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The President’s Trip to Budapest, Hungary, December 5-6, 1994: Pre-Trip
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The President’s Trip to Budapest, Hungary, December 5-6, 1994: Pre-Trip
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Folder Title:
The President's Trip to Budapest, Hungary; December 5-6, 1994: Pre-Trip
Staff Office-Individual:
Press-Crowley, Philip J. (PJ)
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5
10
2
V
OF
PRESIDENT THE OF TEAL THE OF THE SECURITY TES THE UNITED STA
The Trip of
President Clinton
to the CSCE Summit
Budapest, Hungary
December 5-6, 1994
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Key Speeches
Fact Sheets
President Clinton:
Conference on Security and Cooperation
The U.S. and the Future of European Security
In Europe (CSCE)
Partnership for Peace: Building a New Security
CSCE Structure
For the 21st Century
CSCE: Major Conferences and Meetings,
1989-1994
Secretary Christopher:
Transforming the NATO Alliance To Meet
Confidence- and Security-Building Measures
New Security Needs
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Deputy Secretary Talbott
North Atlantic Cooperation Council
The New Geopolitics: Defending Democracy
In the Post-Cold War Era
Country Background Note
Assistant to the President for National
Hungary
Security Affairs Anthony Lake:
American Power and American Diplomacy
THE TRIP OF PRESIDENT CLINTON
TO THE CSCE SUMMIT
KEY SPEECHES
President Clinton
The U.S. and the Future
Of European Security
Excerpt from a press conference
Chancellor Kohl and President Yeltsin
president more than 80% of his domes-
following APEC meetings, Jakarta,
and looking at what is at stake there in
tic initiatives as well as the foreign
Indonesia, November 15, 1994.
terms of the future of European
policy initiative-including sweeping
security. After all, the United States
education reform, the family leave law,
Q. Mr. President, your administration
played a strong leadership role in the
the Brady bill, the crime bill, and a
is in the process of changing its
Partnership for Peace and encouraging
number of other very important issues.
policy-or developing its policy on
the growth of the European Union and
So I have no intention of withdraw-
expanding NATO and strengthening
European security arrangements.
ing from the domestic field. But we
CSCE. Will you be going to the CSCE
What I have sought to do is create
had an unusual number of responsibili-
summit in Budapest? And when you
a stronger Europe that is more inde-
ties this year, and an unusual number
look at your foreign travel-your past
pendent but also more closely allied
of opportunities. Americans are both
foreign travel-in recent weeks, you
with us and that at least creates the
more prosperous and more secure
have gone to the Middle East; you
possibility that there would not be
because of these efforts, and they-will
spent several days here; you are going
another dividing line in Europe just
be more so in the future. So if I were
to be hosting the Summit of the
moved a few hundred miles east. We
to give up one in favor of the other, I
Americas; you have an ambitious
have a big stake in that. So I will go
would be doing a disservice to the
foreign agenda next year. Are you
quickly and come back quickly, but I
American people. I have to try to
becoming, in essence, a foreign policy
think I should go.
pursue both courses.
president?
Second, on the question of foreign
It has been somewhat more busy
A. Well, let me answer both ques-
policy versus domestic, let me say this:
on the foreign front than I could
tions. First of all, I plan to make a very
If you look at what happened in the
have anticipated in the last few
brief but, I think, quite critical trip to
last two years, we had only the third
months because of the unusual develop-
the CSCE. I decided to do it after
Congress since World War II to give a
ments.
having communications with both
United States Department of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office of Public Communication
US DEPARTMENT OF STATE
D
ISPATCH
BUREAU OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS
President Clinton
Partnership for Peace: Building a
New Security for the 21st Century
Intervention at the North Atlantic
nations succeeds in the face of their
the Gulf War. We proved it anew this
Council summit, NATO Headquarters,
own very significant economic frustra-
past year by working together, after
Brussels, Belgium, January 10, 1994.
tion, ethnic tensions, and intolerant
seven long years of effort, in a spirit of
nationalism.
compromise and harmony to reach a
T
hank you very much, Mr. Secre-
The size of the reactionary vote in
new GATT agreement. And now we
tary General and distinguished
Russia's recent election reminds us
must do it once again.
leaders. I am deeply honored
again of the strength of democracy's
To seize the great opportunity
to represent my nation at the North
opponents. The ongoing slaughter in
before us, I have proposed that we
Atlantic Council this morning, as
Bosnia tallies the price when those
forge what we have decided to call the
eight previous Presidents have done
opponents prevail. If we do not meet
Partnership for Peace, open to all the
before me.
our new challenge, then most assur-
former communist states of the
Each of us came here for the same
edly, we will once again-someday
Warsaw Pact, along with other non-
compelling reason: The security of the
down the road-face our old challenges
NATO states. The membership of the
North Atlantic region is vital to the
again. If democracy in the East fails,
partnership will plan and train and
security of the United States. The
then violence and disruption from the
exercise together and work together on
founders of this alliance created the
East will once again harm us and other
missions of common concern. They
greatest military alliance in history. It
democracies.
should be invited to work directly with
was a bold undertaking. I think all of
I believe our generation's steward-
NATO both here and in the Coordina-
us know that we have come together
ship of this grand alliance, therefore,
tion Cell in Mons.
this week because history calls upon us
will be judged most critically by
The partnership will prepare the
to be equally bold once again in the
whether we succeed in integrating
NATO Alliance to undertake new tasks
aftermath of the Cold War. Now we no
the nations to our east within the
that the times impose upon us. The
longer fear attack from a common
compass of Western security and
Combined Joint Task Force Headquar-
enemy. But if our common adversary
Western values. For we have been
ters we are creating will let us act both
has vanished, we know our common
granted an opportunity without
effectively and with dispatch in helping
dangers have not. With the Cold War
precedent: We really have the chance
to make and keep the peace and in
over, we must confront the destabiliz-
to recast European security on historic
helping to head off some of the terrible
ing consequences of the unfreezing of
new principles-the pursuit of eco-
problems we are now trying to solve.
history which the end of the Cold War
nomic and political freedom. I would
We must also ready this alliance to
has wrought.
argue to you that we must work hard
meet new threats, notably from
The threat to us now is not of
to succeed now, for this opportunity
weapons of mass destruction and the
advancing armies so much as of
may not come to us again.
means of delivering them.
creeping instability. The best strategy
In effect, the world now wonders
Building on NATO's creation of the
against this threat is to integrate the
whether we have the foresight and the
North Atlantic Cooperation Council
former communist states into our fabric
courage our predecessors had to act in
two years ago, the Partnership for
of liberal democracy, economic prosper-
our long-term interests. I am confident
Peace sets in motion a process that
ity, and military cooperation. For our
that the steel in this alliance has not
leads to the enlargement of NATO. We
security in this generation will be
rusted. Our nations proved that by
began this alliance with 12 members;
shaped by whether reform in these
joining together in a common effort in
today there are 16-and each one has
Reprinted from
United States Department of State
Dispatch Supplement
Bureau of Public Affairs
Vol. 5, No. 1
Office of Public Communication
Partnership for Peace
strengthened the alliance. Indeed, our
of the former Soviet Union, which have
institutions and a better balance of
treaty always looked to the addition of
been almost ignored through this entire
responsibilities within the transatlantic
new members who shared the alliance's
debate by people around the world, in a,
community.
purposes and who could enlarge its
way that leaves open the possibility of
Finally, in developing the Part-
orbit of democratic security. Thus, in
a future for Europe that breaks totally
nership for Peace, each of us must
leading us toward the addition of these
from the destructive past we have
willingly assume the burdens to make
Eastern states, the Partnership for
known.
it succeed. This must not be just a
Peace does not change NATO's original
So I say to you: I do not view this
gesture-it is not just a forum. This
vision-it realizes that vision.
as some sort of half-hearted compro-
Partnership for Peace is also a military
So let us say, here, to the people in
mise. In substance, this is a good idea.
and security initiative, consistent
Europe's east that we share with you a
It is the right thing to do at this
with what NATO was established
common destiny, and we are committed
moment in history. It leaves open the
to achieve. There must be a somber
to your success. The democratic
best possible future for Europe and
appreciation that expanding our
community has grown, and now it is
leaves us the means to settle for a
membership will mean extending
time to begin welcoming these new-
future that is not the best but is much
commitments that must be supported
comers to our neighborhood.
better than the past. And I would
by military strategies and postures.
As President Mitterrand said so
argue that that is the course we ought
Adding new members entails not only
eloquently, some of the newcomers
to pursue.
hard decisions but hard resources.
want to be members of NATO right
I think we have to be clear in doing
Today those resources are not great
away, and some have expressed
so about certain assumptions and
but, nonetheless, as the Secretary
reservations about this concept of the
consequences. First, if we move
General told me in the meeting this
Partnership for Peace. Some have
forward in this manner, we must
morning, they must be forthcoming
asked me in my own country, well, is
reaffirm the bonds of our own alliance.
in order for this to be taken seriously
this just the best you can do? Is this
America pledges its efforts in that
by our allies and our friends who
sort of splitting the difference between
common purpose. I pledge to maintain
will immediately subscribe to the
doing nothing and full membership, at
roughly 100,000 troops in Europe,
partnership.
least for the Visegrad states? And to
consistent with the expressed wishes of
Let me also say, in response to
that, let me answer-at least for my
our allies. The people of Europe can
something that President Mitterrand
part-an emphatic no, for many of the
count on America to maintain this
said and that is on all of our minds-the
same reasons President Mitterrand has
commitment.
problem in Bosnia-that when we talk
already outlined.
Second, we have to recognize that
about making hard decisions, we must
Why should we, now, draw a new
this new security challenge requires a
be prepared to make them. And
line through Europe just a little further
range of responses different from those
tonight I have been asked to talk a
east? Why should we, now, do some-
of the past. That is why our Adminis-
little bit about the work I have been
thing which could foreclose the best
tration has broken with previous
doing with Russia and what I believe
possible future for Europe? The best
American administrations in going
we all should be doing to support
possible future would be a democratic
beyond what others have done to
democracy and economic reform there.
Russia committed to the security of all
support European efforts to advance
But I would like to make two points
its European neighbors. The best
their own security and interests. All of
about Bosnia.
possible future would be a democratic
you have received our support in
First, I want to reaffirm that the
Ukraine-a democratic government in
moving in ways beyond NATO. We
United States remains ready to help
every one of the newly independent
supported the Maastricht Treaty. We
NATO implement a viable settlement
states of the former Soviet Union, all
support the commitment of the Euro-
in Bosnia voluntarily reached by the
committed to market cooperation, to
pean Union to a common foreign and
parties. We would have to seek, of
common security, and to democratic
security policy. We support your
course, the support of our Congress in
ideals. We should not foreclose that
efforts to refurbish the Western
this, but let me say I think we can get
possibility.
European Union so that it will assume
it-if such an operation would be
The Partnership for Peace, I
a more vigorous role in keeping Europe
clearly under NATO command, the
would argue, gives us the best of both
secure. Consistent with that goal, we
means of carrying out the mission
worlds. It enables us to prepare for
have proposed making NATO assets
would be equivalent to its purposes,
and to work toward the enlargement
available to WEU operations in which
and these purposes would be clear in
of NATO when other countries are
NATO itself is not involved.
scope and in time.
capable of fulfilling their NATO
While NATO must remain the
Second, I welcome the reassertion
responsibilities. It enables us to do it in
linchpin of our security, all these efforts
by the alliance in this declaration of our
a way that gives us the time to reach
will show our people and our legisla-
warning against the strangulation of
out to Russia and to these other nations
tures a renewed purpose in European
Sarajevo and the safe areas. But if we
2
Partnership for Peace
are going to reassert this warning it
Therefore, in voting for this
The pact will be remembered long after
cannot be seen as mere rhetoric. Those
language, I expect the North Atlantic
the conditions that have provoked it are no
who attack Sarajevo must understand
Council to take action when necessary.
longer the main business of mankind. For
that we are serious. If we leave that
And I think if anyone here does not
the treaty recognizes and proclaims a
sentence in the declaration, we have to
agree with that, you should not vote for
community of interest which is much older
than the conflict with the Soviet Union,
mean it. Those of us gathered here
the language. I think it is the appropri-
and come what may, will survive it.
must understand that, therefore, if the
ate language, but we have to be clear
situation does not improve, the alliance
when we put something like this in the
Well, this meeting will prove him
must be prepared to act. What is at
declaration.
right. The Soviet Union is gone, but
stake is not just the safety of the
Let me say finally that I ran across
our community of interest endures.
people in Sarajevo and any possibility
the following quotation by a distin-
And now it is up to us to build a new
of bringing this terrible conflict to an
guished and now deceased American
security for a new future for the
end but the credibility of the alliance
political writer, Walter Lippman.
Atlantic peoples in the 21st century.
itself. And that-make no mistake
Three days after the North Atlantic
about it-will have great ramifications
Treaty was signed, Lippman wrote
in the future in other contexts.
this-prophetically:
3
US DEPARTMENT OF STATE
D
ISPATCH
BUREAU OF PUBLIC AFFAIR
Secretary Christopher
Transforming the NATO Alliance
To Meet New Security Needs
Intervention before the ministerial
This past week, President Clinton
trans-Atlantic prosperity and security,
meeting of the North Atlantic Council,
reiterated the pledge he made at the
or are simply left hanging in isolation."
Istanbul, Turkey, June 9, 1994.
Brussels summit to maintain roughly
We must actively embrace the opportu-
100,000 American troops in Europe.
nity to help new democracies emerge
t is a pleasure to reconvene in the
He reaffirmed that our political
as stable partners in security and
North Atlantic Council. I want to
engagement will continue to be rein-
trade.
thank our Turkish hosts and
forced by our military deployment.
At the Brussels summit, the
express our appreciation for this
Our presence remains necessary to
alliance set two central, mutually
spectacular meeting site on the banks
safeguard America's vital interests as
reinforcing goals. The first was to
of the Bosporus. I also want to thank
well as Europe's.
design more flexible command struc-
our distinguished Deputy Secretary
The NATO alliance will remain the
tures and to address new security
General, Sergio Balanzino, who will
core of American engagement in
threats, such as weapons proliferation.
lead our discussion.
Europe and the heart of European
The second and historic goal was to
Our thoughts today also are with
security. Since the Athens ministerial
deepen our ties with the emerging
Secretary General Woerner. President
last June, we have renewed our efforts
democracies to the east. We invited
Clinton and I offer our best wishes for
to reinforce the trans-Atlantic bond
them to participate in a broad range of
Manfred's full and rapid recovery. His
that NATO embodies. As we move
political and military activities with
strength, resilience, and courage
ahead with the landmark decisions
alliance members, thereby paving the
inspire us all. His contribution to the
taken at the summit, we are transform-
way for eventual expansion of the
renewal of this alliance has been
ing the alliance to meet the security
alliance.
remarkable.
needs of the post-Cold War world.
We have made progress toward
Over the last week-in Italy,
The threat now is not invasion from
both these goals. Indeed, 1994 has
Britain, and France-President Clinton
the East but instability in the East. In
been a year of immense significance for
made clear once again that America's
Central Europe, new market democra-
the alliance.
commitment to Europe is resolute.
cies are consolidating freedom and
To achieve the first goal of increas-
Before the French National Assembly
showing promising signs of economic
ing effectiveness, NATO has taken
on Tuesday, President Clinton set forth
growth. But democracy remains
important decisions to support the
our shared strategic challenge in
vulnerable in many countries that have
efforts of allies to develop a more
building a stronger and more inte-
emerged from the Soviet empire.
capable European Security and
grated Europe based on security
Demagogues have played on ethnic
Defense Identity. That identity should
cooperation, market economies, and
divisions and economic dislocation to
maintain and build popular support in
democratic institutions.
fuel aggression. Left unchecked, such
Europe for meeting European commit-
The President will reaffirm his
tensions will frustrate the region's
ments and responsibilities and
vision of a broader Europe when he
progress toward reform and ultimately
strengthen our collective capacity to
travels to Italy, Germany, and Poland
threaten wider European security.
respond to future security needs. It
next month. As the most hopeful
As President Clinton said last
should also reinforce the trans-Atlantic
chapter in European history is being
January in Brussels: "This period may
relationship. We continue to look to
written, the United States will con-
decide whether the states of the former
our allies for a more balanced sharing
tinue to stand with the peoples of an
Soviet bloc are woven into the fabric of
of responsibilities.
undivided, democratic continent.
To be printed
United States Department of State
in Dispatch Vol. 5, No. 24
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office of Public Communication
NATO and European Security
Another important summit decision
military planners. The previously
Mr. Deputy Secretary General, as
to achieve the first goal was to create
unimaginable is on the way to becom-
we consider NATO's relationship with
Combined Joint Task Forces. We are
ing routine.
nations to the east, Russia will figure
making a promising start as we work to
Second, we will fulfill the summit's
prominently in our deliberations.
make this innovative concept a reality.
call for Partnership peacekeeping
Russia is undertaking a difficult
Our objective remains to renew the
exercises to begin in 1994. These
transformation that will have profound
alliance and to strengthen the Western
exercises represent a remarkable
implications for the world. Whatever
European Union. We hope efforts in
transformation. Think of it: Troops
course its internal evolution may take,
NATO and the WEU will enable us to
that for half a century faced off against
Russia is and will remain a vital actor
take concrete decisions about CJTF at
each other in the Cold War will come
in European security affairs. It is in
the December ministerial.
together in joint military exercises.
our interest-and Russia's-to develop
As part of advancing the same goal
This fall, the Netherlands will host
broad, constructive interaction be-
of improving alliance effectiveness, we
a field exercise, and Poland will host
tween NATO and Russia. The Part-
are taking significant steps to combat
the first exercise on the soil of a
nership for Peace is central to that
the proliferation of weapons of mass
partner country. SACLANT is
process.
destruction and the means of delivering
organizing a Partnership maritime
We welcome Defense Minister
them. NATO must address this threat,
exercise, which will be held before the
Grachev's recent statement that Russia
both to complement other international
end of the year. In addition, the United
will participate in the Partnership for
efforts and to meet our solemn commit-
States and other allies and partners
Peace without preconditions. As
ment to protect the security of alliance
will use already scheduled exercises to
NATO has said, each partner will sign
members.
advance the Partnership's goals. We
the same framework document. But
I am pleased by the early work of
expect at least 14 activities of this kind
each partner will design its own
the senior political-military and defense
to occur before the end of the year. We
presentation document and each will
groups formed as a result of this
are also developing a robust schedule of
develop its unique independent
initiative. We will affirm that progress
exercises for 1995.
Partnership program. Clearly, Russia
today by approving an alliance policy
These exercises of NATO units
has significant capabilities and inherent
framework on non-proliferation. This
with their former adversaries will send
strengths upon which it can draw in
framework lays the political foundation
a powerful message that the old East-
developing a Partnership cooperation
for improving allied capabilities to
West division of Europe is dead. These
program that will serve the Partner-
protect against the threat, or use, of
are real, concrete steps toward the
ship's interests and enhance European
weapons of mass destruction. The
integrated and strengthened Europe
security.
defense group has agreed to examine
that President Clinton called for at the
At the same time, Russia's size,
threats, defense planning, military
summit and again this past week.
broad interests, resources, and military
doctrine and capabilities.
We will also involve partners in
capabilities provide the basis for a
To achieve the second goal, the
many NATO committee and training
productive relationship with NATO in
most significant decision reached at the
activities. Together, alliance members
addition to the Partnership for Peace.
NATO summit was the creation of the
and partners will develop practical
Properly designed and conducted, this
Partnership for Peace. The Partner-
means for addressing new threats to
relationship can serve the interests of
ship, proposed by President Clinton
regional security. We will enable non-
all European countries. We recently
and adopted by the alliance, reaches
NATO countries to develop the habits
welcomed Minister Grachev to NATO
out to the East in order to reassure
of cooperation, such as defense plan-
headquarters for an extremely valuable
new democracies and strengthen
ning, that are the lifeblood of the
session. Where Russia can and is
European security. In five short
alliance.
prepared to make a constructive
months, we can recognize a remarkable
We are committed to NATO's
contribution, periodic consultations and
achievement: The Partnership has
expansion. Effective cooperation is a
practical cooperation outside the
moved from a bare concept to become a
critical step in preparing partners for
Partnership would be natural and
working reality, a series of concrete
NATO membership. I want to under-
mutually beneficial.
relationships. Twenty countries have
score today what the President told
For example, Russia's nuclear
joined. I want to highlight two among
East European leaders in Prague last
capabilities establish an obvious basis
the many steps we have taken thus far
January: "The Partnership changes
for a dialogue on nuclear issues such as
to make the Partnership operational.
the entire dialogue about enlarging
safe and secure weapons dismantle-
First, Partner states are actively
NATO's membership. Now the
ment. Cooperation between NATO
engaged at NATO Headquarters in
question is no longer whether NATO
and Russia to stem the proliferation of
Brussels, and will soon be present at
will take on new members, but when
nuclear and other weapons of mass
the Partnership Coordination Cell at
and how we will do so."
destruction would advance our shared
Mons working side by side with NATO
interests.
2
NATO and European Security
Of course, other European states
efforts to bring peace to the former
tary forces essential for implementing a
also may have interests or capabilities
Yugoslavia. Without question, our
final agreement. And I want clearly to
that would warrant "16-plus-one"
efforts have decreased the level of
reaffirm the commitment of the United
consultations or cooperation with them
violence and destruction. NATO's
States to participate in this vital task.
outside the Partnership as appropriate.
February 9 ultimatum ended the
The war in Bosnia remains a grave
We should welcome those possibilities.
shelling of Sarajevo. We enforced the
threat to our goal of an integrated
Bilateral relationships between
no-fly zone over Bosnia. NATO's
Europe. It threatens to draw other
Russia and individual allies comple-
April 22 decision ended the brutal
fragile democracies into a wider war.
ment Russia's relationship with NATO.
attacks on civilians in Gorazde. We all
And violent nationalism undermines
The United States and other allies are
recognize the leadership of the Govern-
the security of all European nations.
developing bilateral political and
ment of Italy in providing bases for
The United States is committed to
military cooperation that will comple-
allied operations in these vital endeav-
greater integration among European
ment the work of the alliance.
ors.
democracies, East and West. We are
Let me turn briefly to two impor-
These and previous NATO actions,
determined to extend to the East the
tant matters that have far-reaching
including sanctions enforcement,
benefits-and obligations-of the same
implications for Russia's relations with
demonstrate our ability to make
liberal trading and security order that
NATO and for the overall course of
difficult decisions as 16 allies. NATO's
have been pillars of strength for the
European security. First, European
firm actions show, as President Clinton
West. That is the best way to secure
stability depends on respecting the
has said, that the alliance "can still be a
the gains of democracy in the East.
sovereignty, independence, and
credible force for peace in the post-
That is the best way to ensure that a
territorial integrity of all the states
Cold War era." Those actions continue
wider war never engulfs Europe again.
that emerged from the Soviet empire.
to provide crucial support to the
Yesterday in Paris, many of us
We recognize Russia's legitimate
United Nations and to save innocent
were present when the OECD decided
concerns in this region, but we have
lives. NATO has demonstrated in
to start membership negotiations with
made it clear that no country has a
Bosnia that it is the only international
the Visegrad countries. We decided to
right to assert a role that is inconsis-
institution with that capability.
intensify OECD activities in other
tent with international norms.
We are now at a critical point in our
Central and Eastern European coun-
A second key feature of Europe's
efforts to find a negotiated solution.
tries. The OECD also signed a coop-
stability and security is the Treaty on
Working together, the EU, the UN,
eration agreement with Russia.
Conventional Forces in Europe. The
Russia, and the United States have
We have sought to extend economic
United States is committed to main-
made good progress in putting together
institutions to the East because we
taining the integrity of the treaty over
a territorial proposal that we believe:
understand that the quest for security
the long term. We welcome discussion
could serve as a reasonable basis for a
in Europe cannot rely on security
of any implementation questions among
settlement. Our hope is that this
institutions alone. It also must rely on
CFE signatories in the forum created
proposal will be accepted by both sides,
the political and economic reconstruc-
by the treaty-the Vienna Joint
and that yesterday's cease-fire agree-
tion of newly democratic nations. Our
Consultative Group.
ment is a step toward a nationwide
experience in Western Europe after
An important area where Russia
cessation of hostilities. If these efforts
the Second World War taught us that
and members of the alliance have
succeed, we can turn our attention and
economic integration is essential to
cooperated productively is in working
resources to the task of implementing a
anchor stability among rebuilding
to bring peace to the former Yugosla-
peace agreement and helping recon-
nations. That is why we must lower
via. This alliance-indeed, all nations
struct war-torn Bosnia. We must
the remaining trade barriers that limit
concerned with the future of Europe
expect, however, that the compromises
the East's exports and its potential for
and standards of human decency-
necessary for peace will not come
lasting growth.
remains deeply concerned about the
easily. The alliance must stand ready
With the Cold War past, the doors
continued fighting in Bosnia. That
as before to back up the diplomatic
of the West must be open to open
brutal and tragic conflict, the most
process. And NATO allies must remain
societies and open markets to the East.
savage fighting in Europe since 1945,
engaged in this effort.
By widening the reach of NATO and of
cries out for resolution.
The international community, and
organizations like the OECD, the EU,
We remain convinced that this
NATO in particular, are powerful
and the GATT, we will strengthen the
conflict can be resolved only through
forces helping to resolve this conflict.
prosperity of an undivided Europe and
negotiations. We know that NATO
We must stay at it until we get the job
bolster the security that this alliance
cannot impose a solution. Since our last
done. We can contain the conflict. We
continues to preserve.
meeting, NATO has supported UN
can facilitate talks. We can help shape
solutions. We can volunteer the mili-
3
US DEPARTMENT OF STATE
D
ISPATCH
BUREAU OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS
The New Geopolitics: Defending
Democracy in the Post-Cold War Era
Deputy Secretary Talbott
Address at Oxford University,
Now, for the third reason I wel-
modern nation-state, in which people
Oxford, England, October 20, 1994.
come your invitation to speak to you
who spoke one language or worshipped
today: It gives me a chance to discuss
one religion could band together under
have three reasons for being
why the Clinton Administration
one flag within one set of boundaries:
pleased to appear before you this
believes it has a historic opportunity in
not a bad idea but not a perfect one,
afternoon. The first is personal;
U.S. foreign policy.
either. Today, we are still coping with
the second is political; the third,
its more extreme imperfections,
historic.
A Historic Opportunity
particularly in the disaster zone that
You are, I am sure, used to your
While every period is, by definition, a
used to be known as Yugoslavia.
transatlantic cousins wearing their
passage in human history, some mark
In the 19th century, the Napoleonic
hearts on their sleeves, SO I won't
the beginning of new chapters, even of
Wars ended with the Congress of
disappoint you: I love this place-this
new volumes. This is one. We are now
Vienna, which enshrined balance-of-
city and this university. They were
living through the third great defining
power as the guiding principle of
good to me for three of the best years
international order. The Concert of
moment of this turbulent century.
of my life. I'm delighted to be back.
What brings us to this point is, of
Europe was based on the premise that
Then there are the ties that bind
no one state on the continent should
course, the end of the great struggle
your country to mine. Granted, we've
had our bad moments, such as that time
that has lasted for over 40 years-the
become too strong. Again, not a bad
global rivalry between two camps
idea but it, too, has its shortcomings.
in 1814 when you folks set fire to my
clustered around two superpowers.
The balance-of-power concept and,
hometown. But for the most part, the
The end of the Cold War is, in one
therefore, diplomacy based on it tend to
U.S.-British relationship has defied
respect, similar to the periods of
be value-free. Proponents of balance-
Lord Palmerston's famous dictum: In
transition that have occurred when
of-power hold that what matters about
some rare cases, permanent interests
earlier, hot wars ended. Out of the
a state or its government is primarily
do make for permanent friendships or
combatants' exhaustion comes a new
its size and strength, not so much its
at least special relationships between
resolve to establish new attitudes,
nature. The implication is that the
nations. The United Kingdom was our
arrangements, and structures. Some of
difference between a democracy and a
principal partner in the single-most
those then become fixtures on the
dictatorship is less important than
important transformation of American
international landscape. Others evolve,
whether they balance each other in
foreign policy: the U.S.'s emergence, a
others wither away, and still others
brute strength.
little more than a half-century ago,
This view fosters the notion that
blow up in our faces.
from a posture of not-so-splendid
For example, in the 17th century,
the international community has an
isolation to one of active engagement
the Thirty Years' War ended in the
interest only in preserving equilibrium
with the wider world. That shift was
Treaty of Westphalia, which sought to
between and among states rather than
triggered by the Anglo-American
impose order on the wreckage of the
in what happens inside those states. If
alliance in World War II, then rendered
Holy Roman Empire. Westphalia is
applied too narrowly, that can become
a permanent part of the way Ameri-
a standard for tolerance of the intoler-
often cited as the inception of the
cans think and act during the two
able. The obvious example from our
generations that followed.
century is the Holocaust. It should
To be printed
in Dispatch
United States Department of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
Vol. 5, No. 46
Office of Public Communication
The New Geopolitics
have mattered to the world if Hitler's
World War II also spurred another
But this was not just a case of one
only victims had been German Jews.
attempt to establish an institution
group of states banding together to
But one wonders: Would the world
dedicated to international law, collec-
defeat another. Rather, it was one set
have ever done anything to stop him if
tive security, and the enforcement of
of ideas winning out over another.
Hitler had nót combined genocide
peace. The result-the United Na-
There were adherents and proponents
against Germany's citizens with
tions-was a distinct improvement
of those victorious ideas on both sides
aggression against Germany's neigh-
over the League of Nations, although it
of the battle lines-or, more to the
bors, if he had been just as murderous
still has a long way to go before it
point, on both sides of what used to be
fulfills the aspirations of its founders—
the Iron Curtain. The liberal values
at home but more restrained abroad?
and of its current members.
that unite the NATO member states
Those questions haunt the balance-of-
Yet, in a very real sense, the peace
power school of international relations;
have taken hold, in varying degrees,
they underscore the need for statecraft
that followed the Allied triumph over
from Estonia on the Baltic to Albania
to incorporate principles drawn from
the Axis was not a real peace at all. As
on the Adriatic to Kyrgyzstan and
ethics as well as those drawn from
Clausewitz might have put it, with the
Mongolia on the frontier of China and
end of World War II, international
to Vladivostok on the Pacific.
physics.
Over the last 100 years, we have
politics became, for nearly half a
To be sure, there are still a few
seen two world wars and two attempts
century, the conduct of war by other
countries that continue to decorate
means.
at orchestrating world peace. World
their flags with red stars and pay lip
War I was in many ways a double
Just as the Cold War was waged by
service to Marx, Engels, and Lenin.
disaster. It resulted not only in the
different means-propaganda cam-
They include the most populous
slaughter of a generation but also in the
paigns, proxy struggles in the Third
country on earth-China. But these
World, nuclear rivalry-it was also
squandering of the opportunity for
holdout communist states, too, offer
peace that came at Versailles.
waged over different issues from those
reason for what might be called
My country, which contributed
that had traditionally pitted nations
strategic optimism-albeit tempered
to success on the battlefields of that
against one another. Throughout
with tactical patience, prudence, and
war, also contributed to the failure
previous eras, the cause of war and the
firmness.
that followed. The U.S. Congress
spoils of victory were usually some
One reason for optimism is the
combination of land and power. Even
communications revolution-the
rejected American participation in the
League of Nations and then enacted
in wars fought in the name of religion,
permeability of even the most heavily
the question almost always was: Who
fortified borders to radio and television
the Smoot-Hawley Act, a monument to
protectionism. That legislation, it has
would plant what flag on what piece of
broadcasts, as well as to subversively
real estate?
often been said, helped put the "Great"
interactive influences such as telefax
The casus belli of the Cold War was
in the Great Depression. These and
and e-mail. Among the forces that tore
other follies of the interwar period
different-not entirely different but
holes in the Iron Curtain was the
created an international climate
significantly SO. The central issue over
steady bombardment by the Voice of
conducive, it turned out, to the rise of
which Britain, America, and the West
America, Radio Free Europe and
fascism and thus to another conflagra-
waged the Cold War against the
Radio Liberty, and the BBC. The
tion.
Soviets and their satellites did, to be
communications revolution has not just
The leaders of the great coalition
sure, involve land and power. The map
permitted the transmission of news-it
that triumphed in the Second World
of the world-certainly of Europe-
has helped bring about the single-most
War learned several, if not all, of the
was largely color-coded in blue-our
important and pervasive good news of
lessons from the aftermath of the first.
side, and red-theirs.
our time: the decline of dictatorship
This time, instead of humiliating and
But the Cold War was not just
and the rise of democracy.
impoverishing their defeated enemies,
about land and power. It was also a
the victors helped rebuild Japan and
conflict-protracted, ruthless, and, in
A Consensus for Democracy
fact, quite often rather hot-between
And Free Markets
Germany. Through the Marshall Plan,
GATT, and the international financial
competing concepts of how to organize
institutions born at Bretton Woods,
the political and economic lives of
As the peoples of the world approach
those statesmen who were present at
individual human beings, of individual
the 21st century, they are arriving at
the creation of the post-World War II
states, and of the planet as a whole.
an unprecedented consensus about how
Power, of course, played its part.
we should organize ourselves within as
world established the basis for a
NATO, as is often said, proved to be
well as among states. There is an
community of Western democracies
and for an increasingly interdependent
the most successful military alliance in
increasingly universal sense-shared
and prosperous global economy.
history. The signature Western policies
and championed by people on every
of deterrence and containment suc-
continent-that democracy is the best
ceeded spectacularly.
2
The New Geopolitics
form of political organization and the
leaders have shown themselves more
more ways than one. I am referring, of
free market is the most successful form
inclined than their authoritarian or
course, to the fate of Argentina's
of economic organization.
totalitarian predecessors to choose the
military rulers after their misadven-
To be sure, elections are neither a
economic and social policies that will
ture in the Falklands. They were
panacea for social ills nor a guarantee
best benefit their people.
subsequently convicted of human
of enlightened government. Hitler's
This is the case even in the world's
rights abuses and succeeded by
National Socialist Party, it is often
poorer regions. Harvard economist and
democratically elected civilians.
pointed out, won at the polls in 1932.
Oxford don Amertya Sen has noted
With each passing year, it becomes
Vladimir Zhirinovskiy's grotesquely
that no substantial famine has ever
increasingly apparent that the proposi-
misnamed Liberal Democratic Party
occurred in a country with a democratic
tion "democracies don't go to war with
did all-too well for anyone's comfort
form of government and a relatively
one another" is not just a bromide-it
except its own in the Russian parlià-
free press. India, for example, contin-
is as close as we are likely to get in
mentary elections of last December.
ued to have famines right up to the
political science to an empirical truth.
Nonetheless, as a general proposition,
time of independence in 1947. The
Partly for that reason, as Secretary
democracy helps bring prosperity to its
last famine-and one of the largest-
of State Christopher has noted, we are
people and peace to its neighbors.
occurred in 1943, when an estimated
now living in a unique historical
As evidence, let me cite develop-
2-3 million people died. Since indepen-
moment, when none of the great
ments on my side of the Atlantic. As
dence and the founding of a multiparty
powers views any other as an immedi-
recently as 15 years ago, most of the
democratic system, there has been no
ate military threat.
nations in Latin America were ruled by
substantial famine, even though severe
To be sure, the United States still
military dictatorships. Now, every
crop failures and food scarcities have
has disputes with Russia and with
government except Cuba's has a
occurred all-too frequently.
China-and, for that matter, on certain
genuine claim to democratic legitimacy.
Similarly, famine prevention
issues with your government, as well as
As these states have moved toward
programs run by democratically
with France, Germany, and Japan. But
democracy, they have also moved away
elected governments in Botswana
there is, for the first time, no defining
from statist economic policies. Demo-
and Zimbabwe enabled these nations
polarization of world politics; no match-
cratically elected leaders in Mexico,
to withstand severe crop failures in the
up between two giants whose own
Argentina, Chile, and Brazil have been
early 1980s. During the same period,
zero-sum game establishes the rules for
able to push through comprehensive
Sudan and Ethiopia-with compara-
the rest of the world-contestants and
economic reforms.
tively smaller declines in food produc-
bystanders alike. There is no equiva-
South Asia, too, has moved deci-
tion but with the huge disadvantage
lent, say, to Sparta versus Athens, or
sively toward democracy and markets.
of anti-democratic regimes-suffered
Rome versus Carthage, or Britain
In the past decade, 260 million people
major famines.
versus Spain in the 16th century-or
in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal
The rise of democracy has also
any of the other titanic rivalries that
have regained the right to vote in free
contributed to a dramatic reduction in
have provided so much of the plot of
and fair elections. In India, where
acts of aggression by one state against
history.
democratic institutions are firmly
another. Latin Américan states, for
This state of affairs is in large part
established, Prime Minister Rao and
instance, skirmished regularly among
the result of an increasingly wide-
Finance Minister Manmohan Singh are
themselves for most of this century.
spread, increasingly uncontested
in the midst of an impressive series of
There were full-scale wars between
commitment to democracy, free trade,
reforms that will transform their
Costa Rica and Panama, Bolivia and
and free markets. For the first time in
country's economy-they have made
Paraguay, Peru and Ecuador, and
human history, virtually all of the
the rupee a convertible currency,
Honduras and El Salvador. But here is
world's leading economic and military
sharply reduced import barriers, and
the point: At the time those conflicts
powers are multi-party, free-market
they are in the process of a sweeping
occurred, all the nations involved were
democracies. So, too, are most of the
overhaul of the banking sector and the
governed by dictatorships. Since
allies of the great powers.
privatization of state-owned industries.
democracy began to spread rapidly
That is why President Clinton
There are similar success stories in
through the Western Hemisphere in
believes that our generation has a
Asia and Africa-in nations as diverse
the early 1980s, no Latin American
historic opportunity to shape our
as South Korea, South Africa, and
nation has gone to war with any other.
world. He believes that since it is,
Malawi.
The one case of a Latin American
above all, the triumph of democracy
In all these cases, there is a close
country that started a war against a
and markets that has brought us
linkage between democratic politics
European power is instructive in
victory in the Cold War, it must be,
and free-market economics. All over
above all, the defense of democracy and
the world, democratically elected
markets that should guide us now.
3
The New Geopolitics
Sustaining Democracy
At the same time, we have not by
Throughout the Cold War, Western
It is overwhelmingly in our best
any means abandoned traditional
resolve had indispensable allies in
interests to sustain the trend of
concepts of sovereignty or security, nor
Eastern reformers and in the people
have we foresworn the traditional
themselves-a fact often lost in the
democratization. If that trend is
means to deter and if necessary rebuff
reversed, our well-being will suffer.
smug and triumphalist rhetoric of
those who would jeopardize or violate
some in the West. The victims of
A military rivalry among the great
the peace.
communism became the victors over
powers is far more likely to arise
Witness the UN's response to
communism-and we must include
should one or more of those powers
Saddam Hussein's latest aggressive
abandon its commitment to free trade,
them in our planning for the post-Cold
mobilization. In this episode, we have
War world.
open markets, and open society and
acted upon geopolitical considerations
slip back into totalitarian politics and
This is a first principle of the
of a more conventional sort than in
American Government's policy toward
command economics. By the same
Haiti. In Iraq, the international
token, it is significant that we face
Europe. It is a large part of the reason
community has backed down a bully
why, when he came to Europe three
menaces to our common security today
from Iraq and North Korea, two states
who was threatening his neighbor and
times earlier this year, President
that have resisted the global tide of
endangering global energy supplies.
Clinton stressed his commitment to the
democracy.
Yet this confrontation, too, contains
goal of integration: to work within the
dramatic evidence of how the world has
While democracy and market
Transatlantic Partnership to build an
economics are ascendant, they are not
changed for the better with the end of
undivided Europe-a Europe united by
the Cold War-after some initial
everywhere established-far from it.
a shared commitment to democracy,
In many nations that have begun the
reluctance, Russia joined the U.S.,
free-market economies, and mutual
transition, the necessary institutions—
U.K., and the rest of the UN Security
respect for borders.
the political and economic cultures-
Council in Resolution 949, which
What does this mean in practical
are in their infancy. As Secretary
further limits Saddam's ability to
terms? It means bringing Eastern
Christopher has said on a number of
deploy his army in a threatening
states into Western economic institu-
manner.
occasions, it is precisely the newborn
tions-into the GATT, into the
democracies that are most in need of
European Union, and into the OECD.
international support.
Europe and the New Geopolitics
If the countries of Central Europe and
the former Soviet Union have the
That, in essence, is why your
Let me now say a few words about
government and ours have joined
how the new geopolitics-our attempt
courage to take the painful but neces-
forces with 28 other nations in Haiti,
to redefine national and international
sary steps of economic reform, then we
making possible last Saturday's
security-applies to this region of
must be prepared to do our part as
extraordinary celebration in Port-au-
well. As President Clinton has said, "it
the world, Europe. The European
Prince of the restoration of that
continent, after all, was the primary
will make little sense for us to applaud
their market reforms on the one hand
country's democratic government.
battleground of the Cold War. This
United Nations Security Council
is where that struggle was won. This
while offering only selective access to
our markets on the other."
Resolution 940, authorizing the deploy-
is where we must consolidate the gains
ment of the multinational coalition,
of victory. It is here in Europe, as
Integration also means that we
was a watershed. For the first time,
much as anywhere on earth, that we
must continue to develop the first post-
the UN gave the defense of democracy
must apply the principle of defending
Cold War security structure-the
standing as justification to use "all
democracy where it is most fragile and
Partnership for Peace. Two weeks ago,
Armenia became the 23rd nation to
necessary means"-in other words,
vulnerable.
military force.
We in the community of established
join. Since its launching at the NATO
The UN mission in Haiti establishes
market democracies need to stay with
summit in January, the Partnership has
that the international community can
the post-communist reformers. We
taken on practical content, coherent
take action not just when regimes
must be as persistent as they are. It
shape, and promising direction. Al-
attack their neighbors but when they
would be a terrible mistake to assume,
ready it has produced the remarkable
savage their own people as well. There
complacently, that without our help
spectacle of former adversaries from
are-and will always be-disagree-
NATO and the old Warsaw Pact
democracy and markets will succeed
ments about how far the international
everywhere they now have a foothold.
exercising together in Poland. A
community's responsibility runs and in
An even worse mistake would be to
second such exercise will take place in
what cases it applies. But there can be
the Netherlands later this month.
succumb, fatalistically, to the fear that
no doubt that we are in the process of
even with our help, reforms in these
NATO itself is also evolving. As
redefining geopolitics.
countries are doomed to fail.
President Clinton, Vice President
Gore, Secretary of State Christopher,
4
The New Geopolitics
and Secretary of Defense Perry have
Versailles run amok. We have seen
President Gore sought to allay this
all vowed, NATO will, in due course,
failed states in Rwanda and Somalia;
concern. Addressing an audience in
take in new members. It will do so on a
we've seen ethnic conflict stir regional
Berlin, he explained why the expansion
case-by-case basis, in accordance with
instability in the Transcaucasus. This
of NATO would not be incompatible
the interests and the will of the
kind of disintegration within states
with the security interests of Russia.
member states, and no other power
poses a major obstacle to the goal of
He noted that "instability in Central
will have a veto over the process.
integration among states, all of which is
Europe, that seedbed of European
If handled properly-and it will be
an additional reason why we cannot
wars, has twice in this century brought
handled properly-NATO expansion
ignore the conflict in Bosnia. In the
tragedy to the continent." The Russian
can serve the larger cause of European
days and weeks ahead, we will be
people, who suffered greatly from
integration, security, and political
working closely with our colleagues in
those tragedies, have as much reason
stability. Or, to put the same point
the Contact Group-the U.K., France,
as any to fear further instability in
differently: NATO's evolution can help
and Russia, and Germany, which
Central Europe. Therefore, Russia has
guide the evolution of Europe itself.
represents the European Union. We
as much reason as any to want to see
The addition of new members to NATO
shall work to strengthen the still-
stability in Central Europe-and that
need not-and indeed must not-lead
fragile Federation in Bosnia. We shall
is precisely the goal of an expanded
to new divisions between East and
seek ways to seal the border between
NATO. Expansion, when it comes,
West.
Serbia and Bosnia more tightly. We
should be viewed not as an action
In this regard, we must also
shall urge stricter enforcement of UN-
directed against anyone but as an
continue to develop other avenues of
protected exclusion zones.
important component of regional
security cooperation which-like the
There may even be glimmers,
security and stability.
Partnership for Peace-can or do
however tentative, of good news
But, one might ask-and many do-
encompass all the nations of the Euro-
amidst the horror of the former
what about the stability of Russia
Atlantic world. Right now, in
Yugoslavia. The effort to end the
itself? Quite simply, we do not know
Budapest, the 52 nations that partici-
conflict has seen the UN Security
for sure what kind of state Russia will
pate in the CSCE-the Conference on
Council for the first time use NATO as
be in the 21st century. That vast,
Security and Cooperation in Europe-
an instrument to enforce the will of the
proud, rich, accomplished, troubled
are exploring how the CSCE can be
United Nations. UNPROFOR-the
land is in the process of redefining
made a more effective instrument for
United Nations Protection Force-has
itself, and it will be doing SO for some
regional conflict management and for
brought together many members of the
considerable time to come. But we do
establishing a common security space
Partnership for Peace, including not
know, very much for sure, what kind of
based on shared values and principles
only the United Kingdom, Canada, and
state we want Russia to be: We want it
of behavior. The United States will
France but also former Warsaw Pact
to be a strong, prosperous democracy;
work hard to ensure the success of this
states such as Poland, Ukraine, and
we want it to be integrated into the
effort.
Russia. Russia's willingness to join
economic and political life of the rest of
But this effort will be all-the-more
forces-diplomatic and military-with
the world; we want it to be secure in its
difficult if we do not meet the challenge
the West in the common cause of
current borders and respectful of the
of the former Yugoslavia. The situa-
ending the conflict is among the more
independence, sovereignty, and
tion in that benighted corner of Europe
striking pieces of evidence that we are
territorial integrity of its neighbors,
remains dire. The Bosnian Serbs are
indeed living in a new world.
notably including those neighbors who
still committing atrocities and defying
This leads me, in closing my
were, like Russia itself, republics of the
the will of the international community.
remarks, to say a bit more about
U.S.S.R.
Bosnian Muslims and Croats face a
Russia-the country whose language,
That is not just our hope for
terrible winter under siege. If the
literature, culture, and history I
Russia-it is many Russians' wish for
fighting spreads, we could, with
studied while I was a student here.
their own country. That includes many
gruesome symmetry, close out this
Many in Moscow are worried that
leaders of Russia today and many who
century with a sequel to the Balkan
their country will end up being ex-
aspire to be its leaders in the future.
Wars of 1912 and 1913.
cluded from an expanded and
Theirs, of course, are not the only
Moreover, Bosnia dramatizes a
integrated European security struc-
aspirations at play in the rough-and-
global problem-of nationalistically
ture. More specifically, they are
tumble of the Duma and the Federation
inspired separatism and civil war, feuds
concerned that the Partnership for
Council-and on the hustings, now that
among tribes that fly the banner of self-
Peace and the intention to expand
real politics has finally come to that
determination-in other words, a new
NATO are, in their essence, directed
country. There are forces very much in
world disorder, a phenomenon that
against Russia: Last month, Vice
the open, as well as behind the scenes
might be called Westphalia and
5
The New Geopolitics
and underground and in the dark
forces that will, if they do prevail, allow
have committed, in the final years of
alleys, that are ugly, threatening,
Russia to achieve genuine security and
this century, a strategic blunder equal
retrograde, and worse.
prosperity.
to the one committed in the opening
There is, in short, a great struggle
What we must not do is prejudge
years, at Versailles and afterward.
underway in Russia for its future, its
the outcome of that struggle-and
But let me also put the same point
identity, its soul, and its place in
especially we must not base our
more positively-more in the spirit of
Europe. As President Clinton has put
prejudgment on prejudice, on historical
strategic optimism that Bill Clinton
it, the Russian people must ask them-
stereotypes, on warmed-over Cold War
believes should inform American
selves "what does it mean to be a great
ideology-lest we commit the fallacy of
foreign policy in the post-Cold War era.
power in this 21st century? Will they
the self-fulfilling prophecy. We must
We can seize the opportunities in this
define it in yesterday's terms, or
heed Voltaire, who warned against
period of transition. We are more
tomorrow's?" Or, to put it most
mistaking our nightmares for premoni-
likely to do so if we understand why all
starkly: Will they choose imperialism
tions of the future.
those earlier attempts at lasting peace
and repression or integration and
To put it bluntly, if we were to base
- Westphalia, Vienna, Versailles,
freedom?
our policies on the pessimistic pre-
Munich, and Yalta-failed or fell short.
What we must do is everything in
sumption that Russia will regress
We can learn from the lessons and build
our power to encourage the forces that
rather than evolve, then we would
on the legacies of our past as we.
we want to see prevail, over time, in
develop a strategy for our future. And
that struggle. Those are the same
this time, we can get it right.
6
USIDEPARTMENT
D
ISPATCH
American Power and American Diplomacy
Anthony Lake
Address by the Assistant to the Presi-
stances not of the late 1940s but of the
Negotiating From a
dent for National Security Affairs at
1920s: Much of our society now, as in
Position of Strength
Harvard University, Cambridge,
the 1920s, seeks a rest from the rigors
Massachusetts, October 21, 1994.
of international activism, and there is
In short, diplomacy disconnected from
no single threat against which to rally
power usually fails. At the same time,
want to speak with you about the
public opinion.
power without diplomacy is danger-
relationship between power and
A second old truth is this: Ideas
ously lacking in purpose.
diplomacy-particularly American
matter. They are at stake in most of
This, I know, is not a novel thought.
power and American diplomacy-in a
the daily struggles we see around the
In antiquity, Thucydides set out with
dramatically changed world.
world. As the President has said,
graphic horror in the Melian dialogue
This is an extraordinary moment in
the weakness of diplomacy without the
world affairs. The single, overarching
We face a contest as old as his-
backing of force. The sound arguments
threat of the Cold War has vanished.
tory-a struggle between freedom
of the Melians for preserving their
The international environment is
and tyranny; between tolerance and
independence provided no defense
isolation. It is a fight between those
starkly new-a far cry from the old
against an Athens bent on subjugation.
who would build free societies governed
strategic landscape, in which every
by laws and those who would impose
Without the power to back their
move and every alteration was inter-
their will by force. Our struggle today,
positions, Melos's men were put to the
preted in relation to the Soviet threat.
in a world more high-tech, more fast-
sword; women and children were sold
But even in this new era there are
moving, more chaotically diverse than
as slaves.
some old truths.
ever, is the age-old fight between hope
The same arguments many centu-
and fear.
ries later in Europe in the late 1930s
Old Truths
This brings me to the third old
were resolved by Hitler and his policy
The first is that divisions and debates
truth in this new era: Power still
by panzer, and in the Pacific by Pearl
matters. We are not the world's police
Harbor. Following World War II, far-
about our role in the world are as old
officer. But in this struggle between
sighted statesmen like Dean Acheson
as our Republic. On one side stand
severely limited forms of foreign
hope and fear, our power will make the
worked to keep that lesson in the
American mind. Acheson and other
engagement and protectionism; on the
critical difference, as it did in two world
wise men knew that the United States
other, active American engagement
wars and the Cold War. And at the
heart of American power lies the threat
needed all the instruments of diplo-
abroad on behalf of democracy and on
or use of military force. Without it,
macy and power to defend vital
behalf of expanded trade.
After World War II-thanks in
Haiti would not today be at the dawn of
interests and prevail over the long haul
in the Cold War. It was Acheson who
large part to the threat posed by the
a difficult but exciting democratic
Soviet Union-that debate was re-
opportunity. And without it, Iraq
coined the phrase, "negotiate from a
solved in favor of active engagement.
would today be threatening its neigh-
position of strength."
Today, as in the late 1940s, we face
bors with a dangerous military
again the old impulse to retrench. And
deployment on the borders of Kuwait.
The New Global Economy
today, as in the late 1940s, our interests
Today, of course, American diplomacy
demand that we check that impulse.
draws considerable strength from its
But our task is more difficult now,
economic power and the power of our
because we undertake it in circum-
example.
To be printed
United States Department of State
in Dispatch
Bureau of Public Affairs
Vol. 5, No. 46
Office of Public Communication
American Power and American Diplomacy
It is not only that our global
funding for operations and maintenance
clear as possible on when and where we
economic reach makes the American
in fiscal year 1995 by over 5%. There
will use military force. For there is no
voice an important.one on almost every
are indeed readiness and mobility
more important decision a President
global issue that we can think of. The
concerns for the future that we must
makes.
new global economy may also be
and will address, but our troops' rapid
No matter how clear our military
causing a small revolution in the nature
and highly effective successive deploy-
doctrine, that decision has and should
of diplomacy. As the economy of every
ments to Haiti and Iraq confirmed our
always come down to a judgment that
nation depends increasingly on partici-
confidence: We remain prepared to
weighs the importance of a particular
pation in the single world marketplace,
fight and win two major regional
mission-defined in terms of our
most economies thus become more
conflicts almost simultaneously.
interests-against its presumed costs.
vulnerable also to the effects of eco-
Our challenge is not only a matter
Here, in general if not perfect order
nomic isolation.
of maintaining our military might. We
of priority, are the seven national
This means that they may be more
also need a new national debate today
interests, taken in some combination or
susceptible to both economic induce-
on the critical questions of when,
even alone, that this Administration
ment and economic penalties. South
where, and how to use military force.
believes can merit the use of our
Africa presents a wonderful example of
In the late 1940s and 1950s, there was
military, especially in areas of greatest
this. And we have seen just how
just such a wide-ranging discussion on
strategic significance:
effective both incentives and sanctions
questions of nuclear doctrine and
can be in our negotiations with North
limited war. I believe we desperately
To defend against direct attacks
Korea over their nuclear weapons
need a similar exchange today, and you
on the United States, its citizens at
program. We welcome, of course, the
in this room have a central role to play
home and abroad, and its allies.
North Korean decisions that led to the
in shaping the debate and thereby
To counter aggression, which is
agreement being signed today. I think
shaping our common future.
central to preserving a peaceful world.
it is a hell of a deal. The agreement is
When will we use force? The short
To defend our most important
in their interest, as well as ours, for it
answer remains what it always has, or
economic interests, because it is here
can help end their economic and
should have been-when our interests
that Americans see their most immedi-
political isolation. But it may not have
require us to do SO. What are these
ate personal stake in our international
been accidental that real progress in
American interests?
engagement.
the talks occurred last summer when it.
To preserve, promote, and defend
became clear we were about to take a
Defining National Interests
democracy, which, in turn, enhances
sanctions resolution to the United
our security and the spread of our
Nations Security Council.
During the Cold War, our interests
values.
We also see the power of sanctions
were defined overwhelmingly in terms
To prevent the dangerous
in the case and behavior of Serbia.
of the threat to the United States
proliferation of nuclear weapons and
Indeed, you can draw a direct line from
posed by Soviet nuclear weapons. That
other weapons of mass destruction, to
the dramatic effects of the isolation of
led to the policy of nuclear deterrence.
prevent acts of terrorism, and to
the Serbian economy to the evolving
Thanks, in part, to that policy, we are
combat the deadly flow of drugs.
free and alive and assembled here
policy of Slobodan Milosevic.
To maintain our reliability. When
today.
the U.S. makes commitments to other
Military Force: The Threat
The policy of containment also
nations, we must keep our promises.
Of America's Power
flowed from America's definition of
And for humanitarian purposes,
interest in light of the Soviet threat.
such as combating famine and other
But at the very heart of America's
The national consensus behind contain-
natural disasters and in cases of over-
power is military force. This is why
ment helped produce victory in the
whelming violations of human rights.
President Clinton has vowed that our
Cold War. But as Vietnam showed, the
armed forces will remain the best
relationship between means and ends
Setting Priorities
trained, the best equipped, and the best
in fighting limited wars was never
prepared military in the world. I say
satisfactorily defined.
An array of interests need not mean
"remain" the best, because the efficient
Today, with an ever-increasing
disarray in setting our priorities. By
and rapid way in which our military
choice of possible missions in a rapidly
itself, none of the interests in this
conducted their recent operations in
changing world, our thinking needs
general hierarchy-with the certain
the Gulf and Haiti can leave no doubt
still finer resolution than it has ever
exception of attacks on our nation and
about their current readiness and
had before.
its allies and the possible exception of
strength.
Just as in the promotion of democ-
aggression elsewhere-should auto-
The Cassandras attacking our
racy and open markets we concentrate
matically lead to the use of force. But
readiness are simply wrong: We have
on those areas where our interests are
the wider the range of these interests
prepositioned arms in hot spots like the
most deeply engaged, so we must be as
at stake, the more likely that we will
Persian Gulf, expanded our sea- and
call again on our military. That is why,
airlift capabilities, and increased
in Haiti, when we saw democracy
2
American Power and American Diplomacy
denied, our borders threatened, our
community. Joining together in
Iraq poses a threat of aggression
reliability on the line, and a reign of
common cause makes us all stronger,
in which a broad range of American
brutality so close to our own shores, we
and deepens our moral authority.
interests are engaged. So we are
saw a compelling case for intervention.
The more deeply our interests are
leading a coalition under the authority
It is not our interests alone that
threatened, of course, the more inclined
of the United Nations-but are
decide when and where to use force.
we are to act alone. That is why we
prepared to act alone if we must. The
Against the interests at stake we must
have said that we will act by ourselves
result of the President's decisive action
measure the costs and benefits of each
in the Persian Gulf, if necessary-and
has been not only the near-resolution of
specific operation, and answer such
did so earlier when the Iraqis plotted
the current crisis, but a new injunction
questions as: Is there a clearly defined,
against the life of a former American
by the Security Council against future
achievable mission? What is the
President and thus against our whole
Iraqi aggression.
environment of risk we are entering?
people, as well.
In Haiti, where lesser but nonethe-
What are the prospects for success?
Finally, a cautionary note on
less important interests are at stake,
What is needed to achieve our goals?
another potential guideline: Some have
we also acted-but at a potentially
What are the potential costs-both
argued for a simpler policy: That we
lower cost. Over three years, we had
human and financial-of the engage-
should assert a sphere of influence in
exhausted all avenues of negotiation
ment? Do we have a realistic exit
our own hemisphere and in limited
and the use of economic sanctions in
strategy?
areas beyond, leaving to others the
our efforts to redeem the pledges of
There is no algorithm here-no
task of maintaining stability and order
two administrations to restore the
simple formula that asks us only to fill
in their own spheres. This view, I
democratically elected government
in the numbers in calculating the risks
believe, is dangerously wrong.
there. But in the end it was only the
and the requirements of each mission.
Certainly, proximity counts. Had
use of force that could finally bring
But we do know that those are the
Haiti not been so close to our shores,
success. When the Haitian generals
factors we must consider as we decide
we would have been less likely to act.
received the news that the 82nd
when and where to send our young men
The dramatic advance of democracy in
Airborne Division was, in fact, airborne
and women into danger. There is also a
this hemisphere is one of the truly
and headed their way-they gave way.
set of guidelines that help shape how
stirring developments of our time, and
As a result, we achieved peacefully
we use force, and its likely utility when
we have an obvious interest in prevent-
what we were prepared to do under
we do.
ing any unraveling of that achievement.
fire. I recall that Sunday afternoon
When we send American troops
We recognize that all nations have
vividly when it looked like we might
abroad, we will send them with a clear
greater concerns for their immediate
have to use force. If you are prepared
mission and the means to prevail. And
surroundings than they do for distant
to use force you may "subdue the
when we use force, we must be pre-
regions. But as a great nation whose
enemy without fighting," to use Sun
pared to use it unflinchingly. To do
interests and ideals are global in scope,
Tzu's words. The ancient strategist
otherwise endangers the interests we
we cannot-and will not-cede to
called that "the acme of skill."
seek to safeguard, as well as the troops
others a right to intervene as they wish
In Bosnia, we have not seen all the
we send.
in the affairs of their neighbors without
progress that we would like, but when
We should never delude ourselves:
regard to international norms of
diplomacy has been married to military
Deploying our military often will not
behavior. Specifically, we must expect
power, positive movement has been the
solve underlying problems, and we
of others that they will respect the
result. For example, the Sarajevo
must carefully limit the missions we
sovereignty and territorial integrity of
ultimatum succeeded primarily because
choose. Force can defeat an aggressor,
their neighbors, just as we do.
the threat of NATO air strikes was
but it will not conjure democracy into
These, then, are the calculations of
concrete. NATO's decision on the use
existence or flip the switch on to
interest and cost that have produced
of air power substantially eased the
prosperity. It may only begin to make
our past uses of military power and will
pressures on Sarajevo, prevented the
a solution possible farther down the
guide us in the future.
fall of Gorazde, and provided the
road. When we do act, we will do 80
foundation for last spring's agreement
with others when we can, but alone
Putting Power Behind Diplomacy
between the Bosnians and Bosnian
when we must. In some cases, in which
Croats to end their conflict and form a
we should not act unilaterally, we may
Every time we have used force, we
federation. The recent NATO decision
choose to join in multilateral action as
have balanced interests against costs.
And in each case, our use of our
to seek greater clarity and flexibility
we share the burdens and spread the
from the United Nations in Bosnia is a
risks. The United States has consis-
military has put power behind our
tently led the effort to build coalitions
diplomacy, allowing us to make
step in the right direction.
to meet the needs of the international
progress we would not otherwise have
In Rwanda and Somalia, our
achieved.
missions were primarily humanitarian,
our interests more narrow. Only the
American military could have done
3
American Power and American Diplomacy
what it did, saving hundreds and
change instantly. The costs become
specific mission at hand and around the
hundreds of thousands of lives, and we
painfully obvious, and the question
world. When Congress almost auto-
are very proud of that. But over the
arises: Can this possibly be worth even
matically considers resolutions calling
longer run, our interests did not justify
one American life?
for an early withdrawal of our forces
more than support for multilateral
Neither of these sentiments should
when deployed in non-traditional
peace-keeping efforts once our own
surprise or dismay us. Both reactions
settings, it undermines our objectives
missions were concluded. And there,
are expressions of the high value
and it compounds the risk for our
as elsewhere, international peace-
Americans place on human life, and we
troops. It is virtually an invitation for
keeping efforts can only give a
are a better people for it.
the thug of the month to see if he can
fractured society a window of opportu-
But while as individuals we all may
force our departure from some difficult
nity-a time of relative security-in
share this painful ambivalence, it is the
corner of the world by attacking our
which to heal its own wounds. No
responsibility of government to make
soldiers there. For this reason, among
outside force can impose on any society
real choices and to act-distinguishing
others, President Clinton opposed a
what is, in the end, its own responsibil-
between the essential and the tangen-
hasty withdrawal from Somalia last
ity.
tial, acting on the basis of what is right,
fall. That would have been the wrong
and then, when action is taken, doing so
way out and sent the wrong message
Cooperation and Understanding
without hesitation or vacillation.
around the world. Instead, he raised
To do this, there must be better
A final point: Policy, of course, does
our troop level before successfully
not succeed or fail in a vacuum. Public
understanding and cooperation be-
drawing it down, over time, on sched-
tween the Executive and the Congress.
ule and without further casualties.
opinion and the Congress rightfully
We both, of course, must ultimately be
play central roles in how the United
This issue transcends the daily
responsible to the public for our
States wields its power abroad.
work we do in dealing with Congress.
decisions. And this means a necessary
Perhaps the outstanding lesson we
And recognizing Congress' role, this
and proper caution about incurring the
Administration has consulted with it in
learned during Vietnam was the
costs of military action. It is, after all,
importance of what Les Gelb once
unprecedented ways-75 times alone in
the American people who bear the
the case of Haiti.
called "the essential domino": public
opinion. That conflict taught us to
burdens and pay the price.
But what is needed is a war powers
But we also know, from our most
think more carefully about costs, more
mechanism and system of consultations
recent experience in the Persian Gulf,
carefully about willpower as well as
that work. Next year, we will hold
firepower, and more carefully about the
that the American people are not so
serious discussions with Congress on
averse to the use of force as some
length of engagement. But above all, it
amending the War Powers Resolution
taught us that the United States
might think, especially if classic
in an effort to ameliorate a struggle
cannot long sustain a fight without the
interests like security in Europe or
between these branches of government
support of public opinion.
Asia or the Middle East are in ques-
that has lasted two centuries. It will
Public opinion is formed in our era
tion. And as a new Rand study
never be resolved, and perhaps never
in even more perplexing ways than
indicates, they want to see our troops
should be. But the terms and tone of
during the Vietnam years. This is
succeed once they are committed.
the competition over the making of
especially true for humanitarian and
Congress, we have seen, also
national security policy must be
other non-traditional interventions.
supports the use of force whenever the
improved, and must lose some of its
nation's classic interests are at stake.
The quantum leap in coverage brought
current partisan cast, or our nation and
about by CNN and the other networks
That is a great advantage, since it is
troops could pay an unnecessary price
means that almost every day, every
imperative that the Executive branch
for it.
American must be beset by a painful
and Congress work together on these
issues.
Conclusion
ambivalence.
Images of violence, misery, and
But in the post-Cold War world, we
must also have the capacity for the
Americans know that the passing of the
brutality naturally call up the impulse
limited use of force in new circum-
Cold War, reassuring as that is, does
to intervene. The television screen
stances. And too often in such cases,
not mean we live in a world of true.
transforms a particular incident into an
apparently universal condition in that
some in Congress react by emphasizing
safety. We also know that we have
foreign society. The camera, unfortu-
only the cautionary notes, seeing only
before us an opportunity to build a
costs and casualties rather than
world of more democracy, more
nately, does not have peripheral vision.
benefits and opportunities.
tolerance, and more pluralism. It is the
My country and perhaps my country
And when we use force-to re-
kind of opportunity that comes, at
alone-the viewer feels-can do
peat-we must use it unflinchingly.
most, once in an era. To defeat the
something about this carnage and must
do something about this carnage.
Otherwise, we risk our objectives and
dangers and seize the day, we must
But when images of casualties-our
we endanger our troops, both in the
summon our creativity and all of our
diplomatic skill. And to that skill, we
casualties-appear, everything can
must always harness our power. So let
4
American Power and American Diplomacy
us keep fixed in'our minds the precept
stay at home rather than engage. You
is part and parcel of that same tradi-
of one of the Enlightenment's great
in this room may not believe that we
tional argument. The impulse to
realists, Frederick the Great, who said:
are fighting a new round of the old
retreat from the world, like the fog,
"Diplomacy without arms is music
struggle between engagement and re-
comes in on little cat feet. So I ask you
without instruments."
trenchment. The debate is less clearly
to join in efforts to keep our nation
And let us remain alert to the
defined than it was in the period
from becoming befogged in the face of a
danger of slippage and retreat. We
between the two world wars. But
new world of continuing danger. For
must reject the calls from the left and
every time a foreign aid bill is slashed,
it is also a time of immense and
the right, as well as the rhetoric of neo-
a troop deployment opposed on ideo-
wonderful opportunity. I think we will
know-nothings of no particular view, to
logical rather than practical grounds, or
seize it.
a good trade agreement is attacked, it
5
THE TRIP OF PRESIDENT CLINTON
TO THE CSCE SUMMIT
FACT SHEETS
Fact Sheet
Conference on Security
and Cooperation in Europe
(CSCE)
From Vancouver to Vladivostok, the
enforcement capability, important
Conference on Security and Coopera-
progress was made to establish firm
CSCE Participating States
tion in Europe (CSCE) brings a new
standards for the protection of human
kind of diplomacy-one built on respect
rights and to increase confidence
Albania
Liechtenstein
for human rights and regional coopera-
through the advance notification of
Armenia
Lithuania
tion as the bases for security among
military activities and the exchange of
Austria
Luxembourg
Atlantic, European, and Eurasian
military information.
Azerbaijan
Malta
countries.
With the end of the Cold War, all
Belarus
Moldova
While its most prominent charac-
CSCE states for the first time accepted
Belgium
Monaco
teristic is furthering European security
Bosnia-
the principles of pluralism and free
Netherlands
and cooperation by defining and
Herzegovina
markets as the basis for their coopera-
Norway
Bulgaria
Poland
protecting human rights, CSCE also
tion. This made it possible for CSCE to
Canada
Portugal
fosters these goals through programs
explore ways to act on its rigorous
Croatia
Romania
centered on press and culture, econom-
principles and to ensure that they were
Cyprus
Russia
ics, conflict prevention, and military
upheld. To do this, CSCE in 1990
Czech Republic
San Marino
security. CSCE is committed to
established the Secretariat in Prague,
Denmark
Slovak Republic
developing democratic institutions at
Conflict Prevention Center in Vienna,
Estonia
Slovenia
the grass-roots level, through local
and Office for Democratic Institutions
Finland
Spain
officials and activities, and through
and Human Rights in Warsaw. A
France
Sweden
non-governmental organizations.
Georgia
Switzerland
decision to create an office of Secretary
General was made at the December
Germany
Tajikistan
Greece
Evolution of the CSCE
Turkey
1992 Stockholm meeting of CSCE
The Holy See
Turkmenistan
CSCE began during the Cold War as a
Foreign Ministers.
Hungary
Ukraine
way to promote dialogue and decrease
During 1992, the decision to move
Iceland
United Kingdom
from principle to action was most
Ireland
tensions between East and West. In
United States
marked in a new Helsinki document
Italy
Uzbekistan
August 1975, 35 nations signed the
Helsinki Final Act, a politically binding
which established a number of practical
Kazakhstan
Yugoslavia*
declaratory understanding of the
tools that help CSCE work with
Kyrgyzstan
NATO, the EU (European Union), and
Latvia
* Excluded from all
democratic principles governing
CSCE meetings
0
other international bodies to defend
relations among nations. The act
contained a provision to continue
human rights and manage the unprec-
regular discussions on a broad range of
edented changes now taking place in
concerns-from migration and military
Europe. In particular, it sets out an
agreement, concluded in July 1992,
ambitious role for the CSCE in conflict
covers personnel in the same region.
security to the environment and media
resolution and "preventive diplomacy."
Through continued negotiation,
relations-in what became known as
the "Helsinki process."
CSCE is also an important frame-
confidence-building measures have
work for conventional arms control in
been extended and higher expectations
During the 1980s, follow-on meet-
ings in Madrid, Stockholm, and Vienna
Europe. The Treaty on Conventional
for treaty compliance and verification
Armed Forces in Europe, signed in
have been set. A new security negotia-
reviewed implementation of CSCE
November 1990, limits non-nuclear
tion-the Forum for Security Coopera-
agreements and continued the opportu-
nity for discussion. Although CSCE
ground and air forces from the Atlantic
tion-opened in Vienna on Septem-
ber 22, 1992.
had no permanent headquarters and no
to the Urals. A separate political
U.S. Department of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
November 29, 1994
Office of Public Communication
CSCE and European Conflicts
In August 1992, the London
In October 1993, the CSCE
Conference on the Former Yugoslavia
agreed to send a mission to Latvia to
The civil war in the former Yugoslavia
asked the CSCE to assist in monitoring
monitor Latvian-Russian minority
has been an early test of the CSCE's
sanctions compliance. There are now
issues.
ability to take an active part in conflict
missions in Hungary, Bulgaria, Roma-
The previous Chairman-in-Office
prevention. On August 6, 1992, the
nia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of
(Sweden) sent a personal representa-
U.S. Government called on the CSCE
Macedonia, Ukraine, and Albania. The
tive to investigate the situation in
to help monitor the human rights
post of Sanctions Coordinator was
Tajikistan, which led to a December
situation in the Balkans and inhibit
created to oversee the CSCE-EU
1993 decision to send a mission there.
the spread of the conflict.
sanctions missions in the countries
The Tajikistan mission has a mandate
The CSCE quickly sent fact-finding
around Serbia and Montenegro.
to foster confidence-building, democ-
and rapporteur missions to the region
The CSCE is in the forefront of
racy, and human rights.
and supported the sanctions and
conflict resolution in other parts of the
In 1994, the CSCE established
humanitarian measures taken by the
region as well:
preventive diplomacy missions in
UN and the EU. The CSCE then
Ukraine and Bosnia.
established a completely new kind of
Under CSCE auspices, the
presence in the areas adjacent to the
Minsk Group-11 nations (including
As a charter member of the Confer-
conflict. These "missions of long
Azerbaijan and Armenia)-is the focus
ence on Security and Cooperation in
duration" provided an early warning
of international efforts to solve the
Europe, the United States has been
system for any spill-over of the hostili-
crisis in Nagorno-Karabakh.
central in the promotion of uncompro-
ties into the regions of Serbia and
The CSCE mission in Georgia is
mising humanitarian standards and
Montenegro-Kosovo, Vojvodina, and
assessing the political and human
their practical implementation. From
Sandzak-and into The Former
rights situations in the Abkhazia and
the beginning, CSCE has embodied
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Until
South Ossetia regions of Georgia, as
America's hopes for a unified, demo-
the missions in Serbia and Montenegro
well as monitoring peace-keeping
cratic, and prosperous Europe. Ameri-
were expelled in July 1993 by Belgrade
forces and participating in political
cans continually have worked to ensure
authorities, they made a significant
negotiations in South Ossetia.
that the CSCE process remains
contribution to stability, as the mission
Rapporteur missions have been
flexible, innovative, and unbureau-
in The Former Yugoslav Republic of
sent to the new Central Asian republics
cratic. The United States established
Macedonia continues to do. Missions
to assess the governmental and human
the first permanent delegation to the
also have been sent to Serbia and
rights situations.
CSCE in Vienna in August 1992,
Montenegro, Croatia, and Bosnia-
In February 1993, CSCE agreed
charting a course for other nations to
Herzegovina to investigate alleged
to send a long-term, conflict-prevention
follow.
violations of CSCE principles.
CSCE mission to Moldova and a
mission to Estonia to promote integra-
tion and better understanding between
communities there.
Fact Sheet
CSCE Structure
The Charter of Paris, signed in Novem-
Secretary General. The Stockholm
and, as appropriate, "early action" on
ber 1990, committed Conference on
COM agreed to establish the position of
tensions involving national minority
Security and Cooperation in Europe
Secretary General as the CSCE's chief
issues which have the potential to
(CSCE) member states to a substantial
administrative officer to manage CSCE
affect peace, stability, or relations
enhancement of CSCE decision-making
structures and operations, work closely
between participating states.
bodies, mechanisms, and institutions in
with the Chairman-in-Office in the
order to.give permanence and strength
preparation and guidance of CSCE
Conflict Prevention Center (CPC).
to a 16-year-old process of ad hoc
meetings, and ensure implementation
The first CSCE institution to open-in
political consultations. Since the
of CSCE decisions.
Vienna in January 1991-was the
signing of that document, CSCE has
Conflict Prevention Center, which is
CSCE Secretariat. The CSCE
gained several new institutions and a
charged primarily with overseeing the
number of expanded consultative
Secretariat opened in Prague in
sharing of data on military forces in
mechanisms geared toward intensify-
February 1991. It is charged with
Europe and hosting annual implemen-
ing the pan-European discussions
administrative support of the COM and
tation meetings and those called under
commonly referred to as the Helsinki
CSO; the maintenance of archives; and
the Unusual Military Activities
the dissemination of information to the
process.
mechanism. The CPC is in charge of
public, non-CSCE states, and other
supporting implementation
Council of Ministers (COM).
international organizations.
of the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes
CSCE members agreed at the Paris
summit to establish a Council of
Parliamentary Assembly. Legisla-
mechanism. In February 1993, the
Ministers (COM)-comprised of foreign
tors from CSCE states have agreed to
CSO approved a plan to have the CPC
meet on an annual basis. The first
provide operational support for the
ministers-as its highest decision-
session was held in Helsinki in July
CSCE's ever-growing diplomatic,
making body which would meet at least
1993. The assembly has a consultative
conflict-prevention, and peace-keeping
annually. The Charter of Paris set a
missions.
broad mandate for the COM to deal
role in the CSCE process.
with any issues relevant to security
Office for Democratic Institutions
Forum for Security Cooperation
and cooperation in Europe. The state
and Human Rights (ODIHR). The
(FSC). At the 1992 Helsinki summit
hosting a COM meeting assumes the
CSCE established this forum as the
Office for Free Elections (OFE) started
chairmanship of CSCE and holds the
operations in April 1991, with a general
only pan-European forum for security
position until the opening of the next
mandate to collect and disseminate
dialogue and arms control negotiations.
ministerial; Italy is the current CSCE
The Helsinki summit also established a
information on elections within CSCE
Chairman-in-Office.
states. In 1992, CSCE states agreed to
program of immediate action which
Committee of Senior Officials
expand the OFE into an Office for
includes development of further
(CSO). The Charter of Paris also
Democratic Institutions and Human
confidence- and security-building
Rights. In addition to its original
measures, and exchange of global
established a subsidiary working
OFE duties, the office now serves as a
military information, cooperation on
group/executive body at the ambassa-
central information source for all
non-proliferation, and cooperation on
dorial/political director level. The
Committee of Senior Officials (CSO),
aspects of democratic institution-
regional measures. The FSC convened
acting as the agent of the ministers, is
building and organizes seminars on
in September 1992 in Vienna and will
charged with preparing for meetings of
specific topics in this area. It is
continue to meet in semi-permanent
session.
ministers, carrying out their decisions,
responsible for organizing periodic
reviewing current issues, and consider-
meetings to review CSCE human
Permanent Committee. Created
ing future work of the CSCE, including
dimension commitments. It also
by the Rome Council in 1993, the
its relations with other international
supports use of the expanded Human
Permanent Committee is responsible
organizations. CSO meetings are held
Dimension Mechanism (HDM) and the
for the day-to day operational tasks of
at least quarterly. Several additional
activities of the newly created High
the CSCE. It conducts comprehensive
meetings have been called to deal
Commissioner for National Minorities.
and regular consultation and when the
with the conflicts in the former Yugo-
CSO is not in session it takes decisions
High Commissioner on National
slavia and Nagorno-Karabakh. The
Minorities. Acting under CSO aegis
on all issues pertinent to the CSCE. It
state chairing the COM also heads CSO
meets in Vienna.
as an instrument of conflict prevention,
meetings.
the High Commissioner on National
Minorities will provide "early warning"
U.S. Department of State
November 29, 1994
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office of Public Communication
Fact Sheet
CSCE: Major Conferences
and Meetings, 1989-1994
In addition to institutional activity, the
July: Meeting of experts on national
September: Boreal and temperate
CSCE pursues its goals through a
minorities-Geneva
forests seminar-Montreal
regular series of meetings and seminars.
These meetings focus on practical
September-October: Meeting of the
September-October: Implementation
application of CSCE commitments and
Conference on the Human Dimension-
review meeting-Warsaw
feature participation by experts and
Moscow
November: Free media seminar-
non-governmental organizations
November: Seminar of experts on
Warsaw
actually working on the subject being
democratic institutions-Oslo
discussed. CSCE commitments also
November 30-December 1: Council of
provide for regular meetings of foreign
1992
Ministers meeting-Rome
ministers and for periodic reviews of
implementation.
1994
January: Meeting of the CSCE Council
of Ministers-Prague
1989
January: Early warning seminar-
March: Preparatory meeting-Helsinki
Warsaw
April-May: Information forum-
March-June: Follow-up meeting-
February: Creating small and medium-
London
Helsinki
sized businesses seminar-Bishkek
May-June: Meeting of the Conference
July: CSCE summit-Helsinki
March: Economic Forum-Prague
on the Human Dimension-Paris
September: Forum for Security
March: Migrant workers seminar-
October-November: Meeting on the
Cooperation convenes-Vienna
Warsaw
protection of the environment-Sofia
October: Meeting on peaceful settle-
April: Human dimension seminar-
1990
ment of disputés-Geneva
Almaty
November: Tolerance seminar-
March-April: Conference on economic
May: Local democracy seminar-
Warsaw
Warsaw
cooperation in Europe-Bonn
December: Council of Ministers
June: Meeting of the Conference on the
May: Regional security seminar-
meeting-Stockholm
Ashgabat
Human Dimension-Copenhagen
September-October: Meeting on the
1993
July: CSCE Parliamentary Assem-
Mediterranean-Palma de Mallorca
bly-Vienna
March: Economic forum-Prague
September: Business and environment
October: Meeting of CSCE Foreign
April: Migration seminar-Warsaw
seminar-Tallinn
Ministers-New York
November: CSCE summit-Paris
May: National minorities seminar-
September: Roma issues seminar-
Warsaw
Warsaw
1991
May: Mediterranean seminar-Valletta
September: CSCE issues seminar-
Tashkent
January-February: Meeting of experts
July: CSCE parliamentary assembly-
on the peaceful settlement of disputes-
Helsinki
October-December: Review Confer-
Valletta
ence-Budapest
December 5-6: CSCE Summit-
May-June: Symposium on cultural
heritage-Krakow
Budapest
June: Meeting of the CSCE Council of
Ministers-Berlin
U.S. Department of State
November 29, 1994
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office of Public Communication
Fact Sheet
Confidence- and Security-Building Measures
Confidence- and Security-Building
members adopted the document on
A revised version of the Vienna
Measures (CSBMs) are designed to
March 4, 1992. Key provisions include:
Document, adopted by the Review
enhance transparency and increase
Conference in preparation for the
mutual understanding about military
An annual exchange of military
December 1994 CSCE Summit in
forces and activities. CSBMs foster
data on personnel and equipment
Budapest, further strengthened the
contacts, cooperation, and consultation
holdings, major weapons and equip-
CSBM regime. Notable changes
among participating states through
ment systems, and defense budgets;
include:
Risk reduction measures
agreed mechanisms for sharing and
verifying military information. The
including mandatory consultations in
A new provision to provide
flexibility of CSBMs makes them
the case of unusual military activities,
greater transparency in states' defense
especially helpful for building confi-
cooperation on hazardous military
planning, which includes information on
dence in the new, more fluid European
incidents, and voluntary visits to dispel
states' intentions regarding the size,
security environment.
concerns about military activities;
structure, training, and equipment of
Over the past two decades, the
A framework of military-to-
their armed forces and their defense
array of confidence-building measures
military contacts, including air base
policy, doctrines, and related budgets;
has expanded steadily. Within the
visits, cultural, sporting, and educa-
Increased opportunities for
framework of the Conference on
tional contacts, and demonstrations of
military-to-military contacts among
Security and Cooperation in Europe
new weapons and equipment following
CSCE states, including expanded
(CSCE), the Stockholm Document in
their deployment;
contacts between members of the
1986 and the Vienna Document in 1990
The right to observe military
armed forces at all levels and between
established a politically binding regime
activities meeting certain size and type
military units and exchanges of visits of
of CSBMs. While not explicitly linked
thresholds;
naval vessels and air force units; and
to the CSBM regime, nor to various
Provision of an annual calendar
Steps to enhance the operation
European arms control agreements,
forecasting military activities of a
of the CSCE communications network,
the Open Skies Treaty, signed in 1992,
certain size and type for the following
including specifying use of standard
introduced into CSCE detailed proce-
year,
operating procedures and establishing
dures for aerial observation and
Constraints on the frequency of
a communications group that will
established a new framework for
military activities involving more than
address issues concerning the viability
contacts, cooperation, and consultation
40,000 troops or 900 battle tanks;
and effectiveness of the network.
among the treaty's participants.
Visits to evaluate and verify
The present CSBM regime,
data on forces and weapons systems;
and
contained in "Vienna Document 1992,"
was the result of negotiations held from
An annual implementation
November 1990 to March 1992. CSCE
assessment meeting held in Vienna to
discuss the annual exchange of informa-
tion and other security topics as agreed
by CSCE members.
U.S. Department of State
November 30, 1994
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office of Public Communication
Fact Sheet
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NATO Today
NATO Background
NATO remains the core of American
engagement in Europe and at the heart
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
lowed by the Federal Republic of Ger-
of European security. It is the member
was formed against the backdrop of
many in 1955 and by Spain in 1982.
nations' most effective instrument for
emerging post-war tensions engendered
This alliance of sovereign states
by the threat of Soviet expansionism
pledges, through a combination of politi-
coordinating defense and arms control
and concern over political and economic
cal solidarity and military force, to pre-
and maintaining stability throughout
instability in Western Europe. On
serve its mutual security. Reaffirming
Europe. The collapse of the Soviet
April 4, 1949, in Washington, DC, the
faith in the principles of individual and
Union, the dissolution of the Warsaw
Foreign Ministers of Belgium, Canada,
collective self-defense embodied in the
Pact, and the progress of European
Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxem-
UN Charter, the parties to the treaty
integration have not ended the need
bourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
pledge to defend the common heritage
for NATO's essential commitment to
United Kingdom, and United States
and civilization of their peoples and to
safeguard the freedom and security of
signed the North Atlantic Treaty, the
promote stability and well-being in the
all its members by political and military
political framework for an international
North Atlantic area. While recognizing
means in accordance with UN prin-
alliance designed to prevent aggression,
the need to maintain adequate military
or, if necessary, to resist attack against
ciples. The London Declaration on a
strength to safeguard the security of its
any alliance member. In 1952, Greece
members, the alliance also resolves to
Transformed North Atlantic Alliance,
and Turkey acceded to the treaty, fol-
work toward the establishment of a just
issued after the summit meeting of the
and lasting peaceful order in Europe.
North Atlantic Council (NAC) in July
1990, signaled the vitality of the alli-
ance in adapting to security needs in a
sion in crisis management and man-
maritime operation in the Adriatic, in
post-Cold War world. At that meeting,
dated a more flexible force structure
coordination with the WEU, to monitor
NATO allies announced a fundamental
and reduced reliance on nuclear weap-
compliance with the UN embargo
review of strategy and invited the
ons. The Rome meeting also created the
against Serbia and Montenegro (up-
Soviet Union and the countries of Cen-
North Atlantic Cooperation Council
graded to enforcement in November
tral Europe to establish regular diplo-
(NACC) to develop an institutional
1992 following UN Security Council
matic liaison and to develop a new
relationship of consultation and coopera-
resolutions to tighten economic sanc-
partnership.
tion on political and security issues
tions). On June 8, 1993, agreement was
The November 1991 Rome Declara-
between NATO and its former adver-
reached to place the NATO/WEU
tion on Peace and Cooperation further
saries. This initiative culminated in the
Adriatic task force under the opera-
underlined NATO's intention to rede-
participation of Foreign Ministers and
tional command of the Supreme Allied
fine its objectives in light of changed
representatives from the 16 NATO
Commander Europe.
circumstances. The declaration took
countries, six Central European coun-
On December 17, 1992, NATO for-
into account the broader challenges to
tries, and the three Baltic states at
eign ministers agreed that NATO
alliance security interests, such as the
the inaugural meeting of the NACC
would be prepared to support a UN
proliferation of weapons of mass de-
in December 1991. At the second
Security Council resolution on enforce-
struction, regional instability, and ter-
NACC meeting in March 1992, the new
ment of the ban on military flights over
rorism. It outlined its future tasks in
independent states of the former Soviet
Bosnia and Herzegovina. NATO has
the context of a framework of interlock-
Union became members, except Geor-
been enforcing the no-fly zone over
ing and mutually reinforcing institu-
gia, which was admitted the following
that country since April 12, 1993. In
tions, including the Conference on
month. Albania joined the NACC in
the spring of 1993, NATO planned for a
Security and Cooperation in Europe
June 1992.
peace settlement in Bosnia under UN
(CSCE), the Western European Union
NATO Foreign Ministers affirmed
auspices once an equitable agreement is
(WEU), the European Community (now
their readiness to support peace-keep-
reached by all of the parties and put
the European Union), and the Council
ing activities under the auspices of the
into effect.
of Europe, working together to build a
CSCE on a case-by-case basis in June
On September 2, 1992, the NAC
new European security system. The
1992. The following month, the North
approved UN humanitarian relief ef-
"New Strategic Concept" announced at
Atlantic Council agreed on a NATO
forts in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In
the meeting stressed the alliance's mis-
U.S. Department of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
November 16, 1994
Office of Public Communication
June 1993, NATO agreed to provide its
air power to protect UNPROFOR forces
NATO Structure
in case of attack. In August 1993, in
extraordinary session, the NAC agreed
North Atlantic Council
that air strikes could be used, as autho-
Military Committee advises the Council
and the DPC on military measures nec-
rized by the UN Secretary General, to
The Council is the principal forum for
essary for the common defense and
support UNPROFOR's overall mandate;
consultation and cooperation between
provides guidance to the NATO com-
to assist in the relief of Sarajevo, the
NATO member governments on all is-
manders.
safe areas, and other threatened areas
sues affecting their common security. Its
in Bosnia; and to relieve the wide-scale
decisions are based on consensus, with
Regional Commands
interference with the UNPROFOR
each member having an equal right to
express its views. The NATO Secretary
mandate and humanitarian assistance
The strategic area covered by the North
General is chairman. The Council meets
Atlantic Treaty is divided into three re-
operations. NATO remains willing to
at least twice a year in ministerial ses-
gional commands: Allied Command
consider positively any further requests
sion. It also meets weekly at the level
Europe, Allied Command Atlantic, and
by the UN for assistance in enforcing
of Permanent Representatives, who hold
Allied Command Channel, with a regional
Security Council resolutions.
ambassadorial rank.
planning group for North America. With
In June 1993, the U.S. proposed a
the exception of France and Iceland, all
NATO summit to discuss the Clinton
Defense Planning Committee (DPC)
countries assign forces to the integrated
initiative, which set an agenda for
military command structure. The NATO
The DPC deals with overall issues of
NATO's future work. The initiative
Defense area covers the territories of
defense and is composed of represen-
included strengthening cooperation
member nations in North America, in the
tatives of all countries except France
among the allies, developing relations
(which withdrew from NATO's integrated
Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Can-
military structure in 1966). Like the
cer, and in Europe, including Turkey.
with the former Warsaw Pact states,
improving NATO's links with other
Council, it meets regularly at ambas-
However, events occurring outside the
area which affect the preservation of
institutions, and addressing threats to
sadorial level and twice yearly, when
member countries are represented by
peace and security in the treaty area
security that arise from outside the
their defense ministers.
also may be considered by the Council.
North Atlantic Treaty area. The Janu-
ary 1994 NATO summit endorsed sev-
North Atlantic Cooperation Council
Nuclear Planning Group
eral of the President's proposals that
The North Atlantic Cooperation Council
advance NATO's adaptation to the
This group has authority for nuclear
(NACC) was established in November
post-Cold War European security envi-
matters. All countries except France
ronment.
participate. Iceland participates as an
1991 to conduct NATO's outreach pro-
observer.
gram to the former Warsaw Pact states.
The summit launched the Partner-
Current members include the 16 NATO
ship for Peace (PFP), which expands
Military Committee
allies, seven Central European states
and intensifies practical political and
(Albania, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hun-
military cooperation between NATO
The highest military authority in the alli-
gary, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia),
and the former Soviet bloc, as well as
ance; is composed of the chiefs of staff
the 12 former Soviet republics, and the
of each country except France, which is
three Baltic states. It meets in minis-
some of Europe's traditionally neutral
countries, and allows them to consult
represented by a military mission. Ice-
terial session at least once a year. Fin-
with NATO in the event of a direct
land, which has no military forces, is
land, Slovenia, and Sweden attend as
represented by a civilian member. The
observers.
threat to their security. PFP does not
extend NATO security guarantees.
As of October 1994, 23 countries
Netherlands hosted a PFP field exer-
tures more flexible and to encourage
have joined PFP: Albania, Armenia,
cise in late October 1994. NATO allies
the development of "separable but not
Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Czech Republic,
also have invited observers from PFP
separate" European military capabilities
Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Hungary,
countries to a number of previously
that could undertake operations under
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia,
scheduled bilateral and multinational
the auspices of the WEU when an alli-
Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Romania,
exercises. NATO is establishing now
ance response was not required. NATO
Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden,
the exercise and work program for 1995
and the WEU are working to develop
Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and
and beyond.
this concept.
Uzbekistan. The central organs of the
At the January 1994 summit, NATO
Finally, the summit directed imme-
Partnership are the Steering Committee
leaders welcomed an evolutionary ex-
diate work to intensify and expand
at NATO Headquarters and a planning
pansion of NATO membership to in-
NATO's political and defense efforts
organ, the Partnership Coordination
clude new democracies in the region.
against the spread of weapons of mass
Cell, at Mons, Belgium (at the same
Participation in PFP does not guaran-
destruction. This led to agreement on a
location as Supreme Headquarters Al-
tee entry into NATO, but it is the best
political framework for NATO actions
lied Powers Europe).
preparation for states interested in
which was approved at the North At-
PFP has thus become a permanent
becoming NATO members. For those
lantic Council ministerial meeting in
and central feature of the transatlantic
countries that do not aspire to NATO
June 1994. Consultations proceed on
security system. PFP military exercises
membership, PFP will remain as a pri-
specific allied political and defense steps
begàn in fall 1994: Poland hosted the
mary link to the Alliance.
to combat and defend against the pro-
first PFP field exercise in a former com-
The summit also endorsed a concept
liferation of such weapons.
munist state, and a PFP maritime exer-
of "Combined Joint Task Forces" de-
cise took place in the North Sea. The
signed to make NATO military struc-
2
NATO's role as a forum for political
tion (FSC). Alliance proposals on force
the common defense, based on a bal-
consultation and an association of na-
planning, non-proliferation, and harmo-
anced range of responses, conventional
tions committed to collective defense
nization of existing arms control com-
and nuclear, to all levels of aggression
remains unchanged, even as its new
mitments already are being developed.
or threats of aggression. This reassess-
responsibilities in the areas of peace-
The United States supports the
ment of the nature of the potential
keeping and crisis management con-
development of a greater European
threat to member countries prompted
tinue to evolve.
security identity and defense role as a
the realization that the alliance must
means of strengthening the integrity
increasingly look to the dangers of more
U.S.-NATO Relations:
and effectiveness of NATO. At the
limited forms of aggression beyond the
The Trans-Atlantic Partnership
NATO summit in Rome, the alliance
possibility of a massive Soviet attack.
welcomed the prospect of a European
The basis of the new concept of "flex-
The decision of the United States after
political union with a greater security
ible response" was the belief that
World War II to participate in a re-
and defense dimension but underlined
NATO should be able to deter and
gional peacetime, defensive alliance
that this would not diminish the need
counter military force with a range of
represented a fundamental change in
for NATO. The alliance's "New Strate-
responses designed to defend directly
American foreign policy. The United
gic Concept" also reaffirmed the essen-
against attack at an appropriate level,
States recognized that its interests no
tial nature of the trans-Atlantic
or, if necessary, to escalate the attack
longer could be confined to the limits of
partnership, recognizing as a basic prin-
to the level necessary to persuade an
the Western Hemisphere: U.S. security
ciple the indivisibility of security of all
aggressor to desist.
was linked inextricably to the future of
its members. The U.S. proposed, and
At the same time, the alliance ac-
the West European democracies. Con-
the January 1994 NATO summit
cepted the recommendations of the
cepts of individual liberty and the rule,
agreed, that "separable but not sepa-
report written by former Belgium For-
of law, coupled with those of a common
rate" European capabilities be made
eign Minister Pierre Harmel and titled
heritage and shared values, provided
available to undertake independent
"Future Tasks of the Alliance," which
the foundation for the NATO alliance.
European missions, drawing as neces-
outlined the need to work toward the
These ideals, as well as the ongoing goal
sary on NATO collective assets when
achievement of disarmament and bal-
of each member country to achieve a
NATO-wide actions are not necessary.
anced force reductions. The mainte-
just and lasting peaceful order in Eu-
The North Atlantic alliance and the
nance of adequate military forces would
rope, continue to link the fate of
American presence in Europe have
be coupled with efforts at improving
America to that of its NATO allies.
helped keep peace for more than 40
East-West relations.
The history of U.S. engagement in
years. Having helped to forge success-
Soviet deployment of new mobile
NATO has been one of commitment by
ful policies toward the former Soviet
theater nuclear missiles (SS-20s) called
America and its allies to reduce tensions
Union and the Warsaw Pact since the
into question the accepted NATO strat-
in Europe and to improve East-West
foundation of NATO, the U.S. with its
egy of deterrence based on the con-
relations. They have pursued a series
European allies must play a central role
cepts of forward defense and flexible
of initiatives designed to lower levels of
in building the framework of the new
response and lead to a decision in 1979
personnel and equipment and increase
Euro-Atlantic architecture.
to modernize its defensive capability.
mutual confidence, while adhering to a
The resulting "dual-track" decision by
policy of political cohesion and military
NATO Strategy
the alliance combined pursuing arms
strength. Arms control measures aimed
control negotiations with responding
at enhancing stability have included the
NATO collective security strategy was
appropriately to the increased imbal-
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces
mainly based on the principle of deter-
ance created by the new Soviet sys-
(INF) Treaty in 1987 and the Treaty on
rence. Defense capabilities were cre-
tems. Alliance governments agreed to
Conventional Armed Forces in Europe
ated to deter military aggression or
deploy U.S. ground-launched cruise
(CFE) in 1990.
other forms of pressure. Parties to the
missiles in Western Europe.
The CFE Treaty between the allies
treaty agreed to consult whenever the
The successful conclusion of the
and the nations and successor states of
territorial integrity, political indepen-
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces
the former Warsaw Pact provides for an
dence, or security of any party was
(INF) Treaty in 1987, while eliminating
unprecedented level of transparency in
threatened. They further pledged to
all Soviet and U.S. land-based, interme-
the security field through an informa-
maintain their individual and collective
diate-range missiles, required a new
tion exchange and obligatory inspec-
capacity to resist armed attack and,
appraisal of NATO policy. In response,
tions. Most importantly, it mandates a
should such deterrence fail, to defend
the alliance developed its "Comprehen-
sharp reduction in conventional weap-
the territory of the alliance. As a
sive Concept of Arms Control and
ons throughout Europe. The NATO
purely defensive alliance, NATO main-
Disarmament," which provided a frame-
allies coordinate closely to meet their
tained only a level of military strength
work for alliance policy in nuclear, con-
own obligations under the treaty and to
sufficient to be credible. Given the
ventional, and chemical fields of arms
ensure full compliance in its information,
marked inferiority of allied conventional
control and tied defense policies to
verification, and reduction provisions.
strength in Europe, the NATO gúaran-
progress in arms control.
NATO has played a leading role in
tee rested primarily on the nuclear
In July 1990, the NAC issued the
developing far-reaching proposals for
superiority of the United States.
"London Declaration on a Transformed
CSCE's Forum for Security Coopera-
At the conclusion of a 1967 compre-
North Atlantic Alliance" to adapt to
hensive review of NATO strategy, the
the new realities in Europe. The minis-
alliance adopted a revised approach to
ters pledged to intensify political and
3
military contacts with Moscow and with
had disappeared after the end of the
mobile to respond to a range of contin-
Central and East European capitals and
political division of Europe. The alliance
gencies. Forces will be organized for
to work not only for the common de-
acknowledged that the risks to its secu-
flexible buildup to react to regional
fense but to build new partnerships
rity, such as proliferation of weapons of
instability and crises. Collective
with all the nations of Europe. They
mass destruction and acts of terrorism
defense arrangements will rely increas-
underlined the need to undertake
and sabotage, were now less predictable
ingly on multinational forces within the
broader arms control and confidence-
and beyond the focus of traditional
integrated military structure. Nuclear
building agreements to limit conven-
concerns. The new strategy adopts a
forces will continue to play an essential
tional armed forces in Europe. In
broader approach to security, centered
role in allied strategy but will be main-
recognition of the radical political
more on crisis management and conflict
tained at the minimum level sufficient
changes in Europe and the improved
prevention. It assumes completion of
to preserve stability.
security environment, the ministers
the planned withdrawal of military
The new strategy reaffirms the
mandated a fundamental review of the
forces from Central Europe and the
principle of common commitment and
alliance's political and military strategy.
Baltics and the full implementation of
mutual cooperation in support of the
The "New Strategic Concept" was
arms control agreements limiting con-
indivisibility of security for all alliance
outlined at the meeting of the North
ventional forces in Europe.
members and underscores the essential
Atlantic Council in November 1991. The
In the context of changed circum-
political and military link between Eu-
threat of a massive full-scale Soviet
stances, the alliance will maintain a mix
ropean and North American members
attack, which had provided the focus of
of nuclear and conventional forces based
provided by the presence of nuclear
NATO's strategy during the Cold War,
in Europe, although at significantly
forces in Europe.
lower levels. To ensure effectiveness,
alliance forces will be increasingly
4
Fact Sheet
The North Atlantic Cooperation Council
NACC Today
In their October 3, 1991, joint
pledged to cooperate in disseminating
statement, Secretary of State Baker
The North Atlantic Cooperation Coun-
information about NATO in the partner
cil (NACC) joins the North Atlantic
and German Foreign Minister Hans-
countries and gave their support to the
Treaty Organization (NATO) allies
Dietrich Genscher proposed the institu-
NACC's ad hoc High Level Group
tionalization of the NATO liaison pro-
and the newly free and independent
charged with facilitating entry-into-
gram in a North Atlantic Cooperation
force of the Conventional Armed
states of Central and Eastern Europe,
the Baltics, and the former Soviet
Council. The following month, the
Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty
Rome NATO summit formally estab-
Union in a program of political-
With the admission of Albania in
lished the NACC as a forum in which
security dialogue, partnership, and
June 1992 and the Czech-Slovak split
allies could offer their experience and
cooperation. Subjects discussed in
in January 1993, membership in the
regular meetings between allies and
expertise to partner countries on secu-
NACC now stands at 38. Finland,
rity and related issues.
partner states include defense plan-
Slovenia, and Sweden have attended
ning and budgeting, democratic
recent ministerial meetings as observ-
Ongoing Projects
ers.
concepts of civil-military relations,
defense conversion, and scientific
In its first year, NACC developed a
A major step forward in NACC
and environmental topics. Members
solid basis of cooperation and dialogue.
cooperation came at the December 1992
also discuss current political issues
ministerial in Brussels. Ministers
The first NACC ministerial, held on
of common concern. In this way,
December 20, 1991, in Brussels,
adopted a work plan for 1993 that
the NACC complements the Confer-
brought together representatives of
included for the first time a provision
ence on Security and Cooperation in
the 16 NATO allies, the Baltic states,
for joint planning and training for
Europe (CSCE), NATO, the European
the U.S.S.R., Poland, Czechoslovakia,
peace-keeping. Subsequently, the
Union, and the Council of Europe in
Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania.
NACC established an Ad Hoc Group on
building a Euro-Atlantic community
Participants pledged to uphold CSCE
Cooperation in Peace-keeping to
of stable, democratic, and market-
coordinate activities in this area. The
principles, support arms control efforts,
oriented societies from Vancouver to
and work together in building a Europe
NACC has welcomed the participation
Vladivostok.
whole and free.
in Ad Hoc Group deliberations of three
The second NACC ministerial held
non-NACC states with extensive
NACC's Origins
on March 10, 1992, in Brussels, admit-
peace-keeping experience-Finland,
ted all the states of the former Soviet
Sweden, and Austria. A representative
As the advent of glasnost and pere-
from the CSCE also attends.
stroika in the Soviet Union and the
Union except Georgia (which joined the
crumbling of communist control in
following month). Ministers adopted
Building on the momentum of
Eastern Europe changed the nature of
the first NACC work plan, which
cooperation created by the NACC,
spelled out a program of intensified
NATO established in January 1994 a
the European security challenge,
consultations and cooperative activities
program within the framework of
NATO turned from a posture of con-
focused on security and related issues,
NACC called the Partnership for Peace
frontation with the East to one of dia-
logue and cooperation. The June 1990
including political, military, economic,
(PFP). PFP activities complement
other activities undertaken in the
Turnberry North Atlantic Council
scientific, and environmental subjects.
ministerial and July 1990 London
Specific topics for cooperation included
framework of the NACC and are
defense planning, conceptual ap-
designed to intensify political and
NATO summit extended the hand of
friendship to NATO's former adver-
proaches to arms control, democratic
military cooperation between the
Alliance and members of the Partner-
saries and called for the alliance to
concepts of civilian-military relations,
civil-military coordination of air-traffic
ship. The PFP is open to states
institute a liaison program with the
Warsaw Pact states. The June 1991
management, defense conversion, and
participating in NACC and other
Copenhagen North Atlantic Council
enhanced participation in NATO's
CSCE states able and willing to
"Third Dimension" scientific and envi-
contribute to the Partnership.
ministerial developed this theme in its
ronmental programs. Ministers also
At their next meeting, in Brussels
statement on "Partnership with the
in December 1994, ministers will
Countries of Central and Eastern
review progress on implementing the
Europe."
U.S. Department of State
November 29, 1994
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office of Public Communication
PFP, hold extensive consultations on
The 1995 work plan, expected to be
Europe's security architecture. It will
regional issues, and exchange views on
adopted by ministers on December 2,
continue to develop as a complement to
the evolution of European security
1994 in Brussels, continues and ex-
other European and trans-Atlantic
architecure, including the mutually
pands NACC/PFP work on peace-
organizations forging the links of a
reinforcing relationships between
keeping and other topics.
peaceful, democratic, and prosperous
NATO, NACC, and the CSCE.
As it concludes its third year,
Euro-Atlantic community of nations.
NACC already has established itself as
an important element in post-Cold War
THE TRIP OF PRESIDENT CLINTON
TO THE CSCE SUMMIT
COUNTRY BACKGROUND NOTE
background
notes
Hungary
November 1994
People
Party (FKGP center right) 9%; Federation
of Young Democrats (FIDESZ center-left)
Nationality: Noun and adjective-
7%; Christian Democratic People's Party
Hungarian(s).
(KDNP center-right) 7%.
Population (est.): 10 million.
Ethnic groups: Magyar 92%, Romany 3%
Economy (1993)
(est.), German 1%, Slovak 1%, Jews 1%,
Southern Slav 1%, others 1%.
GDP: $38 billion.
Religions: Roman Catholic 68%, Calvinist
Annual growth rate: -2.3%.
20%, Lutheran 5%, others, including
Per capita Income: $3,700.
Jewish, Baptist, Adventist, Pentecostal,
Natural resources: Fertile land, bauxite,
Unitarian 5%.
brown coal.
Languages: Magyar 98%, other 2%.
Agriculture/forestry (7.3% of 1993 GDP):
Education: Compulsory to age 16.
Products-meat, corn, wheat, potatoes,
Attendance-96%. Literacy-99%.
sugar beets, vegetables, fruits, sunflower
Health: Infant mortality rate-15/1,000.
seeds.
Official Name:
Life expectancy-67 yrs. men, 75 yrs.
Industry/construction (33% of 1993 GDP):
Republic of Hungary
women.
Machinery, buses, and other transporta-
Work force (5 million): Agriculture-19%.
tion equipment; precision and measuring
Industry and commerce-49%. Services—
equipment; textiles; medical instruments;
PROFILE
27%. Government-5%.
and pharmaceuticals.
Official language: Magyar (Hungarian).
Trade: Exports-$8.9 billion: machinery,
Geography
buses, and other transportation equip-
Government
ment; medical instruments; pharmaceuti-
Area: 93,000 sq. km. (36,000 sq. mi.);
cals; textiles; other consumer manufac-
about the size of Indiana.
Type: Parliamentary democracy.
tures; and agricultural products. Major
Cities: Capital-Budapest (est. pop.
Constitution: August 20, 1949. Substan-
markets-Germany, Commonwealth of
2 million); Debrecen (220,000); Miskole
tially revised in 1989, amended in 1990.
Independent States (CIS), Austria, Italy,
Branches: Executive-Council of
(208,000); Szeged (189,000); Pecs (183,000).
U.S., France. Imports-$12.5 billion:
Terrain: Much of Hungary is flat, with low
Ministers. Legislative-Hungarian
energy, raw materials, machinery, and
mountains in the north and northeast and
National Assembly (386 members, four-
transportation equipment. Major suppli-
north of Lake Balaton.
year term). Judicial-Supreme Court and
ers-CIS, Germany, Austria, Italy U.S.,
Constitutional Court.
Climate: Temperate. January average
France.
temp. 0°C (32°F); July 20°C (70°F).
Administrative regions: 19 counties plus
Exchange rate (1993): About 100
capital region of Budapest.
forints=U.S.$1.
Principal political parties: Socialists
(MSZP, reform communists) 32%; Alliance
of Free Democrats (SZDSZ center-left)
19%; Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF
center) 12%; Independent Smallholder's
United States Department of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
Office of Public Communication
HISTORY
communists held a single-list election and
replaced Gero as party first secretary.
adopted a Soviet-style constitution which
Nagy dissolved the state security police,
Since its conversion to Western Christian-
created the Hungarian People's Republic.
abolished the one-party system, promised
ity before AD 1000, Hungary has been an
Rakosi became Prime Minister in 1952.
free elections, and negotiated with the
integral part of Europe. Although
Between 1948 and 1953, the Hungarian
U.S.S.R. to withdraw its troops.
Hungary was a monarchy for nearly 1,000
economy was reorganized according to the
Faced with reports of new Soviet
years, its constitutional system preceded
Soviet model. In 1949, the country joined
troops pouring into Hungary despite
by several centuries the establishment of
the Council for Mutual Economic Assis-
Soviet Ambassador Andropov's assurances
Western-style governments in other
tance (CEMA)-a Soviet-bloc economic
to the contrary, on November 1, Nagy
European countries.
organization. All private industrial firms
announced Hungary's neutrality and
Sharing defeat of the Austro-Hungar-
with more than 10 employees were
withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. He
ian Dual Monarchy (1867-1918) at the end
nationalized. Freedom of the press,
appealed to the United Nations and the
of World War I, Hungary lost two-thirds of
religion, and assembly were strictly
Western powers for protection of its
its territory and nearly as much of its
curtailed; the head of the Roman Catholic
neutrality. Preoccupied with the Suez
population. It experienced a brief but
Church, Cardinal Jozsef Mindszenty, was
Crisis, the UN and the West failed to
bloody communist dictatorship and
sentenced to life imprisonment.
respond. The Soviet Union launched a
counter-revolution in 1919, followed by a
Forced industrialization and land
massive military attack on Hungary on
25-year regency under Admiral Miklos
collectivization soon' to serious eco-
Horthy. Although Hungary fought in most
November 3. Some 200,000 Hungarians
nomic difficulties, which reached crisis
of World War II as a German ally, follow-
fled to the West. Nagy and his colleagues
ing an unsuccessful attempt to switch
proportions by mid-1953, the year Stalin
took refuge in the Yugoslav Embassy.
died. The new Soviet leaders blamed
sides on October 15, 1944, it fell under
Kadar, after delivering an impassioned
German military occupation until the end
Rakosi for Hungary's economic situation
radio address on November 1 in support of
of the war. In January 1945, a provisional
and began a more flexible policy in Eastern
"our glorious revolution" and vowing to
Europe called the "New Course." Imre
fight the Russians with his bare hands if
government concluded an armistice with
the Soviet Union. It also established the
Nagy replaced Rakosi as prime minister in
they attacked Hungary, defected from the
Allied Control Commission, under which
1953 and repudiated much of Rakosi's
Nagy cabinet; he fled to the Soviet Union
economic program of forced collectivization
and on November 4 announced formation
Soviet, American, and British representa-
and heavy industry. He also ended
of a new government. He returned to
tives held complete sovereignty over the
political purges and freed thousands of
Budapest and, with Soviet support, carried
country. The Commission's chairman
political prisoners.
was a member of Stalin's inner circle and
out severe reprisals; thousands of people
exercised absolute control.
However, the economic situation
were executed or imprisoned. Despite a
continued to deteriorate, and Rakosi
guarantee of safe conduct, Nagy was
succeeded in disrupting the reforms and in
arrested and deported to Romania. In
Communist Takeover
forcing Nagy from power in 1955 for
June 1958, the government announced that
The provisional government, dominated by
"right-wing revisionism." Hungary joined
Nagy and other former officials had been
the Hungarian Communist Party (HCP),
the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact Treaty
executed.
was replaced in November 1945 after
Organization the same year. Rakosi's
elections which gave majority control of a
attempt to restore Stalinist orthodoxy
Reform Under Kadar
coalition government to the Independent
then foundered as increasing opposition
Smallholders' Party. The government
developed within the party and among
In the early 1960s, Kadar announced a new
instituted a radical land reform and
students and other organizations after
policy under the motto of "He who is not
gradually nationalized mines, electric
Khrushchev's 1956 denunciation of Stalin.
against us is with us." He declared a
plants, four heavy industries, and some
Fearing revolution, Moscow replaced
general amnesty, gradually curbed some of
large banks.
Rakosi with his deputy, Erno Gero, in
the excesses of the secret police, and
The communists ultimately under-
order to contain growing ideological and
introduced a relatively liberal cultural and
mined the coalition regime by discrediting
political ferment.
economic course aimed at overcoming the
ers of rival parties and by terror,
post-1956 hostility toward him and his
blackmail, and framed trials. In elections
1956 Revolution
regime. In 1966, the Central Committee
tainted by fraud in 1947, the leftist bloc
approved the "New Economic Mecha-
Pressure for change reached a climax on
gained control of the government. Post-
nism," through which it sought to over-
October 23, 1956, when security forces
war cooperation between the U.S.S.R. and
come the inefficiencies of central planning,
fired on Budapest students marching in
the West collapsed, and the Cold War
increase productivity, make Hungary more
support of Poland's confrontation with the
began. With Soviet support, Moscow-
competitive in world markets, and create
Soviet Union. The ensuing battle quickly
trained Matyas Rakosi began to establish a
prosperity to ensure political stability.
grew into a massive popular uprising.
communist dictatorship. By February
However, the reform was not as compre-
Gero called on Soviet troops to restore
1949, all opposition parties had been forced
hensive as planned, and basic flaws of
order on October 24. Fighting did not
to merge with the HCP to form the
central planning produced economic
abate until the Central Committee named
Hungarian Workers' Party. In 1949, the
stagnation.
Imre Nagy as prime minister on Octo-
ber 25, and the next day Janos Kadar
2
Over the next two decades of relative
reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and,
relinquished. Hungarian counter-claims
domestic quiet, Kadar's government
symbolically, all other victims of the 1956
charge that some of the bases were built
responded to pressure for political and
revolution. A roundtable, made up of
without permission and do not conform to
economic reform and to counter-pressures
representatives of the new parties and
Hungarian building codes. Toxic wastes
from reform opponents. By the early
some recreated old parties (such as the
and other Soviet materials left behind at
1980s, it had achieved some lasting
Smallholders and Social Democrats), the
these bases constitute a serious environ-
economic reforms and limited political
communist party, and different social
mental hazard. The zero option of no claim
liberalization and pursued a foreign policy.
groups, met in the summer and fall of 1989
for compensation by either side was finally
which encouraged more trade with the
to discuss major changes to the Hungarian
worked out. As compensation for a portion
West. Nevertheless, the New Economic
constitution and the steps in the transition
of state debt to Hungary, both sides—
Mechanism led to foreign debt in pursuit of
to a fully free and democratic country.
Hungary and Russia-agreed that a sum
economic stimuli for unprofitable indus-
In October 1989, the communist party
of up to $800 million in military equipment
tries.
convened its last congress, which ended
would be made available to Hungary.
with a substantial victory for the party's
Transition to Democracy
reform faction and a change in name to the
Principal Government Officials
Hungarian Socialist Party.
Hungary's transition to a Western-style
In a historic session on October 16-20,
President-Arpad Goncz
parliamentary democracy was the first and
1989, the parliament adopted legislation
Prime Minister-Gyula Horn (MSZP)
the smoothest among the former Soviet
providing for multiparty parliamentary
Minister of Foreign Affairs-
bloc, inspired by a nationalism that long
elections and a direct presidential election.
Laszlo Kovacs (MSZP)
had encouraged Hungarians to control
The parliament aimed to transform
Ambassador to the Gyorgy Banlaki
their own destiny. By 1987, activists
Hungary from a people's republic into the
Ambassador to the UN-Istvan Nathom
within the party and bureaucracy and
Republic of Hungary, to protect human
Budapest-based intellectuals were
The Hungarian embassy is located at 3910
and civil rights, and to ensure separation of
increasing pressure for change. Some of
Shoemaker St. NW, Washington, DC
powers among the judicial, executive, and
these became reform socialists. Others
20008 (tel. 202-362-6730).
legislative branches of government. It
began movements which were to develop
asserted the "values of bourgeois democ-
into parties. Young liberals formed the
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
racy and democratic socialism" and gave
Federation of Young Democrats
equal status to public and private property
The prime minister selects the ministers
(FIDESZ); a core from the so-called
as a prerequisite for moving toward a
in the cabinet. Under a system of checks-
Democratic Opposition formed the
market economy.
and-balances, each cabinet nominee
Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ);
appears before four parliamentary com-
and the neopopulist national opposition
National Security
mittees in open hearings. The unicameral
established the Hungarian Democratic
Hungarian National Assembly is the
Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified
Hungary spearheaded the move leading
highest organ of state authority and initi-
to a level not seen since the 1956 revolu-
to the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact
ates and approves legislation sponsored by
tion. In 1988, Kadar was replaced as prime
Treaty Organization by its 17% reduction
the prime minister. A 15-member consti-
minister, and Reform Socialist leader Imre
of defense expenditures and the 30%
tutional court has power to challenge
Pozsgay was admitted to the Politburo.
reduction of its armed forces between
legislation on grounds of unconstitutional-
That same year, the parliament adopted a
1989 and 1992 to a level of 100,000. This
ity.
"democracy package," which included
latter figure includes 26,000 civilian
Hungary's first free, multiparty
trade union pluralism; freedom of associa-
employees of the Hungarian Home
elections in more than 40 years were a
tion, assembly, and the press; a new
Defense Forces (HHDF). The military
milestone in the move toward a parliamen-
electoral law; and a radical revision of the
HHDF (or Honvedseg) is undergoing
tary democracy. In 1990, the Hungarian
constitution, among others.
major restructuring in organization,
Democratic Forum (MDF) won 43% of the
A Central Committee plenum in
orientation, and training. Hungary is also
vote to 24% for the Alliance of Free
February 1989 endorsed in principle the
coping with severe budget constraints
Democrats (SZDSZ). As a result, the
multiparty political system and the
while attempting to adopt a Western-style
MDF leader, Jozsef Antall, became prime
characterization of the October 1956
defense force that can be integrated into
minister and formed a center-right
revolution as a "popular uprising," in the
NATO. Both the previous and the present
coalition government-with the Indepen-
words of Pozsgay, whose reform move-
governments have declared a desire to join
dent Smallholders' Party (12%) and the
ment had been gathering strength as
NATO, and Hungary has welcomed the
Christian Democratic People's Party
communist party membership declined
"Partnership for Peace" initiative. The
(6%)-to command a 60% majority in the
dramatically. Kadar's major political rivals
Honvedseg includes the army, which is the
parliament. In addition to a small number
then cooperated to move the country
largest, followed by the air force and a
of independents, the other parties repre-
gradually to democracy. The Soviet Union
small naval contingent that patrols the
sented in the parliament were the HSP,
reduced its involvement by signing an
Danube River.
who gained 8%, and the Young Democrats
agreement in April 1989 to withdraw
On March 11, 1989, Hungary and the
(FIDESZ), who received 6%. Upon the
Soviet forces by June 1991. National unity
Soviet Union concluded an agreement
death of Josef Antall in December 1993,
culminated in June 1989 as the country
under which the latter withdrew all 65,000
Peter Boross succeeded to the post of
troops from the country in June 1991 and
Prime Minister.
asked that Hungary compensate the
former Soviets for the military bases they
3
The Antall/Boross coalition govern-
1972 to about $15 billion in 1993, giving
Foreign Trade
ments achieved a reasonably well-
Hungary the highest per-capita debt in
functioning parliamentary democracy and
Central Europe. Its repayment record,
Hungary has shifted much of its trade from
laid the foundation for a free market
however, has been excellent.
its former Soviet-bloc partners to Western
Changes introduced by the communist
countries. In 1993, 70% of Hungary's trade
economy.
In May 1994, four years after it
regime, particularly during its last two
was with Western countries; Germany now
peacefully surrendered power, the
years, eased the transformation to a
is Hungary's principal trading partner,
reformed Hungarian Socialist Party
market economy. When Antall took office,
providing more trade with Hungary than
(MSZP) came back to win a plurality of
150 state enterprises already had been
with all of the former Soviet republics.
Trade with Russia has been further
votes and 54% of the seats in parliamen-
privatized under a "business transforma-
tary elections focused largely on economic
tion" law. Private firms had rights equal to
reduced because of declining oil exports to
es and the substantial decline in living
those of state enterprises under a law on
Hungary. Trade with the United States is
standards since 1990. A heavy turnout
corporate association. A joint venture law
increasing; total trade has risen to more
of voters swept away the right-of-center
than $800 million in 1993. The U.S. has
was in place, and foreign companies had
coalition but soundly rejected the extrem-
begun to invest in Hungary. A little-used
extended to Hungary most-favored-nation
ists on the right and the left. Although
bankruptcy law was in place. A value-
status, Generalized System of Preferences
it has a majority, the MSZP, which has
added tax and a progressive personal
concessions, Overseas Private Investment
announced its intention to continue econ-
income tax had largely replaced the former
Corporation insurance, and access to the
omic reform and privatization, to preserve
arbitrary levies on profits of state enter-
Export-Import Bank. The two countries
political rights, and to seek a historical
have concluded a bilateral intellectual
prises. The 1990 budget passed by the
reconciliation with Hungary's neighbors,
communist parliament had slashed the
property rights agreement and are
formed a broader based coalition with the
annual deficit by cutting subsidies while
negotiating a bilateral investment treaty.
left-of-center Alliance of Free Democrats
raising charges on fuel, cigarettes, and
Foreign concerns have invested over
(SZDSZ), which took second place with
liquor.
$7 billion in Hungary-more than half of
18% of the seats. This coalition, which
The Hungarian Government has
all foreign investment in Central and
assumed power on July 15, commands
encouraged the founding of private busi-
Eastern Europe. The United States is
the two-thirds majority required to
nesses and moved forward on privatization
the largest investor, with about $3.6 billion
pass certain key legislation such as a law
of state enterprises. In 1993, the private
invested by mid-1994, followed by Ger-
on electronic media and constitutional
sector generated about 50% of GDP.
many and Austria. Foreign capital is
amendments.
The 1993 federal budget ended with a
attracted by low wages for highly skilled
deficit of 6% of GDP, stalling a three-year
workers, generous tax incentives, favor-
ECONOMY
program with the IMF, as revenue short-
able geographic location, fertile land, and
falls exceeded budget cuts. The govern-
knowledge of the market of the former
Before World War II, Hungary had a
Soviet bloc.
ment cut all consumer subsidies and
predominantly agricultural economy.
reduced the real value of subsidies to the
Any Hungarian person or enterprise
Following the standard Stalinist pattern,
remaining state enterprises. Subsidy cuts
may engage in international trade now,
industrialization was forced on Hungary in
led to increases in the price of medicines,
and about 90% of imports have been freed
the post-war period. Under communism,
from license restrictions.
bakery products, sugar, rice, railroad and
most economic activity was conducted by
bus transportation, postage, telephone
state-owned enterprises or cooperatives,
calls, water and sewerage services,
FOREIGN RELATIONS
although various small businesses were
electricity, coal, and gas. Charges on
allowed to operate. Agriculture was
Except for the short-lived neutrality
concessionary home mortgages were
collectivized, undoing the immediate post-
declared by Imre Nagy in November 1956,
increased substantially.
war division of large estates among small
Hungary's foreign policy generally fol-
The deregulation of prices begun under
lowed the Soviet lead from 1947 to 1989.
peasant owners. Today, farms are being
the communist regime was extended by
privatized, both to small holders and to
During 1948-49, Hungary maintained
the Hungarian Government; more than
agribusiness firms.
treaties of friendship, cooperation, and
95% of prices have been decontrolled. The
In 1950, more than 50% of the labor
mutual assistance with the Soviet Union,
reform effort incurs painful, immediate
force worked on the land; in 1993, slightly
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and
costs to achieve more productive use of
than 7% engage in agricultural
Bulgaria. In 1950, it concluded a friendship
economic resources and higher incomes in
activity. Recently, Hungarian agriculture
treaty with the then-German Democratic
the longer term. Phasing out uneconomic
has been generally self-sufficient and an
Republic. It was one of the founding
activities and reducing exports to the
members of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact
important source of export earnings. Both
former Soviet bloc helped lead to a decline
the agricultural and industrial sectors have
and CEMA, and it was the first Central
in the gross domestic product (GDP) in
suffered from a lack of investment since
European country to withdraw from those
1992 that amounted, in real terms, to 2.3%.
the late 1970s. In the 1970s and 1980s,
organizations, both now defunct.
Unemployment rose from 1.7% of the labor
Hungary accumulated a huge foreign debt,
Along with other European associates
force in 1990 to an average of about 12% in
largely to finance subsidies to consumers
of the former Soviet Union, Hungary has
1993.
and to unprofitable state enterprises. Net
been participating in East-West coopera-
foreign debt rose from about $1 billion in
tion agreed upon at the 1975 Helsinki
4
Conference on Security and Cooperation
Embassies were opened in 1966,
In 1991, the U.S. and Hungary
in Europe (CSCE). It has signed all of the
and bilateral relations slowly but steadily
initiated a security assistance relationship
CSCE follow-on documents since 1989.
improved after ambassadors were
that is now active in both the International
Hungary's record of implementing CSCE
exchanged. In 1972, a consular conven-
Military Education and Training Program
Helsinki Final Act provisions, including
tion was concluded to provide consular
($700,000) and the $13-million Foreign
those on reunification of divided families,
protection to U.S. citizens in Hungary.
Military Sales Program.
remains among the best in Eastern
In 1973, a bilateral agreement was reached
Additional U.S. assistance includes a
Europe.
under which Hungary settled the national-
$10 million energy-sector grant and other
Hungary has been a member of the
ization claims of American citizens. In
technical assistance. Grants to the Inter-
United Nations since December 1955. As
1976, Hungary paid its debt arrearages to
national Executive Service Corps, MBA
with any country, Hungarian security
the U.S. Government in full, including
Enterprise Corps (composed of recent
attitudes are shaped largely by history
those dating back to the post-World War I
recipients of Master of Business Adminis-
and geography. For Hungary, this is a
era. In 1977, an agreement on exchanges
tration degrees), and the Center for
history of more than 400 years of domina-
and cooperation in culture, education,
International Private Enterprise help
tion by great powers (the Ottomans, the
science, and technology was concluded.
these non-governmental organizations
Habsburgs, the Germans during World
In January 1978, the United States
provide expertise directly to private
War II, and the Soviets during the Cold
returned to the people of Hungary the
enterprises.
War) and a geography of regional insta-
historic Crown of Saint Stephen and other
The U.S. Environmental Protection
bility and separation from Hungarian
Hungarian coronation regalia that had
Agency and the Environmental Law
minorities living in neighboring countries.
been safeguarded by the United States
Institute assist the Ministry of Environ-
Hungary's current foreign policy, a
since the end of World War II. Symboli-
ment and the Hungarian Parliament in
direct response to these factors, has three
cally and actually, this event marked the
drafting the country's first environmental
equal priorities: integrating rapidly with
beginning of excellent relations between
legislation. Other issues receiving atten-
the West and its institutions, improving
the two countries. A 1978 bilateral trade
tion include health care, employment,
relations with neighboring countries—
agreement included extension of most-
housing, education, and small business
particularly those with ethnic Hungarian
favored-nation status. Cultural and
development. About 140 Peace Corps
minorities-and supporting the rights of
scientific exchanges were expanded.
volunteers throughout Hungary work to
Hungarian minorities abroad. Currently,
Major U.S. official cultural exhibits have
improve English-language training and
the Hungarians view ethnic instability as
been well received. In 1989, the United
environmental awareness.
the greatest threat to European security.
States and Hungary renewed a civil air
agreement providing for direct service
Principal U.S. Embassy Officials
U.S.-HUNGARIAN RELATIONS
between New York and Budapest.
As Hungary began to pull away from
Ambassador-Donald M. Blinken
Relations between the United States and
the links forged by Soviet communism, the
Deputy Chief of Mission-
Hungary following World War II were
United States offered assistance and
James I. Gadsden
affected by Soviet armed forces' occupa-
expertise to help establish a constitution, a
Press/Cultural Affairs Officer—
tion of Hungary. Full diplomatic relations
democratic political system, and a plan for
Donna Culpepper
were established at the legation level on
a free market economy. Between 1989 and
Political Officer-William Siefkin
October 12, 1945, before the signing of the
1993, the Support for East European
Economic Officer-Charles English
Hungarian peace treaty on February 10,
Democracy (SEED) Act provided more
Commercial Officer-Patrick Hughes
1947.
than $136 million for economic restructur-
Science Attache-Lawrence Cohen
After the communist takeover in 1947-
ing and private-sector development. The
Administrative Officer-
48, relations with Hungary were increas-
Hungarian-American Enterprise Fund,
Martha L. Campbell
ingly strained by the nationalization of
capitalized at $65 million, offers loans,
Consul-Arnold Haskin Campbell
U.S.-owned property, unacceptable
equity capital, and technical assistance to
Defense Attache-
treatment of U.S. citizens and personnel,
promote private-sector development of
Col. John Concannon, USA
and restrictions on the operations of the
Hungarian-American joint ventures.
USAID Director-David Cowles
American legation. During the difficult
period following the Hungarian national
The U.S. embassy in Hungary is located
uprising in 1956, relations continued to
at Szabadsag Ter 12, Budapest (tel. 112-
erode.
6450).
5