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Elizabeth "Liz" Bowyer's Files
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RCCarteR PictuRes
Press conf-isted
Naming RC to be there
Testifung Pressconf-Bill signing
11 - Report unverling
First Lady
I
from Plains
Rosalynn Carter
HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY BOSTON 1984
The Office of the First Lady / 271
thought of mental illness often strikes chords of dread and fear.
These fears and suspicions, many based on myths, are as old as
1
mankind, and they are deeply ingrained.
11
When I was a child growing up in Plains, there was a young
:
man in our community, a distant cousin, who was in and out of
0
the state mental institution. When he was at home I was afraid
11
of him, and when I heard him singing loudly as he came down
11
CHAPTER 10
the street I would run and hide. I don't know why i had to get
ii
away -- he was never violent, just very nervous and very loud.
The Office
He probably wanted nothing more than friendship and recogni-
P
tion, yet he was "different," and when I heard him, my impulse
11
1.
of the First Lady
was to flee. Today he could be treated and could lead a more
normal life.
IC
Although most people who suffer can lead more normal lives,
IC
there is such a stigma about mental illness that many who could
10
be successfully treated still hide their problems. Admitting to a
RC
mental health problem can be not only socially embarrassing,
but also threatening to one's family and livelihood. While in the
is
White House, I received a letter from a Culver City, California,
:T
housewife whose medical record of mental illness had prevented
B
EFORE GOING TO the White House, I knew that some
her from adopting children. She wrote: "I don't blame anyone
.1.
First Ladies had had special areas of interest and, because
for not wanting to seek help if it's going to be held against them
AT
of their influence, had been able to accomplish worthy
for the rest of their lives. Solving mental problems should be like
goals. Eleanor Roosevelt worked for social change; Jackie Ken-
mending a broken leg, and no one carries the stigma of a broken
nedy restored the White House to an American showcase in
leg around with them for the rest of their lives. Once the leg is
111
which we all could take pride; and Lady Bird Johnson renewed
mended, no one asks why it was broken."
i
our interest in beautifying the country's highways and parks.
I wanted to take mental illnesses and emotional disorders out
10
And although I wanted to work with the elderly and issues of
of the closet, to let people know it is all right to admit having a
it
concern to women, my main project as First Lady would be to
problem without the fear of being called crazy. If only we could
develop a strategy for helping the mentally ill.
consider mental illnesses as straightforwardly as we do physical
I had begun this work in Georgia and wanted to expand it to
illnesses, those affected could seek help and be treated in an open
111
the national level. Mental illnesses or serious emotional prob-
and effective way.
lems affect one in every four families in the United States; it
There hadn't been an assessment of how we were meeting the
10
could happen to any of us. Each of us at one time or another will
mental health needs in our country since the Final Report of the
be affected by marital problems, delinquent children, drug- or
Joint Commission on Mental Illness and Health given to Presi-
alcohol-related stress, the inability to deal with death or a seri-
dent Kennedy in 1961. Indeed, the whole subject of mental
ous accident or illness, or simply by low self-esteem. Many will
health as a national priority was a relatively new one, stemming
also experience the tragedy of a severe mental illness, in our-
from World War 1I, when psychiatric screening of those drafted
selves or in our families. Perhaps we will be able to cope. Per-
into the service revealed a startlingly high incidence of rejection
haps not. Then what will we do? To whom will we turn? The
for psychiatric disabilities.
272 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 273
Since then, our knowledge of the causes and treatment of
West Virginia; Julius Richmond, a pediatrician and the surgeon
mental illness has steadily increased, and we have come to real-
general of the Public Health Service who had been the first
ize that mental health is much more than just the absence of
director of the Head Start Program; and George Tarjan of
mental illness. It is the very quality of the life we lead. Until
UCLA, a world-renowned child psychiatrist, who was later
recently, most communities or states provided services chiefly
elected president of the American Psychiatric Association. The
for those who were severely disturbed. Mental sickness meant
others, whom I had not known personally but who each became
schizophrenia and manic-depressive disease, or other debilitat-
a close friend as we worked together, were equally well quali-
ing psychoses. Mental illness just meant "crazy people" - until
fied. Some were mental health professionals, but the majority
we began to take a broader, more enlightened approach.
were not. We all felt a deep commitment to helping those suf-
Yet the benefits of our increased knowledge have been applied
fering from mental and emotional disabilities, and we saw the
to few of those affected, and we still do not understand what
commission as an opportunity to act on our concerns. Others ac-
causes most major mental disabilities. Why? I wanted to find
tive in the mental health field shared our sense of excitement and
out. Politically, the issue had always been shuffled to the back
purpose. For example, Mary Lasker, a prominent philanthropist
burner, but fortunately, we were now in a position to make
affectionately - and justifiably - regarded as the grande dame
mental health a top national priority.
of medical research, promptly sent a check for $10,000 to be
In a speech in Bakersfield, California, during the campaign I
used in our work. Additional individuals as well as several pri-
had made my one and only campaign promise: to study the
vate foundations soon followed suit, providing assistance for
mental health needs of our nation. Jimmy fulfilled that promise
which I shall always be grateful.
when he signed the Executive Order creating the President's
Our first action was to hold public hearings across the coun-
Commission on Mental Health. Because of federal nepotism
try. We listened for hours to advice and suggestions from hun-
laws, I could not be appointed the formal chairperson of the
dreds of professionals, laypersons, former mental patients,
commission but had to settle for "honorary" instead. Physician-
community leaders, and legislators. At the same time, more than
attorney Tom Bryant, the former health director of the Office of
four hundred and fifty volunteers on thirty task panels devel-
Economic Opportunity, was named chairman and executive
oped comprehensive statements in special areas of concern such
director, and Peter Bourne, a psychiatrist who was also a close
as research, prevention, and the needs of special populations.
friend and associate in my mental health work in Georgia and
What we learned was sobering. Federal and state programs
who became Jimmy's special assistant for health issues, was as-
were fragmented and fraught with bureaucratic problems. One
signed primary responsibility for coordinating and following up
woman told us that her family was visited weekly by three dif-
on the commission's report. Our task would not be easy. Not
ferent social workers, all from separate agencies. Another pin-
only was the subject of mental health not politically appealing,
pointed the terrible consequences of cultural misunderstandings
but in order to accomplish anything we had to establish it as one
and the lack of bilingual therapists: A Haitian woman had gone
of Jimmy's major domestic priorities instead of having it dis-
in fear to a therapist because her husband's ex-wife had put a
missed as a First Lady's "pet project."
hex on her. She was diagnosed as paranoid and treated with a
With the Executive Order signed, we went right to work. We
powerful sedative. Further investigation by a bicultural thera-
chose twenty commissioners from more than one thousand peo-
pist revealed that her dilemma was quite common in her partic-
ple suggested, among them Florence Mahoney, for many years a
ular culture - she was not paranoid at all. What she needed was
health research supporter who had become a Washington legend
understanding and guidance. Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and
in the art of lobbying Congress to increase funding for science
American Indians often felt intimidated and harassed by white
and mental health; Mildred Mitchell Bateman, the outstanding
mental health personnel (fewer than 2 percent of the psychia-
black psychiatrist and former mental health commissioner for
trists in our country were black, fewer still Hispanic, and there
274 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 275
were only thirteen American Indian psychiatrists). Women,
mentally ill people need is a friend, someone who is genuinely
too, many of whom feel powerless and alienated by their rapidly
interested in them. This is one reason the 1963 Community
changing roles in society, also needed specialized attention. And
Mental Health Centers Act was so important. It began making it
over and over again at every stop we heard of the plight of the
possible to bring many of the afflicted back from the institution
chronically mentally ill who were returned to their communities
to the community, where those who had families could even
as a result of court orders, the 1963 Community Mental Health
stay at night with loved ones but still have a place to go during
Centers Act, and advanced treatments. only to live marginal ex-
the day to be cared for. But over time, the act had been amended
istences. Often these people remained jobless, homeless, feared
to the point that it was virtually impossible for communities
by society, and even hungry because no adequate community
with no services to get federal aid to start any kind of program at
services were available to them.
all. Our commission recommended changing the act so a com-
We sifted through thousands and thousands of pages of data
munity would no longer have to provide all twelve separate ser-
in order to prepare a final set of recommendations, which we
vices required by law to be eligible for funding. We wanted
presented to the President at a ceremony in the Oval Office: 117
those communities that couldn't afford to provide the complete
in all; 8 major ones. Jimmy had given us only a year and an
program to be able to begin a center with one service, and at
operating budget of $100,000 to produce the report. With assis-
least provide the one most needed, as they moved to develop a
tance from the Department of Health, Education and Welfare
comprehensive program.
(later to become the Department of Health and Human Ser-
Often the chronically mentally ill wander from one tem-
vices, or HHS), through private funds, and through the contri-
porary shelter to another, in and out of institutions, with no one
bution of many hundreds of hours of time by the commission
who really wants them or who can provide long-term care. We
members and volunteers, we managed to meet our deadline.
recommended changes in housing programs and in the Medicare
and Medicaid laws to help correct this. We also recommended
Our commission was convinced by the one-year study that
"performance contracts" to help the states take care of their
many Americans were either "unserved" or "underserved," not
chronically mentally ill. The states would decide what kind of
having access to adequate mental health care at reasonable cost
programs they needed and then sign contracts with the federal
because of where they lived or who they were - their race, age,
government for funding. This was very important to state offi-
sex, or economic circumstances. A much larger number did not
cials, who complained that the federal government didn't always
receive care because they feared the consequences of seeking
know what was best for their people.
treatment. The recommendations we made were designed to
Our commission found that existing health insurance pro-
correct these conditions and bring us closer to quality care for
grams did not include mental illnesses, and we recommended
everyone.
such coverage. We recognized that people avoid psychiatric help
We had learned that when people have mental problems, they
because of the stigma, and insurance coverage would not only be
don't go to a mental health professional first. They go to their
an incentive to seek necessary treatment, but would also help
families and friends, to priests or to nurses and doctors who may
reduce the stigma.
have no specific connection with the local mental health worker.
Another major problem was the lack of adequate personnel in
Each could benefit the other by sharing information about their
some parts of the country. This was brought home to me one
troubled community members and by working together to help
day when a woman called to say that her child was the only one
them. Also, there are always volunteers eager to help, people
in her county who needed speech therapy. The little girl had
with both expertise and time to give.
gradually lost her voice and could only mutter, but no treatment
While Jimmy was governor, I learned at first hand how im-
center was available to her. We finally arranged for the mother
portant a volunteer can be. One of the most important things
and child to spend two weeks at one of Georgia's regional cen-
276 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 277
ters, where both had professional counseling and the mother had
"cures"? There shouldn't be even a flicker of indecision about
instruction in speech therapy so she could help her child at
moving forward with our research programs. The same holds
home. To bring about a better distribution of mental health per-
true for programs of prevention. Some argue that the complex
sonnel, we recommended grants and loans for students who
causes of mental illnesses make it difficult to develop effective
would in turn repay them by working in rural areas and in the
prevention programs, but we already know that proper prenatal
inner cities where such personnel shortages are acute. We also
and perinatal infant care, periodic checkups, and the immuniza-
recommended incentives to train more personnel in the special
tion of young children can prevent serious mental disability.
needs of minorities, as shown by the Haitian woman, as well as
Our commission urged the establishment of an Office of Pre-
of children, adolescents faced with drugs and other problems,
vention within the NIMH.
the elderly, and women.
Our commissioners believed that the associated stigma is a
Years ago, when my cousin was home from the institution, ev-
primary if not the primary obstacle to better mental health care.
eryone in our small community knew when it was time for him
I went to Hollywood and spoke to producers, directors, and tele-
to go back. He would get more nervous and excited, and louder
vision and movie stars to encourage them to portray the men-
and louder when he walked down the streets, and soon the sher-
tally ill with accuracy and sensitivity rather than as "mad
iff would come and take him away. Though it is not that simple
bombers" or "insane murderers." And we proposed the devel-
now to "commit" a person to an institution, in all too many
opment of effective public education programs. Now we don't
states it is relatively easy. We recommended an advocacy pro-
even know how to present mental illness so that people will un-
gram and a bill of rights for the mentally ill that would remind
derstand it better. In one community that wanted to enlighten
us that civil commitment is an intrusion on personal liberty and
its citizens, a series of advertisements was launched; afterward,
autonomy, a step not to be taken without adequate legal safe-
polls showed more people reacting negatively to the problem
guards, and that guardianship laws can lead to a deprivation of
than before it began. It's not easy to deal with fear and preju-
legal rights.
dice. I know - but I wouldn't try to run away from my cousin
We gave special emphasis to research and programs for pre-
now, I would try to run toward him. But I had to learn that.
vention. I learned one day on a visit to the National Institute of
Once the commission's report was completed, the next step
Mental Health (NIMH) how inadequate our research programs
was to make sure the recommendations would be implemented.
often are. Federal grants are given for short periods of time,
At Jimmy's direction, every affected department in the govern-
while research sometimes takes many years. The time and funds
ment drew up timetables and plans for acting on the recommen-
for programs often run out, and projects are suspended before
dations that did not require congressional action. And since the
results are determined. I was told that just as we are on the
major work of the commission was over, Tom Bryant began
threshold of new discoveries about the brain, our scientists are
putting together a group of prominent citizens to form a Public
discouraged. How will we ever make the necessary break-
Committee on Mental Health to continue the momentum.
throughs with all the stops and starts of our research projects? It
But the legislative process to implement the portion that did
was a discouraging picture that day of what should be one of the
require congressional action became maddeningly slow. We had
most important emphases of our mental health work. We had a
a setback when Dr. Peter Bourne wrote a required prescription
substantial increase in funds for this research during the Carter
for an assistant, using a pseudonym to protect her from the
administration, although still not enough, but with the cutback
public scrutiny that affects all White House employees. Because
in funds for domestic programs by the Reagan administration,
of the attendant publicity, he resigned, and without Peter there
these gains were short-lived. This is a pity - shameful and so
was no senior-level advocate on the White House staff to guide
wasteful. How many lives could be saved, and how much ex-
the report through the day-to-day work necessary in translating
pense to the taxpayers saved, with new knowledge and new
a national commission report into policy. Instead, the major re-
278 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 279
sponsibility fell to HHS Secretary Joe Califano. Much valuable
our Public Committee on Mental Health). Though the commit-
time was lost in too many meetings with him and his staff, and
tee needed the money to help inform the public about our re-
it was finally necessary for me to go directly to the President and
port, I almost had to renege on this invitation. The Canadian
to Jim McIntyre at the Office of Management and Budget 10 get
government refused to let the Secret Service agents carry guns
things moving. I told Kathy Cade, my projects director, to keep
into the country, but finally I reached a secret compromise with
Tom Bryant and the other members of the commission in touch
the agents. I would go to Canada and make the speech, but I
with the White House staff and the people at HHS to be cer-
wouldn't spend the night. They agreed and I was "protected"
tain that our commission's fresh look at the problems didn't get
by the Royal Canadian Police that day - though my hosts and
watered down to "business as usual." We hadn't put in all of
the press couldn't understand my promptness in getting away.
those long hours and hard work just to see yet another national
In the meantime, I remained in constant touch with the chair-
commission report gather dust on some busy Cabinet officer's
men of the House and Senate committees handling the legisla-
bookshelf. I knew Califano had his priorities, but I also had
tion, Congressman Henry Waxman and Senator Ted Kennedy.
mine - and I saw the President more often than he did!
I had to swallow some pride - for the cause - during the cam-
Despite the delays, in May of 1979 Jimmy submitted the
paign of 1980, when Senator Kennedy one day would be on the
Mental Health Systems Act to Congress.
stump making one of his statements, such as, "President Carter
is making the poor eat cat food," and the next day would be say-
The response to our work was overwhelmingly favorable. The
ing to me, "Mrs. Carter, the committee is completing work on
American Medical Association and the American Bar Associa-
the Mental Health Systems Act."
tion both adopted resolutions at their annual meetings com-
"Thank you, Senator."
mending the report. Conferences were planned in a number of
We continued these courtesy calls even during the worst part
states to focus on mental health issues and needs. We invited
of the campaign.
hundreds of people, including special interest groups (the el-
In September of 1980, the Mental Health Systems Act was
derly, women's groups, children's advocates), to the White
passed by Congress and funded - the first major reform of fed-
House to advise them of the report and encourage them to lobby
eral, publicly funded mental health programs since the Commu-
for its passage, and we invited members of the congressional
nity Mental Health Centers Act of 1963. In spite of delays, to
committees who would be responsible for the legislation. When
have investigated, recommended, and legislated a comprehen-
the time was right, I went to Capitol Hill myself to testify be-
sive mental health program in a four-year period was a great ac-
fore the Senate committee, for which there wasn't much prece-
complishment, and we celebrated.
dent. We could find a record of only one other First Lady who
Our celebration was brief. Within a month Ronald Reagan
had testified before Congress - Eleanor Roosevelt on behalf of
was elected President, and with the change of administration,
the coal miners.
many of our dreams and the bulk of the funding for our program
While the legislation was making its way through Congress, I
were gone. I felt betrayed. After four years of hard work and cf-
was speaking everywhere I had a chance: to the World Federa-
forts by thousands of people, carefully studying an existing sys-
tion for Mental Health in Vancouver, British Columbia; to the
tem of care and making changes so it would be responsive and
World Health Organization in Geneva, Switzerland, which in-
cost-efficient, community-controlled, and accessible to those
vites only one outside speaker each year; in Manitoba, Canada,
who SO desperately needed it, and after having had the benefit of
where the St. Boniface General Hospital Research Foundation
eighteen months of public scrutiny and careful adjustment -
in Winnipeg offered me a $20,000 honorarium to speak at their
after all this, the funding for our legislation was killed by the
annual fund-raising dinner (they agreed to donate the money to
philosophy of a new President. It was a bitter loss.
280 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 281
Fortunately, we had taken some important steps that did not
require congressional action, steps that could not be instantly
the issue changed the way some people regard mental ill-
undone:
ness, which is the first step in successful treatment.
1. Financial support for mental health efforts was increased,
There was more, so much more, that could have been done if
especially funds for community-based services, because
the laws had been implemented. Instead, the Mental Health
Jimmy had included those increases in his last budget; but
Systems Act is gathering dust on a government shelf, and sick
the increases only remained in effect for one year.
people and their families continue to suffer needlessly. That's
the real shame.
2. The same was true with the 65 percent increase in funding
for research (which had steadily declined since 1969) to
study childhood and adolescent psychopathology, hyper-
kinetic and learning disability syndromes, the effects on
While working on the mental health commission, I was shocked
children and families of marital disruption, the correlation
to find that not only is there a need for mental health personnel
between alcohol and mental disorders among parents, as
for the elderly, but that there are relatively few physicians
well as drug abuse. Again, these increases lasted only one
trained in the special health needs of our older citizens. This will
year; then President Reagan began proposing budget cuts.
be increasingly important in the coming years.
3. An Office of Prevention was established within the NIMH
We're living longer and longer. The statistics are eye-opening:
for the first time in history; it remains today and is a major
Today some 27.4 million Americans are over sixty-five and an-
contribution. However, the NIMH, which had become in
other 33 million are between fifty and sixty-five. This "graying
the Carter administration the badly needed coordinator of
of America" is expected to continue so that by the year 2030,
many of the mental health programs in other federal agen-
one out of every four of us will be sixty or older.
cies, has had its responsibilities for services severely cur-
The problems of the elderly became another area of my inter-
tailed.
est as First Lady, and Dr. Robert Butler, who was director of the
4. The entire training program at the NIMH was reorganized
National Institute on Aging while we were in Washington, sent
to address the attention of our report. More psychiatrists
me'a copy of a speech he made one day summing up the needs:
were recruited for the National Health Service Corps. Sti-
"The challenge confronting our nation today is to assure that
pends for summer fellowships in psychiatry for medical
our swelling number of older citizens do more than simply sur-
students were increased and offered also to premedical stu-
vive. Our challenge is not to replicate years in which huge num-
dents to encourage them to consider careers in psychiatry.
bers of us live on, dependent, frail, ridden with disease,
The broad clinical training program was redirected to en-
unproductive, unhappy and lonely, in fear of crime, dissatisfied
courage larger numbers of minorities to pursue mental
with ourselves, falsely regarded as sexless, and tempted to sui-
health careers and to increase the numbers of people
cide. Our challenge is to extend the fruitful middle years,
trained to deal with the special problems of children, ado-
healthy and vigorous years in which we can live creatively, to
lescents, and the elderly. This has remained in effect, yet
the best of our ability, carrying our own weight and paying our
even these gains are now under review.
own way as productive contributors to our society."
5. The NIMH also collaborated with the Office of Housing
As a result of visiting such places as convalescent homes,
and Urban Development (HUD) in a housing program for
nursing homes, and other senior centers every day during the
the chronically mentally ill, working together for the first
campaign, certain images stuck in my mind: a group of older cit-
time at the state level to improve services for the mentally
izens in Boston seated on the lawn in front of a convalescent
disabled, but this valuable initiative has also been cut back.
home, listening to me tell them of the needs of the elderly I had
6. Perhaps most important, the amount of attention we gave
seen every day, when someone from the audience interrupted
with, "What about those you don't see? There are a lot of them
282 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 283
in this city at home alone, with no way to get about and no one
these to states and organizations, and I visited some of the pro-
to care for them." In another instance, three elderly men were
grams as they were carried out.
playing cards at a convalescent home, and I asked them what
As Nelson kept me informed, I lobbied for the Age Discrimi-
they had done before retiring. One had been a college president,
nation Act, which eliminated mandatory retirement at any age
another, an English professor, the third, a doctor, and they said
in the federal government and raised the age limit from sixty-
they did the same thing over and over every day - play cards
five to seventy in the private sector; the Older Americans Act,
and feel useless.
which coordinated existing legislation and authorized substan-
When my mother was forced to retire from her job as post-
tial increases in appropriations for the various social services and
mistress on her seventieth birthday, in 1975, I came back home
health and nutrition programs for the elderly; the Rural Clinics
from a campaign trip and my brother told me that she had cried
Act, which expanded medical services to underserved rural
all week. "Mother," I said jokingly to her, "I can't understand
areas: and Social Security Reform, which strengthened the
why anyone who has had to get up and be at the post office at
short-term and long-range status of the funds.
seven o'clock every morning for as long as I can remember
wouldn't love to stay home and sleep late and be leisurely for a
One important thing I learned in my work with the mentally ill
change." She shook her head. "It's not that," she said. "It's just
and with the elderly was that when people in communities
that no one thinks I can do good work anymore."
across our country are aware of problems, they will respond
She was devastated, as were the three men who had nothing
in very helpful and ingenious ways. This was vividly demon-
to do but play cards all day. I couldn't help but think of my
strated in Washington, D.C., at what is known as the Green
grandfather, who had come to live with us and helped Mother
Door. Two young women became concerned about the chroni-
with the farm, the household, and the children almost until the
cally mentally ill in a large city institution, St. Elizabeths Hos-
day he died, and of Miss Lillian, who joined the Peace Corps at
pital, and developed a model community-based program for
sixty-eight because for the first and only time she had seen the
them. The men and women who came to the center were capa-
words "Age no barrier" in an advertisement. Neither one of
ble of learning and working and shouldn't have been in an insti-
them had to retire - and neither, it turned out, did my mother.
tution, but they had nowhere else to go, no home and no family
Soon after she left the post office, she started working afternoons
to care for them. They came from St. Elizabeths every day to
in a flower shop and has been happy and "contributing" ever
keep house and to cook, and they even learned to print a small
since.
bulletin about their thoughts and activities. They learned also to
Once we were in the White House, I began to meet regularly
take the buses to reach the Green Door and had opened a store-
with Nelson Cruikshank, the counselor to the President on
front Thrift Shop, selling donated items for expense money for
Aging, who kept me informed of legislation before Congress
their "home." The community had joined in to help, but it had
that concerned the elderly. I invited representatives of all the el-
all been made possible because two young women cared about
derly advocacy groups to a roundtable discussion on aging. In-
them and their poor living situation and recognized that their
cluded were Congressman Claude Pepper, chairman of the
talents could be developed if given a chance.
House Select Committee on Aging, affectionately called "Sena-
There are people in every community who need help and un-
tor" and a champion for the elderly, Maggie Kuhn of the Gray
derstanding, and programs like the Green Door can be repli-
Panthers, Bert Seidman of the AFL-CIO, and Peter Hughes of
cated in other cities. I participated in a special segment of Good
the American Association of Retired Persons. We put together a
Morning America about the Green Door, and soon afterward in
brochure with fifteen recommendations of things people could
Texas I was thrilled to have a man say to me, "Mrs. Carter, I
do in their communities to help the elderly. We distributed
saw the program on television about the Green Door, and I want
284 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 285
you to know that we're forming a center just like it in our com-
local needs. Although the Community Foundation of Greater
munity."
Washington had been established several years earlier, it had
Schools and libraries and hospitals also need help, as do beau-
never really gotten off the ground. At the request of the chair-
tification programs and housing programs. As I traveled around
man of the Board, I met with representatives of some of the
the country, visiting mental health centers and homes for the el-
major philanthropic organizations in the country, such as the
derly, I began to try to point out other needs where community
Ford Foundation, to encourage their support for the Washing-
participation could play a role.
ton effort. One of the events for which I left Camp David during
In Washington, D.C. General Hospital was in dire need of
the thirteen-day peace summit was a luncheon at the White
help: it had even lost its accreditation. The hospital commission-
House for business leaders in the District to ask for their sup-
ers came to see me to discuss how I might help encourage local
port. The community rallied around the foundation, which is
voluntary efforts to improve the hospital. We enlisted the aid of
fully operational now, focusing many of its grants in the areas
a radio announcer and, with a little publicity and a few tele-
of family aid, mental health, the neighborhoods, aging, and
phone calls, a host of organizations and individuals soon joined
youth.
the project. A decorating company offered to donate fabric and
Most of the people I worked with on these projects were peo-
make drapes for the hospital, a hardware store offered paint, and
ple outside the government, who lived in the city but had never
the Singer Sewing Machine Company donated fifteen sewing
been inside the White House. They were pleased to accept my
machines for use in the utility room, among other contributions.
invitations to teas, receptions, picnics on the South Lawn, and
The Jaycees took on the hospital as a project, and the D.C. Po-
other events. I in turn was pleased to accept in December of
lice, a local garden club, the mayor's wife, the Young Women's
1980 a special commendation from the D.C. City Council for
League and other civic organizations, members of the business
my efforts among Washingtonians on the other side of the fence
community, and numerous individuals became involved. Furni-
from 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, whom I had come to love.
ture and plants for the landscaping were donated, and on some
I regularly visited similar programs across the country,
days everyone pitched in, painting and cleaning and planting. I
usually going on tours of three or four days, stopping in several
painted a wall in the reception room myself. We learned from
states to visit centers for the mentally ill and the elderly as well
the nurses that there was also a lack of ongoing educational pro-
as other community projects. One that I particularly enjoyed
grams for the staff. In particular, the nurses felt a need for spe-
was the grand opening of the Palace Theatre in Lorain, Ohio. A
cial training to help them serve the large number of elderly
group of housewives had restored the decaying shell of an old
patients. With the help of the American Nurses Association, a
theater to its original beauty, and I brought Chet Atkins with
nursing education program for geriatric patients was launched
me to perform on their opening night. Another favorite was a
and filmed at D.C. General. I introduced each segment of The
program called Cities In Schools, in which social workers, po-
Rosalynn Carter Nurse Training Program, which was later
licemen, recreation and other government officials, teachers,
made available to all veterans' hospitals in the country. Our
scout leaders, and private citizens worked together in the schools
volunteer team celebrated when the hospital received its ac-
to keep the most disadvantaged children from dropping out.
creditation again, and D.C. General is now a much-improved
Whether it was working on a comprehensive mental health
hospital.
plan, working for legislation to help the elderly, providing a
There were other projects in our nation's capital. At the be-
"home" for the chronically mentally ill, or restoring the accredi-
ginning of the Carter administration, Washington was one of the
tation of a public hospital, I found men and women. old and
only major cities in the country without a viable community
young, volunteering their services. Someone said to me one day
foundation to encourage private charitable contributions to meet
in Massachusetts when I was commending a group of elderly
286 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 287
volunteers for helping in the public school, "When you're all
ing to give up their places as head of the household or about
wrapped up in yourself, you're a very small package."
women being drafted or forced to go to work, leaving their chil-
dren at home. It says nothing about unisex bathrooms, homosex-
ual marriages, or about personal family relationships, and it
My greatest disappointment in all the projects I worked on dur-
would not force any changes in them. What it would do is guar-
ing the White I House years was the failure of the Equal Rights
antee women the legal protection that should be rightfully theirs
Amendment to be ratified. Jimmy and I made dozens of calls to
under the Constitution.
state legislators as individual states considered the issue, and it
The U.S. Constitution is the most basic concept of what this
was very close at one time, so close that if only thirteen legisla-
nation stands for: freedom and equality for all. Yet today the
tors - two in Florida, two in North Carolina, and nine in Ne-
only right the Constitution guarantees women is the right to
vada - had voted yea instead of nay we would have made it.
vote. It contains no clause granting women legal status as per-
The ERA would have been over the top
but
it
was
not
to
be.
sons or guaranteeing equal protection for them. Some argue that
My files are full of speeches about the ERA; they are full of
women's rights are guaranteed under the Fourteenth Amend-
the phone calls I made to legislators in various states. They are
ment, passed to protect slaves. However, the Supreme Court in
full of letters written and invitations to fund-raisers and other
case after case has not extended this amendment to include
meetings I attended, including the Houston Conference cele-
women, although it has repeatedly been urged to do so.
brating the International Women's Year in the fall of 1977,
One of the problems is the fervor and organization of the op-
where Lady Bird Johnson, Betty Ford, and I appeared together.
position. It is so vocal and so powerful at the polls that local leg-
I held many events and meetings at the White House and did
islators, who are the ones who must vote for ratification, are
just about anything I could think of for the cause. I remember
reluctant to do so. I have talked with many who have told me
when my staff was wondering if it would be appropriate for a
that they couldn't afford to go against this opposition. Also, due
First Lady to be auctioned off at a dance for the ERA. Jimmy
to the many erroneous and often wild contentions by the oppo-
said, "Well, it's better than being a wallflower!" And so I danced
sition, people are confused by what the ERA really is and what
for the ERA.
it would do to their lives.
Our one victory came during the fall of 1978, when Jimmy
The image of the ERA has been a serious problem. Attention
and Fritz Mondale worked to turn seven congressional no votes
has often centered on those supporters who have appeared to be
into yes votes to pass legislation extending the ratification dead-
demanding and strident man haters - mostly urban, profes-
line. It was even more disappointing to see the deadline for the
sional women. "Nice" women, as my daughter-in-law Judy
extension go by in 1982 with the ERA still not ratified.
says, have been reluctant to be identified with such a group,
Why have we had such a hard time trying to get the amend-
though they support the ERA itself. In fact, I learned that a ma-
ment ratified? After all, it is a simple twenty-four-word declara-
jority of people do support the ERA when they know the facts.
tion: "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or
During the campaign for the ratification of the ERA, I talked
abridged by the United States or by any state on account of
with one state senator who had always been opposed to the
sex."
amendment until he had gone with his wife to make a will. He
Most people think it says much more than this. I have had
told me he had found out that under the laws of their state, his
women tell me that if I would send them a copy they would pay
wife would have no control over what he owned. If he died
the postage, as though it were volumes. And Erma Bombeck has
without a will, the business that he and his wife had developed
described it as the most misunderstood few words since "one
together would go to his blood relatives, not to his wife. Further-
size fits all."
more, if he changed the ownership of his property and put half
The Equal Rights Amendment says nothing about men hav-
in his wife's name, they would have to pay a gift tax on the half
288 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 289
he gave her. He told me he had changed his mind and was going
tion of the Constitution that should have been theirs long ago?
to support the ERA. I wish a few more legislators had con-
While Jimmy was President, I understood clearly that times
fronted the issue in such a personal way.
were changing in our country and that women everywhere were
In years past, many laws were written with different provi-
undergoing a period of adjustment. Many were forced to work
sions for men and women. In some states, women could marry
outside the home to help supplement the family income or to
at an earlier age than men. Men could drink at an earlier age than
support a family as a single parent; many were pursuing careers
women. In Alabama, girls had to be seventeen before they could
for their own fulfillment; and many others chose to remain at
be newspaper carriers; boys only had to be ten! In some in-
home and care for their families.
stances, women were required to have their husbands' consent
I felt very fortunate to identify with women in all these cate-
to sell property. Everyone agrees that today these laws are out-
gories. I am a relatively traditional person and enjoy my roles as
dated. But society at the time thought that women were differ-
wife and mother, but it has also been natural and essential for
ent and should be protected; staying at home with the family,
me to expand my life and to participate outside the home as a
teaching school and working with children, or being a secretary
partner and businesswoman and in public service as First Lady.
helping a man were the kinds of things that women really
Jimmy has always supported women's causes, but he didn't
wanted to do and could do well.
have much choice, surrounded by active women as he was: his
The movement for equal rights for women began with the
mother, me, and Amy. It was interesting how the pattern in our
simple reasoning that while women are biologically different
family reversed. I had been surrounded by men, Jimmy and the
from men, they have the same ability to serve as doctors or law-
three boys, for years. Then, after our sons were grown, Amy
yers or do other things that had traditionally been viewed as
came along, Miss Lillian moved back home to Plains, and Jimmy
men's jobs, and that society should take advantage of these tal-
was surrounded by women.
ents.
Before his inauguration, Jimmy asked me to work with his
I am grateful that because of the women's movement, there
staff and our women's campaign committee to develop a list of
are not as many discriminatory laws as there once were. The
women who would be likely prospects for available positions in
lieutenant governor of Louisiana, Bobby Freeman, told me of
the federal government. Keeping an up-to-date list of qualified
one celebrated case in his state where a woman worked and
women in every job category, ready to submit for consideration
bought her home. Her husband was disabled and did not con-
as appointments became available, was very helpful. Some sta-
tribute to the purchase, but later he placed a second mortgage on
tistics:
the house without her knowledge. The lender foreclosed and
Only six women had ever been appointed Cabinet secretaries
took the home. Under Louisiana's law at the time, the wife had
in the history of our country; Jimmy appointed three of them.
no right to protect her house from her husband's mortgage or
Only five women had ever been appointed as undersecretaries
even to know about it, even though she had paid for it. Since
in the history of our country; Jimmy appointed three of them.
then, the law has been changed.
He appointed 80 percent of all women ever to hold the post of
An Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution would pro-
assistant secretary.
tect women's gains and ensure that future laws would not dis-
He was the first President to name women as general counsels
criminate against them. But great progress comes slowly, and
and inspectors general.
someday, a day I hope to see in my lifetime, we will look back on
Of the forty-six women serving as federal judges at the end of
this struggle as we look back now on the long but successful
his term, forty-one had been appointed by Jimmy. We knew a
struggle for women's suffrage and wonder why. Why all the con-
number of women who would have been good Supreme Court
troversy and why such difficulty in giving women the protec-
justices, and it was always understood between us that a woman
290 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 291
would be appointed if a vacancy occurred. That didn't happen,
own business. Women were given some help in the Carter years:
but the appointment of many women judges helped to compen-
The Small Business Administration offered entrepreneurial
sate for their not having a voice on the Supreme Court and
training workshops for them and significantly increased loans
ensured a permanent and powerful voice for women in inter-
available to businesses owned by women; the Farm Home Ad-
preting the laws of our land.
ministration sponsored workshops and made it a priority to in-
In previous administrations, a total of twenty-five women had
form rural women of loans available for their businesses; HUD
held ambassadorial posts. Jimmy appointed sixteen women as
had seminars to teach women about housing finances and their
ambassadors.
rights to mortgage credit, removing barriers to women who
And more women were serving on federal boards and com-
wanted to own homes.
missions and on delegations representing the United States at
The President's Advisory Committee for Women came to re-
conferences throughout the world.
alize that women nominees for federal judgeships were being
In addition to receiving presidential appointments, women
penalized because they had had relatively little experience as
need to be elected to positions at all levels of government. When
judges in the lower courts or because they had taken several
we were in Washington, there had been only fourteen women
years away from their careers to have children. We discussed
senators and ninety women in the House of Representatives in
this with Jimmy and the attorney general, and they both agreed
our history. I agree wholeheartedly with the well-known slogan:
10 be careful not to discriminate against women in the appoint-
"A woman's place is in the house and the Senate."
ment process because they were mothers or because they had
We also included women in all activities at the White House,
not been treated fairly when previous appointments had been
taking care to invite representatives from women's groups to
made.
participate in all events government consultations and brief-
Other steps were taken to tackle the issue of discrimination,
ings on such issues as SALT 11, inflation and energy, education,
including: the amendment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to
Middle East peace, and on the progress of women's issues.
protect working women from occupational discrimination based
Every year we held receptions and briefings for congressional
on pregnancy; the consolidation of nineteen separate enforce-
wives, women in business, women legislators, rural women,
ment units in the federal government under one agency to
Jewish women, black women, Mexican-American women, Dem-
handle discrimination complaints more efficiently; and the de-
ocratic women, educators, and many more, and I learned a lot
velopment of an interagency task force to eliminate sex discrimi-
from these discussions.
nation from laws and policies and to focus government resources
From my own experience, I remembered how the long hours
on increasing opportunities for women.
at Carter's Warehouse had to be coordinated with my duties as a
In most cases, the executives responsible for carrying out
mother and housewife, and supported flexitime schedules for
these decisions were women, often the "first" in their positions,
working mothers in the federal government, our nation's largest
which further strengthened the effectiveness of the programs.
employer. And I was pleased when expanded day care centers
The need for advice about the special concerns and problems
became one of Jimmy's priorities. When my mother had to work
of women in our country has been recognized by every Presi-
full-time while we were children, she was lucky to have friends
dent from John Kennedy through Jimmy Carter, all of whom
and relatives in Plains who could care for us. Most working
appointed a women's advisory group. My daughter-in-law Judy
women today are not so fortunate.
served as honorary chair of this group, working closely with
I had learned about small business management also by work-
Kathy Cade in my office and Sarah Weddington in Jimmy's and
ing alongside Jimmy at the warehouse, and now I wondered
with Chairpersons Bella Abzug, Carmen Delgado Votaw, and
what I would have done if it had been necessary to organize my
Lynda Robb. Unfortunately, there has been no such opportu-
292 / First Lady from Plains
The Office of the First Lady / 293
nity for American women to present their views to President
I remember one special evening at the White House, a recep-
Reagan, perhaps another cause of the highly publicized "gender
tion for the President's advisory committee, women appointees
gap" that affects his administration.
and officials, activists, and legislators from all over the country
who were working for the ERA. Some of our special guests
The political victories for women were important ones, and
gathered upstairs before the reception. Joan Mondale was there;
being a woman who mattered pleased me very much during my
she had become a valuable asset to the nation through her
time as First Lady. But I never forgot that I was there because
knowledge and promotion of the arts and was a wonderful CX-
my husband held his high office, not because I had been elected.
ample of what women can accomplish through public service.
I had helped him get there, and I liked to think he couldn't have
Three generations of Johnsons were there too: Lady Bird, her
done it without me, but the situation was clearly the same one
daughter Lynda Robb. and Lynda's three small daughters; and
women have faced for centuries. First Ladies throughout our
three generations of my family: me, Judy and Amy, and my tiny
history have been expected to be adoring wives and perfect
granddaughter, Sarah. I was struck with the picture we made:
mothers, to manage the public and social aspects of the White
grandmothers, mothers, daughters, all of us playing out very
louse to the satisfaction of all critics, and to participate in "ap-
traditional public roles - but this night we were all there to cel-
propriate public service." The role of First Lady is a difficult -
ebrate and to stand for and to work on some very nontraditional
and sometimes nearly impossible - one to fill, and each one of
choices and opportunities for women.
us has dealt with this challenge in her own way.
Wc went down the elevator together and made slow progress
The role has changed dramatically along with the expanded
through the huge crowd of women into the East Room, finally
opportunities of other women in America. This was brought
reaching a small platform. And with the little girls wiggling be-
home quite vividly to me and Jimmy during our first visit to
hind me, I was ready to welcome the guests. "Welcome to your
Gettysburg from nearby Camp David. After studying the
house," I found myself saying. "This house belongs to all
battlegrounds of the War Between the States, we went by the
Americans - and that means more than half of it belongs to
beautiful farm of the Eisenhowers to pay our respects to Mamie
women." The crowd roared its approval, and I couldn't have
Eisenhower, whom we had long admired. We spent several
been more proud to have been a part of it.
hours with her, listening to her description of life in the Army,
in the White House, and during their retirement. She was also
eager to hear about my own experiences, but was somewhat
In the mid-seventies, there were several million homeless refu-
taken aback by the variety and extent of my projects. She finally
gees in Southeast Asia, Indochina, and Africa. The problem be-
said, "I stayed busy all the time and loved being in the White
came so urgent that the United Nations convened a special
House, but I was never expected to do all the things you have to
conference in Geneva, to which Jimmy sent Vice President
do."
Mondale. The United States was working with international re-
Until quite recently, First Ladies were expected to limit
lief agencies such as ICRC (International Committee of the Red
themselves to the duties of official hostess and private helpmate,
Cross). UNICEF. the World Food Program, Catholic Relief,
and most of them never varied from this narrowly restricted
CARE, and others that were trying to provide food, clothing.
role. Eleanor Roosevelt was the notable exception, and she was
medical care, and shelter. We doubled the quota of refugees we
severely criticized for her personal involvement in public affairs.
could accept, and Jimmy was already working to convince other
Nowadays, the public expectation is just the opposite, and there
countries to share the responsibility.
is a general presumption that the projects of a First Lady will be
But in the fall of 1979 a new wave of refugees, the Cambo-
substantive, highly publicized, and closely scrutinized. I am
dians, flashed on our television screens every day and every
thankful for the change.
night. There was talk of another holocaust and, indeed, it was
Eleanor
Roosevelt
VOLUME ONE
1884-1933 1884
Blanche Wiesen Cook
VIKING
Eleanor Roosevelt
ER, Political Boss
One of the myths that ER seemed actively to encourage was that
son's former confidant; Wellesley College President Ellen Fitz Pendle-
she was naïve politically. Not insignificantly, several people who har-
ton; William Allen White, editor of the Emporia Gazette; General James
bored that illusion were actually victims of ER's political intrigue and
G. Harbord, formerly General John J. Pershing's chief of staff, then
opposition. The fact that they saw her as a "dim bulb" rather than as
president of the new Radio Corporation of America; and Brand Whit-
their enemy is probably the greatest testimony to her political style and
lock, the novelist and progressive politician who served as Wilson's
maneuvering. ER's gracious manner often obscured intense emotions,
ambassador to Belgium.
including disapproval and dislike. She tended to avoid confrontations
Lape considered it "deeply significant that none of the law experts"
and occasionally walked away from angry words, but never from the
considered the campaign "a superficial popular activity." In fact, a great
battle. She did not play politics transcendentally-somewhere above
optimistic mood regarding the possibility of outlawing war and achieving
the fray. She walked hard edges, made tough decisions, and followed
world peace through rational discourse prevailed during the 1920s.
her principles wherever they led.
Thousands of plans were submitted to the jury from noted legal scholars,
Nowhere was this more clear than in her part in the Bok Peace
businessmen, former and current public officials, including FDR.
Award controversy, which caused her to be attacked as a subversive.
FDR worked hard on his plan, a variation of the current League,
The Bok Peace Award was established in 1923 by Edward Bok, the
which he called a Society of Nations (heralding the United Nations).
former publisher and editor of the Ladies' Home Journal, who offered
The range of submissions was vast: Harvard's President Charles W.
a prize of $50,000 to the plan that would "provide a practicable means
Eliot, for example, saw the path to world peace through increased
whereby the United States can take its place and do its share toward
"family discipline." M. Carey Thomas, Bryn Mawr's longtime president,
preserving world peace, while not making compulsory the participation
called for a "Declaration of Interdependence" to outlaw war and create
of the U.S. in European wars if any such are, in the future, found
a "Council of Vigilance and Inquiry" to resolve global tensions. Some
unpreventable." It might be "based upon the present covenant of the
wanted a national referendum in case of war; many sought means by
League of Nations or may be entirely apart from that instrument." A
which war, and the production of weapons for war, would be made
fortune equivalent to over $1 million in contemporary currency, the
unprofitable; one called for an army of hypnotists to drive warlike
prize was headline news throughout the United States. It was featured
thoughts from the mind. Many ascribed war to propaganda, misinfor-
in news columns, editorials, and cartoons; Will Rogers joked about it;
mation, and packaged hatred, and called for the creation of schools for
it appeared in the "Mutt and Jeff" comic strip.
international ethics and understanding. Hundreds of plans focused on
Esther Lape agreed to administer the prize on the condition that
the need for an equitable distribution of raw materials and natural re-
Eleanor Roosevelt and Narcissa Vanderlip work with her. The contest
sources; the restructuring of global markets and prices; the creation of
created a stir in academic circles, and was taken seriously among leading
a world economic council. The U.S. section of the Women's Interna-
American internationalists, especially businessmen who hoped for an
tional League for Peace and Freedom called for a conference to consider
expanding economic future free of both war and the current hysteria
the cancellation of the devastating wartime debt; the stabilization of
that rejected all European "entanglements"-including "foreign" trade.
European currencies; a reconsideration of the Treaty of Versailles, es-
The former Secretary of War and Secretary of State, Elihu Root, agreed
pecially the evacuation of the Ruhr by the French; and general disarma-
to be jury chair; Judge Learned Hand, Henry Stimson (to become
ment.
Hoover's Secretary of State and FDR's Secretary of War), and Roscoe
Of the 22,165 plans submitted, the committee chose a very simple
Pound (dean of the Harvard Law School) were dedicated members of
plan by Charles E. Levermore, an academic, who recommended the
the committee. The jury also included Colonel Edward M. House, Wil-
United States' immediate adherence to the Permanent Court of Inter-
Eleanor Roosevelt
ER. Political Boss
national Justice and cooperation with (though not membership in) the
Leaguer on the committee), frequently interrupted Reed's harangues to
League of Nations.
"go to the aid of the witness." (Reporters assured their readers, however,
Esther Lape selected twenty of the most interesting plans for pub-
that Esther Lape did not require such chivalric services.)
lication, and introduced them with her analysis of the different Ways
Lape created the greatest flurry when she named ER and Narcissa
to Peace. Published by Scribner's, the book sold well and was critically
Vanderlip as the two most significant members of the policy committee.
acclaimed. The New York Times reviewer considered Lape's essay "bet-
The New York Herald took this as the signal to emphasize that the
ter worth a $50,000 prize than any of the plans we have seen." And the
award was a plot by unscrupulous women, influenced by foreign radicals
New York Herald Tribune editorialized that Lape's book was the "best
and their bipartisan henchmen (Root and Stimson were Republicans),
thing that came out of the Peace Award."
to ensnare the United States into membership in that un-American
The winning plan stimulated Bok, Esther Lape, ER, and their allies
organization the League of Nations. "The great Bok peace prize," said
to promote U.S. entrance to the World Court. Senate isolationists were
the Herald, "was managed by two matrons of social distinction [ER and
outraged and called for an investigation into the un-American and po-
Narcissa Vanderlip] and a highly educated and most efficient young
tentially treasonous nature of the Bok Award. They condemned it as
unmarried woman." Lape was in fact older than ER, but unmarried
propaganda that encouraged "foreign entanglements" and "communis-
women were generally perceived to be young-or at least younger than
tic internationalism."
matrons of distinction. Nevertheless, the New York Times editorial
On 17 January 1924, the veteran Democratic Irreconcilable James
"These Women" praised the skill and wisdom of Esther Lape and her
Reed called for the Senate Special Committee on Propaganda to inves-
"fellow conspirators."
tigate charges that the American Peace Award was the tool of "foreign
The Bok hearings were suspended on the news of President Wilson's
governments or foreign institutions," for the purpose of unduly and
death, and then simply allowed to expire; but government isolationists
improperly influencing or controlling public opinion and legislative ac-
pursued Bok's Foundation and punished it by administrative fiat. The
tion, specifically regarding the "foreign policy of the United States."
IRS removed the Foundation's tax exemption. Its "education work"
The Senate committee accused Edward Bok of conspiracy: He had
was declared "political" lobbying, in behalf of that un-American idea:
attempted to manipulate public opinion with untold sums of money in
international law.
behalf of the League and international peace, creating thereby "a moral
Eleanor Roosevelt's first specifically "un-American" activity resulted
menace." Unruffled by threats of contempt charges, Bok refused to
in the first document entered into her voluminous FBI file (only recently
disclose the cost of the contest. He insisted that the money he donated
declassified through the Freedom of Information Act). Dated 15 Feb-
to the American public was his affair and that he intended to spend the
ruary 1924, and heavily deleted, it is part of the FBI's "General Inves-
rest of his life giving his money to worthy causes.
tigation" of the American Peace Award. "Recorded and Indexed," with
According to The New York Times, the Senate committee room
three copies sent to Washington and routed to J. Edgar Hoover, who
"was filled by over 700 men and women peace advocates" who hissed
signed it, the document itself is bizarrely innocuous: "The other number
and booed the investigators and cheered Bok and Lape, who appeared
used by the American Peace Award, namely Murray Hill 4278 was
as key witnesses.
contracted for and signed for by Mrs. Anna Roosevelt. This is presum-
Lape was particularly brilliant under fire. Although the Irreconcil-
ably Mrs. Franklin D. Roosevelt, as 'Who's Who' indicates that Franklin
able investigators sought to discredit and demean her, their questions
D. Roosevelt married Anna Eleanor Roosevelt of New York on 17 March
were so insistent and their tone so assaultive that two senators, Frank
1905."
Greene of Vermont and Thaddeus Caraway of Arkansas (the only pro-
However criticized and harassed, ER, Lape, and the other supporters
Eleanor Roosevelt
ER, Political Boss
of the Bok Foundation were undaunted. They continued to work for
is a sturdy testimony to the proverbial double standard that was and
the League, and for U.S. entrance into the World Court. In 1925, the
remains the burden of political women.
House voted for U.S. participation, and ER urged a women's crusade
Despite her modest denials, however, ER increasingly went about
to achieve Senate approval.*
her own business, whether or not it served FDR, with or without his
In addition to her work in behalf of international peace, ER spent
approval. On 9 April, she wrote that she planned to attend a two-day
some part of every day planning strategy for the New York State Dem-
"convention of women" on law enforcement, specifically as it related
ocratic Party. In her 6 February 1924 letter to FDR where she minimized
to Prohibition, in Washington: "I know you will probably feel with
her activities, she reported that she, Caroline O'Day, and Nancy Cook
Louis [Howe] that it is politically wrong to come but I do believe in
had been to a "remarkable dinner" of "600 women from Albany and
it." It was indeed politically wrong, as ER was quick to realize, and
nearby and all workers!" They saw Governor Al Smith, who asked them
acknowledge.
to lobby for his new reform program, and ER spent several days in
The Women's Democratic Law Enforcement League was one
Albany, working out the details. But there was still one piece of addi-
expression of the 1924 alliance between "dries" and Dixiecrats that
tional news, she noted almost as an afterthought: Cordell Hull, the
ended Prohibition as a cause for social reformers. At this time the
Democratic Party's National Committee chairman in 1924, had invited
alliance between populists and religious fundamentalists (led until his
ER-currently finance chair of the Women's Division-to head a plat-
death by William Jennings Bryan), and the reinvigorated Ku Klux Klan,
form committee for women to present their demands at the June con-
which dominated Dixiecrat politics, focused on the crusade for a dry
vention in New York. She was delighted, though she gave no hint of
America, and influenced partisan politics until 1932. ER had hoped that
that to FDR: "I'm up to my eyes in work for the convention preparations
Prohibition might result in "less drinking now among young people
and trying to raise our budget which is going to be an endless job."
than there was among our fathers." But she would not be allied with a
ER even rejected FDR's praise for her work, the words of which
reactionary group who opposed progressive politicians like Al Smith
are now lost along with most of his correspondence during this period:
because he was a "wet," a Catholic, and a reformer.*
"You need not be proud of me dear. I'm only being active till you can
ER was embattled on several fronts in 1924. On 9 April, she wrote
be again. It isn't such a great desire on my part to serve the world and
FDR that she wished he were at home to advise her "on the fight I'm
I'll fall back into habits of sloth quite easily! Hurry up for as you know
putting up on a delegate and 2 alternates at large." The fight was classic:
my ever present sense of the uselessness of all things will overwhelm
Would the female or male party leaders get to name the women dele-
me sooner or later! My love to Missy, and to you, Devotedly, ER."
gates? Forty-nine county chairwomen had already selected and endorsed
When one considers the disparity between ER's denial and the reality
their representatives when Tammany boss Charles Murphy claimed it
of her daily activities, one pauses to wonder what motivated her decision
his privilege to name the delegates. ER, resolute and ready for a fight,
to trivialize both her work and her commitment to it. Her need to
wrote: "I imagine it is just a question of which [Murphy] dislikes
minimize her efforts and to reassure her husband that she was in fact
most-giving me my way or having me give the papers a grand chance
no threat, and no competition to his primary place in the political arena,
for a story by telling [all] at the women's dinner
and by insisting
on recognition on the floor of the convention & putting the names in
*
It lasted for over a decade and in 1935 resulted in failure. The World Court was only a
nomination!" Clearly, ER had already decided to do full battle: "There's
first and rather tiny step on the long road toward international peace, she acknowledged
wherever she spoke: But remember: "All big changes in human history have been arrived
at slowly and through many compromises."
* See pages 374-75.
346
ER, Political Boss
Eleanor Roosevelt
one thing I'm thankful for-I haven't a thing to lose and for the moment
ER's efforts were victorious. She was named chair of a committee
you haven't either."
that negotiated the women's right to name their own delegates and
The New York Times featured ER's fight for women's equality at
alternates. Their meetings with Smith and other party leaders "estab-
the state convention in an article titled "Women Are in Revolt." It was
lished a precedent," and ER felt encouraged: "We go into the campaign
the "only inharmonious note" of the convention: the women supported
feeling that our party has recognized us as an independent part of the
Smith, but demanded their right to choose their own representatives.
organization."
"Mrs.
Franklin
D.
Roosevelt
slated to be one of the four delegates-
But it was only a preliminary victory. The women's political move-
at-large, led the fight for the women." She said:
ment had become a significant element within the Democratic Party. It
was feminist and bold. And the entrenched male power brokers hated
it. They sought at every turn to set up roadblocks, brake its momentum,
We have now had the vote for four years, and some very ardent
and destroy it. A daily and nasty battle ensued, fought meanly and
suffragists seem to feel that instead of gaining in power the women
through subterfuge. For example, women who finally achieved mem-
have lost
bership status on a committee often found the doors to the meetings
I have been wondering whether it occurs to the women as a
locked, or the meetings moved to secret places. Other apparent victories
whole that, if they expect to gain the ends for which they fought,
were no sooner announced than betrayed.
it is not going to be sufficient simply to cast a ballot They must
In March 1924, the Democratic National Committee proudly an-
gain for themselves a place of real equality and the respect of the
nounced that it was "the first political group to seek women's views on
men
The whole point in women's suffrage is that the Govern-
important questions of peculiar interest to them so that these social
ment needs the point of view of all its citizens and the women have
legislation planks as incorporated in the national Democratic platform
a point of view which is of value to the Government
may represent their ideas." And, with considerable public relations
fanfare, the leadership announced it had asked Eleanor Roosevelt to
ER was in the vanguard of those feminists who protected and pro-
chair the women's platform committee.
moted women's issues and the equal representation of women within
ER agreed, and determined to base the recommendations for needed
the party's committees. She demanded that women be represented on
social-welfare legislation on the "requests of all women's organizations
county committees "in equal numbers" and be listed among those nom-
in the country." She appointed a panel of activist experts, including
inated for office in all primary elections:
Dorothy Kirchwey Brown of Massachusetts, Margaret Norrie of Dutch-
ess County, Elinor Morgenthau, Maud Swartz, Gertrude Ely (a noted
It is disagreeable to take stands. It was always easier to com-
philanthropist from Bryn Mawr who was one of ER's closest friends),
promise, always easier to let things go. To many women, and I am
Charl Williams of Tennessee (who was credited with lobbying the final
one of them, it is extraordinarily difficult to care about anything
vote needed for the ratification of the suffrage amendment), and Patti
enough to cause disagreement or unpleasant feelings, but I have
R. (Mrs. Solon) Jacobs of Alabama. The committee endorsed the League
come to the conclusion that this must be done for a time until we
of Nations, and called for the creation of a federal department of ed-
can prove our strength and demand respect for our wishes
ucation, equal pay for women workers, and the ratification of the child-
We will be enormously strengthened if we can show that we are
labor amendment. It called for a forty-eight-hour workweek, wages
willing to fight to the very last ditch for what we believe in.
commensurate with the cost of living and health care, the creation of
ER, Political Boss
Eleanor Roosevelt
employment bureaus and the means to ensure "healthy and safe working
old son, James. According to Marion Dickerman, who sat with ER,
SDR, and Nancy Cook, it had been a gray, cloudy day. But as FDR
conditions."
But in June, their three months' effort was rudely rebuffed by the
reached the podium, drew himself upright, and smiled "a rather remote
Resolutions Committee at the convention. For hours ER and her co-
smile
as if he smiled to himself amid the thunderous applause and
workers sat outside the locked doors of the all-male Resolutions Com-
cheers," at that very moment the clouds parted "and through the skylight
mittee and waited to be heard. At dawn the men voted twenty-two to
came a burst of sunlight." The entire crowd that filled the great hail of
eighteen, for the third and last time, to reaffirm their refusal even to
Madison Square Garden cheered with joyous relief and high regard as
hear the women's proposals. ER wrote that at the convention of 1924
he walked the distance from platform to podium. His unforgettable
she saw "for the first time where the women stood when it came to a
triumph represented three years of agonizing effort.
national convention. I shortly discovered that they were of very little
Naming Al Smith "the Happy Warrior of the political battlefield,"
importance. They stood outside the door of all important meetings and
FDR called in dramatic and resonant phrases for party unity in the face
waited." She spent most of her time during the deadlocked, heat-filled
of all differences. "You equally who come from the great cities of the
convention-every day the temperature topped one hundred degrees
East and the plains and hills of the West, from the slopes of the Pacific
Fahrenheit-trying to seem calm. "I sat and knitted, suffered with the
and from the homes and fields of the Southland, I ask you
to keep
heat and wished it would end." One day, Will Rogers noticed ER and
first in your hearts and minds the words of Abraham Lincoln-'With
asked: "Knitting in the names of the future victims of the guillotine?"
malice toward none, and charity for all.'
ER was tempted to respond that she was "ready to call any punishment
The crowd cheered for an hour and thirteen minutes. But FDR's
down on the heads of those who could not bring the convention to a
courageous eloquence lifted the spirit of the convention only tempo-
rarily. It was deadlocked for 102 ballots. According to the New York
close."
Herald Tribune, as "the results of the futile balloting droned on," there
was "in the exact center of the great hall the one man whose name
THE 1924 CONVENTION WAS A SETBACK FOR THE WOMEN, AND
would stampede the convention were he put in nomination.
From
a disaster for the Democrats. But for the Roosevelts 1924 represented
the time Roosevelt made his speech in nomination of Smith, which was
another turning point. Both ER and FDR were widely perceived as the
the one great speech of the convention, he has been easily the foremost
most significant contributors to the Democratic convention. The wom-
figure on floor or platform." From that moment on, FDR was considered
en's political community acknowledged ER as a major leader. Personally,
the real "Happy Warrior."
she was informed and toughened by her new understanding of the way
Finally, the Democrats agreed on a compromise candidate, a Wall
male bastions of power actually work. And during the convention, FDR's
Street lawyer associated with the House of Morgan, John W. Davis.
reputation as a national figure soared. In fact, the only bright moment
Politically indistinguishable from the Republican nominee, Calvin Cool-
of the divided and frequently violent convention-a convention dom-
idge, Davis inspired nobody. Almost five million Americans voted for
inated by Al Smith and his chief opponent, William Gibbs McAdoo,
the third-party candidate as Progressives. Even party stalwarts like Car-
who was now frankly associated with the Ku Klux Klan-occurred when
oline O'Day supported the new Progressive Party's candidate, Wiscon-
FDR presented the nominating speech for Smith.
sin Senator Robert La Follette. FDR returned to his business ventures,
His first major public appearance since he was stricken, FDR had
with frequent vacations in warm Southern waters. And ER agreed to
practiced for weeks in order to be able to walk erect on his heavy steel
help run Al Smith's campaign for re-election as New York's governor-
braces, supported only by one crutch and the arm of his sixteen-year-
against Republican nominee Theodore Roosevelt, Jr.