.
Mesa, AZ 85203-7296
Peer assistance and acceptance is
(602) 898-7714
an important part of the integration
An Equal Opportunity Employer
process. The resource teacher worked
with staff members and coaches to
create opportunities for the students
within both the academic and social
life of the school. Student schedules
For more information, circle 58 on Reader Service Card
FEBRUARY 1992
25
Rum River, Minnesota
Building New Capacities To Overcome
Tradition-Bound Practices
BY MARK WOLAK, JENNIFER YORK, and NANCY CORBIN
T
hree years ago, several school
districts within the Rum River
Special Education Cooperative
started a pilot project to place chil-
dren with severe disabilities in regular
classrooms on a full-time basis.
When we began our inclusive edu-
cation initiatives, 85 percent of all stu-
dents with moderate and severe men-
tal retardation in Minnesota were
served exclusively in self-contained
classrooms.
With prevailing practices and atti-
tudes favoring segregated schools or
separate classroom sites for students
with severe disabilities, the first dis-
Rum River, Minn., Special Education Cooperative
trict teams to tackle inclusive educa-
tion in their communities faced
daunting challenges.
technical assistance and training as
team nemberstbeleve
needed.
One of our goals is to ensure site-
reducating chidren
based communication and decision-
ties.is.a.shared responsibility
making with principals, staff, and fam-
ilies about ways to support students in
between
their local schools and classes. Because
education teachers
staff involvement in the decisions
about inclusive education practices is
vital, we try to help administrators and
teachers to build new capacities in in-
The Rum River cooperative is an in-
Underlying Assumptions
structional skills and decision-making.
termediate education agency providing
A strong mission statement clearly
Our ongoing strategic planning
consultative and direct services to eight
delineating the purpose and function
process is designed to ensure the
independent and predominantly rural
of special education is essential. The
thoughtful development and clear
school districts responsible for 14,500
mission of the Rum River Special Ed-
focus of our work with staff in each
students in east central Minnesota. The
ucation Cooperative is to assist local
school district.
cooperative is relatively large in geo-
school district staff with the inclusion
Currently, in Rum River Special Ed-
graphic span and in population, pro-
of students with challenges in regular
ucation Cooperative, almost all chil-
viding specialized services and support
education settings.
dren attend their home school in
to 900 staff in 25 school sites.
Our mission does not allow for spe-
their local communities. The pilot
This article is designed to assist
cial education services to be provided
project participants valued the idea
public school administrators in their
in a separate school site nor does it re-
that all children belong to their re-
efforts to support educators and fam-
inforce the notion that only teachers
spective home school communities
ilies in the inclusion of students with
with special education labels know
and ultimately the classroom of their
disabilities in general education
how to teach students with special ed-
age peers.
learning environments. In particular,
ucation labels. In order to accomplish
In addition, these team members be-
we examine underlying assumptions
this mission, our agency designs part-
lieved the education of children with
and strategies that have proven useful
nerships with members of our local
disabilities is a shared responsibility be-
in the change to inclusion.
school communities and provides
tween regular education and special
26
THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
education and not the exclusive do-
progress. Inclusive education requires
arate settings. Families were pleased to
main of special education. These es-
plenty of planning time for participa-
have their children make real friends
sential values must be articulated and
tory decision-making.
with peers. Teachers pointed to the
agreed upon by team members.
Tremendous lip service is given to
mutual benefits of social integration.
the need for teamwork in our class-
A study examining the achieve-
Facilitating Participation
room, yet little training and technical
ment levels of classmates indicated no
As our first step, we asked the ele-
assistance is provided to the partici-
significant differences from same-age
mentary principals if they would be
pants. Since collaboration requires
peers in classes that do not have stu-
willing to participate in a collabora-
more advanced skills in a variety of de-
dents with disabilities.
tive project to include children with
cision-making models, the people in-
In sum, the expanded opportuni-
disabilities full time in regular educa-
volved in the inclusive education ef-
ties and experiences available in reg-
tion classrooms.
fort must receive basic training in
ular education classrooms raised ex-
Somewhat surprisingly, six of the 10
effective teaming.
pectations for students with disabil-
principals volunteered. These six
ities and many are learning and
principals then facilitated the forma-
Noticeable Benefits
achieving at a rate considered far
tion of building-based teams. When
After three years, we believe the
beyond what had been anticipated.
given preliminary information, staff
results for children and families war-
We have de-emphasized the impor-
members volunteered to support ini-
rant continuation of inclusive educa-
tance of categorical consultants show-
tial inclusion efforts. By the end of the
tion practices for special education
ing up in the classroom or at the team
first year (1989-90), 12 children ex-
students.
meeting with all the answers. We be-
hibiting a wide range of abilities and
Parents of the included students re-
lieve the teachers, support staff, and
challenges were in full-time place-
ported their children learned more
parents can make good decisions and
ment in age-appropriate regular edu-
academic and functional skills and
will know when to ask for help from
cation classes.
learned these skills more quickly than
external consultants.
During the 1991-92 school year,
when their children were taught in sep-
We believe our role as a cooperative
more than 40 students who previously
would have been in segregated classes
now receive their education in regu-
lar classrooms. Team members be-
Custom-Crafted Software Designed
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ADULT EDUCATION:
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Maintain your Course Offerings, Registration, and Financial data. Also
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produce your brochures. labels and reports.
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BID/PURCHASING:
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and make team decisions about in-
chasing. Produce Supply Lists, Bid Documents, Board Resolutions,
structional issues. All staff members
Purchase Orders and MORE
$589.
involved with the child and family
CENSUS/VOTERS:
must have sufficient training, notably
Track and Maintain Census/Voter information: identify boundaries for Atten-
in the early stages as people learn new
dance and Electoral purposes. Extensive Analysis and Reporting
Capabilities are included
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ways of designing and delivering edu-
cational services.
RETIREE ACCOUNTING:
Manage retiree benefits and billing information. Keep Financial Ledgers,
Collaborative teamwork is a new
Invoices and produce all necessary reports.
$349.
way of working, particularly for many
VOTER REGISTRATION:
regular education classroom teachers.
Identify registered Voters, then maintain their demographics and relation to
Some initially felt invaded and awk-
students. Produce reports, voting notification cards and Rolodex cards.
ward having more people around. Yet
$189.
once they received support from
ATHLETIC BUDGETING:
team members and became more
Produce individual team budgets while having the ability to integrate
comfortable, most classroom teachers
all data to a district-wide budget.
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procedures for making decisions, pro-
viding instruction, and evaluating
For more information, circle 60 on Reader Service Card
FEBRUARY 1992
27
or central services agency is to pro-
on the part of school staff and student
munities. We believe the result will be
vide training and technical assistance
peers.
a more positive future not only for
at the request and by design of the
We realize the progressive nature of
people with challenges or disabilities,
school teams. Our support is focused
this change and believe we need to
but for all people. In the process, we
on establishing effective collabora-
measure academic and social pro-
continue to ask questions about how
tion and problem-solving processes
gress for our students over time.
to most effectively use special educa-
that operate at the local building level
There are no ready answers and no
tion resources.
in addition to the technical support
recipe books for teachers, administra-
Our hope is that as partnerships be
for unique characteristics of individ-
tors, or family members grappling
tween general educators and special
ual students.
with the inclusion of students with dis-
educators grow stronger, together we
abilities in regular classrooms. We find
will define an improved educational sys-
Freedom to Risk
the concepts of strategic planning, the
tem that provides an array of support
Our experiences support the move-
principles of participatory decision-
options to meet the needs of all stu-
ment toward inclusive education. Stu-
making, and the skills of collaborative
dents, including those with disabilities.
dents, families, and school staff indi-
planning to be essential in the success
cate that the inclusive education effort
of inclusive education. Teams need to
Mark Wolak is director of special edu-
has been positive. Our initial evalua-
have the freedom to risk, to make mis-
cation in the Rum River, Minn., Special
tion data indicate increased positive
takes, and to make the right decisions
Education Cooperative. Jennifer York
peer interaction, decreased maladap-
regardless of previous organizational
is an assistant professor of educational
tive behaviors on the part of students
rules for behavior.
psychology at University of Minnesota.
with disabilities, and increased under-
We will continue to move in the di-
Nancy Corbin is inclusion project
director for the Rum River cooperative.
standing of students with disabilities
rection of inclusive education com-
West Cook/East DuPage Counties, Illinois
Surmounting the Disability of Isolation
BY HOWARD P. BLACKMAN
Executive Director, La Grange Area Department of Special Education
O
ur cooperative's motivation to
thereby limiting their opportunities
better learning opportunities by in-
explore the fuller inclusion of
to both learn and model from peers.
creased exposure to the richness and
students with disabilities within
We began to reexamine the efficacy
diversity of the regular education
regular education classrooms in their
of homogeneous, or lower-track, class-
classroom, leading to opportunities to
neighborhood schools is aptly captured
rooms based on disability.
develop sustained relationships with
in Canadian activist Judith Snow's in-
peers.
sightful observation that "the only dis-
Enlightened Approach
While parents value the quality of
ability is having no relationships."
The La Grange Area Department of
the instructional programs in regular
Repeated and prolonged conversa-
Special Education, a public school co-
school buildings and the uncommon
tions with parents, and especially our
operative with 55 schools in 16 subur-
dedication of highly skilled special ed-
children, helped us to better under-
ban Chicago school districts, has been
ucation teachers, they often expressed
stand that isolation from peers who can
identified as one of few school coop-
concern over the absence of friends
both contribute to and learn from
eratives of its size in the nation that
and relationships in their child's natu-
each other is the most disabling condi-
never operated a separate school for
ral environment, i.e., the block, the
tion for children, if not for all people.
children with disabilities. All special
neighborhood, and at every level of
Within our cooperative we have
education programs in LADSE dis-
the community. Parents were pained
learned to replace the question, "Is
tricts have always been housed in reg-
by their children's isolation and lone-
this intervention good for children
ular public school buildings.
liness after school and on weekends
with disabilities?" with "Does this in-
While children with moderate to
that were so inevitable since they fre-
tervention make good sense for any
significant disabilities participate in
quently did not know any child in the
child?"
regular education, they often attend a
neighborhood.
By asking this question, we began
regular school outside their own
For many children, the most natu-
questioning the logic (given poor out-
neighborhood, thereby limiting the
ral school environment is the neigh-
comes) of placing students with be-
impact of mainstreaming. Only re-
borhood school. As a colleague re-
havioral or learning difficulties, al-
cently did we better appreciate that
cently suggested when reflecting
most always associated with low
mainstreaming is supposed to be a
about the differences between main-
self-esteem in the same classroom
means toward an end, the end being
streaming (being based in special ed-
28
THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
children
ucation setting for a part of the school
teachers. Teachers who are concerned
day) and inclusion (being based in
without disabilities
that inclusion could become another
regular education with the opportu-
way to simply "dump" students in reg-
nity to receive parallel instruction in
generally have
ular education settings without sup-
community-based settings when ap-
positive
port may be right given a lack of ad-
propriate), mainstreaming means
ministrative commitment.
that you are a visitor, and inclusion
feelings about
To be done well, inclusion requires
makes you part of the family.
commitment at every level to the
Frequently, school districts inter-
helping peers
principle that children with disabili-
ested in moving toward inclusion seek
who need
ties can learn within the regular class-
out "how to" information from others
room given proper supports, and an
with implementation experience. For
assistance
unswerving commitment by adminis-
understandable reasons, inclusion
trators and the school board that re-
programs resist boiler plate, pre-pack-
sources will be reallocated to assure
aged approaches. Inclusion must con-
appropriate support to the regular
sider the educational needs of the
where these supports are being pro-
education classroom.
particular resident students being
vided to students with disabilities.
Ironically, resources usually are
served in other schools as well as the
Special education needs to be
readily available. We now better un-
needs of staff, how the students are
reconceptualized as a support to the
derstand the high cost associated with
currently grouped for instruction
regular education classroom, rather
segregated pullout program models,
within the school, the culture of the
than as "another place to go. Recent
especially those associated with bus-
school, and myriad of other neigh-
research suggests what is so wrong
ing students outside their neighbor-
borhood school conditions that differ
about special education is the stigma
hood school.
from school to school.
and isolation that result from being
Teachers need to be given absolute,
Yet there are learning strategies
removed from the regular education
unqualified commitments that chil-
that facilitate successful inclusion. Ex-
class for so long. We now have the ef-
dren and teachers will be supported
panding the capacity of the neighbor-
fective strategies to bring help to the
by reallocating dollars currently spent
hood school and regular education
student rather than removing the stu-
on sometimes poor service models to
classroom to meet the needs of more
dent from the enriching setting of the
better ones within regular education
students who learn differently re-
regular education class.
classrooms.
quires commitment to cooperative
Children, unlike adults, often are
You must acknowledge the important
learning, effective instructional strate-
positive about inclusion. While adults
role special educators play as consultants
gies such as direct instruction, peer
tend to have anxieties about inclusion
and team teachers. Regular education
mediated learning approaches such
(perhaps because it so contradicts our
teachers clearly understand this.
as peer tutoring, and cross-age group-
training and assumptions), children
They appreciate the important role
ings.
without disabilities generally have
of special educators if inclusion is to
Lessons Learned
very positive feelings about helping
be successful.
peers who need assistance.
Again, "place" is the issue. Special
Our recent experiences with inclu-
When asked why adults sometimes
educators can work effectively in the
sion have taught us some things that
assume they may not support each
regular education classroom with
might be helpful to others. They are:
other, children often say, "It's because
other teachers, thereby enriching ed-
There is a bad inclusion and good
adults don't trust us to do the right
ucational opportunities for all stu-
inclusion. Good inclusion requires
thing."
dents.
an absolute understanding and ad-
Our repeated experiences at
Inclusion provides reciprocal benefits
ministrative commitment to reallo-
LADSE assure us that students of all
for all students. While the benefits of
cating resources currently targeted
ages are more likely than not to "do
inclusion for children with disabilities
for special education. You need to
the right thing." Indeed, students are
have been emphasized because of the
be prepared to spend at least as
able problem solvers and contribute
irreplaceable impact that contact with
many resources as you now spend on
to designing new strategies that facil-
a range of other students provide, we
pullout and/or traditional special
itate successful learning outcomes for
have learned that heterogeneous in-
education programs by reallocating
their peers with disabilities.
structional grouping provides every-
these dollars for special education
Often we are reminded the real ex-
one with increased learning opportu-
supports within the regular educa-
perts about 8-year-old behavior are 8-
nities and outcomes.
tion class.
year-old children. We would do well
Special education resources redi-
There is nothing pervasively wrong
to rely more on children when we are
rected to supporting regular class-
with special education. What is being
seeking new strategies to motivate or
rooms that include students with dis-
questioned is not the interventions
enhance learning for their peers with
abilities provide all students with
and knowledge that has been ac-
challenges.
additional instructional supports.
quired through special education
Most of all, the best way to do inclu-
training and research. Rather, what is
Administrative Commitment
sion is to get involved. Do it! Everyone
being challenged is the location
You must be committed to listening to
is a winner.
FEBRUARY 1992
29
Helping Teachers Manage the
Inclusive Classroom
Staff Development and Teaming Star
Among Management Strategies
BY BARBARA AYRES and LUANNA H. MEYER
School of Education. Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York
ore than two decades
about "the label"-as if know-
M
ago when "main-
ing all about chromosomes and
streaming" sounded
the latest diagnostic terms
like something new, planning
would somehow help teachers
grants were awarded to schools
do what they needed to do in
of education as an incentive to
their classrooms.
include information on students
One teacher we know who
with special needs within their
was told she soon would have
teacher preparation programs.
two students with special needs
At the time, mainstreaming
in her third-grade class said, "I
seemed a bold venture. Public
belief that most students were
such youngsters organized ac-
cording to age. Now someone
La Grange, Ill., Area Dept. of Special Education
told the special education con-
schools, structured around the
sultant 'I need to read some
stuff on Down Syndrome. And
"typical," had created unified
Janie's autistic. Okay, I need to
curricula for large groups of
read some stuff on autism.'
Then I'm reading about the 40
million different classifications
was going to enter the class-
of autism and it varies from
room who had special needs.
child to child and IQ's vary with
What could possibly prepare
Down Syndrome, and this is like
teachers for this major shift in
saying, 'Oh, yes, I'd like to have
expectations?
a manual on the third-grader
Surely, the first step was to ensure
please.' Right.
They don't make
regular education teachers were
blueprints for kids!"
both more sensitive and more knowl-
Could one or two courses-or a ser-
edgeable about these new students.
ies of inservice workshops-focused
As a result, many teacher education
on various handicapping conditions
programs incorporated one or two
possibly prepare the regular classroom
special education courses at the pre-
teacher for these new challenges?
service level, most likely dealing with
legal requirements and the charac-
Classroom Diversity
teristics of various handicapping
"I counted up that there are seven
conditions.
kids in here that I feel are high-needs
More changes occurred in the 1980s,
kids besides Tyrone (a student with
as students with severe disabilities
Down Syndrome). Not high needs as
began to appear at the schoolhouse
far as academics.
I consider Jessica
door. Again, our reaction was to learn
a high-needs kid because things just
30 THE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATOR
break down SO easily for her."
commodate today's diverse student
proposition. Our society is full of
This teacher touches on various is-
needs.
people who work together to solve
sues of diversity in the "regular" class-
The significant contribution of spe-
problems.
room with "typical" students. There
cial education in meeting children's
School offers children a time and a
are other realities of diversity as well.
needs has been in developing a tech-
place to learn how to be members of
Gender can be a subtle but powerful
nology of individualization. Special
society-how to be part of working
source of influence upon children if
educators can assess learning styles
groups, play groups, and communi-
teachers mirror society's differential
and academic skill levels, identify so-
ties and how to make friends. This so-
stereotypes for boys and girls.
cial and behavioral needs, and orga-
cialization process is sometimes re-
One-fourth of today's young chil-
nize the team around an individual-
ferred to as school's "hidden agenda."
dren are living in poverty and do not
ized plan to meet both academic and
We take peer relationships for
come to school ready to learn. One-
non-academic needs.
granted without fully acknowledging
fourth of today's ninth graders will
This technology can be a valuable
the crucial role friendships play in
not graduate from high school four
contribution to the regular class-
preparing children for adult life. But
years from now.
room-particularly if the resources of
more and more, the implicit socializa-
Clearly, many children with and
without diagnosed handicapping con-
ditions have tremendous needs, and
school may be the one environment
Percentage of All Students with Disabilities
that could be safe, nurturing, and
enabling for young people who other-
Ages 3-21 Served in Six Educational Placements
wise would find themselves in a down-
ward spiral.
Home/hospital
0.9%
Other aspects of diversity can and
Separate school
Residential
5.2%
0.8%
should become sources of personal
sustenance for children. Cultural,
racial, and linguistic diversity is a real-
ity that should be enriching for all
children and for our society.
In the Syracuse, N.Y., City School
District, virtually half of the students
Separate class
Resource room
24.4%
37.3%
in the middle schools are members of
a "minority" group. In such settings,
old ideas of mainstream versus minor-
ity cultures are neither descriptive nor
helpful.
Perhaps it is most fitting, then, that
terms such as mainstreaming and in-
tegration are giving way to the con-
cept of inclusion. Inclusion has no
conditions and makes no differential
value judgments. Everyone belongs,
everyone is welcome, and everyone
Regular class
has a contribution to make.
31.3%
Yet if this new reality is to become
Definitions: Regular class includes students who receive most of their education in
a source of personal growth and cul-
a typical class and receive special education for less than 21 percent of the day.
tural enrichment for all its mem-
Resource room includes students who receive special education for 21 to 60
bers, teachers now need much more
percent of the day.
than classes on handicapping condi-
Separate class includes students who receive special education for more than
tions. They need to be prepared
60 percent of the day.
through both preservice and inser-
vice education to become part of a
Source: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs
new school community where all stu-
dents are both valued and expected
to learn.
special education become more read-
tion and group experiences in school
Instructional Strategies
ily available to intervene on behalf of
are not sufficient to adequately
Rather than existing as a separate
any child at risk regardless of labels.
prepare tomorrow's citizens. We
system and set of resources, special
But individualized instruction can-
should become as explicit about so-
education must become part of a uni-
not address all the needs of the regu-
cial-emotional goals as we have been
fied educational system to better ac-
lar classroom. Life is not a one-to-one
continued on page 33
FEBRUARY 1992
31
continued from page 31
each subject in isolation and hoping
team idea. I like the support of it, I
régarding academic expectations for
students will generalize the skills they
like the structure of it, I just really
children.
learn to the world around them.
enjoy it. It's really nice to be able to
Educational innovations such as co-
Interdisciplinary teaching has the
bounce ideas off somebody else."
operative learning developed by
added potential of helping students
Yet it is not always easy for adults to
David and Roger Johnson, Robert
see the relevance of school to their
work together. This is not something
Slavin, Spencer Kagan, Shlomo Sha-
own needs.
we ourselves experienced in elemen-
ran, and others have double value:
tary or secondary school or in col-
They do indeed enable children to
Teaming Approaches
lege. This is changing, as today's
master important academic goals, but
Teaching can be a lonely profession.
young people participate in coopera-
they also teach children how to be
Many teachers spend the majority of
tive learning at all levels.
part of a social unit.
their school day with students, in iso-
But since today's teachers generally
In addition, whole language ap-
lation from other adults. Although
did not have such cooperative group ex-
proaches to reading and language
some teachers prefer this autonomy,
periences, school leaders must provide
arts empower children to bring their
many are beginning to value opportu-
support and practice to enable teachers
culture and experiences into the
nities to collaborate with their peers
to master collaborative teaming.
classroom where they are valued and
as they work together to address the
Successful teaching teams have the
become an integral part of the aca-
needs of all their students within the
same components as successful coop-
demic learning process.
classroom.
erative learning groups: positive inter-
Interdisciplinary teaching at the
Sometimes this partnership begins
dependence, face-to-face interac-
middle school level challenges teach-
with a general education teacher and
tions, interpersonal and small-group
ers to integrate their subject specialty
a special education teacher working
skills, individual accountability, and
concerns into broader themes, cur-
together, an entire grade-level team,
group processing.
rent events, and the daily activities of
or a teacher and a teaching assistant.
Administrative support is crucial if
their students, rather than teaching
One teacher told us, "I really like the
continued on page 35
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FEBRUARY 1992
33
continued from page 33
change-block scheduling to allow
are regarded as passive consumers of
teachers are to work together to ad-
for team teaching across two consecu-
"packages" created and developed
dress the needs of all their students in
tive class periods-will not be possible
under totally different circumstances.
a collaborative manner.
minus administrative support.
Many of the innovations described
On the interdisciplinary teams at
Without mutual and administra-
in this article-from the broad con-
four Syracuse middle schools, five
tive support, teachers can feel over-
struct of inclusion to specific curricu-
subject area teachers and one special
whelmed by the demands of working
lar and instructional components
education teacher are given common
with numerous different adults and
such as whole language and coopera-
planning time during the school day
trying to touch base during lunch, be-
tive learning-represent a new way of
so they can discuss lessons and indi-
fore and after school, or while passing
doing things for schools.
vidual students and share informa-
in the hallways.
Typically, program developers as-
tion about successful adaptations and
sumed the way to get teachers to
accommodations.
Inservice Training
adopt a new model was to tightly con-
These teams are piloting interdisci-
Educational researchers often have
trol staff development, provide
plinary teaching, continuous pro-
bemoaned what they see as resistance
"teacher-proof" materials, and closely
gress, student portfolios, and a peer
by school systems and teachers to in-
monitor all phases of implementa-
support networking approach to cre-
novations. They ask, "Why don't prac-
tion. We disagree.
ate new ways to reach at-risk students
titioners enthusiastically and immedi-
We believe that unless teachers are
and prevent school dropouts.
ately implement the innovations
empowered and recognized as leader-
These innovations are not easily
described in the journals?"
ship personnel who know their stu-
accommodated by the traditional
We think implementation of mod-
dents and circumstances better than
structure of the middle school day,
els will continue to be a problem as
anyone else, model implementation
and what may seem like a simple
long as teachers and administrators
continued from page 37
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FEBRUARY 1992
35
continued from page 35
circle. The Division of Special Éduca-
Who is in the best position to pre-
will continue to be a problem. If teach-
tion and Rehabilitation has a long
dict what tomorrow's teachers will
ers are to be prepared for inclusion-
and illustrious history of preparing
need? Universities have long been in
or for any other innovation-they must
special educators at all professional
the business of believing they define
take ownership of that innovation.
levels and an equally longstanding
both excellence and innovation.
positive relationship with the Division
Their historical role as producers of
Task Forces Preferred
for the Study of Teaching, which tra-
new knowledge is an appropriate one
We successfully have used a task force
ditionally has prepared elementary,
and likely to continue.
model at school and district levels to
middle, and high school teachers. All
But the practice of teacher educa-
lead the way to new directions. An im-
preservice teachers had at least a min-
tion must be far more responsive to
portant difference between a task force
imal introduction to special needs.
societal changes and take far more se-
and a "train the trainers" approach is
Previously, a "dual" program existed
riously the responsibility of modeling
that the task force initially agrees upon
that basically was two programs taken
the very innovations researchers pro-
certain basic goals and premises, but
in parallel-not unlike the dual pro-
mote for schools.
then is empowered to develop specific
grams that exist in many schools of ed-
Preservice teacher education pro-
plans as a group effort.
ucation. Meanwhile, the public schools
grams must play a proactive role in
Our Stay In School Partnership Pro-
in Central New York were becoming in-
modeling process and content that re-
ject in the Syracuse middle schools,
creasingly inclusive. Even students with
flects the best practices emerging from
for example, began with a few shared
the most severe disabilities can be
research and development. Staff devel-
assumptions and values: We would not
found in regular classrooms.
opment at the inservice level has the
establish yet another pull-out program
advantage of being imminently flexible
and we would instead attempt to cre-
Walking the Talk
and thus potentially can respond im-
ate conditions that would help at-risk
At SU, we decided we had to practice
mediately to changing requirements.
students consider themselves part of
what we preached: If schools could
However, the one-shot approach to
their school communities.
become inclusive, then perhaps
staff development has a long history
Beginning with these basic points,
teacher education had better keep
of not making a difference. Teachers
the task force then was empowered to
up. If teachers are being expected to
need more than being told or reading
examine a variety of approaches and
include, integrate, and incorporate
about what they should do. Inservice
components, always weighing each
diversity into their practices, univer-
training must be ongoing and dy-
against a basic template of assump-
sity-level teacher educators should
namic and must empower practi-
tions and values and selecting and
model those same practices and not
tioners and parents to support one
adapting those that made the most
simply lecture about them.
another as they define the shape an
sense for the group.
Hence, since 1990, our undergrad-
innovation will take in their schools
Similarly, for three years we have
uates enroll in one Inclusive Elemen-
and classrooms.
supported small study groups of
tary and Special Education Program
teachers and parents focused on se-
and complete a sequence of courses
lected issues of interest to the partici-
designed to demonstrate-and not
Barbara Ayres is a doctoral candidate
pants. For example, one of our study
just talk about-the inclusive princi-
in special education and Luanna Meyer
is a professor of education at Syracuse
groups this year includes eight teach-
ples and practices increasingly evi-
University's School of Education.
ers and parents from several Central
denced in our schools.
New York school districts interested in
multicultural issues for students with
special needs and their families.
The group will meet monthly dur-
ing non-school times, select and
schedule their information-gather-
How EFFECTIVE Is YOUR SCHOOL?
ing process, learn about new prac-
We can help you determine how well your school measures up
tices, and prepare themselves to be-
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to effective schools correlates in order to write school improvement
mentoring to other teachers and
plans.
team members.
KanLEAD's DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT OF SCHOOL AND
One of our most successful inser-
PRINCIPAL EFFECTIVENESS is a proven battery of tests that gathers
vice activities of the past several years
information from your school community to portrays the school's
was last year's open house sponsored
by the study groups. More than 100
outcomes and processes.
teachers, administrators, and parents
For information: KanLEAD Leadership Academy,
came to hear their peers present what
820 Quincy, Suite 200, Topeka, KS 66612 Phone: (913) 232-6566
they had learned and adapted for the
variety of regional circumstances.
At Syracuse University, our teacher
preparation program has come full
For more information, circle 6 on Reader Service Card
FEBRUARY 1992
37
Ramsey. E.. & O Neill. R
Exceptional Children. Vol. 59. No 4. pp 359-372.
profiles of arrested ver-
01993 The Council for Exceptional Children.
Exceptionality. A Re-
revention 111 nool inclure
adbook Pentone 11_ EPSF
C.. & ()' Sullivan. P }
"I've Counted Jon": Transformational
and referral practices
education: Policy consid-
Tournal of Special
Experiences of Teachers Educating
Students with Disabilities
EC ME Federation IS
MICHAEL F. GIANGRECO
at Maine School
RUTH DENNIS
No. 64. East Corinth.
CHIGEE CLONINGER
AUL CEC # 192) is a
SUSAN EDELMAN
mate at the National
RICHARD SCHATTMAN
Directors of Special
University of Vermont
dria. Virginia: and
CEC ME Federation)
Staff Services at Maine
ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study was to describe the experiences of general education
District No. 04 in East
teachers who have had a student with severe disabilities in their class. Interviews of 19 general
education teachers. kindergarten through Grade 9. as well as questionnaires completed by 18
teachers were unalyzed using categorical coding procedures to identify themes related to the
J William E. Davis for
teachers experiences. Results showed that despite teachers initial negative reactions to the
:e and support during
placement of a child with severe disabilities in their classrooms. 17 teachers described transforming
We also thank Anne
experiences of a more positive nature and related many benefits to the students with disabilities.
It and diligent work in
their classmates. and the teachers themselves. Respondents also characterized what support
cle.
services thes found helpful and not helpful.
pril 1990: revision
At the beginning of the year. if I was making
study was to explore what these teachers would
copies of something I might forget to count Jon:
say. that is. to understand the experiences and per-
I just didn't deal with him
When count the
spectives of general education teachers who had
kids in my class now. I've counted Jon. It just
students with severe disabilities in their classes.
took me a while.
Although many educators support the inclu-
These were the words of a teacher as she de-
sion of most students with disabilities in general
scribed a transformation in her perspective re-
education classes (Gartner & Lipsky, 1987:
lated to educating a child with severe disabilities
Reynolds. Wang, & Walberg. 1987: Will. 1986).
in her general education. 2nd-grade class. Her
some question the appropriateness of extending
personal and professional beliefs about her abil-
the general class placement option to students
ity to teach a class that included a student with
with severe disabilities Jenkins. Pious. & Jewell.
severe disabilities had changed as a result of her
1990). Much of the national debate regarding the
experience with one student. Similar to many
appropriateness of general class placement for all
other general education teachers. she had no for-
students has remained theoretical and specula-
mal training to prepare her for this endeavor. In-
tive. On a more concrete level. there is an increas-
stead. she had followed the advice of a colleague
ing availability and growing support for the
to "go to another school where they have children
placement of students with severe disabilities in
like Jon and observe and talk to those teachers
general education classrooms Giangreco & Put-
who do have the experience. The purpose of this
nam. 1991: Lipsky & Gartner. 1989: Stainback
February 1993
Exceptional Children
359
& Stainback. 1991: Thousand & Villa. 1990:
thopedic disabilities (e.g., nonambulatory. lim-
Williams. Fox. Thousand. & Fox. 1990: York &
ited use of hands/arms) and functioned as though
Vandercook. 1990)).
they had severe cognitive impairments It should
In Vermont. students with severe disabilities
be noted that the labels of mental retardation used
have been receiving special education supports in
in Table 1 should not be construed as measures
general education class placements since 1984
of ability. Given these students combined sen-
Schattman. 1992: Thousand et al.. 1986: Wil-
sory and motoric disabilities. it often is difficult
hams al., 19861. Most Vermont school districts
to accurately determine their level of cognitive
offer some integrated educational programs for
functioning and subsequently to determine which
students who were previously segregated in spe-
of their impairments IS most responsible for the
cial classes or special schools. A growing number
students' profoundly delayed level of function-
of districts are including all of their students with
ing.
disabilities. including those with severe disabili-
Fourteen of the teachers were women. five
ues. in general education placements and are no
were men. Their teaching experience ranged
longer providing a special class model Thousand
from 2 to 21 years. All were certified in general
& Villa. 1990).
education: three also had special education certi-
The classrooms described in this article are not
fication. Only two of the teachers reported receiv-
presented as model sites. although some may be.
ing any inservice training designed to prepare
Their approach to the education of students with
them for including a student with severe disabil-
severe disabilities. however. reflects emerging
ities in a general education classroom any time
support for the inclusion of students with severe
during the 3 years preceding the student's place-
disabilities in general education classrooms and
challenges traditional notions regarding the need
ment. All 19 teachers had a paraprofessional
for centralized special classes or special schools.
(e.g., teacher aide) assigned to their classrooms:
This study examines the first-hand experiences
access to ongoing support from district or re-
and perspectives of many general education
gional special educators and related service per-
teachers who have taught students with severe
sonnel (e.g., physical therapists. speech/language
disabilities in their general education classes.
pathologists): and intermittent support from
members of the Vermont I-Team.
METHOD
Data Collection Method
Subjects
Semi-structured interviews were selected as the
The subjects.or this study were 19 general educa-
primary method for data collection. because they
non teachers who worked in 10 Vermont public
would give the teachers a forum to share their ex-
schools teaching kindergarten through Grade 9.
periences and give the newer the opportu-
Teachers were selected to be interviewed based
nity to ask follow-up questions. The interview
on three criteria: (a) sometime during the last 3
protocol allowed for the initial set of questions to
years they had had a student who was identified
be presented in nonstandardized ways or in a dif-
as severely disabled in their general education
ferent order. so that each interviewer could indi-
classroom on a full-time basis. or in one case two
vidualize question-asking (see Table 2). Teachers
of the teachers shared a student throughout the
were asked ongoing follow-up questions. thus
year in a departmentalized arrangement: (b) these
providing the opportunity to verify the data being
students met the Vermont definition of being dual
recorded (Lincoln & Guba. 1985).
sensory impaired or "at risk for dual sensory im-
In the spring of 1991. teachers were contacted
pairment" (Vermont Department of Education.
by phone and asked if they were willing to be in-
1987): and (c) these students were served by the
terviewed regarding their experiences teaching a
Vermont I-Team's Dual Sensory Impairment
student with severe disabilities in the general ed-
Project. a statewide service providing training
ucation classroom. All 19 teachers agreed to be
and technical assistance to educational teams
interviewed. Interviews were conducted between
serving Vermont students with intensive special
March and June 1991 in private rooms located at
education needs.
the schools where the teachers worked and were
As Table 1 shows. most of the students with
tape-recorded. with teacher permission. Inter-
whom these teachers worked also had severe or-
views ranged in length from 45 to 90 min.
360
February 1993
nonambulatory. lim-
TABLE 1
functioned as though
Summary of Information Regarding General Education Teachers
impairments. It should
retardation used
Years
Grades
Educa-
Certifi-
Expert-
Years with
Inter.
Student
onstrued as measures
Teacher
Yes
Ton
cation
ence
DSI Student
newer
Characteristics
dents combined sen-
It often IS difficult
|
K
M
Bachelor's
Elementary
15
I
MG
DSI. profound retarda-
level of cognitive
two severe orthopedic
to determine which
disability
responsible for the
in
K
F
Bachelor's
Elementary
6
I
MG
DSI. severe orthopedic
level of function-
disability
3
K
F
Bachelor's
Elementary
-
I
MG
DSI. profound retarda-
were women. five
& Special
non. severe orthopedic
Education
disability
experience ranged
1
K
F
Bachelor's
Elementary
X
I
MG
certified in general
DSI. profound retarda-
becial education certi-
tion. severe orthopedic
disability
chers reported receiv-
5
!
F
Master's
Elementary
17
I
MG
DSI. profound retarda-
designed to prepare
tion. severe orthopedic
with severe disabil-
disability
classroom any time
n
!
F
Bachelor's
Elementary
+
I
MG
DSI. profound retarda-
the student's place-
tion. severe orthopedic
a paraprofessional
disability
to their classrooms:
-
:
=
Bachelor's
Elementary
20
]
RS
DSI. profound retarda-
from district or re-
tion. severe orthopedic
related service per-
disability
speech/language
8
:
F
Bachelor's
Elementary
10
I
MG
DSI. profound retarda-
support from
non. severe orthopedic
Team.
disability
9
2.3
F
Master's
Elementary
10
to
MG
DSI. profound retarda-
& Special
non. severe orthopedic
Education
disability
were selected as the
11)
i
M
Master's
Elementary
18
I
CC
DSI. profound retarda-
ection. because they
tion. severe orthopedic
um to share their ex-
disability
viewer the opportu-
11
:
M
Master's
Elementary
18
I
RS
DSI. profound retarda-
tons. The interview
tion. severe orthopedic
al set of questions to
disability
zed ways or in a dif-
12
i
F
Master's
Elementary
7
I
RS
DSI. profound retarda-
enviewer could indi-
tion. severe orthopedic
to Table 2). Teachers
disability
-up questions. thus
13
...
F
Bachelor's
Elementary
13
]
MG
DSI. protound retarda-
erify the data being
tion. severe orthopedic
985).
disability
hers were contacted
14
4
F
Bachelor's
Elementary
IN
1
RS
DSI. profound retarda-
ere willing 10 be in-
non. severe orthopedic
eriences teaching 3
disability
in the general ed-
15
1
F
Master's
Elementary
14
1
CC
DSI. profound retarda-
ichers agreed 10 be
tion. severe orthopedic
conducted between
disability
1e rooms located at
16
4-5
F
Master's
Elementary
6
I
MG
DSI. mild retardation
worked and were
& Special
permission. Inter-
Education
.5 to 90 min.
(Continued)
February 1993
Exceptional Children
361
TABLE I
of
(Continued)
Ta
Years
Grade
Educa-
Certifi-
Expert-
Years with
Inter-
Student
Feacher
Faught
in
non
cation
once
DSI Student
memer
Characteristics
17
"
F
Master
Elementary
21
I
CC
DSI. profound retarda-
tion. severe orthopedic
disability
18
8
M
Master's
Education
13
1
SE
DSL profound retarda-
Science
non. severe orthopedic
Q
disability
us
14
4
M
Master's
Social Stud-
12
I
CC
DSI. profound retarda-
Social
ies Education
non. severe orthopedic
Studies
disability
Note DSI = dual sensory impairment.
ar
"MG = Michael Giangreco. RS = Richard Schattman: CC = Chigee Cloninger: SE = Susan Edelman.
an
an
or
di
TABLE 2
CC
Initial Interview Questions
I
How did a student with significant disabilities get placed in your general education classroom?
2. How has inclusion of the student with significant disabilities in your classroom affected you as a teacher and
a person?
3. How has inclusion of the student with significant disabilities in your classroom affected that student'
- How has inclusion of the student with significant disabilities in your classroom affected the other (non-
disabled) students'
5. What advice would you offer to others who are attempting to include students with significant disabilities in
general education classes'
S
Each interview began with areview of the pur-
reported in this study. Two statements were di-
poses of the research and assurances of confiden-
rectly relevant to this investigation. These were:
mality. Next. the interviewer noted background
"My attitudes about educating students with sig-
information about the teacher on a separate data
nificant disabilities in general education have be-
sheet (see Table 1). Initial interview questions
come more positive as a result of teaching a child
and follow-up questions were asked until the in-
with significant disabilities," and "Given appro-
terview was concluded.
priate supports. I would welcome a student with
Following the interview. each teacher was
significant disabilities in my class in the future."
given a two-page survey and a self-addressed
Surveys were obtained from 18 of the 19 teach-
stamped envelope. Page 1 included questions to
ers.
verify the background information about the
teacher (e.g., grade taught. years of experience).
Data Analysis Procedures
Page 2 consisted of seven statements and an
Toensure that the principal investigator was thor-
open-comments section. Teachers responded to
oughly familiar with the data before data analy-
the statements using a Likert-style scale (1 =
SIS. he listened to all interview tapes. read each
1
"strongly disagree." 10 = "strongly agree"). Five
transcribed interview as each was completed. and
statements were used for evaluation of service
re-read all interview transcripts after they were
delivery practices through the I-Team and are not
completed. Analysis of interview data consisted
362
February 1993
of categorical coding Bogdan & Biklen. 1982:
weeks were contacted by phone (1) respond ver-
Taylor & Bogdan. 1984) Initially 81 codes (e.g.,
bally to the member-check questions. Eighteen of
expectations. disruptions. support) were devel-
the 19 teachers responded to the member check.
oped to describe portions of lext After the initial
Respondents' recommendations were limited to
Student
Characteristics
coding of all interviews. each interv iew transcript
minor errors regarding teachers' characteristics
was re-coded by adding. combining. or separat-
(e.g., years of experience. type of certification)
DSL protound retards-
ing previously coded text. These 57 subsequent
All teachers responded affirmatively to the sub-
non. severe orthopedic
codes assisted in identifying emerging themes in
stantive aspects of Questions 1.4. Sixteen of the
treability
the data.
18 responding teachers commented positively
DSL profound retarda-
Given the volume of interview data. Hyper.
about the results. two did not. Teacher responses
.on. severe orthopedic
Qual Padilla. 1990). a text-sorting program. was
were used to adjust the final presentation of the
isability
used to sort the data by code. HyperQual was
study.
DSL profound retarda-
used to generate 57 code-specific reports. These
on. severe orthopedic
reports reorganized text data into related groups.
isability
This assisted with the identification of themes
RESULTS
and subthemes that could then be considered for
Edelman.
analysis. Once themes were identified. positive
Initial Experiences and Reactions
and negative occurrences were highlighted and
organized to assist in understanding the interview
Each teacher in this study had a student with se-
data. The research team reviewed these se-
vere disabilities in his or her general education
quenced themes to ensure that the analysis was
class. The majority of teachers in this study were
consistent with and not contradictory to their in-
asked or volunteered to accept a student with se-
terview experiences with the teachers. Statistical
vere disabilities in their classes. Most teachers
stoom
computation of survey data was conducted using
stated that acceptance of a student with severe
you as a teacher and
the Statistical Analysis System (SAS. 1985).
disabilities was contingent on receipt of "sup-
ports" (e.g., paraprofessional. consultant. techni-
that student!
cal assistance). In addition. most teachers agreed
Member Checks
eted the other (non-
to the placement of a student with severe disabil-
Lincoln and Guba (1985) explained the impor-
ities in their class with an understanding that the
fificant disabilities in
tance of testing the constructions of researchers
placement was not necessarily permanent. and
for factual and interpretative accuracy to estab-
could be changed at any time during the school
lish evidence of credibility and confirmability. In
year. "We decided we would try it. It was pretty
September 1991 a report including the descrip-
much done on a trial basis to begin with." The
tion of the study's subjects and the results of anal-
initial placement was also considered a choice
yses from the interview data were sent to all 19
that most teachers could accept or reject. As one
atements were di-
teachers. They were asked to read the report and
middle school teacher said. "She [special educa-
ition. These were:
answer the following questions:
tor] made it very clear that I did not have to do It.
She didn't want to push me into it. and It would
students with -1g-
Are you satisfied that your anonymity was
be fine if said "No."
education have be.
maintained so you are not personally identifi-
Regardless of how the student with severe dis-
of teaching a child
able!
abilities was placed in the general education
.nd "Given appro-
2. Based on your interview. do you find the con-
class. most teachers reacted to the initial place-
me a student with
tent of the report accurate?
ment in a cautious or negative manner. They de-
ass in the future."
3. Were quotes you gave in your interview. if
scribed their feelings with the terms. "reluctant."
of the 19 teach-
used. used accurately and appropriately?
"scared." "nervous." "leery." "upprehensive."
4 Do the themes presented in this report include
"unqualified." "angry." and "worried." One
the information you gave us in your inter-
teacher said. "I didn't know much about how to
view?
deal with him and how to respond to him and in-
stigator was thor-
A space was also available for the teachers to
teract with him. I was afraid." Another pondered.
store data analy-
make any additional comments that might help
"I certainly was wondering how she was going to
rapes. read each
the researchers more fully understand their per-
fit in. how I was going to include her in every-
completed. and
spective. Teachers returned their member-check
thing. not having experience myself: not know-
after they were
forms in a self-addressed stamped envelope.
ing what to expect." Others questioned the wis-
$ data consisted
Teachers who did not return their forms within 2
dom of such a placement:
February 1993
Exceptional Children
363
My reaction was. don't feel like she belongs in
Interestingly. some teachers expressed greater
J public school. She was o extremely
confidence in the abilities of untrained. Substan-
handicapped and I remember what she looked
tively unsupervised. paraprofessionals than they
like. Her hands were always in front of her face
did in their own abilities.
and she just didn' seem 10 have any connection
with the world around her.
Transforming
The initial reactions 11) the placement of stu-
dents with severe disabilities led to a series of
For two teachers. the initial experiences re-
teacher expectations regarding their own roles.
mained relatively unchanged throughout the
One common approach used by special educators
school year. characterized by lack of ownership
for the child's education.
and administrators to alleviate a teacher's fear or
concern was to establish the teacher's role as that
I can't actually say that there were too many
of a host. Someone else (e.g., special educator.
times that I sat dow n with Linda and actually did
al
paraprofessional) would have the primary or ex-
things with her: I never specifically worked with
clusive responsibility for educating the child.
Linda.
Many teachers embraced this understanding by
I still haven't really connected with her.
saving, "If I wanted to he a special educator I
would have gone into special education. One
I never felt like I really developed a relationship
primary grade teacher explained. "I guess the
with him like you do with a child going through
the year.
focus was more on he's going to be in there: we
are going to see how It works. The aide is going
Sometimes this lack of ownership was pro-
to take care of him. I guess that was how [ looked
nounced:
at it: I wasn' going to have much to do with him.
I'm so busy focusing on the other 22 kids that 1
so why not let them try it!" As a result. some
don't even notice that she's here. Twice we left
P
teachers initially did not view themselves as the
the room. once to go to lunch and once to go
child's teacher in the same way they saw them-
outside, forgetting that she was here and the aide
selves as the teacher for the other students in the
wasn in the room. The second time I realized
class.
when I got outside and sent a kid up right aw ay.
Often. a teacher aide or assistant. without the
but the first time we had gone down to lunch I
benefit of training related to inclusionary prac-
was totally oblivious because she was so quiet.
tices. had the primary responsibility for day-to-
My attention is totally on the other kids. I didn't
day decision making and program implementa-
notice whether she was present or absent. to be
honest.
tion. Frequently these paraprofessionals had
correspondingly limited contact with the hosting
However. 17 of the 19 teachers experienced
classroom teacher. As a result. different teachers
increased ownership and involvement with the
explained:
student with severe disabilities in their classes
over the course of the school year. We refer to
I don't think of him as one of the children that I
this as transformation. The extent of transforma-
educate.
tion varied widely among teachers. Those who
I'm basically in charge of the nondisabled kids'
experienced changes challenged their original
academic curriculum.
expectations for the student with severe disabili-
ties and for themselves. They increased their re-
The aide will be more or less responsible for
sponsibility for the student's educational pro-
seeing to his needs.
gram and their personal interaction with the
To be honest. we've included her very little.
student. The cautious and negative comments
You're very busy with other students. and she
used to discuss their initial reactions were re-
kind of gets lost in the shuffle.
placed by descriptors such as. "positive," "good."
"successful." "interesting," "amazed," "pleased."
As far as being trained. in knowing specifics
``great,`` "wonderful." and "enjoyment."
about how to adapt the activity for Sam's needs,
[ didn't feel competent in making those
The positive adjectives used by teachers to de-
decisions. And the aide that was in my room at
scribe their experiences were verified by their re-
the time was very good at taking the activity that
sponses to the survey statements. In response to
I was doing with the other children and pulling
the statement. "My attitudes about educating stu-
Sam in on it.
dents with significant disabilities in general edu-
364
February 1993
expressed greater
cation have become more positive as a result of
"Hi. Jon" when he came into the room. I
untrained. substan-
teaching I child with significant disabilities." the
basically didn't have any contact with him. I
fessionals than they
teachers indicated strong agreement by respond-
started realizing at that point that I have got to
ing with a mean score of (SD = 2.46) on the
have some impact on him. He's one of my
10-point scale Fourteen of the teachers rated this
students I had always said. I have 13 students
plus Jon." and then I realized: hy am I saying
item 8 OF higher: 11) teachers gave it the highest
"plus Jon"? He's one of my students.
agreement score (10) The standard deviation
experiences re-
was widened by one teacher who rated this item
I think I started looking at It as. "I'm the teacher
throughout the
1. This teacher's low rating was consistent with
here." I'm the one that got the education. got the
lack of ownership
her interview. which indicated that transforma-
certificate for teaching. I'm responsible for
non. as we have discussed it. did not occur for
every other student. [ should be responsible for
this student 100.
were too many
this person. In reference 10 the statement. "Given
and actually did
appropriate supports. I would welcome a student
I started seeing him as a little boy I started
worked with
with significant disabilities in my class in the fu-
feeling that he's a person 100. He's a student.
ture." the teachers also indicated strong agree-
Why should I not teach him" He's in my class.
with her
ment by responding with a mean score of 8.74
That's my responsibility. I'm a teacher!
(SD = 1.39).
a relationship
Just getting to know her made It more
Transformations were gradual and progres-
comfortable for me after a while.
going through
sive rather than discrete and abrupt. Teachers de-
scribed an emerging recognition that their initial
But [by] having Ellen right there. you have to
deal with it: and [ found out that I can do it. There
.nership was pro-
expectations regarding the student with disabili-
is nothing here that is very different than getting
ues were based on unsubstantiated assumptions.
along with a whole lot of other people in life.
ther 22 kids that I
This prompted teachers to reflect and reconsider
Twice 42 left
previously assumed positions. Many made com-
Teachers who transformed shared a number of
and once to go
ments such as. I always had the nagging feeling
experiences. They developed a willingness to (a)
here and the aide
I'm not doing enough." Teachers also reported
interact with the student. (b) learn skills needed
nd time I realized
beginning to view the child as a person rather than
to teach the student. and (c) change their attitudes
.id up right away.
a disability. and they established a personal rela-
toward the student. In some cases. teachers
down to lunch I
tionship with the student. A number of teachers
changed their attitudes about themselves as well.
she was so quiet.
expressed their desire to have an impact on the
Teachers shared comments such as:
ther kids. didn't
student by teaching them. Teachers who had
or absent. to be
I made the full swing of fighting against having
these experiences reportedly came to the realiza-
Bobbi Sue placed in my room to fighting for her
tion they-could be successful and that including
to be in a mainstream classroom working with
chers experienced
the student was not as difficult as they had origi-
kids in the way that she had worked with them
Ilvement with the
nally imagined. As one teacher said. "You don't
all year long. I'm a perfect example of how you
'S in their classes
know until you actually in the trenches doing
have to have an open mind.
year. We refer to
it: I just never found It to be difficult." Other
Nothing here IS so outrageous that I can't learn
of transforma-
teachers reiterated this notion by saying, "I don't
it.
thers. Those who
feel I have really done that many things differ-
red their original
ently: I didn't think it was a big deal" and "If they
Now that I have dealt with her. I have rolled her
h severe disabili-
[teachers] stopped to think about the number of
down the hill and I've taken her sliding with the
ncreased their re-
accommodations they are making for kids right
other kids and stuff. She's a little girl like
educational pro-
in their own classroom who aren't special ed.. I
everyone else.
raction with the
think they would realize there is not much more
When I started finally having some interactions
gative comments
we are asking." The following quotes typify the
with him. he would come right over with his
actions were re-
comments of teachers who underwent significant
walker up to my desk. hold onto the desk. and
positive." "good,"
transformation.
put his butt around like he wanted to get up on
lized." "pleased."
my lap. And I would pick him up and he would
I just realized that he had been in my classroom
ment."
look up at me and smile and he would put his
for a month or so. and I had no contact with him
hand on my face. and so you knew when he was
y teachers to de-
really. I have a student in my classroom. and I
content.
rified by their re-
don't think I have even touched him. You know,
S. In response to
I had so much physical contact with all the other
The 17 teachers who changed reported an in-
ut educating stu-
first graders. patting them on the back. going up
crease in their sense of ownership for the child's
in general edu-
to them and talking to them. Other than saying
education.
February 1993
Exceptional Children
365
It's easy in expect the ade (i) do everything for
indicator of the extent of teacher transformation.
She
that student. and then you think now you don't
The teachers' approach was to recognize and
cor
have to deal with It at all. but Il doesn't
build on the similarities among students with and
or
mean I suppose 11 could work that way. out I
without disabilities.
don't think that you would get much out of it.
Teachers reported favoring approaches that
I feel ven comfortable with her Ven otten I
encouraged students to learn together (e.g., coop-
rill
have her for periods in the classroom when the
erative learning. group problem-solving). They
andes aren't there. and that no problem at all.
also emphasized approaches that were active.
t10
I in the one that's going to make the plans for
participatory. and pical rather than specialized
that student. Em responsible for his success in
(e.g., manipulatives. games. projects. labs. field
CIT
my classroom.
study One teacher said:
"I
I think you have to see them 11 another one of
I don't try to lecture as much and cut down on
of
the children in class who has some strengths.
that: and try to get activities. game playing.
some weaknesses: and you need to find out
things like that The class may be noister or more
where they are at and how you can help them.
active than aclass which stresses lecture and just
po
sitting there quietly.
To me. he was just one of the kids in the class.
as
[ think you really need 10 have that attitude.
What Was Helpful and What Wasn't?
Finally, these teachers displayed a willingness
po
10 learn from their students.
In Shel Silverstein's 1974) poem. "Helping." the
en
refrain goes. "Some kind of help is the kind of
tec
I started watching my own regular classroom
help that helping is all about. and some kind of
pc
students. They didn treat him any differently.
help is the kind of help we all can do without" p.
ui
They went about their business like everything
101). Teachers reported experiencing both kinds
te.
was normal. So said. If they can do it. can
to it He's not getting in their way. they
of help. Teachers who found support personnel
de
treating him like even hody else
helpful cited four facilitating practices: (a) shared
ni
framework and goals. (b) physical presence. (C)
I learned more from the kids than I think they
validation of the teacher's contribution. and (d)
th
learned from me because they were with Tim
teamwork.
vi
last year.
Having a shared framework and goals meant
They were always letting me know when I
that both the specialist and the teacher worked to
torgot something. You didn't remember to
include the student with disabilities in the general
include Sarah." So they were very good at
class routine. The helpful specialist's role was to
p:
letting me know
assist the teacher in "how to incorporate her bet-
The kids help you figure It out.
ter: just how all the kids fit in how we could
better make her fit in like everybody else." By
SI
helping the teacher include the student with dis-
T
Approaches Used by Teachers Who
abilities in typical class activities. the specialist
tt
Transformed
was using his or her unique skills and knowledge
As mentioned previously. some teachers feared
to pursue the same goals as the teacher. rather
that they would need to use a lot of "special" ma-
than pursuing separate goals.
tenals and approaches for the student with severe
Teachers reported that the physical presence
disabilities in their class. Although these students
of another person on whom they could rely was
did have many unique characteristics. a common
helpful: this minimized the feeling of being alone
approach used by teachers was to "treat him like
or totally responsible. Paraprofessionals were
any other kid in the class." One teacher ex-
often mentioned as important support persons.
plained. "I just included her in everything that we
This was partly a result of the frequency of con-
did." In part. this approach was motivated by the
tact paraprofessionals had with students and
teacher's feeling that. "I didn't want to single her
teachers. Specialists. such as integration facilita-
out and make her feel different in any way." The
tors. speech/language pathologists. and occupa-
frequency with which the student with disabili-
tional therapists. were also perceived positively
ties was included in the same activities as the
by teachers when they were present. available.
other classmates. even when his or her educa-
and provided moral support. "The best support
tional objectives were different. seemed to be an
was Arlene [special educator]. She was excellent.
366
February 1993
transformation.
She was in. she checked every week." Others
was sometimes confusing to teachers or consid-
recognize and
commented. "It's nice to have somebody there."
ered irrelevant. "OT and PT is a separate thing:
I
students with and
or really don't have any concerns knowing that
really don't know what they do."
a backup system IS in place."
All the classroom teachers indicated that they
approaches that
While technical assistance that matched class-
were involved in important work with their entire
tether coop-
room needs was welcomed by teachers (e.g., ad-
class and that anything that interfered with their
m-solving). They
aptations. equipment). at times a simple valida-
mission was unacceptable Most teachers indi-
hat were active.
non of the challenges facing the teacher was
cated that the presence of a student with disabil-
than specialized
sufficient for them to feel supported. One teacher
ities did not create any more disruption than other
jects. labs. field
cited the supportive nature of statements such as.
students without disabilities. However. the pres-
1 know how you feel. but it's going to be all
ence of the specialists and other visitors that ac-
cut down on
right. You are going to see after the first couple
companied the student with disabilities did.
game playing.
of weeks that he's just part of your class." Such
There were problems with "traffic coming
noisierormore
comments highlight the importance of moral sup-
through the room." Teachers shared feelings like
lecture and just
port.
the following:
An overriding theme of what teachers viewed
Somebody is visiting us again!
as helpful and supportive was the value of team-
Wasn't?
work. When teamwork was present. teachers re-
My big concern. I remember. was the number
ported feeling productive and supported. Experi-
of people who came in and watched. That made
1. "Helping." the
enced teams provided an ongoing source of
me kind of shake in my boots. But as far as
lp IS the kind of
technical. resource. evaluation. and moral sup-
dealing with Ellen. that was fine.
dd some kind of
port. When one elementary teacher was asked
If she weren't here. let's face it. the specialists
do without" 'p.
what advice he would offer other prospective
wouldn't be here. I said. "I will take 20 Janes.
neing both kinds
teachers preparing to include a challenging stu-
but just give me any specialists behind me.
pport personnel
dent. he said he would ask. "Do you have a plan-
because she really isn't the problem." Yes. it
itices: (a) shared
ning team? Who's on your team? Do you feel
was a problem. but she wasn't the problem.
ral presence. (C)
comfortable with that?" Teams helped organize
ibution. and (d)
One kindergarten teacher described the situation:
the adults working together on behalf of an indi-
vidual child.
Specialists (are) talking in the back of the room.
ind goals meant
With the presence of a child with severe dis-
disrupting what goes on. Not a clue that maybe
icher worked in
abilities comes an entourage of support personnel
I would like it quiet. So I'm saying to the kids.
in the general
le special educators. physical therapists. occu-
"You have to really be quiet in here. you need
ist's role was to
pational therapists. speech/language patholo-
to follow my directions. I really would like it
rporate her bet-
gists. specialists). Some teachers assumed
quiet." and [ am even looking over at them
[specialists].
how we could
that having all these specialists meant access to
body else By
specialized expertise that would be helpful.
Separate frameworks and goals often resulted
udent with dis-
Though this was true for some. it was not always
in the use of "pullout" methods to provide spe-
the specialist
the case. One teacher explained.
cialized services. This solution created a new set
and knowledge
of problems for classroom teachers. Some teach-
teacher. rather
I came to realize that I don't think anybody
ers described problems with separate pullout ser-
really knew what to do
I felt like I was not
vices because. "starting and ending times [were]
sical presence
getting any support. I just felt like people were
at times so that it was really disruptive to then fill
could rely was
just coming in and people wanted to just see
Paul in or get Paul started on whatever it is. We
Jane and they wanted to hear how she talked:
of being alone
they just wanted to see how I worked with her.
had to really switch the schedule around."
essionals were
but nobody really gave me any suggestions of
As mentioned before. teachers frequently fa-
pport persons.
what to do.
vored the use of typical activities. materials. and
quency of con-
approaches over special ones. This approach was
students and
There were kinds of "help" teachers felt they
challenged by some specialists who sought to en-
ration facilita-
could do without. "Help" to address goals not
hance the student's school experience through
. and occupa-
identified or shared by teachers or referenced to
their specialized techniques and materials. One
ved positively
the classroom program was not helpful. "Help"
teacher indicated that specialists "get so special-
ent. available.
that disrupted the classroom routine, as well as
ized that they overlook the simple things. It takes
best support
"help" that was overly technical and specialized.
common sense." When specialists recommended
wasexcellent.
was also identified as not helpful. Such "help"
approaches not typical for the classrooms. they
February 1993
Exceptional Children
367
were not always greeted with open arms. One
more alert and could be more involved with her
teacher discussed an example where a highly spe-
environment because there was something to be
cialized feeding program was suggested by an oc.
involved with. there was a purpose to her life
cupational therapist.
rather than sleeping.
just think it's a little humiliating for Jane to
In addition. a high school teacher commented
learn to feed herselt in front of the other kids
When he sees me now. he reacts to me He II put
And the way they were going in do it. It
his hand out 10 touch me: he smile and he
sounded like they were going 10 upthis really
laughs. He came into class wearing is Red Sox
cumbersome thing and nail It to the cafeteria
hat and gave him a Phillies hat. telling him that
table He might as well put a sign over her and
when he comes into class I'm a Phillies fan. So
ay "Look. we are practicing over here. you
the next day he comes in wearing his Phillies
guys right ahead and eat." It would be like a
hat. So he reacts to me now. So he recognizes
freak show.
me. he responds to me. He laugh. I could talk
Teachers recognized that some "special" ap-
to him and communicate to a certain degree with
him.
proaches were helpful and necessary. while oth-
ers are potentially unnecessary and stigmatizing.
A second benefit for the students with disabil-
When it went too far. some teachers developed
thes included in general education classes was
the assertiveness to say. I put my foot down and
skill acquisition. Students learned a variety of
said. No. you can come into the classroom or
communication. social. motor. academic. and
No. I don't need that kind of help. Thank you
other skills to assist in participation in home.
anyway
school. and community life. One teacher indi-
cated:
Impact of the General Education Placement
He is growing accustomed to the way people do
Teachers reported that the participation of a stu-
things. He is more able to carry on a
dent with severe disabilities in their class had a
conversation and stay relevant for more than
positive impact on the child with disabilities. as
two sentences. He is learning turn taking: I'm
well as on the child's classmates. Teachers also
sure that It was worked on before. but I think in
reported benefits for themselves both personally
a regular classroom you really learn it or
and professionally. Conversely. teachers who did
someone IS on your case all the time
not experience transformation perceived mini-
Some teachers indicated that skill develop-
mal benefits from a similar experience. The fol-
ment was only one potential benefit of general
lowing sections detail experiences of the 17
class placement. They spoke about other aspects
teachers who reported some level of transforma-
of the child's school experience that enhanced the
non.
quality of the student's life. The general educa-
tion placement provided the students with oppor-
Benefits of Inclusion in General Education
tunities. enjoyment. and challenges.
Classes for Students with Severe Disabilities.
According to many teachers. some of the students
Even if she IS plateauing. she's still being
with severe disabilities experienced improve-
challenged. There are new things that people TTY
to make her do or get her to do even it she is just
ment in their awareness and responsiveness to
doing all she's ever done before: II may be more
their teachers. support staff. and classmates. as
than laying around on the floor
well as the routines of the class. One teacher com-
pared her initial observations of a student in a spe-
Sometimes during music class when they would
cial class with the same child's behavior in her
be singing. Susie would almost laugh because
3rd-grade room.
she was hearing the song: and even though she
wasn't singing. she was enjoying it. being part
I think she became much more aware of her
of it by just being there.
environment because of being in my classroom.
Being in the other (self-contained) classroom.
I think that just opens up so many doors and
there wasn't anything to be awake for because
avenues and there are role models there: and
there wasn't anything really going on: whereas
there are just so many other things available to
in my classroom and in any regular classroom
them that wouldn't be available if they were in
there are always kids there. doing things.
a room with children who were very similar to
talking. just there. And so she had a reason to be
themselves.
368
February 1993
with her
He taught them (people at school] that he can
Personal and Professional Impact of Inclusion
tething in ne
learn.
on the Teachers. Teachers who transformed dis-
(1) her life
cussed how their experiences caused them to be
more reflective.
ommented.
Classmates' Experiences. Teachers discussed
benefits of inclusion for the students without dis-
It made me more aware of how important it is
He put
abilities in their classes. A common theme was
for someone like that to be included
to
be
and ne
awareness of the needs of people with disabili-
with her peers. to be in a regular classroom.
a Red Sex
ues. Teachers also described a range of accep-
him that
It makes you stop and think about an awful lot.
tance of the student with disabilities by
thes fan. So
classmates that resembled those among other stu-
I was ashamed of myself for feeling the way I
Phillies
dents. For example. there would be some students
did at the beginning of the year. that I had this
recognizes
could talk
in the class who would "seek him out" and "grav-
opinion and belief when I really didn't know
state" toward him without encouragement. The
anything about it.
degree with
majority of students accepted his presence and
Several teachers recognized their importance
were rather nonchalant about it.
as a model for the class.
with disabil-
classes was
I also saw in them the willingness to have him
The first few weeks they [students without
a variety of
there in that room. to treat him like everybody
disabilities were watching me.
They really.
ademic. and
else: that they didn't feel that he was any
looked toward me to see: Is this OK? They
different.
on in home.
watch the adults and see what their reaction IS
and then model them. I mean that IS a real
teacher indi-
Inever heard them say. Poor Jon. or "Joncan't
important part of education. what you model. I
dothis. Jon can't that. It was always. "Come
also think kids accept things quicker than adults
people do
on. Jon. let's go!" Never any pitying attitude.
in some ways.
irry on a
more than
Teachers indicated that those children who
One of the most important things to teach kids
aking: I'm
sought out the student with a disability "accept
about is that everyone is different and unique
think in
her readily. they enjoy having her. they get ex-
and that's OK: and we are all kind of doing the
best we can. I just feel that that IS a really
carn It or
cited about little projects that she does and her
important lesson.
successes: they like sitting next to her in circle."
ill develop-
Although not a universal experience. several of
Teachers experienced a sense of pride at their
the children with disabilities had classmates
own openness to change.
[ of general
without disabilities as "best buddies." They
ther aspects
I was proud of myself for letting myself change
nhanced the
would "take him to lunch or hang out with him
my mind. You know that I wasn't stubborn
neral educa-
on the layground." An elementary teacher
enough. that I wasn't open to new ideas and
shared the following experience:
with oppor-
learning something new
I'm glad that I was
open. that I could change my mind because it
One little boy wanted to take him home. to stay
made me feel better as a person to know that I
all being
overnight. like he would any other friend. The
gave somebody a chance and that I knew in the
peoplem
mother was quite reluctant and said. "No.
future that if it ever came to that again that I
because I don't know what we are going to do
she just
would do the same.
with him." She was very nervous about it.
more
But finally. the little boy said to her. "Mom.
Some teachers reported an increased level of
you let me have other friends over. Why can't I
confidence: "Personally. professionally it's like I
would
have Jon over? He's just like anybody else."
can deal with anybody!" Confidence was re-
because
And she realized that if he can look at it that way.
flected in their ability to approach teaching in a
she would be able to. So she had him over.
ough she
more flexible manner.
cing part
She said it really opened her eyes to see her son
playing with this little boy just like he was
I think before I always had high expectations.
anybody else: he had him outside talking and
and I used to really plan. If things didn't go
pors and
laughing and playing with him, just like
exactly the way I planned them. then [ felt like
ere: and
anybody else.
[ was a failure. I wasn't teaching right. or
ilable to
somehow It was something 1 was doing. All of
were in
Some teachers attributed these experiences of
the sudden you can make such a learning
unilar to
students to an increased level of social/emotional
experience out of anything. So professionally it
development. flexibility. and empathy.
was great for me.
bruary 1993
Exceptional Children
369
I really think it changed the way I teach a lot. I
difference between teachers who changed and
think It was really for the better. I think II made
those who did not. Teachers who changed were
me more flexible
not only willing to become directly involved with
It helped me to understand that all people learn
the student with disabilities. but they took action
differently and have different things that they
to become involved with the student.
can do
Why do some teachers take action to become
involved while others do not" Teachers who
The teachers' experiences had an impact on
risked becoming involved with the student with
the way they taught not only the student with dis-
abilities. but the other children as well.
disabilities reported that It was not as difficult as
they had first imagined. In some cases the will-
It helped me be a better planner.
ingness to change may be more heavily influ-
I've used a lot of the ideas that I started out using
enced by a set of personal characteristics of the
last year because I spent a lot of time thinking
teacher. rather than by external factors (e.g.,
about them to incorporate Katie I've used them
school characteristics. child characteristics). The
again this year even though I don I have a
theory that teacher characteristics are critical to
special needs kid and because I found them
the change process was supported by the descrip-
successful with the regular ed kids. But my
tions of teachers in the same school. with similar
purpose in developing them was thinking about
professional experiences. These teachers de-
Katie.
scribed extremely different experiences with_the
One elementary school teacher summed it up
same child from year to year. For example. Karen
when she said. "Anything that dramatic has to
was in a third- and fourth- grade classroom for 2
make you more aware of everybody's needs."
consecutive years in the same school. Both of
Karen's teachers described transforming exper-
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
ences for themselves. as well as benefits to Karen
and her classmates. Karen's fifth-grade teacher
This study emphasized descriptions about the
in the same school reported no transforming ex-
placement of students with disabilities in the gen-
periences. This teacher questioned whether the
eral education classrooms from the frame of ref-
general education placement was of any benefit
erence of teachers who experienced it. Although
to Karen: reported some minimal benefits for
the points raised in this section may have impli-
classmates. as well as negative reactions of class-
cations for others interested in school inclusion
mates: and reported no impact on herself as the
issues. the results and analyses discussed here re-
teacher. Further research should address internal
flect findings-bas solely on the 19 teachers in-
and external factors that may influence an
terviewed and their classrooms: therefore.
individual's. or an entire system's. response to
generalization to other settings should not be in-
educational innovations.
ferred.
One piece of data that appeared benign at the
Teachers in this study shared a common initial
outset of this study represents an important foun-
experience that they typically described in nega-
dational concern regarding the equity of educa-
live terms. The experience was characterized by
tional opportunities for children with disabilities
minimal involvement with the student with dis-
and their rights to an appropriate education under
abilities. In addition. most teachers had the ex-
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
pectation that someone else was responsible for
of 1990. Several teachers reported being offered
the student's education. Although the initial sta-
the option to accept or reject the student with dis-
tus of two teachers remained unchanged through-
abilities in their classroom. Though the rationale
out the school year. 17 of the 19 teachers reported
for providing teachers with options may be un-
experiencing varying degrees of change in their
derstandable (e.g., trying not to force a teacher to
own expectations and behavior toward the stu-
assume a responsibility for which he or she feels
dent with disabilities. Subsequent to these
unprepared or simply wishes to avoid). such a
changes, teachers identified a variety of benefits
choice represents a double standard that simply
to the student. classmates without disabilities.
would not be tolerated based on other individual
and themselves.
differences among students (e.g., race. ethnicity.
The two teachers who did not change recog-
socioeconomic level. religion. political affilia-
nized that their involvement with the student with
tion). What if no one says "Yes"? In a national
disabilities was minimal. This points out a key
and state system that purports equal access and
370
February 1993
who changed and
education for all students. such choices to reject
tions between the teacher. classmates. and stu-
.ho changed were
or accept a student based on a teacher's individ-
dent with disabilities.
ctly involved with
ual values and predispositions is a contradiction
The role of specialists was newed as both fa-
It they took action
in terms. We contend that educational equity will
cilitative of and a barrier to the inclusion of stu-
udent.
continue to elude us as long as we apply different
dents with disabilities in general education
action (1) become
standards 11) students whom we are unaccus-
classes. The kind of help teachers said they could
1" Teachers who
tomed to teaching.
do without (i.e., separate goals by specialists. dis-
the student with
One of the interesting aspects of the back-
ruption to the class routine. overspecialization)
not as difficult as
ground data was that these teachers did not have
often occurred when specialists attempted to
ne cases the will-
much. if any. training to prepare them for the ex-
transplant traditional special education practices
re heavily influ-
perience of having a student with severe disabil-
into general education environments. This was
racteristics of the
ities in their class. Yet almost all teachers de-
neither welcomed nor considered helpful by gen-
nal factors (e.g.,
scribed successful experiences following their
eral education teachers. The inclusion of students
tracteristies). The
initial apprehensions. Whereas preparatory train-
with severe disabilities in general education set-
ties are critical to
ing may be beneficial. these data suggest that the
tings required specialists to more fully consider
by the descrip-
direct experience of working with the child on an
the context of the general education class and en-
hool. with similar
ongoing basis was a critical factor in the transfor-
sure that their support respected the values and
ese teachers de-
mation of teachers: and episodic training is un-
needs of the general education classroom. its stu-
eriences with the
likely to simulate this experience. There was
dents. and the teacher.
rexample. Karen
some speculation by teachers that their initial
The perspectives described by the teachers in
e classroom for 2
fears often interfered with their internalizing
this study are valuable because a relatively small
school. Both of
skills taught in more traditional workshops and
number of general education teachers have
sforming exper-
inservice training. This finding has implications
shared experiences similar to those described
benefits to Karen
for both the content of training and the timing of
here. Undoubtedly. the number is increasing with
(th-grade teacher
its delivery. For example. once a class placement
the passing of every school year. Although It IS
transforming ex-
decision has been made. initial training might
our hope that the experiences of these teachers
ned whether the
consist of information about (a) other teachers'
will help other teachers facing similar challenges.
as of any benefit
our ultimate hope is that such an article will be
mal benefits for
feelings and experiences in similar situations: (b)
obsolete in the near future. As Biklen and Knoll
eactions of class-
critical factors influencing success to start the
(1987) so clearly articulated. "Integration sur-
on herself as the
year (e.g., teamwork. expectations of ownership.
vives as an issue only so long as someone IS seg-
address internal
interaction with the student. learning from the
regated" (p. 21).
y influence an
class). and (C) approaches described by experi-
nis. response to
enced teachers as successful (e.g., activity-based
approaches. use of typical materials and activi-
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CLONINGER (CEC VT Federation) is a
3327 N. Dakota. Chandler. AZ 85225).
Research Associate Professor. SUSAN
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February 1993
JASH
copyright 1992 by
1002. Vol 17. No 4. 205-212
The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps
Peer Interactions and Social Acceptance of
Elementary-Age Children with Severe
Disabilities in an Inclusive School
Ian M. Evans. Christine L. Salisbury. Mary M. Palombaro. Jennifer Berryman. and
Tia M. Hollowood¹
State University of New York at Binghamton
Although there has been much attention paid to the
DESCRIPTORS: integration. mainstreaming. social
social relationships of students with severe disabilities
interaction. social skills
in integrated environments. ien studies depict the kinds
of interactions that can be expected in mainstreamed
Although there are still considerable regional varia-
classrooms Such information is important for designing
tions in the degree to which students with severe hand-
classroom ecologies and interventions that will maxi-
icaps receive their education in integrated settings (Dan-
mize developmental opportunities for all students. Eight
ielson & Bellamy. 1989). mainstreaming has become
children with severe disabilities and eight nonhandi-
widely accepted as a desirable goal on ethical. humani-
capped peers were observed in their regular elementary
tarian. and constitutional grounds (e.g., Biklen. 1985:
school classrooms Students with severe disabilities re-
Gaylord-Ross & Peck. 1985: Stainback & Stainback.
celved more social approaches than they made. These
1985: Wilcox & Sailor. 1980). The social outcomes of
interactions tended 10 be receiving assistance. although
the physical integration of exceptional children have
talk. play. and physical affection were also prevalent.
been more debatable (see Peck & Cooke. 1983). Some
Over the school year the number of interactions declined:
investigators (e.g., Corman & Gottlieb. 1978: Gresham,
however. the pattern proportions of different types of
1982: Meisel. 1985) have tended to emphasize the
interaction) became more typical like those of nonhand-
failure of integration to ensure enhanced peer relation-
capped peersi. Acceptance was measured by sociometric
ships, whereas others have indicated that integration is
nomination. revealing that some of the students with
a necessary. if not sufficient. condition for peer accept-
severe disabilities were very popular. and some were
ance (Voeltz. 1980. 1982) and maintenance of social
not. Acceptance seemed unrelated to social competence.
interaction (e.g., Brinker. 1985: Strain. 1983). More
which did correlate with frequency of interactions initi-
recent analyses have suggested that a variety of peer
ated by the students with disabilities: acceptance was
relationships between nonhandicapped children and
not related 10 number of social approaches made or
those with disabilities can be observed (e.g., Haring,
received. The results indicate that children's social ac-
1991: Meyer & Putnam. 1988: Odom & McEvoy. 1988:
ceptance and opportunity for interaction are not
Strain. 1984). In a 2-year study. Cole and Meyer (1991)
uniquely associated with their status as individuals with
reported that children with severe mental retardation
severe disabilities. and suggest that the implicit stand-
in integrated learning environments showed gains in
ards and values of the students may play a significant
social competence, whereas those in segregated settings
role.
did not.
Detailed research findings on peer interactions and
acceptance are critical in providing educators with prin-
This work was conducted under the auspices of the Collab-
ciples to allow integration to be as effective as possible
orative Education Project. funded by the U.S. Department of
Education (Grant No. 86D-00009). No official endorsement
(Giangreco & Meyer. 1988: Giangreco & Putnam.
should be implied. nor does this paper necessarily reflect the
1991). Furthermore. as the "regular education initia-
opinions or policies of the U.S. Department of Education.
tive" (Will. 1986) shifts the focus from integrated school
We are especially grateful to the teachers. administrators.
buildings to full inclusion. the need for additional data
parents. and children of the Johnson City School District.
whose cooperation and support made this project possible.
on social interactions in such settings becomes more
Christine Salisbury. Mary Palombaro. and Tia Hollowood
crucial. Only by careful documentation of what hap-
are in the Division of Education. School of Education and
pens when students with severe disabilities are placed
Human Development: lan Evans and Jennifer Berryman are
with their age peers in the general education classroom
in the Department of Psychology. Requests for reprints should
be addressed to lan M. Evans. Department of Psychology,
can we understand the variables that may need to be
SUNY-Binghamton. P.O. Box 6000. Binghamton. NY 13902.
modified in order to achieve the greatest possible ben-
205
206
Evans. Salisbury. Palombaro. Berryman. and Hollowood
efits for all students. The purpose of the present report
Although all of these children's peers participated in
IS to contribute to this documentation.
parts of the study. a particular subgroup (matched only
This study represents the first-vear data from an
for gender) was randomly selected to serve as a com-
investigation of strategies promoting the inclusion of
parison group. Consent to participate was obtained
students with severe disabilities in a general education
from all the children's parents or legal guardians. For
classroom. The school district in which the program
some analyses special consent was required (e.g., for a
was carried out had some prior commitment to full
student to be photographed) and in a few cases parents
participation. Their educational philosophies provided
did not agree to these procedures. Also. all methods
a critical backdrop to serving students with severe dis-
were subject to approval by the school administration.
abilities in the regular classroom. For instance. there
The teachers gave consent to our presence. and all
were various supports in the form of collaborative team-
measures used were explained to them before the study
ing and teaching practices. commitment by most teach-
began.
ers. administrative backing. and policies encouraging
the potential of every student (Chambers. 1991). Stu-
Setting
dents with the most severe handicaps. however. were
The district. which consists of a high school. a middle
not included until university-based technical assistance
school. and two elementary schools. is located in a
was made available. The process that made this possible
small manufacturing, predominantly blue-collar town
has been described elsewhere (Salisbury. 1989).
in the northeastern United States. For reasons of acces-
Because inclusion had already been accepted in prin-
sibility, all young students meeting the criterion of
ciple. it allowed the research to focus on strategies that
severely/physically handicapped are served in one of
enhance rather than implement mainstreaming. The
the two elementary buildings. At the time of the study.
overall goal of the project is to determine whether
approximately three students with severe disabilities
elementary schoolchildren. their teachers. and their par-
were attending each grade level. These classrooms also
ents can learn and execute problem-solving strategies
contained students with mild disabilities (mild mental
that enable students with severe disabilities to be equi-
retardation. learning disability). Although these latter
tably included in the social fabric of the school. The
children received special education services and thus
first stage of this research endeavor was to describe the
were not excluded from the project, they were not the
social patterns that were evident after the basic main-
"subjects" of our research.
streaming effort had been implemented. What kinds of
Teachers worked in teams. with one special education
interactions could be discerned during instructional
teacher and a number of aides supporting a cluster of
time in the classroom. and how would students with
classrooms and general education teachers. For the
severe disabilities be accepted by their nonhandicapped
present report. one kindergarten. two first-grade. and
peers?
one second-grade classrooms were included. represent-
ing two educational teams and eight students with
Method
severe disabilities. In-service training had occurred be-
fore the project began. but only one special education
Participants
teacher had prior experience with pupils with severe
Eight children. classified as severely disabled. partic-
handicaps. During the first project year training for
pated in the study. These students are referred to here
building staff focused mainly on curriculum adapta-
as the target children. Their ages. level of functioning,
tions and instructional practices that would increase the
and other basic information are presented in Table 1.
participation and inclusion of the students with severe
handicaps. Some of these strategies were derived from
Table I
the Syracuse curriculum (Ford et al., 1989), whereas
Student Demographics
others were developed by the teachers themselves.
Brigance/
No special suggestions were made to the teachers
Student Age
Diagnosis
Vineland
EPS Range
ASC°
(months)
regarding social interactions. how to develop peer ac-
Yune
5:3
Autism
1:4
18-60
21
ceptance. or what rules of acceptable play to establish.
Jackie
5:4
Multiple
0:2
2-8
13
Thus, the atmosphere. expectations. and structural op-
Tina
5:6
Cerebral palsy
3:0
18-60
54
portunities for social contact varied slightly across class-
Dick
7:1
Multiple
1:0
8-48
29
rooms.
Rob
6:11
Multiple
1:5
12-48
35
Joe
6.2
Multiple
1:4
12-36
29
Measurement
Suzie
8:5
Multiple
0:5
2-12
18
Mike
8:1
Multiple
0:9
16
Rating of social competence. In order to obtain a
2:8
measure of their social competence. target and compar-
. All students classified as evidencing severe or profound dis-
abilities under both New York State and federal definitions.
ison children were rated using the Assessment of Social
: Total scores on the Assessment of Social Competence: range
Competence (ASC) scale (Meyer, Cole. McQuarter. &
for nonhandicapped comparison students: 44-71.
Reichle. 1990: Meyer et al., 1985). The ASC consists of
Social Interaction and Acceptance
207
11 social functions or competencies. each divided into
another child. and this selection was counted as their
eight levels of sophistication. The scale permits a rela-
actual choice.
tively limited skill or even an inappropriate behavior to
Classroom observation. Opportunities for interaction
be scored as effective as long as It achieves the essential
occur at many different times and places in school.
requirement of a given social function. The ratings of
However. because our research project is concerned
the children were carried out by interviewing teachers
with what happens in classrooms. observations focused
and parents. as well as observation of target students:
on classroom behavior in which play interactions are
only levels directly observed by one informant were
limited but other facets of social relationships occur.
recorded.
such as helping. cooperating, sharing, and verbal ex-
Sociometric analysis. This assessment took place
changes (e.g., criticism. complaints. conversation).
midway through the school year so that the children
An observational code was developed in order to
had sufficient opportunity to form friendships and per-
gather data on the frequency and nature of the inter-
sonal preferences. A standard peer nomination tech-
actions between target children and their nonhandi-
nique (Coie. Dodge. & Coppotelli. 1982) was used to
capped peers. This coding system consisted of 11 cate-
discover all children's social standing in their respective
gories of social interaction. Most of the categories were
classes (McConnell & Odom. 1986). followed by an
drawn from the work of Strain and his colleagues on
evaluation of the specific target and comparison chil-
the social ecology of integrated preschool environments
dren's social status.
(e.g., Strain & Kohler. 1988). We incorporated Brinker's
First. each nonhandicapped child was individually
(1985) methodology for observing interaction by differ-
shown an array of photographs of all children in his or
entiating between a social behavior (approach) initiated
her class whose parents had consented to the activity
by a child and behaviors in which the child was the
(approximately 16 children per class). The child was
recipient of the interaction. The categories and their
asked "Do you know everybody here? OK. show me
definitions are provided in Table 2.
who you'd most like to play with." After the child made
Two master's level professionals (in psychology and
a selection. that picture was removed and the child was
education) participated in data collection. Both observ-
asked for his or her second and then third choice of
ers were frequently in the building and were known to
most desirable playmate. A child's "popularity" score
the teachers and students. The goal was to obtain a
was the total number of first. second. or third place
"snapshot" of what was generally happening in the
nominations received. We did not ask children to iden-
classes. so observation took place for brief periods
tify the student they would least like to play with (social
(about 5 min) a number of times per month. for a total
rejection). since that form of questioning violated prin-
of 15 min per month for each child observed. Obser-
ciples of acceptance of others that are widely promoted
vation time was equally distributed across the major
in the district.
instructional conditions of large group. small group.
Following this procedure. the children were individ-
and free time. Since the frequencies of some behavioral
ually shown a smaller array of pictures: photographs of
categories proved to be small, no attempt has been
each of the target children in that class. photographs of
made to analyze data differentially according to instruc-
each comparison child. and one photograph of an ad-
tional context: however. by including all three. the most
ditional. randomly selected. nonhandicapped child.
commonly occurring classroom conditions were sam-
They were then asked. for each photograph in the
pled.
display: "Do you know this child?", "Do you play with
The observations consisted of I-min "sweeps" in
him/her?". and "Is this person your friend?" The first
which the target child would be observed for I 1 min.
question was included only as a validity check of the
and then the comparison peer would be observed for I
clarity of the photographs. The numbers of "yes" an-
min, then the next target child. and so on. Each I-min
swers to the other two questions were tallied and con-
sweep was divided into four 15-s recording intervals.
verted to a percentage of the total number of respond-
during which any instance of making or receiving a
ents (class members) participating.
social interaction within a given category was recorded.
Three weeks later, four children from each class were
Because social interactions are not typically of such
randomly selected and the procedure repeated as a
short duration, it was unlikely that there would be more
reliability check. In first- and second-grade classrooms.
than one discrete instance of a given category within 15
the selections made by the students were consistent
S. Observations were made on a regular basis over a 7-
(they provided exactly the same answers): however. in
month period, from late fall to the end of the school
kindergarten there was less stability, with only 80% of
year. Data from the first 3 months of observation (Phase
the selections being the same on the two occasions.
1) are compared to those from the second 3 months
Initial choices were utilized for the data analysis. A few
(Phase 2), with data from the last month, June. being
kindergarten children picked themselves as first choice.
discounted.
When this occurred. they were gently asked to select
Four weeks of training and practice were needed for
208
Evans. Salisburv Palombaro. Berryman. and Hollowood
Table 2
Social Interaction Categories Coded for Classroom Observation
I Assistance
Any help provided to another student. May be physical assistance (e.g., helping up
from the floor. holding the pencil with them so it doesn't fall). or may be other
types of assistance such as getting a book off the shelf. or rearranging materials to
make them accessible.
2. Discipline
Any statement that conveys a reprimand. either by tone of voice or vocabulary. This
category also includes any physical gesture that is intended to identify to a child
that his or her behavior is not acceptable (can include signing "no." taking
materials away).
3. Play
Any activity involving materials wherein the primary purpose is not instructional.
but IS focused on the enjoyment of the participants.
4 Conflict Resolution
Given the occurrence of a dispute between children (argument over toys. whose
turn). student makes attempt to resolve the situation by presenting solutions. In
addition. this behavior encompasses physical actions that address ending the con-
flict (e.g., dividing the toys. handing the disputed toy to someone. and actively
removing oneself from the dispute).
5. Instruction
Any behavior that involves giving directions to teach a specific skill to another child.
6. Physical Aggression
Any activity such as hitting. punching. kicking. biting. butting with the head. non-
playful push/pull/grab. destruction of another's property. or using materials to
harm another (e.g., throwing chairs).
7 Verbal Aggression
Screaming. shouting. name calling. or otherwise derogatory comment directed to-
ward another.
8. Physical Affection
Patting. hugging. rubbing head/arms/etc.. kissing or hand holding by a peer.
9 Affiliative Comments
Verbal comments intending to praise ("What a nice job you're doing"). compliment
(-1 love that dress"). or reassure ("C'mon. I know you can do it").
10. Attention-Seeking Behavior
Those behaviors intended to gain another's attention: may include reaching toward
someone. vocalizing toward a specific individual. presenting an object to some-
one. physically changing body position to be in closer proximity to someone.
11. Talking
All speech directed to an individual that is not subsumed under the categories noted
above.
the coders to reach acceptable levels of agreement.
rank-order correlation was 64. and for the nonhandi-
Reliability was then monitored by having the two ob-
capped comparison group it was .52: neither of these
servers code simultaneously for 5% of the subsequent
two correlations was statistically significant. The high
observations. Exact agreement was calculated by the
frequency with which almost all target students were
standard formula (agreements minus disagreements.
identified as a "friend" may reflect social desirability:
divided by total observations). In the fall. the mean
peers were more likely to consider children with severe
agreement index for all categories and classrooms was
handicaps to be their friends than their playmates.
89%: in the spring It was 92.5%
Among typical children. however. the "friend" identi-
fication matched very closely the "play with" identifi-
Results
cation.
Sociometric Analysis
Social Competency Ratings
Table 3 summarizes the findings from the sociometric
The ASC scores are reported in Table 1. Although
analysis. There were large differences between children.
there were wide differences among the target children,
Two children with severe disabilities. Tina and Suzie.
the differences between them as a group and the non-
received the most nominations (selected as the most
handicapped peer group were considerable. (114 = 5.6,
popular children in their respective classrooms): an-
p < .001). One of the students with a severe disability
other target child. Mike. received the second most nom-
obtained a total ASC score greater than those of two of
inations. However. other target children were not par-
the nonhandicapped children. but otherwise the ranges
ticularly popular. and some received no nominations-
for the two groups did not overlap. Students were
which was true for some of the nonhandicapped chil-
ranked (within groups) according to total ASC scores.
dren as well. Aggregating both the total number of
and these ranks were used to examine the relationship
nominations received (ranking within participant
between social competence and acceptance. No signifi-
group) and overall class ranking provided a composite
cant correlation was found. either for the students with
ranking for acceptance. This acceptance score IS the
severe disabilities (rho = -.05) or for the typical stu-
one used in all subsequent analyses.
dents (rho = 30). However. ASC scores did correlate
There was no significant agreement between the ac-
with total number of social interactions initiated by the
ceptance scores and the number of times children were
target students during both phases of the social inter-
identified by their peers as someone with whom they
action observations: rho = 75 for Phase 1 and .87 for
typically played. For the target group the Spearman
Phase 2. both significant at P < .05. For the nonhandi-
Social Interaction and Acceptance
209
Table 3
Sociometric Analysis
No. of
Friends
Play
No. of
Social Standing
Friends
Plav
Nominations with? with?
Social Standing
Nominations with? with"
Kindergarten
First Grade B
! Tina (target)
93%
100%
5. NH peer
6
Matt (comparison)
75
87%
6. Nicole (comparison)
16%
76%
3. Michael
7. NH peer
41
4 NH peer
8. NH peer
}
5. NH peer
9. NH peer
3
6 Vanessa (companson)
80%
3%
10. Joe (target)
100%
78%
7. NH peer
11. Russ (comparison)
88%
71%
8. NH peer
12 NH peer
9. NH peer
13. NH peer
10. NH peer
14. NH peer
I
!! Jonathan (comparison)
80%
80%
15. NH peer
I
12. NH peer
16. NH peer
0
13. Chris (MH)
16. NH peer
0
14. NH peer
17. NH peer
0
15 Jackie (target)
I
94%
62%
18. NH peer
0
16. Yune (target)
0
09%
75%1
19. Rob (target)
0
100%
78%
First Grade A
20. NH peer
0
i NH peer
21. NH peer
0
2. NH peer
Second Grade
3. Dick (target)
6
94%
7911
1. Suzie (target)
7
100%
83%
4. NH peer
2. Mike (target)
5
100%
83%
5. NH peer
S
3. NH peer
5
0. Brenda (companson)
4
81%
31%
4. Jennifer (comparison)
4
76%
71%
7. Alan (MH)
3
5. NH peer
4
8. NH peer
3
6. NH peer
4
9. NH peer
7. NH peer
4
10. NH peer
8. NH peer
3
11. NH peer
9. Jessica (MH)
3
12. NH peer
!
10. NH peer
13. NH peer
I
11. NH peer
2
14 NH peer
I
12. Raymond (comparison)
2
76%
54%
15. NH peer
0
13. Kristen (MH)
16. NH peer
1)
14. NH peer
17. NH peer
0
15. NH peer
18. NH peer
0
16. NH peer
I
First Grade B
17. NH peer
I
1 NH peer
8
18. NH peer
NH peer
8
19. Rob (MH)
3 NH peer
6
20. NH peer
4. NH peer
6
MH = student with a mild disability: NH = nonhandicapped.
capped children the correlations between ASC scores
between the number of initiations and the number
and social interactions initiated were negative (rho =
received by the target students (1, [for related measures)
- 36 for Phase I and -.68 for Phase 2) but not statis-
= 4.2. p < 01). whereas this was not the case for the
)
tically significant. There were no relationships between
typical students. whose interactions were more recip-
students ASC scores and the number of social interac-
rocal.
tions for which they were the recipients.
Somewhat surprisingly. interactions initiated and re-
Classroom Observation of Interaction
ceived by the students with severe disabilities decreased
The occurrence of the various categories of interac-
over time when Phase I was compared with Phase 2 1-
tion are displayed in Figure 1. It can be seen that some
[for related measures) = 2.6. p < .05). The major
expected categories (such as physical or verbal aggres-
changes for interactions initiated were decreases in play
sion, conflict resolution. and discipline) did not occur
and attention seeking. In terms of interactions received.
with great frequency for either group of students. Other
the largest decreases recorded were in play, assistance.
categories were quite common. especially talk and play
physical affection. and attention. Because the frequen-
for the typical students. Target children were most likely
cies of all these categories (except for assistance) among
to initiate such social interactions as attention seeking
students with disabilities were higher to begin with than
and play. There were large and significant differences
those recorded for the nonhandicapped comparison
210
Evans. Salisbury. Palombaro. Berryman. and Hollowood
PHASE
PHASE 1
TARGET STUDENTS
COMPARISON STUDENTS
28
R
,
$
MADE
RECEIVED
3
$
PHASE 3
PHASE 2
TARGET STUDENTS
COMPARISON STUDENTS
a
20
'1
INTERACTIONS MADE
TALKING
ANK
ANK
i
PET
Figure 1. Mean frequencies (number per hour) of 11 categories of social interaction: Phase I represents the first 3 months of
observation. Phase 2 IS the second 3 months.
students. it could be argued that decreases in receipt of
acceptance scores. As mentioned already. interactions
interaction IS a desirable outcome.
initiated did correlate with ASC scores: they did not.
There were large differences within groups in overall
however. correlate with acceptance scores. For the target
levels of interaction. whether positive (e.g., conflict
students. the correlations between interactions initiated
resolution) or negative (e.g., verbal aggression). We
and acceptance were .64 for Phase 1, and .37 for Phase
conducted Spearman rank-order correlations between
2: for interactions received and acceptance the rho
total number of interactions and ASC scores as well as
values were .55 (Phase 1) and 11 (Phase 2). These were
Social Interaction and Acceptance
211
all nonsignificant. The correlations vielded by the typ-
(such as play). The most optimistic interpretation of
ical children were lower still and in a negative direction.
these findings is that. as the year progresses. the "nov-
elty" of the target children wears off. They may be
Discussion
treated in a more natural way. but they also may
The most significant finding to emerge from these
experience fewer overall interactions. This suggests that
data was that one cannot generalize too readily about
communication skills will be critical to sustain class-
the social status of children with severe disabilities when
room interaction. since so much of the social exchange
in regular classroom environments with nonhandi-
is verbal.
capped peers. Some of the target children were among
Students with severe disabilities received many more
the most popular in the classes. whereas others received
social interactions than they initiated (even the least
no positive nominations from their peers at all. Students
accepted student. who made no observable initiations
with severe disabilities received many more social in-
during the entire observation period. was not being
teractions than they initiated: although these were in-
ignored by his nonhandicapped peers). whereas typical
variably positive. they were different from the more
students made and received about the same number of
reciprocal interactions observed among nonhandi-
social contacts. Again. this emphasizes that mutual
capped students. Over the school year the interactions
dyadic communication opportunities may be important
received by the students with disabilities actually de-
for promoting more frequent social interactions.
clined. Social competence. as rated by informed adults.
With respect to quality of interactions. anecdotal
did not correlate with acceptance.
reports indicate that there were patterns of behavior
To the extent that social standing can be influenced
that might be considered somewhat undesirable from
by the student's own social behaviors. it has become
the perspective of ensuring that the social experiences
customary to propose social skill training for "rejected"
of students with disabilities are equitable. Nonhandi-
children. However. our observations reveal that chil-
capped children were prone to be affiliative. giving
dren with extremely limited formal skills-those with
assistance and directing the target children. For exam-
considerable disability-can nevertheless be judged
pie. although relatively few instances were observed of
very popular by peers. The child initiating the greatest
the target children being "disciplined" by their peers.
number of social interactions was the student with
none were observed in the case of the peer comparison
severe physical involvement. and whose degree of intel-
students. Informal classroom observation indicated that
lectual handicap is uncertain. She was someone with
a common form of interacting resembled parenting of
whom everyone in her class said they played. and she
the students with severe disabilities. Typical children.
was the most popular student among her peers on the
usually girls. would interact with the more popular of
sociometric measure. However. two other students
the target children. helping them. moving them around
achieved almost comparable social acceptance. despite
the room. physically supporting them during group
having severe cognitive handicaps.
instruction. and so on. Over time. however. these inter-
It is possible that. when students are so obviously
actions began to change. as reflected by decreases in
disabled as the target children. they are somehow cate-
such categories as assistance and physical affection.
gorized differently by nonhandicapped children. That
There were many nonhandicapped children who inter-
is to say, they are not judged in the same way as other
acted in a rather neutral way with the target children.
peers: for example. they were identified as "friends"
just as there were nonhandicapped children who gen-
even by children who reported not playing with them.
erally ignored them. This seems to be the natural and
Also. children may perceive it as particularly socially
desirable outcome: that the target children should ex-
unacceptable to interact negatively with peers who are
perience social interactions. some opportunities for nur-
)
severely disabled. However, negative categories of social
turance from other children and friendship. some neg-
behavior were virtually never seen. even among non-
ative experiences. and some experiences of just being
handicapped children.
tolerated.
Observational data revealed that interactions are not
of the same types for the two groups of children. A large
part of the variance IS accounted for by the finding that
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Received: November 15. 1991
Validation of the Assessment of Social Competence (ASC)
Final Acceptance: August 21. 1992
for children and young adults with developmental disabili-
Editors in Charge: Tom Haring and Craig Kennedy
JASH
copyright 1992 by
1992. Vol. No 213-217
The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps
An Administrator and Teacher Perspective
on Program Quality Indicators for
Students with Severe Disabilities
Joanne Eichinger
California State University at San Bernardino
June Downing
University of Arizona
This study investigated the perceptions of 48 teachers
1987) addressed numerous concepts. including parent
and 41 program administrators relative 10 the impor-
involvement. nonaversive behavior intervention. school
lance 01 123 items representing program quality for
integration. systematic and individualized instruction.
learners with severe disabilities The purpose of this
staff development. and transition from school to work.
study was 10 extend the original validation study
The value of nationally validating such concepts of
(Meyer, Eichinger. & Park-Lee. 1987, of the 123 pro-
"best practices" is that this provides practical guidelines
gram quality indicators 10 include these (wn groups of
for service providers when attempting to implement the
service providers considered critical 111 quality program-
provisions of P.L. 94-142.
ming. Both groups consistently rated the majority of the
The purpose of this study was to extend the original
123 items high between the important and very impor-
work by Mever et al. by including teachers and admin-
lant anchors). There was only one item that was rated
istrators in the validation of program quality indicators.
significantly different by the two groups The unit mean
Since these individuals play a major role in ensuring
scores for these (WO groups were compared with those of
daily implementation of individual student programs.
the SIX groups in the earlier study (Mever el at 1987)
their perceptions on the importance of such indicators
The (WD dimensions considered must important by all
was considered a necessary and practical addition to
eight groups were the criterion of ultimate functioning
the original study. Furthermore. the original study was
and professional practices/home- school collaboration.
conducted in 1985-1986 and published in 1987. The
While this study served in turther validate these indica-
current study provides an update of the process to see
tors. anecdotal data and ongoing changes in the field
if the original value-based statements are still considered
served as catalysts for a revision of the Program Quality
important. We were also interested in determining if
Indicators checklist (Mever. Eichinger. & Downing.
discrepancies would exist between these two groups of
1992).
professionals in their ratings of these program indicators
and whether the ratings of these two groups would differ
DESCRIPTORS: empirical validation. research
from those of the original six respondent groups.
An initial validation study of program quality indi-
Method
cators for students with severe disabilities was con-
ducted by Meyer. Eichinger. and Park-Lee (1987). This
Participants
)
study asked 254 national experts in severe disabilities.
Eighty-nine professionals (48 teachers and 41 admin-
behavior therapy. deaf-blindness. mental retardation.
istrators) participated in this study. Since respondents
state education agencies. and parents of students with
in the original Meyer et al. (1987) study were carefully
severe disabilities to rate indicators of programming for
selected based on their commitment. expertise. and
students with severe disabilities. Results from this na-
knowledge of "best practices" in particular fields. simi-
tional study served to validate 123 indicators of quality
lar qualifications were considered necessary for this
programming (Meyer. 1987). The program quality in-
study to minimize differences for comparison. There-
dicators validated in the earlier study (Meyer et al.,
fore. respondents were nominated for participation in
the study by one of six teacher trainers in university
programs that follow the basic philosophy underlying
This article was supported by a faculty professional devel-
the program quality indicators and represent different
opment grant and summer fellowship awarded to the first
geographical regions of the country.
author.
The authors wish to thank Caron McAfee and Lynn Rudloff
Of the 41 administrators. 12 were principals. 5 were
for their assistance in the preparation of this manuscript.
program specialists. and 13 were Directors of Special
213
214
Eichinger and Downing
Education. The other 11 had various administrative
clinical experience. when that experience occurred. type
titles (e.g., Program Administrator. Director of Instruc-
of training received. and highest degree earned.
tion and Staff Development. and Training Coordina-
tor). Table I provides data on the demographic char-
Procedure
acteristics of the sample. The response rates for the
Subjects were recruited via nominations from six
teachers and administrators were 92% and 79%. respec-
university professors who were involved in personnel
tively.
preparation programs based on state-of-the-art practices
in educational programming for learners with severe
Instrument
disabilities. These individuals (from six different states)
The survey consisted of the original Program Quality
were asked to nominate master special education teach-
Indicator checklist developed by Meyer (1987). Re-
ers and program administrators in their states based on
spondents were asked to rate the relative importance of
established criteria. The criteria for the teachers in-
123 indicators of program quality according to a 20-
cluded 2 years of teaching experience with learners with
point scale with the following anchors: 0 = not a
severe disabilities, teaching in an integrated setting, and
consideration. 5 = not an important consideration. 10
recognition as a master teacher. Furthermore. their
= undecided. 15 = important consideration. and 20 =
current program included functional and age appropri-
very important consideration. They were also asked to
ate activities. individualized community-based instruc-
provide demographic information such as gender.
tion, and integrated activities with nondisabled peers.
length of current employment. number of years of past
Individuals who had already been designated as a mas-
ter or mentor teacher within their state were included
Table I
if they met the 2-year teaching requirement and the
Description of Personal Characteristics by Group
integrated program requirement. The criteria for pro-
Admin-
gram administrators included familiarity with educa-
Teachers
istrators
tional programming for learners with severe disabilities
n
%
n
%
and recognition by the university contact person as to
Sample size
48
54
41
46
their ability to administrate programs effectively.
Gender
Prior to sending surveys, local phone contact was
Males
7
15
28
68
made by the nominator to obtain a verbal commitment
Females
40
83
13
32
to participate. Surveys were distributed via mail with
Years in current employment
an accompanying cover letter and extensive directions
I year or less
4
8
8
20
2-3 years
10
21
6
15
for completing the survey. Reminder letters were sent
4-5 years
0
13
9
22
out approximately 1 month later to individuals who
More than 5 years
27
56
18
44
had not yet returned their surveys.
Years of clinical experience
I year or less
I
01
I
Data Analysis
2-3 years
4
8
I
to
Three types of ratings were included in the study.
4-5 years
10
9
22
More than 5 years
37
77
26
63
First. mean score ratings and standard deviations were
When clinical experience
computed across the total sample and separately for the
occurred
teachers and the administrators on each of the items.
Last 3 years
26
54
4
10
These ratings reflected the extent to which each item
Last 4-10 years
17
35
16
39
More than 10 years ago
3
6
17
42
was perceived as important.
Highest degree
Second. using Dunn's procedure. / test comparisons
Bachelor's
12
25
10
5
were made on each item to determine whether any
Master's
29
60
29
71
significant differences existed between the teachers and
Specialist
0
13
3
7
Doctorate
0
0
-J
the administrators relative to the importance of the
17
Licenses
items.
Special education
17
35
0
0
Finally. the data from teachers and administrators
Special ed. & regular ed.
23
48
4
10
were analyzed in comparison to responses made by the
Special ed. & regular ed.
3
6
17
42
& ed. admin.
SIX original respondent groups. This involved the utili-
When last training occurred
zation of a unit score for each group. Unit scores were
Last 2 years
35
73
20
49
obtained for the two new groups by averaging all items
3-4 years ago
&
8
7
17
loading above 30 on the five factors derived from the
5-6 years ago
4
8
3
7
4
original study (Meyer et al., 1987). Analysis of variance
7-8 years ago
3
7
More than 8 years ago
1
4
6
15
procedures and the Scheffe test were used to determine
J Note: Percentages for each item do not always add up to 100
whether any differences existed among the eight groups
because of missing values.
relative to each of the five original factors (integration.
= Percentages for other combinations were not included.
professional practices and home-school involvement.
Perspectives on Program Quality
215
staff development. data-based instruction. and criterion
administrators unit mean score ratings (16.63 and
of ultimate functioning).
16.68) were higher than those of the other six groups.
The teachers' and administrators unit mean score rat-
Results
ings (17.51 for both groups) on the professional prac-
Mean Score Ratings for the Entire Sample and by
tices and home-school factors were higher than those of
Group
all other groups except parents (17.93). In terms of the
Mean score ratings and standard deviations were
staff development factor. the teachers' unit mean score
computed on each of the 123 items for the entire sample
rating (13.59) was lower than those of all other groups
and separately for the two groups. Both groups consist-
except for the experts in severe disabilities (13.42).
ently rated the majority of the items high. The average
whereas the administrators mean score rating (14.31)
mean score ratings of teachers were between 15.01
was higher than those of all other groups except for
(important consideration) and 20.00 (very important
parents (15.70). The unit mean score ratings for data-
consideration) for 95 of the 123 items (77%). Teachers'
based instruction for the two groups fell within the
mean score ratings were between 10.01 (undecided) and
range of the other six groups' ratings. In terms of the
15.00 for 26 items (21%). and between 5.01 (not an
criterion of ultimate functioning, the teachers' unit
important consideration) and 10.00 for the remaining
mean score rating (17.51) was higher than those of all
(2%). Administrators mean score ratings were very
other groups except parents (17.89) and was the same
similar. Ninety-seven of the 123 items (79%) were rated
as the rating by experts in severe disabilities. The ad-
between 15.01 and 20.00. 24 (20%) were rated between
ministrators' rating on this factor (17.08) fell in the
10.01 and 15.00. and 2(2%) were rated between 5.01
middle of the range.
and 10.00. There were two items rated by both groups
In examining Table 2. it is evident that the dimen-
with a mean score below 10.00: "All professional staff
sions considered most important by all eight groups are
have completed at least two credits of university course-
professional practices/home-school collaboration and
work in a directly relevant area within the past year."
criterion of ultimate functioning. When an analysis of
and "All professional personnel have a master's degree
variance test and a Scheffe post hoc comparison test
with specialization for the children served."
were conducted. no significant pairwise differences
emerged.
Comparisons Between Responses of Teachers and
Administrators
Discussion
T test comparisons were made of the mean score
The results of this study support the importance of
ratings of the teachers and those of the program admin-
the items listed on the original Program Quality Indi-
istrators on each of the 123 items. When Dunn's pro-
cator checklist. and this support provides further cre-
cedure was applied to control for experiment-wise type
dence to the use of this instrument for ongoing program
I error. only one item had a mean score rating that was
evaluation. Since the sample for this study was com-
significantly different for the two groups. Administra-
posed of carefully selected administrators and teachers
tors rated the item "The building principal or program
who were knowledgeable about and supported the basic
supervisor observes personnel during instruction at least
values driving the program quality indicators. general-
quarterly and provides staff with written feedback on
ization of findings to all teachers and administrators in
performance at least annually" significantly higher 1.8 =
the field is not advised. Interpretation of the findings is
16.93) than did teachers (x = 13.60) (187 = -5.18. p <
limited to professionals possessing a similar value base.
.0000).
Only one significant difference emerged when the
Group Differences
item responses for the teachers and administrators were
)
Table 2 provides data on the means and standard
compared. Administrators considered the need for on-
deviations for unit raw scores on the five original di-
going evaluation of teachers and the provision of written
mensions of program quality for the two groups sur-
feedback to be much more important than did teachers.
veyed in this research. teachers and program adminis-
Since this is one of the primary functions of an admin-
trators. as well as the original SIX groups: behavior
istrator. this finding is not surprising. The results of
therapy experts. severe disabilities experts. deaf-blind
these group comparisons indicate that there is good
experts. mental retardation researchers. state directors
congruence between the perceptions and priorities of
of special education. and parents. The unit scores were
the teachers and administrators.
derived by averaging the raw scores for all items loading
Regarding the results pertaining to the group differ-
above .30 on the five factors that emerged in the Meyer
ences. the fact that the teachers' and administrators'
et al. (1987) study. based on the procedure used in the
mean score ratings on the integration dimension were
original study. Thus. these unit scores reflect the actual
higher than those of the other six groups coincides with
means across the individual items for each factor.
the current focus on the important roles teachers and
Relative to the integration factor. the teachers' and
administrators play in integrating learners with severe
216
Eichinger and Downing
Table 2
Means and Standard Deviations for Unit Raw Scores on Five Original Dimensions of Program Quality Indicators
Professional
Data-
Criterion
Integration
practices and
Staff devel-
based in-
of ultimate
Group
n
unit
home-school
opment unit
struction
functioning
unit
unit
unit
Behavior therapy experts
27
i
13.08
16.93
14.02
16.54
16.38
(SD)
(4.36)
(3.23)
(4.57)
(3.55)
(3.41)
Severe/TASH experts
60
in
16.03
17.38
13.42
17.20
17.51
(SD)
(3.62)
(2.85)
(4.49)
(2.95)
(2.69)
Deat-blind experts
41
i
13.86
17.34
14.21
16.03
16.96
(SD)
(4.50)
(2.89)
(444)
(3.68)
(3.19)
Mental retardation researchers
32
i
13.48
16.75
14.04
15.10
16.39
(SD)
(4.52)
(3.34)
(4.30)
(4.24)
(3.59)
State directors
41
i
15.07
16.84
13.91
15.47
16.79
(SD)
(4.04)
(3.12)
(4.54)
(3.64)
(3.19)
Parents
53
X
15.89
17.93
15.70
16.22
17.89
(SD)
(4.54)
(2.85)
(4.29)
(3.90)
(3.21)
Teachers
48
in
16.63
17.51
13.59
16.30
17.51
(SD)
(3.72)
(2.55)
(4.07)
(3.06)
(2.70)
Program administrators
11
i
16.68
17.51
14.31
16.00
17.08
(SD)
(4.43)
(2.51)
(3.87)
(3.20)
(2.64)
disabilities Biklen. 1985: Knoll & Meyer. 1987: Taylor
1992: S. Stainback. Stainback. & Forest. 1989: W.
& Ferguson. 1985: Vandercook & York. 1990; Villa &
Stainback & Stainback. 1990: Thousand & Villa, 1990).
Thousand. 1990). On the professional practices and
Such belief statements indicate that the field may have
home-school collaboration dimension. teachers' and
progressed beyond some of the original Program Qual-
administrators unit mean score ratings were higher
ity Indicators published in 1987. Based on anecdotal
than those of all other groups besides parents. However.
feedback and current thinking. some original items
these differences were not that dramatic (range from
need to be revised and others need to be deleted alto-
16.75 to 17.93). Parents rated staff development higher
gether because of low overall ratings by all eight groups.
than did teachers or administrators. Although one
Also. the emerging philosophy of educating all learners
would consider this a primary function of administra-
in regular education classes with necessary support serv-
tors. they did not perceive this as being as important as
ices should be represented in this checklist using addi-
did parents. Also. teachers rated this lower than all
tional items. These changes have been incorporated
other groups except experts in severe disabilities. The
into a revised checklist (Meyer. Eichinger. & Downing.
unit mean score ratings of teachers and administrators
1992).
relative to data-based instruction fell in the range of
The fact that the majority of program indicators were
scores for the eight groups. In terms of the criterion of
rated as highly important by both teachers and admin-
ultimate functioning. again parents rated this the high-
istrators supports the value of using these indicators to
est. followed by teachers and experts in severe disabili-
evaluate program quality. The Program Quality Indi-
ues (tied). followed by administrators. Again. as was the
cator checklist provides a practical guideline for school
case with professional practices and home-school col-
administrators to use when trying to determine if indi-
laboration. the range was quite narrow 116.38 to 17.89).
vidual student programs reflect current "best practices."
Another important source of data regarding integra-
Shared responsibility for all students. regardless of dis-
tion emerged from anecdotal comments included by
ability. may be facilitated if administrators are aware of
the respondents. The recurring theme that emerged
and given practical guidelines for providing the neces-
from several teachers' and administrators comments
sary supervision and support.
was in response to item 103. "Classroom location close
The validation of these 123 quality indicators by a
to students of the same age who are nondisabled." Six
sample of teachers and administrators from six geo-
of the 10 teachers and } of the 10 administrators from
graphically diverse states reflects considerable consen-
one state wrote anecdotal comments to the effect that
sus about best educational practices for students with
students with severe disabilities should not be in sepa-
severe disabilities. Although research has been con-
rate classes but should be included in the regular class-
ducted regarding teachers' perceptions of the imple-
room. A sample response IS I don't believe that sepa-
mentation of "best practices programming" (Avres.
rate classes are necessary or desirable." These comments
Meyer. Erevelles. & Park-Lee. in preparation). addi-
indicate that at least some administrators and teachers
tional research is needed to determine the types and
have moved beyond separate class placement and are
amounts of supports needed to facilitate and sustain
practicing full inclusion (S. Stainback & Stainback.
changes in educational programming for learners with
JASH
copyright 1992 by
1992. Vol. 17. No. 4. 218-226
The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps
Figuring Out What To Do with the
Grownups: How Teachers Make Inclusion
"Work" for Students with Disabilities
Dianne L. Ferguson, Gwen Meyer, Lysa Jeanchild, Leah Juniper, and Joe Zingo
Specialized Training Program
University of Oregon
This article describes details of inclusion of students
and outside of school. That is. the social agenda of
with severe disabilities using an extended example of
inclusion should not outstrip schools' equally funda-
one high school drama class. Based on research con-
mental teaching responsibility. Schools must enable all
ducied in eight schools by a team of four researchers,
students to actively participate in their communities so
the article describes three inclusion outcomes for both
that others care enough about what happens to them to
disabled and nondisabled students (curriculum infusion,
look for ways to include them as part of that commu-
social inclusion, and learning inclusion). It then de-
nity. If inclusion is to mean anything, it must mean
scribes how the drama teacher and the special education
that students with disabilities become full. active. learn-
teacher provided teaching support, prosthetic support,
ing members of the school community.
and interpretive support to one disabled student by
In pockets of reform across the country, school
developing both collaborative and consultive relation-
professionals. and families are seeking to provide stu-
ships with each other.
dents, especially those with more severe disabilities. and
their general education teachers with the necessary sup-
DESCRIPTORS: adults. collaboration, develop-
ports to achieve a learning membership that is charac-
mental disabilities, integration, peer relationships, sup-
terized both by social inclusion and ongoing functional
port
growth. Too often, however. the balance seems elusive.
For nearly 17 years the field of special education has
One recurring theme of difficulties encountered in-
volves how to define the roles of additional staff.
been struggling to meet the challenges of educating
students with severe disabilities. We have learned much.
whether general or special education. certified or clas-
Little by little, we are discovering how to make school-
sified. working within the context of general education
ing effective and successful even for very challengingly
classrooms. Although variously named. some authors
disabled students. As educators have acquired more and
recommend the use of an inclusion facilitator (Gartner
more confidence about what and how students learn.
& Lipsky, 1987; Porter. 1988; W. Stainback & Stain-
we have also become willing to reexamine where stu-
back. 1990; Thousand & Villa. 1990). Different authors
dents learn. The language of "integration." "main-
offer various details. but there seem to be three themes
streaming," "supported education," even "least restric-
in the role descriptions offered for an inclusion facili-
tive environment" peppers almost any conversation
tator: broker, adaptor, and collaborator.
among educators today, and increasingly includes not
As a broker, the inclusion facilitator locates resources
just students with severe disabilities but any special
and matches them to needs in a way that will enhance
education-labeled student (Biklen, Ferguson. & Ford,
and not deter the formation of natural supports to the
1989; Gartner & Lipsky, 1987; S. Stainback & Stain-
student. As an adaptor. it is the facilitator's role to
back. 1990).
develop and suggest changes in teaching plans so that
Our earlier efforts to integrate students with disabili-
the classroom teacher might better accommodate a
ties taught us that physical presence was not enough
wider variety of students in his or her lessons. including
(e.g., Biklen. 1985. Grenot-Scheyer, Coots. & Falvey,
those labeled as eligible for special education. Finally,
1989; Hamre-Nietupski & Nietupski. 1981: Schnorr.
the brokering of resources. curriculum. and teaching
1991). resulting in new calls for "inclusion" with its
suggestions best occurs, it is advised. when adults work
implications of social connectedness. participation, ex-
in a collaborative manner, with all the resultant impli-
change. and shared responsibilities. At the same time.
cations of trust. respect, interaction. and exchange be-
proponents argued (Brown et al., 1989; Ferguson &
tween adults who may have never before worked closely
Jeanchild. 1991: York & Vandercook. 1990) that inclu-
alongside another adult.
sion should also build students' competence both inside
Although descriptions of this facilitator role are help-
218
Figuring Out What To Do with the Grownups
219
ful. for teachers in the role many questions can remain.
contained classrooms operated by an intermediate
How are these facilitator professionals to nurture the
school district in a neighboring town's schools. It is in
increasing comfort and "ownership" of the general ed-
this context that we sampled a variety of inclusion
ucation teacher and students? How can teaching and
efforts.
learning support be provided without unintentionally
Some 84 observations and 64 interviews have been
getting in the way of social connectedness? How exactly
repeatedly read. coded. and discussed by the research
do multiple adults work together in settings that previ-
team. We are still not finished. but continue to follow
ously accommodated only one adult? If the facilitating
teachers and schools as they expand and improve on
teacher is not the "primary" teacher. does he or she risk
their efforts to include even very severely disabled stu-
assuming a de facto role as classroom assistant? What
dents in the life of the school community.
if the curriculum and teaching suggestions are not
Our analysis led us to focus on several inclusion
heeded? If specialist supports gradually "fade." what is
dimensions. each with several subareas: (a) the capaci-
to become of "special" educators? While there are cer-
ties of teachers and systems. (b) the processes that create
tainly a variety of questions about how to achieve full
unintended isolation of students within inclusionary
inclusion. figuring out what to do with the grownups
settings, (c) the perspectives of included students. (d)
remains a frequently voiced issue.
the roles and relationships of adults, and (e) the varied
This paper uses the example of one high school drama
meanings of support. This article discusses these last
class to illustrate how teachers in many more schools
two dimensions of inclusive schools.
and classrooms are "figuring out what to do with the
Following established qualitative analysis procedures
grownups" when students with severe disabilities join
(Bodgan & Biklen. 1983: Charmaz. 1983: Patton. 1990)
the lessons and classrooms of their nondisabled peers.
we first read transcripts. memos, and field notes to
Although one situation provides the illustrations. the
identify incidents and events that seemed to be either
analysis depends on a much larger data base of quali-
repetitive or novel. We each read our own data. and
tative field notes. researcher discussions. memoranda.
two of us read data generated by each of our co-
and interviews with teachers. students. and administra-
researchers. During analysis discussions. our collective
tors gathered by four qualitative researchers who have
understandings of both the data we had generated and
been following the efforts of teachers across eight
those of our colleagues were extended, permitting the
schools, most for 2 years. In some situations we followed
development of concepts and properties. For example.
a single student as he or she moved out from the self-
early on we focused on "unhelpful help." and began to
contained classroom. In other situations we focused on
identify incidents and events in the data that revealed
a few teachers within a building and their collective
various structural, logistical, curricular, and pedagogical
efforts to learn how to make inclusion work. In still
dimensions that seemed to create a kind of invisible
other instances we studied whole schools (Ferguson,
"bubble" around the students with disabilities. hinder-
Jeanchild. & Carter. 1991). We chose those schools and
ing instead of facilitating inclusion (Ferguson, Jean-
classrooms we could access fairly often and easily and
child. & Meyer. 1992). We also developed concepts,
where faculty were actively engaged in changing teach-
and eventually categories, related to role conflicts, role
ing and learning for all the students in their schools.
management, and support that are detailed here and
Some schools invited us to observe their efforts. others
together inform a theme that emerged in our investi-
agreed to accommodate us when asked. We sought only
gation of inclusion: that effective inclusion depends on
to sample a range of examples. encompassing large and
figuring out what to do with the grownups.
small schools in large and small communities.
We chose drama class to illustrate what these teachers
In all we collected data in eight elementary, three
and students have taught us about how to use adults to
middle, and six high schools located in a 300-mile
support full inclusion in part because the example is
stretch of a western state. Typically, students in this
novel. Too often high school seems a more challenging
state who happen to have severe disabilities attend self-
context for inclusion. especially for students with severe
contained classrooms in chronologically age-appropri-
disabilities, because the curriculum and structures are
ate schools. For the past 3 years achieving "supported
so grounded in disciplinary distinctions. We also chose
education" for all students with disabilities has been
this example because the very nature of drama serves
one of seven goal initiatives of the State Department of
to highlight what in other contexts can be almost un-
Education. As a consequence, individual teachers,
noticeable nuances. Let us be clear, however, that our
schools. and whole districts in all areas of what is a
analysis of teacher relationships and student supports
largely rural state are experimenting with "full inclu-
emerges not just from the experiences of Nora. Rick,
sion" in various ways. Teachers of self-contained class-
and Ethan, but also from what we learned from Mrs.
rooms are disintegrating classroom walls by scheduling
Rains, Zack, Lisha, Mr. Nelson. Ms. Maxwell, Sarah.
students more out of than in their classrooms. Districts
Marcus, Rina, Ms. Valmar, Tony, and so on. For the
are "bringing back" students previously sent to self-
sake of both clarity and brevity, we illustrate here how
220
Ferguson. Meyer. Jeanchild. Juniper. and Zingo
Rick and Nora constructed both sharing and educative
question and wanted him to answer in either a loud or
relationships with each other. in order to then provide
a soft voice. More questions. first to Annie. then Paul
Ethan with the teaching support, prosthetic support.
then Sheila: "Do you think of yourself as smart?" "Dc
and interpretive support that resulted in social and
you think of him [pointing out another student] as
learning inclusion in beginning drama at Greentree
smart?" "Stupid?" "Is black your favorite color?"
High School.
Rick approached Ethan and asked "Do you like red?"
Ethan replied. "Do you like red?" Rick tried again. only
to have Ethan repeat the question again. Nora offered
Beginning Drama at the Beginning
assistance. saying to Ethan: "Listen. It's a question. Do
you like red?" Ethan still repeated the question. Both
Students were scattered throughout the red plush
Nora and Rick tried to ask the question a different way
theater seats in the "little" theater. Walls and stage were
and after three or four more exchanges with both Nora
solid black. like a canvas awaiting the artist. Rick sat at
and Rick, Ethan finally offered, "I like red."
a card table in the center of the stage taking attendance.
Rick asked Nora to explain to the class what just
It was only the second week of the term and he was still
happened. "Sometimes Ethan doesn't understand what
trying to memorize the names of 32 beginning drama
information a questioner wants." she explained. "but
students. Ethan offered no challenge. He was the only
he knows that he is supposed to answer. so he repeats
student using a wheelchair and always sat in the front
what he just heard." Rick expanded. adding that re-
aisle, very near the center of the stage. because his heavy
motorized chair could not climb even the small theater
peating is Ethan's way of "letting us know that he
seat aisles. Nearby Ethan's special education teacher.
doesn't get the point and we have to try another way to
Nora. sat casually chatting with another student.
help him understand." This led Rick to a larger point
The class drew a wide range of Greentree students.
about communication and how important it is to actors
Sitting up in back was a group of young men all in
on a stage. He pointed out that. as actors. they are going
black. several with elaborate hairstyles. One in particu-
to have to communicate a great deal about a character
lar stood out: his hair was carrot red. shaved to about
very quickly and briefly. but they will not enjoy the
an eighth inch except for one long shock in the front
luxury of having an audience that can tell them when
that framed the right side of his face and cupped his
it doesn't understand. "Ethan," Rick concluded. "can
chin. In contrast was a young woman with long brown
help us all learn how to imagine what might not be
hair dressed in a cashmere sweater. plaid pleated skirt.
communicated so we can discover all the ways of com-
stockings. and pumps. Only the pearls seemed missing.
municating that will help more people understand what
Others were in jeans and cotton tops. Most were care-
we are trying to convey with our character."
fully outfitted in combinations of colorfully contrasting
Near the end of class. Ethan's experience of drama
knit shirts, socks. and canvas shoes. High-top sneakers
class became part of the lesson again. For the past week
seemed de rigueur even for Rick. who was dressed in
the entire class had been doing relaxation exercises.
brightly patterned elastic-waist baggy pants and a T-
Rick had promised that. by Friday, he would help them
shirt.
become so relaxed that they would fall asleep on stage.
The class period mostly offered lecture/discussion
Wanting to introduce the idea of "subtext." Rick re-
with a few exercises for variety and practice. Rick first
minded the group of how Ethan was able to relax earlier
introduced the notions of "high-centered" and "low-
in the week:
centered" personalities. He asked students to adopt one
of these generic persona and answer questions "in char-
acter." After a few exchanges. Rick asked the class to
Remember how even Nora was surprised. He re-
reflect on how they were depicting the two persona.
laxed so much that both his arms stretched out and
generating a good deal of discussion about stereotype
were flat on the floor! Nora was pretty excited
and class distinctions. Ethan sat quietly. sometimes
because it is very hard for Ethan to relax since his
leaning back to look at ceiling lights. occasionally yawn-
muscles are always tighter than yours. Something
ing. not closely watching Rick but seemingly listening.
you find very easy-stretching your arm out
Rick wandered as he talked and questioned. When he
straight-is a very big accomplishment for Ethan.
moved near Ethan, he smiled and touched Ethan
Now Ethan could do this thing that is more difficult
warmly. At one point. while framing another question
for him because he was listening to my voice. I was
for Curt. Rick picked up Ethan's handkerchief and
talking about clouds and waves and using lots of
wiped the wetness that oral motor impairments con-
words and imagery that Ethan probably didn't
stantly create around his mouth.
really understand. but he was able to listen 10 the
After several students' turns at the exercise. Rick
subtext-the tone and underlying meaning-and
reminded Ethan that he was going to ask him a yes/no
it allowed him to achieve the exercise.
Figuring Out What To Do with the Grownups
221
Setting Inclusion Parameters
ipated this particular curriculum infusion benefit. He
As with many educators. Nora and Rick approached
and Nora had. however. planfully orchestrated many
Ethan's inclusion in beginning drama as architects:
other features of Ethan's inclusion according to the twin
neither completely knew exactly how it would unfold
parameters of social and learning inclusion.
or what would be achieved. but there was a blueprint.
Social inclusion: Learning to be a teenager in drama
Rick had an agenda of learning for the nondisabled
class. High schools tend to be richly varied environ-
peers that included at least a new awareness of disability
ments on many dimensions. from curricular choices to
and. for some. an acceptance of Ethan as a classmate.
students' appearance and behavior. On the way to
Both teachers also had social and learning outcomes in
drama class one morning we encountered a young
mind for Ethan. The parameters of inclusion for all the
woman dressed entirely in black with black hair mys-
drama students. including Ethan. were to learn substan-
teriously coiffed to stand straight up at least 12 inches
tively about drama and socially about being teenagers.
into the air as if caught in some invisible suction (we
In the process of applying these twin accomplishments
later learned that Elmer's glue does the trick). As we
to Ethan, the drama curriculum was also enhanced.
passed, both startled but trying not to show it. Nora
Inclusion at Greenfield. and other schools we observed.
commented with a chuckle that "one of the things I
occurred within the three parameters of curriculum
really like about Greentree High is that we are definitely
infusion. social inclusion, and learning inclusion.
not the oddest."
Curriculum infusion: How disability can teach. I ex-
Of course, this range of individual expression emerges
pect that this years' beginning drama students will not
in part because students are so uncertain about who
soon forget the meaning of subtext. Other authors (Bik-
they really are. Trying on different personas is simply
len. 1985; Fullwood, 1990) have remarked on the po-
part of the drama all students participate in during high
tential benefits of inclusion for nondisabled peers. Cer-
school. Someone offering as many differences as Ethan.
tainly Rick effectively used Ethan's experiences. and
however, poses a particular challenge in adolescent
other students' experiences of Ethan. to elaborate the
culture.
drama curriculum in a way that only Ethan's inclusion
Rick explained that. "At first. first term. they didn't
made possible.
want to touch him. They couldn't go near him. They
As the year progressed. Rick's goal "to have the
were afraid of him because of the differences. Now
'outside world' (at least as represented by Ethan's drama
some of the newer kids may be a little tentative.
classmates) understand, to not recoil" became elabo-
but.
Nora elaborated. "Rick and I have really tried
rated. Both Rick and Nora found many more unique
hard to achieve a balance between wanting to 'set up
ways in which Ethan's participation served to teach.
things' and backing off. because you can't force quality
One example nicely illustrates:
interactions. We know that."
Rick was thoughtful about his need to model. "I
Rick: There are times when some of the kids are
pointed out that I knew that a lot of them were afraid.
doing their improvs. say, and Ethan will laugh.
That's exactly what I said. 'I know a lot of you would
And then the kids will start laughing because they
see somebody like Ethan on the street and walk away.
see him laughing. What I like about him is that
he's very emotional with his responses. He's right
or go on the other side of the street. Or you see some-
there. And so he teaches the other kids
he
body drooling or dribbling or something and you just
walk away. And I expect that.' I assured them that T'm
teaches my kids to just go do it.
Nora: That came up even in the beginning when
not gonna force any of you to have any kind of inter-
Ethan was afraid to get out of his chair, saying
action. I want you to understand that if you want to.
"No!" Rick commented then, "It's too bad every-
this is the place to do it. We need to learn about people
body can't be as open as Ethan and just say, 'This
like Ethan and Ethan needs to learn that it's okay for
is what I am afraid of. This is what I like, this is
him to say no to us.
what I'm afraid of, this is how I'm feeling." So
Nora's involvement was a different kind of strategy.
Ethan's openness is a positive thing.
Part of the "setup" was that groups including Ethan
also included Nora. especially in the beginning. Initially
Ethan's disability served to teach so much that Rick
all the groups were assigned by Nora and Rick in part
concluded by midyear that "there's a benefit in the fact
to ensure that students did not have to face the situation
that he is wheelchair bound" because it forces other
of picking Ethan before they were ready. Later, when
students to design their improvisations around more
students began to relax with Ethan's differences. they
novel constraints: "It's very good for the kids to say,
began to select their own groups. It didn't take long for
'Ethan can't walk. Okay. We were going to have him
a few of the women in class to invite Ethan into their
do this. how do we adapt for what we want?' I think
groups, and for Ethan to choose some of the same
that's the best learning."
women on other occasions. Regardless of how the
[ suspect that neither Rick nor Nora had fully antic-
groups were formed, however, Nora. and sometimes
222
Ferguson. Meyer. Jeanchild. Juniper. and Zingo
Rick. came along: "So those groups got paid off a little
much they came to value Ethan as a member of the
bit because there was a grownup helping them. So it
drama class."
wasn't stigmatizing to have Ethan in the group."
Learning inclusion: Learning about acting. Ethan's
Despite the challenge Ethan represented to this class-
parents supported inclusion in drama not so much with
room and these students. a balance did not take long to
expectations of any specific learning. certainly not
emerge. Not every student. of course. but many came
"promise as an actor." but with the hope that the
to see Ethan as a member of the class to greet. even
experience might prove valuable for developing com-
downtown on Saturdays. to slap on the back, to ap-
munity theater connections after schooling ended. Yet
plaud, and to invite into their group for the final exam
Ethan did learn a good deal, surprising Nora and Rick
assignment using combative techniques. Ethan quickly
as well as his parents, by the end of the first term.
learned to identify students by their voices and could
The final exam was to perform a monologue: Ethan's
easily return a "Hi" with a "Hi, Angie. how are you?"
was from the Spoon River Anthology. Ethan had never
As Nora noted. "Ethan is a pretty personable guy."
tried to remember lines and his speech was often diffi-
Some students. of course, never became comfortable
cult to understand. so Nora created the scene of an
with Ethan and never sought interactions with him. but
actress rehearsing her lines just before performance in
that seemed true among several of the nondisabled
her dressing table mirror, only Ethan was the "mirror."
As Nora spoke each line. Ethan repeated it. speaking
students as well.
those lines he best remembered in unison with her.
Learning to include Ethan was certainly a challenge
achieving a kind of underlining effect that they were
sometimes. When Kim and Sharon were planning the
her best remembered lines as well.
combative scene that would be their final for the unit,
"He was amazing!" concluded Nora, "he pushed
they struggled with how to include Ethan. The scene
himself."
itself wasn't so difficult to create: Ethan would be going
"By all rights," Rick added. "he shouldn't have been
to a snack bar with one of the young women when
able to do it because his disability should have prevented
another would approach and kick at his wheelchair,
him. He's not supposed to be able to do that."
telling him to "get out of the way." They needed an
"You know, all this memorization." elaborated Nora,
epithet, however. and that was more difficult. Both
"I think people were so amazed because that's not what
students approached Nora and Rick: "What names
people see every day
[but] just like everybody, you
could/should we call Ethan?." they asked. worried
go above and beyond for tests. Ethan did the same as
about being appropriate and hurting Ethan's feelings.
everybody else in the class because he really pushed
Rick responded. "Call him the same kinds of names
himself for that final performance. It was really moti-
you would call your other friends." Both looked unsat-
vating to him."
isfied with this answer, but. after a pause. accepted it
Practicing for a performance. preparing for a test.
and returned to the rehearsal. Watching the interaction.
getting nervous before a performance were all new
1 wondered if they weren't really trying to ask if it was
learning experiences for Ethan that led to more and
okay to call Ethan "retard" or "crip." The teacher's
more as the year unfolded. By January, Nora was clear
response seemed to confuse them in part because these
that
might very well be the names they would use with other
Ethan's goal is the same as for all the kids in Rick's
friends. They decided on "jerk." but I think their ques-
class. I think Ethan is doing the exact same things
tion is illustrative of the nuances about acceptance that
about pushing yourself. trusting yourself. trusting
can occur, sometimes unnoticed. in inclusionary set-
others. That's what learning acting is about: it's
tings.
about knowing what you can do. knowing your
Perhaps the best way to summarize the social inclu-
boundaries, and pushing yourself to those limits.
sion Ethan and his classmates experienced in drama
I've seen Ethan do that the very first term.
class is with a brief story about the end of the year. As
part of the end-of-year closure festivities and perform-
A bit more cautiously. Rick expanded.
ances. Rick invited the class to select from among their
But I don't think Ethan understands. I think he
number the male and female students that not only
knows he's scared and I try to get him to trust. to
"showed the most improvement. but also show the most
get him to relax. When we had him go to sleep. he
promise as an actor." Reporting the outcomes to me
was so rigid, so afraid. Everybody laid down on the
after the fact. Nora and Rick explained that they were
stage and he was so rigid! Then I talked to them
both surprised and moved to discover that Ethan re-
and his body went almost limp he was so relaxed
ceived seven votes. "If it had only been improvement.
and he was not afraid. So maybe the goals are
I could see it." Nora explained. "Ethan really did learn
forgotten. then he gets tense again. and then you
a lot that everyone could see." "But promise as an
bring him back into a state of relaxation or under-
actor!" Rick completed their thought: "It shows how
standing. It's a wearing down process of having
Figuring Out What To Do with the Grownups
223
him relax/not relax. relax/go through stress. trust/
in the form of another person. Faced with a student
not trust, more trust than not trust
I'm not
never before encountered. who comes with a reputation
sure I know what is gonna be good for Ethan. I'm
for difficult learning. this request for human support
not sure what's good for anybody. It's just a process
seems quite natural. On the one hand. person support
of chipping away at their misconceptions of them-
promises someone to "talk things over with." a sign of
selves.
teachers' ongoing dependence on puzzling out teaching.
even if only with themselves. On the other hand. the
There were other things learned that were unique to
long separation of special and general education teach-
Ethan. He seemed better able to manage "down time"
ers seems to have resulted in such different approaches
without doing things that were inappropriate or distract-
to teaching and learning that communication is awk-
ing when Rick was lecturing, as well as in other settings
ward at best. and completely blocked at worst. It is as
and situations. Rick noticed midyear that Ethan was
if these teachers are operating in different spheres of
using different vocal inflections during exercises and
discourse. often using the same words only to misun-
passing conversations. Rick also found that Ethan was
derstand each other-dampening, even extinguishing
more relaxed about touching, initiating physical contact
the respect. trust, and exchange so necessary to real
with other students. something Rick thought "especially
collaboration.
important for people who use wheelchairs because they
Support might only result in nothing really changing.
seem so physically cut off from everyone else."
The support person. "Velcroed" to the student with
As the year progressed. both Rick and Nora seemed
disabilities, all too often forms a "bubble" of isolation.
to find more confidence in understanding Ethan's learn-
The support promised by the other person can serve
ing. From the beginning, however. it had been clear
mainly as a barrier to the transactions that result in
that learning was an equal part of the agenda. Some-
more successful and effective inclusion, providing more
times he learned the same things in a slightly adapted
unhelpful than helpful help (Ferguson et al., 1992).
way in the manner of "multilevel curriculum selection"
Rather than remaining open ended. support should be
(Giangreco & Putnam. 1990). Sometimes the activity
more concretely described in ways that maximize the
or lesson provided a context for Ethan to learn some-
shared language and understandings that permit the
thing the other students did not need to pursue, in the
kind of collaborative results Rick and Nora achieved
manner of "curriculum overlapping" (Giangreco & Put-
for Ethan. Our observations and interviews suggest that
nam, 1990).
support functions as genuinely supportive when it is
Perhaps even more valuable was that what Ethan
framed from the student's rather than the teacher's
actually learned was not anticipated by his special ed-
perspective as either (a) teaching support, (b) prosthetic
ucation teacher, his parents, or the drama teacher. It
support. or (c) interpretive support. Ethan's drama class
was only the collective efforts of this triad to make
provides examples of each.
learning occur in the context of drama class that ac-
Teaching support. Ethan certainly needed a good deal
tually resulted in a "curriculum" that none of these
of teaching support. As Nora commented about mid-
planners could have created independently. If "collab-
year. "Sometimes it gets really hard to work Ethan in
oration" means anything, surely it means this: that
because
outcomes are achieved for the student (in this case.
Rick interrupts. "because theater is a verbal art. There
learning outcomes) that none of the adults could have
designed on their own. The "whole" of a collaboration
are ways we [can] find for Ethan to communicate and
it works very, very well: but the difficulty is
there
is more than the sum of its parts in what it produces
are certain exercises Ethan can't be in because they are
for the student.
very verbally oriented."
Designing the Supports
Nora expands. "Ethan can be verbal. but you have
For Nora and Rick, the agenda became clear fairly
to set it up in a way that accommodates how and when
quickly. Ethan, like everyone else in the class, would
he can be verbal."
learn things about drama and about himself as a mem-
"I think it's a time factor." Rick continues. "If we
ber of the social group called "beginning drama." It was
have enough time to present the [idea, exercise] then
equally clear to both Rick and Nora that Ethan would
he can work it through. but on the spur of the moment.
do this somewhat differently than the other 32 students.
in a 40-minute class, it's very difficult.
[Some]
im-
In fact, one of "the main reasons" that Rick agreed to
provs we don't set Ethan up in."
Ethan's enrollment was "that Nora said that she would
"But," Nora finishes the thought. "the ones where
be there in class to provide support."
there's even a little time to create scenes we have Ethan
In watching inclusion efforts closely in some eight
there."
schools over the past 2 years, and less closely in many
This exchange during an interview illustrates one
others, we have found that all the general education
facet of teaching support: Ethan received instruction
teachers we encountered initially requested "support"
from both adults, both in the planning of teaching (as
224
Ferguson, Meyer. Jeanchild. Juniper. and Zingo
illustrated here) and in the doing of it. During the last
asking a teacher to repeat an instruction when you
day of rehearsal for the final exam for the combatives
didn't quite comprehend it. or a note taker in science
unit, for example, both Rick and Nora coached Ethan's
because you cannot write yourself. learning is thwarted
group at different times during the period. First Nora
Different from instructional assistance. prosthetic sup
explained to Kim and Sharon how to help Ethan un-
port never fades: it is always required to diminish or
derstand that. when Kim said "Get out of my way!" as
remove the impact of disability, or even just natura
part of the setup for the skit. he should not back up.
variations in ability. Most students. whether labeled or
Later Rick practiced pretend-punching Ethan in the
not. require some form of prosthetic support at one
stomach. helping Ethan time his responsive "Ugh!"
time or another. Some. like Ethan. require more sup-
accurately.
port, more consistently provided. Inclusion works best
A second, perhaps more important aspect of teaching
when not only all the adults in a school. regardless of
support is that all the other students receive similar
their official labels. but also the students. learn to pro-
teaching support from both Rick and Nora. Whether
vide prosthetic support. easily and naturally, when it is
the teaching decision involved Ethan or any of the other
needed.
students. Rick and Nora repeatedly demonstrated an
Ethan has poor visual skills. He can see. but he is a
ability "to be flexible with each other," creating a dy-
little nearsighted and his eyes do not work together well.
namic drama teaching team.
making depth perception untrustworthy. Glasses only
An exercise involving memorization had not quite
seem to compound his visual difficulties. Rick. Nora.
been completed on Monday. but Tuesday Rick had
and the drama students learned to wear white and other
planned to do several other things. Rick and Nora had
bright colors so that Ethan saw more than "little faces"
a brief exchange about whether or not to complete the
when he looked at people against the stage's black
memory exercise. Agreeing that they could accommo-
backdrop. Several of the students assumed responsibil-
date the rest of the exercise and still manage the planned
ity to open the only door through which Ethan could
agenda. they both encouraged the class to assemble
enter the little stage. assuring that he never had to wait,
quickly. As the exercise proceeded. both teachers
beeping his horn. risking tardiness. Ethan's need for
prompted and urged the students to work faster. It
these prosthetic supports never waned. but neither did
seemed clear to me. as the observer. that students
the groups' willingness to provide them.
viewed Nora as a co-teacher. She not only provided
Interpretive supports. General education teachers
assistance and feedback but. like Rick, also sometimes
who are beginning to work with students like Ethan,
participated in setting tasks for everyone. As she later
previously excluded from their classrooms. often say,
explained. "They know I work with Ethan. but I'm
in one way or another, that they need "support" because
[also] always participating [in the drama class]. I always
they do not know how to teach such students. Special
say what I think. I talk and disagree or agree. I'm
educators, perhaps because of their focus on a unique
definitely a person with an opinion outside of Ethan. I
instructional technology for students determined to re-
don't just talk about special ed."
quire their services. often hear this teacher lament as a
For his part, Rick began to use Nora as a teacher. not
lack of teaching skill, and attempt to instruct their
just a special education teacher. "I use her as a resource,
general education colleagues in how to teach. In some
I look at her as a colleague. [I pause] and say 'Nora.
situations this might well be appropriate support. In
anything?' and she'll explain. I explain [something] as
many others, however. we have found that general
how it affects us as theater technicians. and then she'll
education teachers are requesting interpretive. not
say
So she caps it. She talks about exactly what the
teaching. support.
theory is or the emotion or whatever it is." As a conse-
In order to create effective teaching/learning situa-
quence of both Rick and Nora functioning as teachers
tions for most students in their classrooms. general
with each other, the students also seemed to view them
education teachers do not have to know each student
as colleagues. receiving and accepting teaching support
in intimate detail. In most classrooms. of course. there
from both. Students. more so than either special or
are always a handful of the 20-30 or more students that
general educators. seem able to experience all the adults
teachers must get to know much more closely in order
in school as "teachers," neither discriminating nor war-
to construct learning exchanges that are effective and
ranting the discipline and specialist labels we adults so
sensible from the student's point of view. Making learn-
prize.
ing effective and sensible for Ethan. however, required
Prosthetic support. Students with severe disabilities
a good deal more intimate knowledge. As Rick ex-
have helped to teach all educators that all students can
plained by way of example. "Ethan has a different way
learn. although many students require supports for
of communicating. I. unfortunately. don't know how
learning to proceed effectively. We refer to these non-
to tap into that because I've got 32 students in this
instructional learning supports as prosthetic supports.
class." Rick may never have the time, given the de-
Without being positioned well. or having a strategy for
mands of 32 other students. to acquire the level of
Figuring Out What To Do with the Grownups
225
intimate knowledge about Ethan's communication.
learning and prosthetic support needs. a need for in-
physical support needs. learning. emotions. and sense
terpretive support as well may never disappear.
of humor that Nora possesses. She had only 11 students
this year.
Beginning Drama at the End
Perhaps Nora's most important function. from
At the end of the year the beginning drama class
Ethan's perspective, was to provide Rick and the other
usually performs a short play in the evening for a school
students with the kinds of interpretive support that
and family audience. This time it was a play about
permitted Ethan to be fully included as a learning
teenagers composed of short skits loosely woven to-
member of the class. Sometimes she provided these
gether by some choral lines at beginning and end. The
interpretive explanations directly to Rick and Ethan's
audience was small. probably mostly parents. friends.
classmates. Once a task was designed. according to
and friendly teachers. Still. we could hear the tension
Rick. "she'll say Ethan can't do this part because of
and excitement backstage. Finally the houselights
this. this. and this. but
It's a resource. an expertise
dimmed and the cast emerged to take assigned places
I don't have. and whenever I say, 'Nora.
they all
among the risers. The effect was asymmetrically planful.
listen to her because they know she knows what she's
but also pleasing. Ethan was in the back on the right.
talking about."
Nora sat near. The play began.
At other times, Nora interpreted more indirectly.
Ethan's lines were near the beginning. Turning to
Rick was setting up an exercise that involved four
him. his classmate seemed to exaggerate his cue. Ethan
students improvising on stage. They were to create a
responded. "In this high school there are 1600 students
scene by speaking only numbers instead of words. with
delivering his lines without error but without quite
various intensities and inflections. Each observing stu-
enough volume. Still. he was at least as understandable
dent. including Ethan, was assigned a number. When-
as the young woman from Korea who struggled to
ever they heard one of the actors on stage use their
enunciate unfamiliar American words. The skits began.
number, they were to repeat the number with the same
but soon Ethan was unable to quietly attend. First he
intensity and inflection. Rick assigned Ethan the num-
called out to Nora. then he began waving and tapping.
ber one. telling him to beep his wheelchair horn each
As if planned. Nora helped him leave as the lights
time he heard the number. Nora, standing a little closer
dimmed during a pause between scenes and the play
to Annie and Pam. the two students who began repeat-
continued uninterrupted by Ethan's distracting waiting
ing Rick's instructions to Ethan to make sure he under-
strategies. Near the end, he reappeared just as suddenly
stood. countered Rick's instructions. Knowing that
as he had disappeared, joining in the choral ending on
Ethan understood and could say numbers. she advised
cue and accepting the applause with his classmates. It
instead, just loud enough for Rick to hear across the
was artfully. if extemporaneously. done.
stage. that Ethan say the number one each time he
Like the final performance. Ethan's experience in
heard it. For his part. Rick noted Nora's change. nod-
drama class was not without flaw. In January both Nora
ding his recording of this new information about Ethan
and Rick were absent for a few days. felled by flu.
in his teaching memory.
Unprepared. the substitute failed to involve Ethan in
"I watch how she works with Ethan and how she
class, possibly undoing some of the social gains made
changes things." Rick went on to explain that this
in the past months. As an observer, I noticed times
"flexibility" with Nora and Ethan led him to create
when I thought that Nora and Rick became so caught
more open-ended exercises. describing the details of
up in the teaching of drama together that Nora failed
participation for all the students more ambiguously and
to provide the interpretive support that might have
thus requiring everyone to participate in creating the
included Ethan. leaving him to observe passively. Ethan
learning tasks. By providing Ethan with interpretive
performed poorly in the final skit for the combative
support, Nora also helped Rick create more opportu-
unit, at least in part because Sharon was absent and
nities for other students to "figure out what they have,
replaced at the last minute by Paul. Ethan's apparent
what they know. what they do well."
confusion by the change. and resultant performance.
If providing teaching support required Rick and Nora
poignantly illustrated his different learning, prompting
too develop a collaborative relationship, the providing
Paul and Kim to openly ask Rick if their own grades
of interpretive support placed Nora and Rick in more
would suffer.
of a consultative relationship. Nora provided interpre-
Still, the experiences of Rick, Nora, Ethan, and all
tations about Ethan's learning that enabled Rick, and
other teachers and students who shared their efforts to
his drama students. to more independently design ef-
fully include students with disabilities in general edu-
fective learning and social inclusion for Ethan. For
cation offer some valuable lessons for others seeking to
many students with disabilities, this consultative aspect
follow the same paths. These teachers and students
of interpretive support reduces the need for it over time.
suggest that "figuring out what to do with the grownups"
For other students. especially those with more complex
seems to proceed best when the adults focus less on
226
Ferguson. Meyer. Jeanchild, Juniper. and Zingo
their relationships with each other and more on their
ter. P., Ahigren, C., Johnson, F., Gruenewald, L., & Jorgen
joint relationships with students. Nora and Rick quickly
son. J. (1989). The home school. Why students with sever
intellectual disabilities must attend the schools of thei:
moved beyond seeing each other as "special" or "regu-
brothers, sisters. friends. and neighbors. Journal of the .45
lar" educators who must divide up the teaching task list
sociation for Persons with Severe Handicaps. 14. 1-7.
according to these disciplinary distinctions. Nora was
Charmaz. K. (1983). The grounded theory method: An expli-
not Ethan's only teacher merely because she shared his
cation and interpretation. In R. Emerson (Ed.). Contempo-
special education label. Neither was she denied the
rary field research (pp. 109-126). Boston: Little. Brown.
Ferguson. D. L., & Jeanchild. L. (1991). It's not a matter of
opportunity to teach drama. From the beginning. Nora
method: Thinking about how to implement curricular de-
and Rick seemed able to focus on simply being drama
cisions. In S. Stainback & B. Stainback (Eds.). Adapting the
teachers. each with different skills, interests, and knowl-
regular class curriculum: Enhancing student success in inclu-
edge. to be sure. but both as responsible for teaching all
sive classrooms. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Ferguson, D. L., Jeanchild, L.. & Carter. P. J. (1991). The best
the students about drama and about being teenagers.
tadpoles are in room 8: Report on a school that's changing
By keeping the students' learning and social outcomes
itself Eugene. OR: Specialized Training Program. Univer-
firmly in focus, Nora and Rick related to each other
sity of Oregon.
sometimes as collaborators and sometimes in more
Ferguson. D. L., Jeanchild, L., & Meyer. G. (1992). When
consultive roles, in the end supporting each other to be
inclusion isolates: Dimensions in the creation of "bubble
kids." Eugene, OR: Specialized Training Program. Univer-
a better drama teaching team.
sity of Oregon.
General education teachers getting involved in in-
Fullwood, D. (1990). Chances and choices: Making integration
cluding students with severe disabilities do not so much
work. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
require support in the form of a lesson planned, a
Gartner A., & Lipsky. D. K. (1987). Beyond special education:
Toward a quality system for all students. Harvard Educa-
curriculum adapted. a lesson taught. Rather, they re-
tional Review. 57. 367-395.
quire another person to. in Nora's words, "be flexible"
Giangreco, M. F., & Putnam. J. W. (1990). Supporting the
with them as teachers. providing collaborative contri-
education of students with severe disabilities in regular
butions or consultive information as needed to orches-
education environments. In L. H. Meyer. C. A. Peck, & L.
trate the teaching. prosthetic, and interpretive support
Brown (Eds.). Critical issues in the lives of people with severe
disabilities (pp. 245-270). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
that will achieve for all students the experience of
Grenot-Scheyer, M.. Coots. J., & Falvey. M. A. (1989). Devel-
learning and social inclusion.
oping and fostering friendships. In M. Falvey (Ed.). Com-
munity-based curriculum: Instructional strategies for STU-
"Figuring Out What To Do with the
dents with severe handicaps (pp. 345-358). Baltimore: Paul
H. Brookes.
Grownups" in Brief
Hamre-Nietupski. S., & Nietupski, J. (1981). Integral involve-
Nora, Rick, and Ethan, as well as others we met,
ment of severely handicapped students within regular public
schools. Journal for Persons with Severe Handicaps. 6. 30-
have taught us that achieving full learning membership
39.
for students with severe disabilities requires teachers.
Patton. M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research
regardless of their official labels. to provide all students
methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Inc.
with three crucial supports (teaching support. prosthetic
Porter. G. (1988). School integration Fad. fantasy or the
support, and interpretive support). by flexibly working
future? Paper presented at the International Conference on
Special Education, Beijing. China.
within three inclusion parameters (curriculum infusion,
Schnorr, R.F. (1991). "Peter? He comes and goes. First
learning inclusion, and social inclusion), through the
graders' perspectives on a part-time mainstream student.
development of two teacher relationships (collaborative
Journal for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15. 231-240.
and consultive) in order to accomplish one schooling
Stainback. S., & Stainback. W. (1990). Support networks for
inclusive schools: Interdependent integrated education. Bal-
outcome: The purpose of schooling is to enable all
timore: Paul H. Brookes.
students to actively participate in their communities so
Stainback. W. & Stainback. S. (1990). The support facilitator
that others care enough about what happens to them to
at work. In W. Stainback & S. Stainback (Eds.), Support
look for a way to include them as part of that commu-
networks for inclusive schools: Interdependent integrated
education (pp. 37-48). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
nity.
Thousand. J. S. & Villa, R. A. (1990). Sharing expertise and
responsibilities through teaching teams. In W. Stainback &
References
S. Stainback (Eds.). Support networks for inclusive schools:
Interdependent integrated education (pp. 151-166). Balti-
Biklen, D. (1985). Achieving the complete school: Strategies
more: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
for effective mainstreaming. New York: Teachers College
York, J., & Vandercook. T. (1990). Strategies for achieving an
Press.
integrated education for middle school-aged learners with
Biklen. D. P.. Ferguson. D. L., & Ford. A. (1989). Schooling
severe disabilities. Minneapolis: Institution on Community
and disability Chicago: National Society for the Study of
Integration.
Education.
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen. S. K. (1983). Qualitative research for
education. An introduction to theory and methods Boston:
Received: April 17, 1992
Allyn & Bacon.
Final Acceptance: August 3. 1992
Brown. L.. Long. E., Udvari-Solner. A., Davis. L., Van Deven-
Editor in Charge: Charles A. Peck
SECTION 2
October 26, 1992
Education Daily
Page 7
NASBE Calls For End To Disabled Students' Segregation
CINCINNATI .. State education boards must
sion and adopt the policies necessary to im-
revolutionize special education so all disabled
plement it, "Winners All" says.
children are taught with their nondisabled
peers, a new report says.
A key step would be to educate all teachers to
deal with learning and behavioral disabilities.
That will entail a "fundamental shift" in the
Current training creates teachers with a "lim-
way schools are structured, teachers are
ited conception of their capabilities," the study
trained and money is distributed, says the Na-
group says. An inclusive system would hold all
tional Association of State Boards of Education
educators accountable to teach every child.
(NASBE).
Getting The Word Out
Conference
"The first step is for
NASBE will be distributing the report to ad-
state boards to create a
ministrators and education groups over the
Report
vision of inclusion,"
next several months, trying to gather support.
said Virginia Roach,
The group also will be lobbying on Capitol Hill
primary author of the report, "Winners All: A
for changes in the Individuals with Disabilities
Call for Inclusive Schools," and director of
Education Act (IDEA) to promote inclusion.
NASBE's Center on Teaching and Learning.
IDEA "at best" allows inclusion to happen, but
In an interim report last year, a 17-member
it often instead creates administrative bar-
NASBE study group urged states to end the
riers, Roach said.
separation of special and general education
(ED, Oct. 9, 1991). Several states have taken
The report is $10, prepaid, from the National
steps in that direction (see story, below).
Association of State Boards of Education,
1012 Cameron St., Alexandria, Va. 22314,
"Winners All," written by the same study
(703)684-4000. --David Hoff
group and released Friday at the NASBE con-
ference here, offers specific steps states can
take. It calls on state boards to:
Some States Already Moving
Lead efforts "to create a new belief system" of
Toward Inclusion
inclusion among administrators, teachers and
parents, and to offer implementation goals;
CINCINNATI -- Many states have adopted, or
are considering, policies promoting disabled
Encourage colleges and universities to merge
children's inclusion in regular classrooms,
education programs preparing teachers for ca-
state school boards say.
reers as special or general educators; and
Revise financing formulas so schools won't be
State efforts to bolster
tempted to shuffle children into special educa-
Conference
inclusion range from
tion to receive additional funding.
Report
passing broad position
statements to changing
More Than Mainstreaming
the way special education funds are distrib-
The type of inclusion NASBE is promoting
uted, the National Association of State Boards
would place all disabled children in traditional
of Education (NASBE) says in "Winners All: A
classes with the support they need to succeed.
Call for Inclusive Schools," a report released
last week at its annual conference here.
"We're not talking about the mainstreaming
where kids are shuffled in and out" of regular
For example:
and special ed classrooms, Roach said in an in-
terview. "We're talking about [disabled] chil-
New Mexico's education department last
dren feeling that their place in the school is in
year issued a policy saying it "believes that all
the regular classroom."
students must be educated in school environ-
ments which fully include rather than exclude
To accomplish that, state boards must under-
them" (ED, Feb. 21).
take efforts to build consensus around inclu-
(more)
EDUCATION WEE
American Education's Newspaper of Record
Volume XII, Number 9 November 4, 1992
o 1992 Ec
NASBE Endorses
Case Managers Coaxing Families Tow
'Full Inclusion' of
By Deborah L. Cohen
Disabled Students
BRATTLEBORO, VT.-As a home visitor
who helps link troubled families with
Standards Must Include
young children to support services,
Kathy Emerson has learned a sobering
All Pupils, Group Says
lesson: Meaningful change takes time.
Of the eight families she has worked
By Debra Viadero
with for two years, she says, some have
made "huge strides" toward change; oth-
State school boards must take steps to
ers have taken small, tentative steps. In
create inclusive education systems in
a couple of cases, she says, "I haven't seen
which students with disabilities are taught
much change at all."
alongside their nondisabled peers, a new re-
"Some families tend to be more chaotic
port by the National Association for State
and more imbedded in certain kinds of
Boards of Education recommends.
behaviors that it seems much harder to
The report is one of the strongest endorse-
nudge them out of," she says. "There
ments to date from a general-education
have been little bits of progress here and
group for the concept of "full inclusion" of
there, but a lot of backsliding."
disabled children.
In helping families beat the odds, Ms.
Unlike the traditional special-education
Emerson admits that she sometimes feels
practice of mainstreaming, under which
she is "banging my head against a stone
disabled students spend part of the school
wall."
day in regular classrooms, full inclusion
The challenge, she says, is to perse-
calls for teaching disabled pupils in regular
vere-and be patient.
classrooms throughout the day.
"I've long ago given up predicting
Rather than helping students in separate
when and what change is going to hap-
Kathy Emerson, on a home visit in Brattleboro, Vt.,
resource rooms or center-based programs,
Continued on Page 26
of Matt Houie as his brother, Donald, and his sister
special-education teachers under the full-
inclusion system come into regular class-
rooms to team-teach or provide additional
support in other ways for disabled students.
Performance-Based Assessment Gains
Acc
"There should be no mistake about the
implications of this vision: The [report] is
Prominent Place on Research Docket
For
calling for a fundamental shift in the deliv-
ery of education," the document says.
See
"Schools in an inclusive, restructured sys-
By Robert Rothman
standing of the new instruments, research-
tem must look very different from the typi-
ers say. Although much of the work is pre-
cal school that exists today."
Spurred in part by strong interest from
liminary, the studies have found some
The report, entitled "Winners All: A Call
educators and policymakers, researchers
promise-as well as some potential pit-
for Inclusive Schools," was released during
have turned the study of alternatives to tra-
falls-in the alternative forms of assess-
the state boards' group's annual conference
ditional standardized tests into one of the
ment.
creo
in Cincinnati last month.
hottest topics in their field, and their work
One much-anticipated study, slated to be
ele
To bring about more inclusive schools,
has begun to bear fruit.
released next week, is expected to show
number
the report makes a number of specific rec-
Over the past few years, more and more
both the benefits and drawbacks of the new
II
ommendations. State boards must set
states and districts have added perform-
methods. In an analysis of Vermont's pio-
groups-
down policies that support integration of
ance-based assessments and portfolios to
neering portfolio assessment, researchers
tain na
disabled children, it urges, and must
their testing repertoires amid criticism that
from the RAND Corporation are said to have
gi
specify, in setting standards for the educa-
such methods were untried and their conse-
found that the program has improved in-
The &
tion of all students, that their standards
quences uncertain.
struction in writing and mathematics, but
through
truly mean all students.
But in recent months, a host of scien-
that the state may not yet be able to use the
unknow
"Most state boards have been talking
tists-many assisted by the federal govern-
data as a measure of student performance
accredit
Continued on Page 30
ment-has begun to develop an under-
Continued on Page 22
schools
major r
schools
The D
Sports Programs Emerge as Political Footballs in Funding Battles
ing
g
By Karen Diegmueller
creditin,
they vie
When the Chicago public schools lost a districtwide reading pro-
It also
gram and 90 percent of their funding for supplies last year, the
primatu
WIERNA
situation went largely unnoticed outside the education community.
evaluat
But when the city's high school principals threatened several
ti
weeks ago to eliminate extracurricular activities, including athlet-
ics, major corporations, radio talk-show hosts, and sports celebrities
raised almost $1 million within weeks.
To capture the attention of the public and the politicians-and
get needed money in a time of budget constraints-observers sug-
that school officials in Chicago and elsewhere are using the
Routtenberg
specter of a
without football, basketball, and baseball as
political leverage.
5
"They decided to use the athletic program because it is highly
visible. because it matters to people in the community." said Wil-
State Boards Endorse 'Full Inclusion'
Of Disabled Students in All Classrooms
Practitioner's
Continued from Page 1
Paradise IV
very much in terms of goals for all
Students With Retardation
students and they're looking at
Found Segregated in Schools
ROCHESTER, MINNESOTA
schools to be radically restructured,"
said Virginia Roach, who directed
the study for NASBE. "The element
More than 73 percent of stu-
report saya, are almost entirely
that's been missing is that special
dents with mental retardation in
segregated from their nonhandi
January 9-10, 1993
education hasn't necessarily been at
the United States are being edu-
capped peers in separate class
FREE COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY FAIR
the reform table."
cated in separate classrooms and
rooms in the same school build
In addition, the report calls on
buildings, according to a new
ing, in separate public or private
The best learning and management applications available that
states to change teacher-licensure
analysis by an advocacy group.
day programs, or in residential fa
support outcome-based change will be demonstrated by practitioners.
and -certification rules 80 that new
This study reveals that mest
cilities
teachers will be prepared to teach
states have 8 long way to go to
The report also ranks states on
January 11-13, 1993
children with disabilities as well as
achieve full inclusion for students
the degree to which they into
those without. And it calls for the
with mental retardation," said
grate students in regular
PRACTITIONER'S PARADISE IV
support and creation of training pro-
Alan Abeson, the executive direc-
classrooma.
Presenters include: Kit Marshall. Spence Rogers. William S
grams to help special educators and
tor of the group, known as The
The genization gave the
Kathleen Moloney-Tarr, Robert Marzano, Terrance Deal,
regular educators learn to collabo-
Are
highest marks to
Gary Phillips, Ray Golarz. Sam Wineburg, James Cole,
rate in the classroom.
The organization, which for
Vermont, Wyoming, Idaho, and
Chris Wagner, Carl Shutts
School-finance systems, the re-
merly was known as the Associ-
New Hampshire Ranking lowest
and over 200 practitioners sharing educational practice
port says, should be overhauled to
ation for Retarded Citizens of the
were Florida, Illinois, Maryland,
that supports successful learning for students.
"sever the link between funding,
United States, based its reportion
New York, and New Jersey.
placement, and handicapping la-
data from the most recent annual
Even the top-ranked states,
January 14-15, 1993
bel." Funds should be provided on
report by the U.S. Education De
however, fell below acceptable
the basis of instructional needs, not
partment on the status of special
levels of melusion, the report con
ADVANCED SUPPORT MINI-CONFERENCES
head counts, it proposes.
education. (See Education Wash,
cludes.
AND TRAINING SESSIONS
Aug. 5, 1992.
'A Fundamental Mismatch'
The organization has long lob
These stand-alone sessions will include Unit Planning for
The data indicate, for example,
bird for schools. to take steps to
Powering Up in Assessment; Middle School Connections; Site-Based
The recommendations stem from
that only-6. percent of
teach all disabled the reg.
Management and Outcome-Based Education: Challenge of Essential
a two-year investigation by board
with mental retarnation spend
ulse classroom settings. Federal
Learning: New Ways of Knowing & Understanding: Leadership in
members from 17 states. After hear-
origine of their school-
License that
School: Four Perspectives; Society for Accelerative Learning &
ing from special and general educa-
day in classrooms with thair may
be educated with their nondisa
Teaching Conference: Socratic Seminar: Putting Action into
tors, parents, students, academics,
disabled peers. Twenty percent
bled peers to the "maximum BX-
Thinking: computer networking, and more.
and administrators, the group con-
some of their day in
tent appropriate."
cluded there was "a fundamental
but are pulled out of
Copies of the report are avail
For registration information
mismatch between schools and the
thome classes for instruction
able for 82 smok by writing: Re
call 507-287-1321
disabled children they were sup-
Are East Bor
posed to serve," Ms. Roach said.
But the majority of
der St. 8-800 Arlington; Tex
Sponsored by Minnesota High Success Consortium, Inc.
and Rochester Public Schools
Citing national studies, she pointed
with
16010.
out that only 57 percent of disabled
students leave school with either a di-
ploma or a certificate of graduation.
they fear losing hard-won rights and
Vermont, the practice has resulted
Moreover, only 49 percent of disabled
special-education services.
in a 13 percent decrease in special-
youths are employed two years after
Special educators say some dis-
education referrals over two years.
leaving school.
abled students need separate envi-
Oregon and Pennsylvania, which
Part of the problem is that, in the
ronments when their behavior prob-
have abolished funding systems that
Who is
17 years since the landmark Educa-
lems are severe or they have unique:
allowed school districts to be reim-
tion For All Handicapped Children
learning needs. Deaf students, for
bursed for the difference between the
Act was passed, a "separate and iso-
example, often contend they are
costs of educating students with dis-
Pearland
lated system has been created to
more isolated in regular classrooms
abilities and the average costs for
serve students with disabilities," the
in which neither teachers nor class-
nondisabled students. The systems
study contends.
mates understand sign language.
were replaced with formulas that pro-
"There's this real 'our kid-your
"You can't have one choice," said
vide little incentive for identifying
why is she
kid' mentality," Ms. Roach ob-
Frederick J. Weintraub, the director
large numbers of disabled students
served. "It's, 'We do better by our
of communications for the Council
New Mexico, where the state
kids and stay out of our program."
for Exceptional Children. "We sup-
board last year formulated a policy
The report also argues that main-
port a continuum of options for dis-
stating that "all students must be
homeless?
streaming practices often fall short
abled students, with the full belief
educated in school environments that
of their goals. In elementary school,
that you have to strengthen the in-
include rather than exclude them."
students with disabilities join regu-
clusive option."
California, which is funding 41
lar classes for art, music, and phys-
Other disability groups and advo-
pilot full-inclusion projects in school
You and your students can learn about
ical education. But they often miss
cates, on the other hand, see the de-
districts around the state.
Pearl's home and other wildlife habitat in
out on opportunities to develop their
bate as a civil-rights issue, main-
Copies of the report are available
social skills during free-play times.
taining that all children have a
for $10, prepaid, from the National
In secondary school, the report
right to learn in regular classrooms.
Association of State Boards of Edu-
A Home for Pearl
adds, nondisabled students and
The aim of NASBE'S recommenda-
cation, 1012 Cameron St., Alexan-
their teachers often view the dis-
tions is not to abolish the "contin-
dria, Va. 22314.
abled student as an "add on" to the
uum," Ms. Roach said. Instead, it is
general-education program.
to create a system that does not nar-
K&W College Guide
a four-part videotape with lesson plans.
Moreover, funding mechanisms
rowly limit who can provide special
have "contributed to the segregation
education or where that instruction
for the Learning Disabled
of students into isolated programs
can take place.
A Resource Book for Students,
Other films series which are available without cost to
and have served as an incentive for
State Steps to Inclusion
Parents; and Professionals
teachers are:
overidentification of students 80 that
school districts could receive more
While special educators are divid-
This 1992 hardcover publication by
The Challenge of the Unknown seven programs
support from the state and federal
ed on the issue, the state boards are
Marybeth Kravets and Imy Wax offers
about mathematics and problem solving.
government," the report maintains.
the second general-education group
descriptions of 180 colleges, along
The Search for Solutions -- nine programs about
Once labeled, students often re-
to endorse full inclusion this year.
with definitions of testing instruments
science and problem solving.
main in special-education programs
The Association for Supervision and
and assessments required.
throughout their school careers, the
Curriculum Development at its con-
$39.95 prepaid, includes S&H
The American Enterprise Series five programs
study adds.
vention in April approved a resolu-
Add $4/book for orders to be billed.
about our economic history.
tion favoring the practice.
Not 'One Choice'
(purchase orders only)
And, according to the report, sev-
To obtain these films for your local school, write to
The call for full inclusion remains
eral states have taken steps in that
Order from:
a controversial topic, however,
direction. They include:
Phillips Petroleum Company
National Professional Resources. Inc.
among special educators and some
Vermont and Pennsylvania,
Educational Films
Dept EW PO Box 1479
parents of disabled children.
which have I
laws creating
Port Chester, NY 10573
c/o Karol Media
P
of the practice be-
"instructional-support teams" to
Tel: 914-937-8879
P.O. Box 7600
66
children
have al-
provide help for students who are
Fax: 914-937-9327
Wilkes-Barre, PA 18773-7600
ready encountered problems in the
having t
learning before they
Tax ID #132619258
complar-education system. or because
are placed in special education In