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FIRST LADY HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON
PREPARED REMARKS FOR THE LIGHTING OF THE OLYMPIC FLAME
OLYMPIA, GREECE
MARCH 30, 1996
I am honored to represent the American people at this
celebration of the 100th anniversary of the modern Olympic Games.
It is a special privilege to be here in Greece, the birthplace of
the Olympics, and of so many ideals and institutions that define
our civilization our today.
The flame we have just kindled will serve as the guiding
light of the centennial games this summer in Atlanta. But while
this new flame came to life just minutes ago, it is endowed with
the spirit of thousands of athletes and Olympic contests that
have taken place here and around the world.
That spirit stretches back nearly three thousand years, to
the first foot race held here at Olympia and the presentation of
a crown of olives to the victor [Koroibos of Elis]. The same
spirit grew only greater as the peasant Spiridon Loues crossed
the finish line in the first Olympic marathon one hundred years
ago here in Athens, inspiring the princes of Greece to carry him
to a place of honor in the royal box.
These Olympic games, which have moved princes to lift
peasants onto their shoulders, emphasize an inescapable dimension
of the human experience -- that we are all members of one global
family. Our victories and defeats are not purely our own; they
are shared with the world.
Every four years, the family of nations gathers to pursue
excellence and to find peace and camaraderie through sport. That
is the heart of the Olympic ideal. It is a testament to the
power and vision of Greek civilization.
In Ancient Greece, warring city states called a truce during
the Olympics so that all of Greece's finest athletes, warriors,
poets, and artists could attend the games and honor the gods. In
the modern Olympics, distinctions of class, nationality, and race
are forgotten in contests judged by individual strength, speed,
and endurance.
Through these games, we have forged bonds of international
goodwill and understanding. This summer will mark the largest
gathering of nations at an Olympics. Young people from 197
countries, who have long been striving to fulfill their God-given
1
potentials, are serving as role models for children around the
world. They will go to Atlanta not just to test their abilities
against their counterparts, but also to build bridges of respect,
tolerance and friendship.
The flame that leaves Olympia today on a four-month journey
through Athens, across the Atlantic and through the United
States, carries much more than light and heat. It carrie the
spirit of our family of nations, of the earliest runners, of
Spiridon Loues, and of the young women and men who will convene
in Atlanta this summer. Through them, the Olympic spirit will
only grow faster, higher and stronger.
###
2
FIRST LADY HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON
PREPARED STATEMENT UPON ARRIVAL IN GREECE
I am pleased to have this opportunity to visit Greece for
the first time and to represent my country at the ceremonial
lighting of the torch at Olympia on March 30. During my stay, I look through
hope to meet with the leaders of your country as well as private
Greek citizens from many walks of life. I hope to celebrate the
special bonds between our two countries and peoples. Many
Americans trace their roots to Greece and their heritage has
greatly enriched the American experience. As the birthplace of
democracy, Greece is the source from which many of our own values
springs. I hope that in some small way my visit will build upon
the important friendship that Greece and the United States have
enjoyed for many years.
time
Greece: Arrival and Departure Statements
Arrival
the
for
I am very pleased to have this opportunity to visit Greecek It
will be my great honor to represent the United States at the
lighting of the Olympic torch at Olympia on March 30. During my
stay I also hope to meet with the leaders of your country as well
as private Greek citizens from many walks of life. I hope to
celebrate the great and special ties that exist between our two
countries and peoples. Many Americans trace their roots to the
shores of Greece and our Greek ethnic heritage has greatly
enriched the American experience. As the birthplace of
democracy, Greece is the source from which the freedom we so
greatly cherish springs. I hope that my visit can contribute in
some small way to enhancing the warm friendship that exists
between us.
Departure
As I depart from this wonderful country, I would like to express
my deep appreciation to the warm hospitality extended to me by
the Greek people. It was my great honor to represent President
Clinton at the lighting of the torch at Olympia as it begins its
long journey to Atlanta. I was also grateful for the opportunity
to meet Greek citizens from many walks of life. Many of their
relatives did themselves undertake long journeys to the United
States, helping to create the special bonds between our two
nations. I was thrilled by the great beauty of Greece and the
warm friendliness of the Greek people. I will take back to
America many fond memories as well as the hope that I have
contributed in some small way to the friendship between our two
peoples.
it
everted The American bout histing Atlanta the
summit
-26 96 15:50 FROM:
TO: 9011903124676695
PAGE 03
21,91 P.82
Billy Payne Olympia Speech ICED of Olympics
By George Hirthler
In honor of the Centennial Olympic Games, we have journeyed to the sacred grounds
of Olympia today, making 8 pilgrimage that so many before us have made, to witness
the glorious lighting of the torch, to behold with our own eyes the purity of the
Olympic flame, to stand where so many have stood in awe of a global tradition that
links generation to generation, country to country, city to city, runner to runner in the
endless and magnificent cycles of the Greek Olympied.
But we have also come - as R delegation of Atlantans entrusted with the prestigious
honor of hosting the Centennial Olympic Cames -- to pay tribute to the greatness of
Greece and the dream that you have given 10 the world...a dream that all humanity has
embraced.
It is fitting that we pay homage to Ancient Olympia, the birthplace of the Olympic idea.
in the annals of history, men and women have long held in the highest esteem the
birthplaces of great ideas. And no idea is grander - or holds greater potential for the
benefit of mankind - chan the Idea born here. An idea that elevates higher than any
other, the ideals of human excellence, the spirit of friendship, the justice of fair play. the
mandate of international understanding and the need for world peace.
The Olymple Idea 10 an idea of transforming power. It possesses the power to change
Lives, to exalt heroes, to rebuild attes, to shape history, 50 unite the world.
1AR-26 96 15:50 FROM:
TO: 9011903124676695
PAGE: 04
THA NW.. -
02-38-19 11:37 1:01
Those of us who are here from Atlanta today have experienced this power personally.
Nine years ago, it inspired a dream that transformed my We and ultimately revealed
the destiny of our city.
It would be impossible for me- for us- to express the depth of our gradtude for that
transformation, for the inspiration we drew from the dream that was born here.
The flame you will light today 15 the essence of that dream and the enduring expression
of that power. Above all else, it is the bright and pure symbol of the Olympic ideal.
In a few short weeks, you will entrust the flame to us - to fly to America to begin the
final leg of a journey that embodies the noblest aspirations of humanity.
As we receive the torch from you, we will remember that It is your dream that we hold
50 gratefully in our hands. It is your gift that we shall share with the world. It is the
flame of Olympia that burns within our souls. It is the idea of Olympia that lives
within our hearts ...
It is the legend of your land -- the greatness of the Greek legacy - that we shall
celebrate when the world gathers in Atlanta this summer.
Out of our deep and abiding respect for the traditions that you have entrusted to us, we
consider our mission as sacred as the hallowed grounds we stand on today.
1AR-26 96 15:51 FROM:
TO: 9011903124676695
PAGE: 05
PHR NU.: 4842241989
03-25-36 11:33P P.O4
- - M MU. 14042241999
03-24-96 21:51 P.B3
It is our mission to spread the message of Greece and Olympia to the world through the
celebration of the Centennial ... to honor you and your land by carrying the flame
farther than it has ever been carried, to hold it higher than it has ever bean held, to pass
the torch to more runners than ever before - to work with all our strength to ensure
that the pure and eternal symbolism of the flame burns brighter than ever before in the
eyes of the world.
It is our mission to ensure that when the cauldron 16 lit in Arlanta 10 and the flame
lgnites the celebration of the century - there is immediate and universal recognition
that the Olympic ideal - the Greek ideal - is the source of humanity's greatest hope for
the future.
We shall guard the sacred Olympic flame on every step of its Journey. We shall never
turn ow eyes away from it. With you and all of your countrymen, we will proclaim
"This flame, our eyes."
This one
3/22/96
draft/js
FIRST LADY HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON
STATEMENT FOR THE LIGHTING OF THE OLYMPIC FLAME
MARCH 30, 1996
I am honored to represent the American people at this
celebration of the 100th anniversary of the modern Olympic Games.
It is a special privilege to be here in Greece, the birthplace of
the Olympics, and of the many traditions and institutions that
sustain and enrich the human family to this day.
The flame we have just kindled will serve as the guiding
light of the centennial games this summer in Atlanta. But while
this new flame came to life just minutes ago, it is endowed with
the spirit of thousands of athletes and Olympic contests that
have taken place here and around the world.
That spirit stretches back nearly three thousand years, to
the first foot race held here at Olympia and the presentation of
a crown of olives to the victor [Koroibos of Elis]. The same
spirit grew only greater as the peasant Spiridon Loues crossed
the finish line in the first Olympic marathon one hundred years
ago, inspiring the princes of Greece to carry him to a place of
honor in the royal box.
These Olympic games, which have moved princes to lift
peasants onto their shoulders, emphasize an inescapable dimension
of the human experience -- that we are all members of one human
family. Our victories and defeats are not purely our own; they
are shared with the world.
Every four years, the family of nations gathers to pursue
excellence and to find peace and camaraderie through sport. That
is the heart of the Olympic ideal. It is a testament to the
power and vision of Greek civilization.
In Ancient Greece, warring city states would call a truce
during the Olympics so that all of Greece's finest athletes,
warriors, poets, and artists could attend the games and honor the
gods. In the modern Olympics, distinctions of class,
nationality, and race are forgotten in contests judged by
individual strength, speed, and endurance.
Through these games, we have forged bonds of international
goodwill and understanding. This summer will mark the largest
gathering of nations at an Olympics. Young people from 197
countries who have long been striving to fulfill their God-given
potentials and serving as role models for children around the
world will go to Atlanta not just to test their abilities against
their counterparts, but also to build bridges of tolerance and
friendship.
So this flame which leaves Olympia today on a four-month
journey through Athens, across the Atlantic to the United States,
carries much more than light and heat. It carries the spirit of
our family of nations, of Koroibos of Elis, of Spiridon Loues,
and of the young women and men who will convene in Atlanta this
summer. Through them, the Olympic spirit will only grow faster,
higher and stronger.
###
3/21/96
highting
draft/js
FIRST LADY HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON
STATEMENT FOR THE KINDLING OF THE OLYMPIC FLAME
TORCA
MARCH 30, 1996
I am honored to represent the American people at this
celebration of the 100th anniversary of the modern Olympic Games.
It is a special privilege to be here in Greece, the birthplace of
the Olympics, and of the many traditions and institutions that
sustain and enrich the human family to this day.
The flame we have just kindled will serve as the guiding
light of the centennial games this summer in Atlanta. But while
this new flame came to life just minutes ago, it is endowed with
the spirit of thousands of athletes and Olympic contests that
have taken place here and around the world.
That spirit stretches back nearly three thousand years, to
the first foot race held here at Olympia and the presentation of
a crown of olives to the victor [Koroibos of Elis]. It grew only
greater as the peasant Spiridon Loues crossed the finish line in
the first Olympic marathon one hundred years ago, inspiring the
princes of Greece to carry him to a place of honor in the royal
box.
Every four years, the family of nations gathers to pursue
excellence and to find peace and camaraderie through sport. That
is the heart of the Olympic ideal. It is a testament to the
power and vision of Greek civilization.
In Ancient Greece, warring city states would call a truce
during the Olympics so that all of Greece's finest athletes,
warriors, poets, and artists could attend the games and honor the
gods. In the modern Olympics, distinctions of class,
nationality, and race are forgotten in contests judged by
individual strength, speed, and endurance. excellence
These Olympic games, which have moved princes to lift
peasants onto their shoulders, emphasize an inescapable dimension
of the human experience -- that we are all members of one human
family. Our victories and defeats are not purely our own; they
are shared with the world.
Through these games we have respected a common language of
perfect tens and world record times, established common rituals
in the lighting of the Olympic torch and the parade of nations,
and shared a common memory peopled by the triumphs and defeats of
our world's greatest athletes.
Most importantly, we have forged bonds of international
goodwill and understanding. This summer will mark the largest
gathering of nations at an Olympics. Young people from 197
countries who have long been striving to fulfill their God-given
serving as
potentials and to become role models for their countrymen, will
go to Atlanta not just to test their abilities against their
counterparts, but also to build bridges of tolerance and
friendship.
So this flame which leaves Olympia today on a four-month
journey through Athens, across the Atlantic to the United States,
carries much more than light and heat. It carries the spirit of
our human family, of Koroibos of Elis, of Spiridon Loues, and of
the young women and men who will convene in Atlanta this summer.
Through them, the Olympic spirit will only grow faster, higher
and stronger.
###
working 3/18/96
draft/js
FIRST LADY HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON
STATEMENT FOR THE KINDLING OF THE OLYMPIC FLAME
MARCH 30, 1996
It is a speial
should
100th I am honored to represent my husband and the American people at this celebration of of
to represent the America people
the hundredth anniversary of the modern Olympic Games. I am so happy to be here in
Greece, the birthplace of the Olympics and of so many other traditions and institutions that
continue to sustain and enrich the human family. today (same ne rise 6 western citizing +
Thessummer The flame we have just kindled will serve as the guiding light of the centennial games
in Atlanta. But while this new Olympic flame is just minutes old, the sun which gave it life
it
has also endowed it with the spirit of thousands of legendary. athletes, fiercely-fought
contests, and heroic efforts Olgap contests Thank have taken place around
The unld.
Date
flore
That
Long ago, this sun witnessed the foot race which marked the first games and presided
over the presentation of a laurel wreath to the victor. Centuries later, the same sun shone on
the peasant Spiridon Loues when he retraced the steps of the Greek hero Pheidippides from
Marathon to Athens. The newspapers that as Loues claimed victory in the first Olympic
marathon for Greece, the princes of Greece lifted the peasant on their shoulders and carried
him to a place of honor in the royal box.
oumpary
Through the ages, the games which have inspired princes to lift peasants onto their
shoulders have emphasized an inescapable dimension of the human experience that we are
all members of one human family. In Ancient Greece, warring city states would call a truce
every four years so that all of Greece's finest athletes, warriors, poets, and artists could
attend the games and honor the gods. In the modern Olympics, distinctions of class,
nationality, and race are forgotten in contests judged by individual strength, speed, and
endurance. They enabled the great African American runner Jesse Owens to demonstrate the
superiority of his talent in the heart of Nazi Germany.
The Olympies is about the individual. The Olympic motto "faster, higher, stronger"
reminds us that we can each seek to improve ourselves. There are no limits for our self-
improvement. We can each fulfill our god given potentials.
The Olympics is about nations. Every four years, our countries' finest athletes
gather to test themselves against their counterparts in the world, and to find camaraderie in
the common language of sport.
The Olympics is about the world. The modern games are the brainchild of a
Frenchman who, inpsired by the ancient greek tradition, commited himself to reviving the
Olympics for citizens of the world. Through these games, we have forged bonds of
international goodwill and understanding. We have respected a common language of perfect
tens and world record times; established common rituals in the lighting of the Olympic torch
and the parade of nations; and shared a common memory peopled by the triumphs and
defeats of our world's greatest athletes.
traditions of Seece in whateve city
testament to powert vision 1Gneele conlegation
So this flame which leaves Olympia today on a four-month journey through Athens,
across the Atlantic to the United States, carries much more than light and heat. It carries
the legacy of our human family, of Spiridon Loues, of Jesse Owens, and of the young
women and men who will convene in Atlanta this summer.
###
gravitas
world
ATHENS
CHAPTER 4
The Ist Olympiad
29
8000
THE Ist OLYMPIAD
1896
ATHENS, 1896
OLYMPIAD
and contests should be held. As the directors of the Zappas estate were
citizens of considerable prominence in Athens, this group was an admirable
nucleus around which to build the organization for holding the games.
The hour finally struck when the crowds were admitted to
Under the spell of his consuming interest in the project of reviving the
the glistening whiteness of the restored stadium, and King George
games, Coubertin thought that the people of Athens would leap at the
signaled the re-establishment of the Olympic games with the
prospect of being first to revive an event that reflected so much credit on
formal pronouncement: "I declare the opening of the first
their ancestors. He turned the project over to the directors of the Zappeon
Olympic games of the modern era. The group of
and settled back to watch his dream come true.
International Olympic Committee members surrounding the
Things began to happen right away. They weren't exactly what Coubertin
Prince Royal typified the continuing international nature of the
had anticipated, and his soul, which had craved action on Olympic matters
enterprise-a character that I was determined to maintain without
for such a long time, certainly got its fill without delay. Just imagine his
faltering. Across the way [represented by the Greek audience]
embarrassment which he learned that instead of being wildly enthusiastic at
stood rampant nationalism reeling at the hope of seeing Athens
the prospects of reviving the games, the directors of the Zappeon were
become the permanent site of the games and of welcoming every
inclined to be just a little chilly to the proposition.
four years a flood of flattering and profitable visitors.
At their head was one Etienne Dragoumis. The organization seemed
BARON PIERRE DE COUBERTIN*
favorably inclined toward the games, but was undoubtedly under the
domination of the Greek premier. When M. Bikelas was suddenly called back
to Paris by an unfortunate private matter, the directors of the Zappeon met
The fulfillment of his young life's dream of the revival of the Olympic games
and in his absence dispatched the following missive to Coubertin:
within reach, Baron de Coubertin plunged wholeheartedly into the planning
of the games of the 1st Olympiad at Athens. Less than two years remained in
My dear Baron:
Athens, Nov. 1, 1894
which to bring into actual being the celebration that now existed only in the
form of a paper declaration by the athletic congress of Paris.
the international Olympic games.
I wish to thank you for the communication you have sent regarding
His first act was the nomination of M. Bikelas, who had presided over the
discussion of the Olympic games at Paris, as president of the International
The choice of Athens for the first celebration of the games could not
Olympic Committee. This was in line with the proposal made by Coubertin
fail to produce a feeling of satisfaction and fond recollections in Greece.
at the Paris congress that a representative of the country in which the games
It is no less true, however, that the choice of our people because of their
were to be held should be president of the International Olympic Committee
illustrious past constitutes for these descendants of the ancient founders of
in the period preceding and during the games themselves.
the games a heavy responsibility concerning which I doubt their ability to
The two Olympic enthusiasts quickly found themselves buried in work and
acquit themselves with the degree of success warranted by this great world
difficulties. While the Greek nation as a whole promptly embraced the idea
celebration voted by the Paris athletic congress. Since his recent stay in
of the games with wholehearted enthusiasm, Greek officialdom was frankly
Athens M. Bikelas has taken note of the hesitation we have felt since the
not so helpful. Greece then, as now, was in a seething political turmoil,
idea of holding the first games here was known and the official
announcement made.
and while public approval was evident, official support was lacking.
As a matter of fact, Greece was at the time serving as a political battlefield
I do not wish to insist on a matter in which our government is
between Charilaos Trikoupes and Theodore Delyannes, who for more than a
particularly interested. How can it think of placing itself at the head of
dozen years had alternated at the head of the Greek government. At the
this movement, send out invitations, take the initiative necessary to
moment of the award of the Olympic games to Athens, Trikoupes held the
guarantee success to such a great international festival at a moment when
upper hand, and while he did not actively oppose the games, his "neutrality"
it finds itself facing a great economic crisis at home and facing foreign
on the question was of such a nature as to discourage much activity in their
complications of the most grave nature? The duty that is incumbent upon
behalf.
the government to watch over the dignity of its country and the solicitude
Seeking a nucleus for an organization to handle the details of the games,
it feels toward the great cause we are all so anxious to see revived will
Bikelas and Coubertin discovered that a sum of money had been left by an
probably call for an attitude of extreme reserve.
Athenian family named Zappas for the purpose of erecting and administering
One could be accused of false pride if he did not admit that, in a new
a large building to be known as the Zappeon, in which athletic demonstrations
country where there still remains much to be accomplished before it
attains suitable conditions for the actual existence of a civilized people,
*Coubertin, Mémoires olympiques, Imprimerie d'editions Paul Rowbaud, Aix-en-
the exact thing that you call "athletic sports" does not exist. It is exactly
to such a country that, because of its past history, you wish to award the
Provence, 1931, pp. 36-7.
responsibility of presiding over the first celebration of these games which
28
30
History of the Olympic Games
The Ist Olympiad
31
are founded upon a new and extremely complicated basis and set of
cordial but in substance told Coubertin that he could look around, study the
regulations.
conditions, and "you will be convinced that it is impossible."
The great international fair announced as planned for 1900 in France
undoubtedly offers much greater possibilities, should you consider holding
they had reached by this time was not to be headed off either by resolutions
A man who had carried the standard of the Olympic games to the point
the first Olympic games at that time and place. At Paris, with her
tremendous resources, the nearness of centers of population and of world
tradition, aided by the strongly organized sports societies, the games
about Athens, Coubertin quickly became convinced that regardless of the
of boards of directors or by personal visits from prime ministers. Circulating
would be certain of success. Would it not be prudent to set back the
financial depression and the political turmoil, the private citizens of Athens
were wildly enthusiastic about the games.
opening date of these peaceful modern struggles? The new Olympics
would undoubtedly have the éclat gained by a more significant date of
Not only did a few trips about the city assure him that the sites
available properly to stage the many sports contemplated for the games, were but
launching, the opening of a new century.
I have given you, my dear Baron, a summary of the opinions expressed
everywhere he went he heard the wish expressed that the games should be
at the meeting of our committee. We trust you will understand how great
the small shopkeepers, the hack drivers, the everyday Athenians.
held. The strongest adherents of the games were among the common people,
is our regret at being forced to decline an honor so graciously offered our
But Coubertin was not content with their support. He wanted it to be
country and at the same time to deprive ourselves of the opportunity to
be associated with the high type of men who will preside over the revival
unanimous. He took the opportunity to address a meeting of the Parnassus
of such a beautiful and historic institution as the Olympic games. Knowing
Literary Society and strongly to advocate the games, and was loudly
the feebleness of the means at the actual disposal of the Greek people and
applauded. Convinced that he had the support of the public and the
convinced that the task exceeds our strength, we are left without choice
neutrality, at least, of Trikoupes, and feeling that, under such conditions, the
in the matter.
With assurance of highest consideration and my best personal regards,
addressed a letter to the press announcing that the games would be held in
directors of the Zappeon would be at his command, Coubertin boldly
Athens and that an organizing committee would promptly be formed to take
I remain,
over their management.
Sincerely yours,
ETIENNE DRAGOUMIS
With his rare ability to hit public psychology by means of well-phrased
sentiments, Coubertin's statement wound up: "We French have a proverb
Having been warned by his confrere M. Bikelas that official Athens might
that says that the word 'impossible' is not in the French language. I have
take some such actions, the doughty Baron laid plans accordingly. With
been told this morning that the word is Greek. I do not believe it."
typical foresight and courage he resolved, first of all, to ensure that the games
Coubertin's courageous enthusiasm and his absolute refusal to let anything
would be held somewhere in 1896 by communication with Franz Kemeny,
stand in the way of the success of his project swept everything before it.
the enthusiastic Hungarian member of the International Olympic Committee,
When he found that the directors of the Zappeon were still afraid to call
in the hope that arrangements could be made to switch the games at a later
meeting for the organization of the games, Coubertin boldly called the a
date, if necessary, to the great Hungarian festival to be held in Budapest in
meeting himself, and, thanks to the support of the Greek Crown Prince, who
1896 celebrating the thousandth anniversary of Hungary's existence as a
accepted the presidency of the Organizing Committee, it proved successful.
state. Secondly, he resolved to make a personal visit to Athens to head off,
A skeleton organization was completed; a tentative program including not
if possible, the attempt to reject the games that the letter from M. Dragoumis
only track and field athletics but gymnastics, cycling, yachting, and fencing
contained and any others which might arise.
his troubles were over.
was drawn up; and Coubertin departed for home convinced once more that
Arriving in Athens while the Dragoumis letter was en route to Paris,
Coubertin found two messages awaiting him. One was a letter from Kemeny
Scarcely had he left Greek shores than the organization that he had built
giving assurances that if worse came to worst in Athens, the Hungarians would
up by his own efforts commenced to crumble. One of the four vice presidents
come to the rescue and take over the games. The other was a copy of the
of the Organizing Committee, Commandant Soutzo Etienne Scouloudis, who
letter from M. Dragoumis declining the honor of holding the games.
was a great friend of Minister Trikoupes, called meetings of the heads of the
Coubertin promptly answered Dragoumis with a note "doubting the
organization, to which the younger and more enthusiastic supporters of the
correctness of the resolution passed by his colleagues and expressing the
games were not invited. He convinced them that Coubertin's estimates of
sentiment that only a misunderstanding of the intentions of the International
expense were far too small, intimated that the government would refuse to
Olympic Committee"* was responsible, closing with the request that the
authorize the lottery by which it was proposed to raise the money for the
directors of the Zappeon should meet once more to reconsider their action.
games, and finally proposed to submit the whole sad situation to the Crown
The reply to this request was not a meeting of the Zappeon directors but
Prince for his decision. Trikoupes meanwhile brought the question before the
a personal visit from M. Trikoupes, the prime minister, who proved very
government, and it appeared that, after all, Coubertin's visit to Athens had
been in vain.
*Coubertin, Une campagne de vingt-et-un ans, p. 112.
To the Crown Prince must go the credit for saving the games for Athens.
The Ist Olympiad
33
32
History of the Olympic Games
When the committee, headed by M. Scouloudis, waited upon him with its
information as to the number of participants to expect-and this with the
lengthy and obviously unfavorable report, the Prince met the members with
games still nearly a year and a half away. Few countries had even heard that
a smile, accepted the report, and, without looking at it, thanked and
they were to be held.
dismissed them with the statement that he would read the report at his leisure.
At the request of His Royal Highness the Crown Prince of Greece,
This refusal to take any action was not only courageous in face of the known
Coubertin set about the task of securing a design for a medal and a diploma
opposition of the government, but excellently timed to permit the public and
to be awarded to the participants in the games. Chaplain, the great French
artist, designed a medal; but Puvis de Chavannes, who had been requested to
the press to make their sentiments known.
Backed by an overwhelming popular approval, the Crown Prince took
design the diploma, after much study refused the task on the grounds that he
matters in his own hands, reorganized and enlarged the committee, and
"could not sufficiently Hellenize himself to do justice to the ancient Greek
moved its headquarters into his own palace with M. Philemon, a former mayor
spirit." As a result a Greek designed the diploma and, ironically enough, was
of Athens, as its general secretary, and by nis personal example united the
afraid of being too classical and turned out a bizarre modernistic design.
Greek people in an enthusiastic movement to ensure the success of the games.
Meanwhile throughout the world the various colleagues of Coubertin on
The enthusiastic Greeks not only in the home country but in all the
the International Olympic Committee were doing their best to stir up interest.
colonies poured voluntary contributions into a fund to finance the games,
Sweden and Hungary, led by committee members Balck and Kemeny, were
thousands of small gifts being topped off by a donation of one million
displaying the keen interest and enthusiasm that these countries have
drachmas by George Averoff, a Greek citizen of Alexandria, who stipulated
maintained ever since; and Professor Sloane in the United States, in the face
that his money should be used to refinish the ancient stadium at Athens in
of the warfare then existing between the colleges and the Amateur Athletic
Union, organized a team of four college boys from Princeton and five Boston
native marble.
While the financial success of the games was now assured and popular
athletes to represent the United States.
enthusiasm in Greece was running high, there was no opportunity for
In Coubertin's home country a French team was organized under the
Coubertin to rest on his oars. The success of the games depended on more
leadership of Raoul Fabens, only the French Shooting Federation refusing to
than popular enthusiasm and adequate finances. Two other factors upon
participate. The riflemen expressed surprise that "the Olympic games should
which ultimate success rested had yet to be taken into consideration.
imagine that the French Shooting Federation would consent to become an
First were the problems of organization, hundreds of them. The modern
'annex of their committee."
Greeks were none too familiar with the ancient Olympic games, much less
In Great Britain the games were still eyed rather coldly, the newspapers
with their adaptation to the sports of the modern world, essential to the
printing Coubertin's appeal for participation without enthusiasm and several
success of any modern revival of the ancient games.
of them suggesting that "Pan-Britannic" games be organized instead.
Second, there was the question of foreign participation. The Greeks had
Although Germany had failed to participate officially in the 1894 congress,
few athletes, and without the athletes of other nations the games would be
there was strong German interest in the games, and this was augmented by
worse than a failure. Inasmuch as the games had existed only in the mind of
the relationship between the ruling houses of Germany and Greece. For some
Baron de Coubertin up to this time, it was quite natural that the thousand
time it looked as though the Germans would organize a strong team to
and one problems that arose in connection with their organization should
participate at Athens, but suddenly, at the close of 1895, an official announce-
promptly be referred to the worthy father of the idea.
ment was made that Germany would not participate, the refusal being based
Coubertin found himself swamped under a mass of problems. Who should
upon a supposed interview in which Baron de Coubertin had been quoted
invite the nations to the games? Who should write the invitations? What
as expressing pleasure that the Germans had not been at the Sorbonne
events should be held? How is a bicycle track constructed? Under what rules
congress and that they would not be at Athens.
should the athletes compete? What should they be given for prizes? These
Despite Coubertin's denials of such a statement, the denials being
questions alone were enough to stagger the doughty Baron. Interwoven
supported by Baron von Reiffenstein, who had attended the congress un-
among these questions there promptly arose problems of national jealousy;
officially, a strong feeling against Coubertin and the games swept across
questions of authority developed among the various sports bodies; and no
Germany, and because of the close relationship between Germany and
sooner was one question answered than another arose. He was like a man
Greece, it found a foothold among the Greeks. The German Olympic
Committee under Dr. W. Gebhardt absolutely absolved Coubertin of any
fighting bees.
Coubertin himself drew up the official invitations to the games. When the
blame in the matter, and Germany finally did compete; but a few politicians
organizing committee couldn't figure out how to design and build a bicycle
and editors in Athens, now assured of the success of the games and more and
track, he personally secured the plans of the velodrome of Arcachon and sent
more convinced that the games were theirs by right of inheritance, seized
them to Athens, being repaid for his pains by having the committee toss his
upon this pretext to ignore Coubertin despite the efforts of the Crown Prince
plans aside and instead copy the plans of the bicycle track at Copenhagen,
to pay him the credit due him for his effort in reviving the historic contests.
which they had secured from another source. Scarcely had the invitations
And so it happened that as the days for the first celebration of the games
been drawn up than the organizing committee demanded of Coubertin exact
approached during the warm spring days of 1896, Baron de Coubertin, by
The 1st Olympiad
35
34
History of the Olympic Games
whose sole effort the forgotten games had been revived and upon whose
which last filled such a stadium, but animated nevertheless by similar
shoulders the entire initiative of the organization of the first games had fallen,
sentiment, by the same interest in youth, by the same dreams of national
found himself ignored by the very people to whom he had restored their
greatness.
There is room for about fifty thousand spectators. Portions of the seats
inheritance. The Greek politicians could ignore him, but they could not kill either his
are in wood, time having been lacking to cut and place all the marble.
enthusiasm for the games or his lively interest in their success. Coubertin was
After the games this work will be completed, thanks to the generous gift
no Achilles sulking in his tent. He went to Athens early in the spring and kept
of M. Averoff; bronze work, trophies, and columns will break up the
in constant communication with his confreres of the International Olympic
severe monotony of its lines. The track is no longer dusty as of yore; a
cinder track has replaced it, built by an expert brought from England for
Committee. He was ready to help.
written by Coubertin from Athens on the eve of the games, a translation of
Perhaps no better picture can be had of the scene than is shown in a letter
the purpose. Everyone believes the events will be strenuously disputed by
the Greeks. For-here is an interesting fact-in this country where physical
exercises have produced few experts, where fencing and gymnastic clubs
which is herewith reproduced:
recently organized have experienced considerable difficulty in recruiting
Athens
members, it has been necessary only to mention the Olympic games to
March 26, 1896
create athletes. The young men have overnight become conscious of the
native strength and suppleness of their race; their ardor has been so great
The Athenian spring is double this year. It warms not only the clear
and their training so serious that the visiting athletes will find in them
atmosphere but the soul of the populace. It pushes up sweet-smelling
improvised rivals of veteran caliber.
flowers between the stones of the Parthenon, and paints a happy smile on
Already the Hungarians have arrived and they have been given an
the fiery lips of the Palikares. The sun shines, and the Olympic games The are
enthusiastic reception; speeches have been exchanged and music has been
here. The fears and ironies of the year just past have disappeared.
played. Today the Germans have come, and the Swedes and the
skeptics have been eliminated; the Olympic games have not a single enemy.
Americans. The news that the Municipal Council of Paris has voted a fund
They have spread to the breezes the flags of France, Russia, America, lift
for the French representatives came at the moment when the Organizing
Germany, Sweden, England. The soft breezes of Attica joyously
Committee was holding a meeting at the Prince's palace, and the Prince is
their folds, and the citizens in the street of Hermes rejoice at the spectacle. the
delighted to know that the participation of France is finally assured.
They know that the world is coming here, and they approve
preparations that have been made to receive her. Preparations are compre-
Such, then, was the scene of the games of the Ist Olympiad. Small wonder
hensive. Everywhere people are shining up the marble, applying new
that there surged in the bosom of the founder of the games a paternal pride
plaster and fresh paint; they are paving, cleaning, decorating.
that could not be downed even by the ingratitude of certain of the Greek
The road to the stadium is in full dress with its Arc de Triomphe and
officials.
its Venetian matting. But this is not the favorite promenade. Interest is
On the day of the official opening of the games, the first week in April
elsewhere, on the shores of the llissus, until now disdained. Every evening
1896, a terrific crowd jammed the stadium as the King and Queen of Greece,
about five o'clock the citizens come here to cast an appraising eye upon
the former in full military uniform and the latter in pure white, officially
the work being done at the stadium. As usual, the llissus is without water,
opened the celebration. Athletes, officials, and a choir added color to the
but this passes unnoticed. A monumental bridge spans the celebrated
scene, the rendering of the Olympic Hymn by the chorus of hundreds of
stream and gives access to the great plain upon which they are restoring
voices being a great feature of the ceremony.
With the athletic contests once under way, the superlative prowess of the
the ancient stadium.
The surroundings of the stadium produce an impression heightened by
handful of young American athletes instantly made itself felt. Although
reflection. Here we have a tableau that the ancestral Greeks so often
they were not champions in their own country and despite the construction
witnessed. It has sprung up before our eyes. We are not accustomed in
of the track, which was far from favorable to good performances by athletes
these days to such constructions, and its lines are so unfamiliar as to
accustomed to modern conditions, the Americans captured one race after
surprise and disconcert us. The silhouette of the Grecian temple has never
another until some of the Greek public, sensing their superiority and realizing
been lost, its porticoes and colonnades have known twenty renaissances. their
that it must result from more scientific training than had been available to
But the stadiums disappeared with the athletes. People knew
the natives, raised the cry of "Professionals!"
architectural peculiarities but never restored them. A living stadium has
The Americans, however, had their adherents. An American warship, the
not been seen for centuries. A few days now and this stadium will be alive
San Francisco, had dropped anchor in the harbor for the period of the
with the animation given such structures by the crowds that fill them.
festival, and sailors, always intensely enthusiastic, joined forces with a
We will see them again climbing the stairs, spreading out across the aisles,
handful of students attending the American University in Athens to raise wild
swarming in the passageways-a different crowd, doubtless, from that
whoops and yells at each successive American victory, this first demonstration
History of the Olympic Games
The Ist Olympiad
37
36
of American college yells quickly drowning out the boos of the handful of
appeal to the natives. The beautiful trophy that had been donated for the
Greeks whose ignorance of athletic technique and disappointment at the
winner of this classic event by M. Michel Bréal stood for more than an
failure of their own athletes led them to regard the American successes with
athletic victory; it signified Greek history. The running of this classic race
disfavor. The majority of the Greeks did their best to join the American
over the actual course covered by the Greek hero Pheidippides from the
college yells, and they even generously applauded the Princeton college boy
battlefield of Marathon, forty-two kilometers away, added to the intense
who won the discus throw, thus taking away the prize that the Greeks
feeling of the Greek populace, and when the day of the race dawned it
regarded as their hereditary possession.
seemed that the entire population of the country was there.
Outside the great stadium other competitions attracted good crowds, and
The stadium itself was jammed with more than sixty thousand excited
the victories were divided among many nations that did not figure in the
spectators, while many times that number had swarmed to points of vantage
track and field contests. Boland of Great Britain was the outstanding tennis
along the route of more that twenty-five miles to see the contestants as they
star, winning the singles and teaming with Traun of Germany to win the
ran.
doubles, a mixture of nationalities that of course would not be permitted in
Within the stadium itself were the King of Greece, the King of Serbia,
present-day Olympic competition.
Grand Duke George, the Archduchess Theresa, the Royal Princess of Greece,
Although Germany had a fine team and won the gymnastic competitions,
the members of Greek officialdom, and the diplomatic corps. As the runners
Greek athletes were not without reward. Greek natives were victorious in
approached the stadium, hidden from the spectators by its marble walls, a
two branches of the competition, the rings and the rope-climbing event.
mighty roar rolled over the hills from the thousands of Greeks who lined
Other Greek victories were scored in rifle and pistol events, fencing, and
the course.
cycling, while a vast number of second and third places also went to Greece.
Unintelligible to the waiting thousands in the stadium, the sound neverthe-
France carried off the majority of the cycling honors, making a clean
less had an electric quality that swept the anxious crowd to its feet like a
sweep, in fact, of the events on the track, but out on the roads Greece won
single individual. The muffled roar broke into a veritable scream as, preceded
one race, and in another, a herculean test of 315 kilometers, or nearly two
by an excitedly gesticulating Greek official, a sweating runner burst into view
hundred miles, an Austrian named Schmal was the winner. France also won
between the marble colonnades at the end of the stadium and was instantly
the foils event in the fencing competition.
recognized as Spiridon Loues, a Greek peasant, who had insisted on fasting
Hungary and Austria won swimming honors, Denmark and Great Britain
and spending the preceding night in prayer.
shared honors in weight lifting, and revolver honors went to representatives
As he trotted smilingly around the track to the finish, the scene baffled
of the United States. It is unfortunate that more complete records are not
description. When he crossed the finish, he found himself snatched from the
available with all the details of these first contests in modern Olympic history.
ground and borne to the royal box on the shoulders of the Crown Prince and
The performances in the various track and field events were hampered by
his brother. There, receiving the congratulations of his ruler, he was literally
the condition of the track, which had too many cinders and not sufficient
swamped with gifts from his wildly excited countrymen. Women showered
clay to pack it and make it fast, and the general plan, which, of course, had
him with jewels, and the presents ranged from those of fabulous value to the
been laid out centuries before. The track had two long straightaways with
offer of a street gamin to shine his shoes free of charge for life.
excessively sharp "hairpin" turns at both ends, and to add to the confusion of
It was a fitting and magnificent climax to this first revival of the games of
the Americans at least, races were run in the opposite direction from that to
the ancient Greeks. The victory of Loues in an instant swept aside all jealousy
which they were accustomed, the turns being to the right rather than to the
of foreign victories in other events. Charles Maurras, a hardened enemy of the
left. It is not surprising that records made at Athens were quickly broken at
games, turned to Baron de Coubertin under the thrill of the moment and said,
succeeding celebrations of the games.
"I see that your internationalism of athletics does not kill national spirit-it
The two short races on the program, the 100 and 400 meter runs, were
strengthens it."
both captured by T. E. Burke of the United States, while E. H. Flack of
At the instant, by this single Greek victory, opposition to the Olympic
Australia retaliated by capturing the 800 and 1,500 meter runs, also in time
games disappeared; ill feeling was forgotten; and Baron de Coubertin's
that was far from phenomenal. The United States managed to take an edge in
dream, which had so often in the past months faded away to the point where
the track victories through the high-hurdle win of Curtis.
even his own eyes, gifted with farsightedness by his zeal for the great cause,
It was in the field events, however, that the young Americans made their
could scarcely make out its dim outline, now took on the sturdy appearance
best showing, setting an example that their successors have followed ever
of reality.
since. Ellery H. Clark won both the high jump and the broad jump, and
W. W. Hoyt captured the pole vault. J. B. Connolly won the hop, step and
jump, while R. S. Garrett was a double winner, triumphing in the shot-put
and discus throw.
Greek disappointment at American victories on the track was all forgotten,
however, on the day of the marathon. Here indeed was an event with a vital
AN APPROVED HISTORY OF
THE OLYMPIC GAMES
was
The important thing in the Olympic Games is
not to win but to take part, the important thing
in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The
essential thing is not to have conquered but to
have fought well. To spread these precepts is to
build up a stronger and more valiant and, above
all, more scrupulous and more generous humanity
DE COUBERTIN
CHAPTER 1
THE MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES
History fades into fable; fact becomes clouded with doubt and
controversy; the inscription moulders from the tablet; the statue
falls from the pedestal.
WASHINGTON IRVING
The Olympic games have appeal for many reasons. Their story sparkles
with big names-kings, queens, presidents, dictators, diplomats, artists, poets,
sports figures, war heroes, educators, socialites appear constantly in the
chronicles of the games.
Their appeal is universal, for they involve as many countries as the United
Nations.
They have background, for they began beyond the Golden Age of Greece
and ran, uninterrupted, for more than a thousand years.
They are in their modern revival no passing fancy, for in almost a century
of renewed existence they have survived the life and death of nations, spanned
devastating depressions, and lived through two world wars.
They are in the last analysis just what the historian seeks, for belligerent
controversy has accompanied them from their very birth and has spun a web
of tangled fact and fable that cries for clarification.
Writers by the thousand have skimmed around the edges, listing the names
of the champions in some Olympic contests, but seldom all. They have
painted portraits of the victories in stirring prose. They have spewed invective
over the controversies. They have spectacularly described the recurring
celebrations. But always they have skirted the heart of the whole business and
have avoided probing the source of the astonishing vitality of the games.
The facts about the Olympic games? Most of the facts are to be found in
the tabulated listings of the champions.
The fables about the Olympic games? Most of the fables are to be found
either in the writings of the defenders who seek to prove that the games are
pure and above reproach, or of the muckrakers who would abolish them for
their iniquities.
It is high time to separate fact from fable: to probe this fantastically
successful movement and find the secret of its strength.
That the modern Olympic games are the honest heirs of the ancient games
is beyond question. Both were founded on a high religious and moral plane,
rose to dizzy heights while clinging to these fundamental ideals, and showed
signs of decay under the influence of politics and professionalism.
The tyrants of today are no better able to understand the Olympic games
than those of yesterday. Hitler might well have echoed the puzzled comment
of the invaders of ancient Greece who, halted at Thermopylae by a handful
of courageous defenders who were hopelessly outnumbered, remarked that
these were strange people indeed, for "they contend in their Olympic games
not for money, but for the sheer glory of achievement."
Hitler, had his Olympic knowledge equaled his ambition, would have
3
4
History of the Olympic Games
The Modern Olympic Games
5
recognized something familiar in the dramatic, spectacular drive of General
George Patton across France, the Rhine, and deep into Germany. This drive
list of the unpleasant incidents connected with the games except to point out
they achieve publicity out of all proportion to their real importance.
had the same dynamic characteristics that Patton, as a slim young lieutenant
One has only to remember that when a certain member of the United
and his country's first participant in the modern pentathlon at the 1912
Olympic games, in Stockholm, showed when, by sheer dash and drive, he
States Olympic team was barred from competition in the 1936 Olympic
games because of conduct unbecoming an Olympic representative on the
outscored the ultimate winner in three of the five events on the program.
steamer en route to the games, it became a cause célèbre. But when four
General Douglas MacArthur found time during the darkest days of the
other members of the same United States Olympic team were likewise barred
war to remember the occasion when, as president of the American Olympic
Committee, he led his country's team to the 1928 games at Amsterdam. And
from representing their country and were shipped home, there was scarcely
it was quite in line with what might have been expected when American
a mention of the decision. But in the first case the culprit was a good-looking
soldiers under MacArthur's command took up a collection to make possible
young woman while the others were unphotogenic males, which may account
for the difference.
participation in the 1948 Olympic games by the athletes of liberated Korea-
But enough of fables and half-truths. Of far greater importance to the
successors to the Koreans who, under duress, won Olympic championships
proper understanding of the Olympic games is a study of the facts regarding
for Japan in less happy days.
Soldier and athlete, poet and historian, General MacArthur stated his case
their rebirth. With a sound knowledge of the hard facts of history it is more
easily possible to comprehend their almost fabulous vitality.
for the Olympic Games thus: "The [Olympic] athletic code has come down
A recital of the facts just at this time is all the more significant in that
to us from even before the age of chivalry and knighthood. It embraces the
here too is a historic parallel. The period in which young Pierre de Coubertin
highest moral laws and will stand the test of any ethics or philosophies ever
promulgated for the uplift of man. Its requirements are for the things that are
was inspired to revive the Olympic games was, as now, a postwar period.
right, and its restraints are from the things that are wrong."
His country, France, had been overrun by Germany in 1870. Like many a
Truly history repeats itself as it honors the athlete-knight of both ancient
young man of today, Coubertin stood poised at the threshold of life dis-
and modern Olympic eras, and just as the story of the ancient games is half
illusioned, disturbed, and dissatisfied with the pathways that lay before him.
fact, half fable, so the modern games, too, are surrounded by half-truths.
Analyzing the situation, Coubertin, at the risk of oversimplification, felt
Among these, there is the belief that some nations "win the Olympic
that since his country was in fact composed of individual people, the way
games" each time they are held. This is not true.
to a better France lay in the development of better Frenchmen. Looking
Some "experts" persist, after each celebration of the games, in tabulating
beyond the confines of his country, he was struck by the fact that near-by
Great Britain, similar in size and in many physical characteristics less favored
a point score. No points are scored in the Olympic games.
The average individual thinks of the Olympic games as solely an athletic
than his own country, was ruling a far-flung empire and in many ways
carnival. The truth is that trophies exactly the same as those awarded the
wielding an influence out of all proportion to its size. Using the same straight
champion athletes go to the winners in Olympic contests in art, music,
line of reasoning, he concluded that the Britons must be turning out a better
literature, sculpture, and architecture.
product, and he set out to see how this, if true, was being accomplished.
Perhaps, since the games of the XIth Olympiad at Berlin were so
Coubertin was doubly fortunate. He had the keen analytical mind of a
productive of controversy, it is worth while to cite some popular errors of
historian. He also had money-not wealth, but means. He already had his
fact regarding their celebration, just by way of example. For instance, the
first clue to the mystery of Great Britain from his boyhood perusal of that
Nazis did not hold the 1936 Olympic games. They were not even awarded to
old standby Tom Brown's School Days, which presented a picture of life in
Germany. Actually, since they are always awarded to a city rather than to a
England's schools quite in contrast to his own experience in France. So he
nation, Berlin held the games. Furthermore, they were awarded to Berlin
went to England, following the trail of the legendary Tom Brown, and found
before the Nazis had come to power. Adolf Hitler, as chief of state, was the
himself investigating Rugby, a school that, he felt, might be the factory
patron of the games, but he was completely without authority. On one
turning out the type of young Englishmen who at the moment were wielding
such an unparalleled influence in world affairs.
occasion when he overstepped the bounds of propriety he was ordered to
stop-and did so-by President Baillet Latour of the International Olympic
The architect of this superior type of individual, he became convinced,
was the old Rugby headmaster Thomas Arnold.
Committee. He did not refuse, as is still widely believed, to shake hands with
the great American black athlete Jesse Owens. The fact is that he had no
opportunity to do so. Perhaps, had the opportunity presented itself, he would
Arnold [he said] arranged that the adolescent should build his own
have refused. One is equally entitled to speculate that, under the
strength from the materials at his disposal, and that under no circum-
circumstances, Owens might have refused to shake the hand of Hitler.
stances should any outsider do it for him. He felt that the adolescent goes
Such a recital of a few of the fables, myths, half-truths about the Berlin
to school not to be disciplined there but rather to be gradually emanci-
games is worth while only as an example of the sort of stories circulated
pated; to exercise free and thoughtful individuality; to learn to use his own
during and after every celebration. And it would be unprofitable to recite a
independence while, at the same time, observing the laws which hold the
History of the Olympic Games
The Modern Olympic Games
7
6
individual responsible to his own conscience and to the society in which
to the stronger boys, accept the regulations-whether good or bad-set by his
he lives.
elders, fight his way to office in schoolboy organizations, battle for a place
He arranged [reasoned Coubertin] to make life in school a sort of
on the school athletic teams. In short, nothing that was likely to happen to
preface-a first chapter of social existence the boy must step boldly
him in afterlife would be completely without parallel in what he had gone
into manhood. To accomplish this, Arnold had to organize college along
through in school.
the lines of society-not an ideal society where perfect justice prevails,
All this had started at Rugby but had spread, and Coubertin summed it
but society as it actually exists, with all its peculiarities and excesses. In
up this way:
other words, the school had to reflect everyday life.
Arnold thus had the courage to permit the organization and existence
When Thomas Arnold died prematurely, the triumph [of his ideas]
within his school of regrettable, but necessary, human groups, rather
was already certain. The influence of his genius had grown step by step,
than attempt to suppress them, for their destruction would have created
spreading from one school to another; everyone had been influenced. In
dangerous differences between life in college and life in the world outside,
appearance things had not changed [but] from the schools emerged
and would give the students dangerous illusions.
men in the real sense of the word-energetic, honest, upright. These were
All the important facets of modern life-the intermingling, the
the men who had, without commotion, provided the moral revolution
associations, the vote, the press, the opinion, the elective hierarchy which
from which came the real Anglo-Saxon strength. Anyone who compares
functions in a methodic and orderly manner-all these things find their
the Great Britain of 1860 with that of 1830 must recognize that a
parallel in the world of sport.*
veritable revolution had taken place during that period. From the day
when there came to the direction of public affairs, to the leadership of
The evidence, of course, is all on his side. Only such a school, one dearly
outstanding institutions, the first generation developed by this pedagogic
cherishing the freedom of the individual, could have immortalized the
reformation, ideals and methods changed; preoccupation with the public
heretical but highly human infraction of the established rules by one of its
welfare dominated the country; the forces of the nation co-ordinated and
sons who, in so doing, fathered a new type of game. At Rugby there is a
disciplined themselves; there developed a revitalizing of all the machinery
tablet with the following inscription:
[of living] and this great movement spread vast distances, particularly
into the government of the colonies.*
This stone
commemorates the exploit of
This was a far cry from the situation in French schools, where a brief walk
William Webb Ellis
once a week was considered almost too great a diversion of energy from the
who with a fine disregard for the rules of
major task of disciplined study.
football as played in his time
This was a truly liberal education.
first took the ball in his arms and ran with it
This was freedom!
thus originating the distinctive feature of
Convinced that he had his answer, Coubertin determined to abandon every-
the Rugby game.
thing else and devote his entire time and energy to securing, if possible, a
AD 1823
pedagogical reform in his own country-one that would provide his fellow
Frenchmen with the advantages of the liberal education that, in his opinion,
This was indeed free enterprise in action. This was the spirit of which
was accomplishing so much for Great Britain.
empires were built. This was what was making England great. This was the
It took little time to convince him that educational reform was more
spirit found lacking in Coubertin's own countrymen. As he analyzed it,
likely to start at the bottom than at the top of the educational system of his
this was the answer.
country. "The foundation of real human morality," he said, "lies in mutual
As Coubertin saw it, Arnold had arranged that the young Englishmen
respect-and to respect one another, it is necessary to know one another."
emerging into the maelstrom of adult life found himself in a world with
He chose athletics as his field.
which he had already become familiar in school. He had not suddenly been
This, he felt, was a means of getting the younger generation of his own
pushed, unprepared, from the unrealistic classroom association with the
country in contact with the younger generation of Great Britain. France,
shadowy figures of history into the hurly-burly of modern existence, as was
generally speaking, was still dominated by the old-school gymnasts, to whom
the case with the average French boy. He had been subjected, instead, to the
the self-torture of mass exercises under the supervision of an instructor
give-and-take of life-not life as the scholars would like to have it, but life as
constituted the ultimate in athletic activity. There were, however, some
human strength and weaknesses really make it. He had been forced to toady
Frenchmen participating in what he called "free sport"-activities whose
common characteristic was competition. He thought he saw in the give-and-
*Baron Pierre de Coubertin, Une campagne de vingt-et-un ans, Librairie de l'education
*Ibid.
physique, Paris, 1908, pp. 4-7.
8
History of the Olympic Games
The Modern Olympic Games
9
take, victory-and-defeat of competitive athletics the quickest available parallel
as the United Nations, that have found themselves denied freedom of action
to the pedagogical reform he had discovered in Great Britain. But here he
for the international good by the selfishness of individual countries.
encountered a new barricade on the road to his goal.
Coubertin determined that his International Olympic Committee should
The first major sport with which he associated himself was rowing, a
rapidly growing activity along the Seine. When he inquired, however, into
live up to its name and be truly international in its thinking. He was
the possibility of bringing British oarsmen to France, or sending French
convinced that if its members owed their membership to their election by
their individual countries, their loyalty and devotion to the international
oarsmen to compete at Henley, he found that British and French conceptions
welfare would be affected. So he personally selected the first members of the
of amateurism were not the same.
This was the major turning point. It was here that Coubertin came to the
International Olympic Committee, the central governing body, the trustees
of the Olympic ideal, and ruled that they should continue to choose their
realization that to attain his end he must raise his sights.
own members from persons who, like themselves, would think first of the
There must be One World in Sport!
good of all the nations rather than primarily of the benefit of one. The
So it was that Coubertin conceived, for the first time, the idea of drawing
members should, he felt, be the ambassadors of the international Olympic
together educators, diplomats, sports leaders, to see if some way could not
ideal to their various countries, rather than the delegates of their nations to
be found to further the interchange of ideas and make it possible for the youth
the International Olympic Committee.
of many nations to benefit by a meeting of the minds and of the muscles.
This self-perpetuating feature, as Coubertin anticipated, has brought
This was the birth of the modern Olympic games.
criticism from the very beginning, but, probably more than any other basic
As, later on, we unroll the record of this first meeting in 1894 and the
feature of the modern games, has held the organization together and
gradual growth of the Olympic movement, we shall see the extent to which
maintained the Olympic ideal.
this was the work of one man-Coubertin. And we shall see that while
"As the best means of safeguarding liberty and serving democracy," he
Coubertin envisioned the growth of his idea to world-wide proportions, he
said on one occasion, "it is not always best to abandon ourselves to the
never lost sight of his primary objective, the individual. Only when we
popular will. Rather we must maintain, in the midst of the vast electoral
remember this can we understand.
ocean, strong islands that will ensure independence and stability."
So firmly were his eyes fixed on the welfare of the individual that, to his
One final basic fact, almost universally misunderstood, must be made clear
dying day, he fought to preserve the individual's rights. He fought against
before we plunge into the chronological story of the Olympic games, ancient
the introduction into the games of team sports. He wanted no "crews,"
and modern. Peace is not the major aim of the Olympic games.
no "fives," no "elevens." He couldn't prevent their participation, but he
Peace, Coubertin hoped and believed, would be furthered by the Olympic
never ceased to protest.
games. He said so on many occasions. But peace could be the product only of
In 1934, on the occasion of the fortieth anniversary of the founding of
a better world; a better world could be brought about only by better
the Olympic games, he restated his firm conviction that "the Olympiads
individuals; and better individuals, Coubertin was convinced, could be
have been re-established for the rare and solemn glorification of the individual
developed only by the give-and-take, the buffeting and battering, the stress and
athlete, and team sports should have no place either in the stadium itself or
strain of fierce competition. So peace-well, that was to be hoped for and prayed
in connection [with the games]."
for and worked for, but in the meantime, the tougher the battle, the better.
It was this feeling for the individual that led Coubertin to insist on one
"Heaven preserve us," cried Coubertin in London many years ago after a
thing that he could control, that there should be no point score in the games.
particularly violent series of incidents in the 1908 Olympic games, "from a
The introduction of mathematics, he felt, would tend to obscure the
society in which there are no excesses and where any expression of impas-
performance of the individual. Larger countries with larger teams might use
convention sioned feeling must be kept imprisoned within the narrow confines of
the point scores to add up an impressive total and thus, by sheer weight of
International Olympic Committee] has been subjected-the ambuscades, the
When I think of the attacks without number to which [the
statistics, bury the individual athlete and lose sight of his identity and the
quality of his performance. No total point score compiled by a large number
of competitors from a major nation should, he felt, be considered of greater
this sort of wrestling is great sport, even when I our thrill adversaries to the realization disregard that the
unbelievable conspiracies, the mad jealousies
importance than a single victory by, perhaps, the only representative of a
niceties of the classic techniques and go in for catch-as-catch-can methods.
smaller nation.
The important thing in life," he continued, "is not the victory, but the
This adding up of points, too, he felt, would make for greater nationalism,
struggle; the essential thing is not to have conquered, but to have fought
and he was against that. He foresaw the rise of rampant nationalism, and he
well. To spread these precepts is to develop a more valiant, more strong, more
recognized that it would be, if carried to excess, bad for everything he
scrupulous and more generous humanity."
cherished and could wreck the Olympic games.
The means by which he forestalled this possibility has been the subject of
bitter criticism, but its efficacy is the envy of other world organizations, such
CHAPTER 2
The Ancient Olympic Games
11
THE ANCIENT OLYMPIC GAMES
sourceful, wheedled from the King the promise of one tenth of his coveted
herds should he be successful in his task, and promptly turned the rivers
Alpheus and Peneus from their courses to flow through the stables and win
Gentlemen, can you possibly believe that similar / unsporting]
his wager from him. Augeas then made his second mistake: He refused to
incidents are not spread across the chronicles of the Olympic,
Heracles his reward, whereupon that worthy, with the rough and ready justice pay
Pythian, Nemean games-all the great sporting events of ancient
of his day, slew Augeas and his family, made himself a present of the entire
history? One would have to be naive indeed to pretend that
herds of his erstwhile employer, and instituted the Olympic games in
this is the case.
celebration of what he no doubt regarded as a fine piece of work.
BARON PIERRE DE COUBERTIN*
This account is only one of many versions of the origin of the games, none
of them very well substantiated. One thing, however, seems certain, and that is
that the games in their early days had religious significance; and there is some
The ancient Olympic games could never deny their modern offspring. They,
reason to believe that they were a gradual development of the custom of
too, were beset by sectionalism, professionalism, jealousies, and wars.
common sacrifice by neighboring communities, which prevailed as Greece
In spite of all, they survived.
emerged from the pugnaciousness of the heroic age.
For nearly twelve hundred years, despite never-ending threats of invasion
According to a more believable version, Lycurgus, the great Spartan law-
and the interminable internal squabbles that culminated in the Peloponnesian
giver, about 820 B.C. joined with Iphetus, king of Elis, on the bidding of the
War, and finally surviving even the loss of Greek independence, the Olympic
oracle, to restore the festival. Their act was immortalized by the inscription
games were held every four years without interruption.
The spirit of the Golden Age of Greece, handed down to us in the dramas
the Temple of Hera in the second century A.D. at the time of Pausanias.
of their names jointly upon a discus of which we have record as hanging in
of Sophocles and Euripides, the philosophies of Pythagoras and Socrates, the
It is certain that at some time, many centuries before Christ, the people
fragmentary marbles of Phidias and Praxiteles, was as truly typified in the
ancient Olympic games. The high ideals of true sportsmanship that were the
southward from the Gulf of Corinth, were celebrating a great festival at
of the fertile northwestern coast of the Peloponnesian peninsula, stretching
real basis of their success furnished the inspirational power as the Olympic
Olympia. This town was located in Pisatis, the near-by neighbors of which
games reached their zenith in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.; and the
were in Elis, boasting an acropolis on a hill five hundred feet high, and Triphylia,
momentum gained during the Golden Age carried them on for hundreds of
which was located Pylos, the city of Nestor.
years, even though the decadence that eventually cost Greece her independ-
In all probability the games originally were under the control of the
ence likewise undermined the true spirit of the games and destroyed the basic
Pisatans, but the Eleans and Spartans took joint charge, and under their
ideals that had been responsible for their popularity.
management the games quickly assumed vast importance. The great historian
At their height, the games were the embodiment of all that made Greece
the mistress of the Mediterranean. The simple religious festival in which they
Herodotus tells how the Eleans, visiting Egypt, boasted of their handling of
the games and declared that not even the Egyptians could better their admin-
had their beginning developed into a seven-day carnival of culture and athletic
istration. The Egyptians contented themselves with pointing out that there
prowess with all the color and pageantry of those classic days. Kings raced
was room for improvement in a situation wherein Elean athletes were
side by side with common soldiers at Olympia, the prize a simple wreath of
olive. The victor found his name inscribed with the immortals. Writers,
permitted to compete in contests judged solely by their fellow citizens, a con-
dition that has had its counterpart in the modern games.
sculptors, and artists came to be inspired. "Solemn embassies coming to the
shores of the Alpheus and to the foot of Parnassus in their splendid chariots
However, it is pretty generally admitted that the Elean control of the
or to the Delos in their gilded vessels with sails of Tyrian purple" made of
Olympic games was businesslike and fair. Each fourth year marked the
Olympia a spectacle that was more than a mere athletic carnival.
commencement of a new Olympiad and was celebrated by the
It was the Golden Age of Greece in flesh and blood.
preceding which Elean heralds proclaimed throughout Greece the "Truce games, of
God" and sounded the "Call to the Games."
The origin of the games is shrouded in the mystery of the period when
myth and legend were inextricably tangled with the beginnings of Hellenic
The Eleans enforced their opinions, regardless of where the lash might fall.
history. One story told by Pindar traces the origin of the games back to that
It is recorded that on one occasion when the Spartans, who had practically
legendary time when Heracles, doing penance for his misdeeds, was given the
given control of the games to the Eleans, failed to observe the truce, they
unpleasant task of cleansing, in a single day, the stables in which Augeas, king
of were fined the equivalent of $40,000, the sum being spent for bronze images
of Elis, maintained his magnificent herds. Heracles, as canny as he was re-
Zeus. Those who robbed pilgrims en route to or from the games were like-
wise sternly punished by the Eleans, whose strict and impartial enforcement
*Address by the founder and life honorary president of the Olympic games at a
dinner given by His Majesty's Government during the celebration of the games of the
of the statutes gave the games a fine reputation through the then known world.
Fourth Olympiad at London in 1908.
The first definite record of Olympic victors commences in the year 776 B.C.
with the name of Coroebus of Elis, a cook, and continues in unbroken
10
12
History of the Olympic Games
The Ancient Olympic Games
13
succession until 394 A.D., when Theodosius, emperor of Rome, abolished the
to guarantee an unbiased hearing to his works. The audience hissed his
games by imperial edict, leaving as the last victor of the ancient games one
performers, their opinion being confirmed by Diodorus, who adds, as further
Varastad, an Armenian.
evidence, that the boat transporting the poems, songs, and performers back to
Following hot on the heels of Coroebus, the first listed winner, came the
Syracuse sank en route, this disaster being attributed in no small measure to
names of eleven other citizens of Elis; but by this time the games, which still
the poor quality of the compositions.
consisted of a single race the length of the stadium (about two hundred yards),
Peace was declared a year later; and Dionysius, who appears to have been
had attracted athletes from other parts, and the list of Elean victors was
what modern sports writers would call a glutton for punishment, sent a larger
broken for the first time at the thirteenth Olympiad.
At the games of the fourteenth Olympiad a second race, two lengths of
and more impressive delegation, fully equipped with tents of purple and gold,
the stadium, was added to the program; and four years later, at the games of
but minus any songs or poems. The appearance of the magnificent representa-
tives of the hated Dionysius was enough to rouse the ire of the Greeks, but
the fifteenth Olympiad, a still longer race gave a chance to those whose
this feeling was fanned to fever heat when Dicon, the great runner from
endurance was greater than their fleetness of foot.
The influence of the warlike Spartans began to make itself felt more
Caulonia in Sicily who had captured the Olympic dash in the previous games,
now appeared and repeated his victory of four years before but this time
strongly about this time, and with the dawn of the eighteenth Olympiad the
pentathlon, an all-around contest consisting of five events, was initiated and
representing Syracuse, thus becoming the first "tramp athlete" in history.
This was the last straw, and amid scenes of wild confusion Lysias, the great
was designed obviously for the warrior-athlete.
It was an elimination contest, according to some accounts, in which all
Athenian orator, harangued the crowds, denouncing Dionysius for displaying
wealth torn from Greek sufferers and accusing Sparta of treachery. It speaks
entrants first took part in a broad-jumping contest. Those who cleared a
volumes for the Elean control of the games that open hostilities did not result.
certain distance qualified for the second event, a spear-throwing contest. Only
However, the chariots that had been expected to bring the tyrant further
the four best in this predecessor of our modern javelin-throwing event
honors all fell apart-a fact that may or may not have had significance in the
survived to participate in the sprint of one length of the stadium. One more
light of the popular feeling against him.
athlete was eliminated here, and the best three sprinters whirled the discus,
It is quite clear that by this time the Olympic games had achieved an
the two having the best throws engaging in the grand finale of this grueling
importance that far transcended other activities of the period. It was no
competition, a wrestling match to a finish.
small honor to have such poets as Pindar, Simonides, and Euripides sing the
Truly, that was a Spartan test of skill, courage, and endurance.
praises of the winners or to have a Phidias or a Praxiteles carve their statues.
Boxing was added with the games of the twenty-third Olympiad, four-
More than the olive wreath rewarded the triumphant athlete. As early as
horse chariot racing at the near-by hippodrome at the twenty-fifth games, and
the games of the sixty-first Olympiad, the victors were permitted to erect
the pankration, a fierce combination of wrestling and boxing, in the thirty-
statues in their own honor in Olympia, although it was not until they had
third games. By this time interest in the games had become so widespread and
won three times that the statues could bear their likeness. Frequently the
the demand for a wider variety of contests so great that the program was
winner was greeted on his return to his home city with all the honor accorded
continuously expanded, until at the time of the seventy-seventh Olympiad
a victorious warrior, sometimes being permitted to enter through a breach in
the period of the games was stretched from a single day to five, with two
the walls. In warlike Sparta he was rewarded with the post of honor in battle.
additional days devoted to religious ceremonies.
Royalty, as we have seen, had begun to seek honors, particularly in the
The extension of the program to more than one day was doubtless
chariot events, where the wealth of the owner could make itself felt through
occasioned by the great stimulation of Panhellenic feeling caused by the
the excellence of his team. Pausanias and Demaratus, Spartan kings, are listed
expulsion of the Persians early in the fifth century B.C. People came from
among the winners, as are Kings Gelon and Hiera of Syracuse, Theron of
communities bordering the Mediterranean from Marseilles to Trebizond.
Agregentum, and Archelaus of Macedon. The best that Alexander the Great
Africa, Sicily, Italy, and Asia Minor sent their representatives to compete and
could do was to tie for victory in a foot race, but this was a personal accom-
erected sanctuaries and treasure houses at Olympia.
plishment and meant more than a victory due solely to the ownership of a
During the eighty-eighth and eighty-ninth Olympiads, Athens was at war
great team of horses.
with Sparta; but at the ninetieth Alcibiades, the great Athenian statesman,
Respect for Olympic victors was acknowledged throughout the world.
himself appeared with seven chariots, the political significance of the event
Dorieus, the son of Diagoras, fought for Sparta against Athens and, when
being the demonstration that the long war had not impoverished Athens.
captured, was released without ransom in recognition of his Olympic victories,
Alcibiades did not content himself with merely making a show, however, as
for he had won three times in succession. Philipus of Croton, another
his great teams took first, second, and fourth places in the chariot race.
Olympic victor, was killed in an attack on Sicily, but so great was his
Dionysius the Elder, tyrant of Syracuse and a social climber of his day,
reputation that his own enemies erected a shrine over his grave.
determined to impress the Greeks with his learning and talents and sent a
Cimon, father of the great Miltiades, was the owner of a splendid team of
large chorus to the ninety-eighth games to recite his poems and sing songs of
his composition. The feeling of the Greeks toward Dionysius was not such as
mares the that he drove to victory in the chariot race. Banished from Athens by
tyrant Peisistratus, whose political accomplishments were greater than his
14
History of the Olympic Games
The Ancient Olympic Games
15
Olympic reputation, Cimon was restored to citizenship when he repeated his
The Greek devotion to a cause at all costs was evident in the training
victory in the chariot race and permitted the name of Peisistratus to appear
methods of the athletes, if historians of those early days are to be taken at
in the list of victors in place of his own. When Cimon died some years later
their word. According to Galen, the athletes rose and partook of a breakfast
after winning his third Olympic chariot race with the same team, his
of bread, half baked and slightly fermented. They took plenty of time to eat
magnificent horses were buried with him.
and digest their food and then embarked on a program of ceaseless and
It was pretty difficult for those who had no understanding of the basic
character of the Olympic games to comprehend the motives that prompted
punishing exercise that carried through the afternoon with no stop for lunch
and sometimes went on into the night.
the Greeks to take such pride in their Olympic accomplishments, as, for
instance, when Alcibiades, setting forth his services to the state, placed first
But dinner-ah, there was a meal. The Greek idea of a good dinner, if we
are to believe the chroniclers of the day, was meat and plenty of it. Milo of
his victory at Olympia and the prestige he had won for Athens by his
Crotona, according to the ringside account of one of these ancient sports
magnificent display.
Cicero, with Roman contempt for Greek frivolity, cynically reported
writers, ate an entire ox at one sitting, and Theagenes of Thasos, not to be
that an Olympic victor received more honors than a triumphant general at
outdone, duplicated the feat. Galen tells us that six and one-half pounds of
Rome, and told of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having won the Olympic
meat was a very ordinary portion for the he-man athletes of those days, and
prize himself and then seen his two sons crowned victors on the same day,
he describes an athlete named Aegon who tossed off eighty pastry cakes at
a single sitting.
was addressed by a Laconian in these works: "Die, Diagoras, for thou hast
While these meals are sufficient to cause the hair of a modern trainer to
nothing short of divinity to desire."
Herodotus chronicles a similar feeling expressed by the officers of Xerxes,
turn white as he reads of them, at least in the matter of topics of conversation
who, after the battle of Thermopylae, questioned surviving Greeks regarding
the Grecian trainers agreed with those of today, for none but the lightest
the prizes offered at Olympia. When told that the winner received only a
topics was permitted to be bandied among the athletes at mealtime, mental
strain being regarded as a certain source of dyspepsia and headaches.
wreath of wild olive, Tigranes expressed the surprise of all concerned with
the remark: "What manner of men are these we are fighting? It is not for
Liquor was taken in small quantities by some, but the majority of the
Olympic athletes were total abstainers, at least during training; and fried and
money they contend but for the glory of achievement."
Olympia was situated at the spot where the rivers Alpheus and Cladeus
boiled foods and cold drinks were absolutely forbidden. Various types of
converge in western Peloponnesus, The Altis, or sacred grove of Zeus,
baths and rubbing and massage were regular parts of the training routine.
occupied a space approximately in the shape of a rectangle. Low hills
All contestants had to swear that they were freemen, of pure Hellenic
bounded it on the north, the Alpheus and Cladeus were to the south and the
blood, that neither they nor their immediate relatives had been guilty of
west, while at the eastern boundary was the hippodrome, site of the
outlawry or sacrilegious act, and that they did not propose to win by any
unfair means. All were required to have undergone a long period of training, any
equestrian events.
The stadium itself, in which the running races and other athletic contests
varying according to the event in which they were to contest. They competed
absolutely nude.
were held, was about 210 yards long and 35 yards wide. Entrance to the field
Not only the athletes but also the judges, called hellanodikes, underwent
of the stadium was reserved for the judges, the competitors, and the heralds.
long period of preparation for the ancient games. The judges, who were a
The audience, to the number of probably forty thousand, took points of
chosen from among the Eleans, were instructed for a period of ten months by
vantage on the sloping hillsides.
Elean magistrates. Their authority was great, and the only appeal from their
Not much is really known about the hippodrome now, as the rivers have
run wild over the site and destroyed the marks by which its exact limits
decisions was to the Elean senate. Dressed in their purple robes and occupying
most imposing sight.
the special seats reserved for them on the floor of the stadium, they were a
could be measured, but it is generally agreed that it was probably about
eight hundred yards in length.
Historians disagree about the number of the judges, but apparently not
Numerous buildings, most of them treasure houses or structures with a
more than one or two judges officiated at the early Olympic games, where
religious significance, were located in and about the Altis. The most important
but one event was contested. When the athletic program was expanded to
of these undoubtedly was the Olympium, which contained the gigantic statue
take in many events and last for five or more days, the number was increased,
of Zeus by Phidias. The statue, the figure of Zeus being of ivory and his
robes of gold, was more that forty feet high and was regarded as one of the
celebration of the games.
although there seems to be no record of more than ten judges at a single
Seven Wonders of the World.
In the original race of one stade, or, as the name implies, one length of
The two buildings chiefly devoted to athletics were the gymnasium, with
the stadium, the runners dashed from one wall to another at the opposite end,
a long covered colonnade equal in length to the stadium track, which was
and in later years when longer races were added, ran back and forth for
used by the athletes in their training, and the palestra, roughly two hundred
certain number of lengths, the first long race apparently being about the a
feet square, in which the wrestlers, boxers, and gymnasts practiced under the
although some authorities say it was more than twice that distance. Foot
equivalent of the modern 1,500-meter run or about seven eighths of a mile,
eyes of the judges for the month immediately preceding the contests.
16
History of the Olympic Games
The Ancient Olympic Games
17
races in heavy armor were held during some of the games and were highly
closely resembled the modern practices in athletics, and the same thing is
recommended by the warlike Spartans for their military character.
true of the running races, while in the jumping contests it seems to have been
Wrestling was one of the sports that was added to the Olympic program
the custom to use halteres, or weights, which, carried in the hand and tossed
early in the life of the games, and it was extremely popular with the spectators.
backward at the proper moment, added greatly to the distance covered.
It was a combination of strength, agility, science, and grace, brute force being
of little account because of the nature of the rules. The wrestlers endeavored
One Greek athlete by the name of Phayllus was credited with a leap of over
to remain upright during the contests, the object being to secure a fall by a
fifty feet, which seems incredible to us. However, the professional jumpers
of the nineteenth century in England achieved remarkable results with the
quick and graceful movement rather than by wallowing on the ground. The
instant one of the contestants touched the ground with any part of his body
use of weights, one individual having a well-authenticated record of having
from the knee up, a fall was awarded to his opponent. Milo of Crotona was the
cleared six feet in the standing high jump, his feet actually being bound
most famous wrestler of ancient times, as well as an eater of great reputation.
together. The information regarding the performances of the ancient athletes,
Boxing, like wrestling, was a popular Olympic sport and was conducted
however, is so contradictory that it is hardly worth while to attempt to make
comparisons with the records made by present-day athletes.
very much along the lines of the nineteenth-century bare-knuckle fights, no
Victors in the ancient games automatically became members of the
ring being used and the contest being continued until one boxer decided that
Athletae, a pioneer athletic association, whose members maintained a sort of
he had had enough-or his opponent decided it for him. The hands of the
boxers were wrapped in some kind of covering the exact nature of which
gymnasium where they trained for contests and discussed matters of interest
to the athletic world.
changed from time to time during the history of the games.
The disintegration of the games may be laid at the door of human nature
Apparently in both boxing and wrestling there were no weight divisions,
rather than to a basic weakness in the structure of the games themselves.
and there is no record of any attempt in any of the other Olympic contests to
overcome the handicaps imposed by nature. All contestants in the races had
As long as the high moral and religious nature of the games remained intact,
an even start, and with the same principle applied to boxing and wrestling,
they grew in popularity and successfully survived every effort to debauch
these two events quickly became practically the exclusive field of the heavy-
their noble character. It was only when the influence of the politicians and
the wealthy was permitted to make itself felt that corruption crept in, and
weights. Despite this fact, there was a premium on cleverness; this was a
the athletes began to think not of the wreath of olive but of cash prizes to be
quality much appreciated by the spectators.
The ancient games had one contest, introduced about the thirty-third
Theodosius of Rome, they had long since lost all the characteristics that had
had. When the Olympic games were ultimately banned as pagan festivals by
Olympiad, that was regarded as a supreme test of courage, resourcefulness,
carried them to the heights.
skill, and strength, but which, if the vivid descriptions given by the historians
are correct, more closely resembled a gutter brawl than an athletic event. It
The Olympic games after twelve hundred years of unbroken celebration
was a combination of boxing and wrestling, with kicking and other fancy
went officially out of existence in 394 A.D. Shortly afterward the looting of
tricks tossed in as a side line, and was called the pankration.
the historic city of Olympia commenced, the colossal statue of Zeus being
Philostratus, who apparently occupied a ringside seat at these ancient
carried off to Constantinople, where it was later destroyed in the great fire.
contests, tells us that "the pankrationists practice a hazardous style of
Theodosius II, seeking to continue the work of his namesake, who had been
wrestling. They must employ backward falls, which are not safe for wrestling,
responsible for officially ending the games, issued orders in the fifth century
and grips in which victory must be obtained by falling. They must have skill
in various methods of strangling. They also wrestle with an opponent's ankle
Olympia were placed in this classification. A hundred years later earthquakes
A.D. for the destruction of all pagan temples. Some of the buildings at
and twist his arm, besides hitting and jumping on him, for all these practices
completed the work of destruction, and the muddy waters of the Alpheus
belong to the pankration, only biting and gouging being excepted. The
of the games.
and Cladeus soon buried beneath a layer of silt the last vestiges of the site
Spartans admit even these practices, but the Eleans and the laws of the games
There Olympia lay for centuries until the inquisitive pick of Richard
exclude them, though they commend strangling."
Obviously the pankration was no place for weaklings; and it is quite clear
Chandler in 1766 first uncovered some of the ruins. He could not finance the
from the accounts as well as from murals and sculptures depicting the contest
work of excavation, but in 1820 the French government picked up where he
had left off, only to let the work die after barely getting started.
that in the heat of battle the contestants sometimes forgot that there were
In 1876 the German government started in thorough Teutonic fashion to
one or two practices, such as attempting to gouge out their opponents' eyes,
see what could be found at Olympia, and to their great credit it must be said
that were forbidden. To prevent contestants from thus forgetting how to
that six years of hard labor and thousands of dollars were spent on the task
behave, the judges were provided with an emblem of office in the form of a
rod, which not only identified them as people with authority but could be
without found. any attempt on the part of the Germans to appropriate what they
used with great effect on the head of a contestant who stooped to forbidden
In a general way the early field events, such as javelin and discus throwing,
determine their nature and their size, and one hundred and thirty statues in
No less than fifty monumental structures were uncovered sufficiently to
methods.
varying stages of disrepair were dug up. It was necessary to build a large
IOC
18
History of the Olympic Games
CHAPTER3
museum at Olympia to house the veritable treasure of thousands of coins,
THE GAMES REBORN
bits of pottery, and other objects, each one of which helped to piece together
the tragic story of the great games of the Golden Age and the sordid com-
mercialism that brought about their downfall.
Such, then, was the great religious, athletic, and artistic festival that led
Vainly, perfidious outsiders continue to spread the notion that
Pindar to write: "The Gods love the games." Regardless of the hearsay nature
the modern games had an uncertain beginning and that their
of much of the evidence produced by the ancient writers, it must be admitted
development has been a succession of timid steps depending on
that the ancient games were one of the outstanding Greek contributions to
the hazard of circumstance. The truth is different indeed.
history and that they played a tremendous part in spreading Greek culture
Olympism was born full-fledged, like Minerva, its program
and ideals throughout the ancient world.
complete and its scope likewise. The entire planet is its domain.
Today, fragments of sculpture, bits of history, odes, orations, dramas, and
All Games, All Nations.
other mute evidences of the glory that was Greece exist in abundance; but the
BARON PIERRE DE COUBERTIN*
only one you will find outside a museum, a theater, or a book is the Olympic
games.
Young Pierre de Coubertin had read and traveled extensively. His travels had
taken him not only to near-by Britain but across the western seas to the
modern land of promise, the United States of America. His studies and
reading had taken him still farther-back to the Golden Age of Greece.
When, after his visit to Rugby School in England, he became convinced
that the way to a better individual humanity lay along the rugged pathway of
exposure to competitive modern life, he returned to his own country with a
growing conviction that he must get the youth of the world together,
preferably in the friendly competition of sport.
As he began the campaign that was to lead toward a meeting, in Paris, of
persons whom he felt he could interest in the project of building a better
proposal. He found that progress was slow.
humanity, he wrote, talked, argued, listened, and agitated ceaselessly for his
"It is hard for anyone to realize," he wrote, "the very slow formation of
the International Olympic Committee. It did not enter into real action until
after the beginning of the century. Until then, they were friends gathered
there was none. No help could come from there, either financial or moral. It
around me with much indifference and pleasant smiles. As to public opinion,
has been said that Olympism was 'in the air' and likely to be revived somehow
or other. It was not. It was born artificially and could not be brought
according to ordinary methods. Its growth was artificial and there still up
remains a little of that needed today."
As we look back now across half a century of Olympic competition, it is
of sometimes difficult to realize how things have changed. In the waning
the nineteenth century each country, as Coubertin had discovered, had years its
the between athletes of even neighboring countries was prevented by more than
own native sports, its own rules and regulations; and the free competition
obvious difficulties of lack of transportation and communication. There
was a gap of understanding, too.
of possibilities that lay ahead, his friends, who were not overly interested
Coubertin the found himself talking in a vacuum, for without an understanding
of Lausanne, the establishment 23, 1934, of the on Olympic the occasion games. of the celebration of the fortieth anniversary games at
*Address June by the founder and life honorary president of the Olympic
From a letter written to the author by Coubertin, July 27, 1934.
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History of the Olympic Games
The Games Reborn
21
in sport anyhow, could see only the immediate difficulties and no great
reason for exerting themselves to change the situation.
A discussion of the need for a pedagogical revolution only mildly
wrestled they said, had been consecrated by the gods. Jupiter a legend.
Olympia, athletics. athletics, in their minds, had an origin in divine idealized
The Greeks, So who idealized their entire national existence,
interested the educators and interested the others not at all. However, the
importance of affecting a change in the understanding of amateurism, so that
boxing Saturn, Apollo there had vanquished Hermes in there had
the athletes of all nations might meet on an equal basis, attracted the attention
there a celebrated match, the Heracles first Olympic after his games. triumph over Augeas, a King race of and Elis, Ares had in
of those technically informed and finally enabled him to call a meeting of
interested persons.
The Olympic games were born in Greece because the
Still something was lacking. Coubertin saw that what he needed was some-
accomplishment or some peculiar existed there by virtue of some strange law germ of of athletic
thing that would capture the imagination of disinterested persons who had
germ the principle of heredity-and because of the existence physiology of this
culture enough to understand and time and money enough to provide the
games could not help being born.
necessary pressure.
Sport is not natural to man. We must not confuse
As he read and as he traveled, he began to see a definite connection
vigor, perfection. They are very different. All animals have sport a with muscular
between the legendary feats of the Olympic victors of ancient Greece and the
pleasure suppleness, and agility, and, if healthy, take a certain kind of
sporting prowess of the modern Anglo-Saxons. He became more and more
convinced that if the athletes of the modern world could mingle with one
ardent presupposes desire combat and consequently willing, thoughtful more.
It therein, but sport-there's something else again-something certain sort of
another, animated by the high athletic ideals of the ancient Greeks, a great
In Roman for victory, and the moral exhilaration training, the
good would be accomplished.
As he studied the story of ancient Greece this idea of restoring the Olympic
little Ages athletics was a revival of the athletic spirit among the knighthood. the Middle
there times the gladiator supplanted the athlete. resulting In therefrom.
games to the glorious position that they once had occupied gripped him more
firmly day by day. "Delphi and Eleusis were only sanctuaries; Thermopylae
far from eve the contest in the solitude of the marble porticos young of the passed
the of and paganism have in common! The Greek How
immortalized the names of heroes; the Acropolis retells the story of a great
He associated without blemish either in his own life or that personally of his and by
heredity; noise. He also had to be irreproachable gymnasium,
city; but Olympia," he said, "symbolizes an entire civilization, superior to
cities, military heroes, and the ancient religions."
before his act with the national religion, ancestors.
After all is said and done, no one can express the deep conviction of
symbol an of altar and receiving as token of victory a consecrating simple wreath, himself the
Coubertin as well as he himself could, and did, and without an understanding
genuine disinterestedness.*
of the deep impression that the ancient games made on him it is difficult to
comprehend the burning devotion of the man to his cause.
succeeded he speaks, and from the bite developed a flaming fever of enthusiasm germ of which
Yes. Baron de Coubertin had been bitten by the Olympic
What of the games themselves? [he asks.] One might feel that with the
all over the in world. spreading until now it animates about a hundred fifty nations that he
elite of Greece gathered on the banks of the Alpheus-artists to show their
work, poets and historians to read their literary compositions, diplomats
to conduct their negotiations-the sport was but a pretext, in reality but a
at and the cost of six following hard on their heels, had exhumed the at Olympia;
French the Germans, soldiers had exhumed and restored the temple of Zeus
secondary consideration.
profit to their years of labor and thousands of dollars, entire city
But no-these others came only to pay homage to the athletes. The pre-
thought the honor country, since not a single piece of marble apparently left Greece. without
dominance of the athlete is evident everywhere. It is he whose statue is
Coubertin of restoring Olympia to the world honor They
erected in the avenues, he whose name is inscribed upon the marbles, he
uneasily reviving and of modern athletics. Red-blooded Europeans under the
influence saw his own nation gradually being transformed was enough.
whose native town greeted him on his return with a triumphal entrance
through a breach in the walls.
new nation in craving a action. A trip to the United States, where were he stirring
Folly! Frivolous enthusiasm! But this folly endured for a thousand
years. One can explain these things only by two inspirations-civic pride
past, more than the games, and he had found the Americans, unfettered possibility
the revival of new world, had encouraged him to suggest the found of a
and art. We must admire in the athlete ambition and will, the ambition to
possibility. sympathetic. He began to dare to think of his dream by as the a
do more than his rivals and the will to do his best. The whole story of
athletics is contained in the three words spoken by Father Didon in
building up the sporting spirit of his pupils in a football game: "Citius,
crystallize the Sorbonne in form, and at a meeting of the Athletic Sports games began to
Coubertin's and dreams take of a revival of the ancient Olympic
altius, fortius! [Faster, higher, stronger!] These words form a program
of moral beauty and inspiration.
the great idea that Paris animated on November his whole 25, being. 1892, he first gave voice publicly Union to at
*Coubertin, Souvenirs d'Amérique et de Grèce, Hachette et Cie, Paris, 1897, p. 105.
Speaking *Ibid. at the conference, of which he was one of the three leaders,
tThe official motto of the Olympic games.
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History of the Olympic Games
The Games Reborn
23
Coubertin said: "Let us export oarsmen, runners, fencers; there is the free
trade of the future-and on the day when it shall take its place among the
program the of the congress treat of the contradictions and compromises of
customs of Europe, the cause of peace will have received a new and powerful
the amateur rules. The project mentioned in the last paragraph might be
support. This thought is sufficient to encourage your humble servant to
happy medium of international understanding that we seek, if not
dream now of the second part of his program; he hopes that you will assist
reach at this moment, at least to prepare for. The revival of the Olympic to
him as you have aided him to this point and that with your assistance he can
work for and eventually realize, on a basis properly in tune with the
and together every four years the representatives of the nations of the world,
games on a basis conforming to the conditions of modern life would bring
conditions of modern life, the re-establishment of the Olympic games."*
It is not strange that his auditors failed to grasp the significance of the idea
constitute the highest of international activities.*
we can well believe that these courteous and peaceful contests would
thus first put into words; and, as Coubertin goes on to state, "They thought I
was merely speaking in parables and I saw that my hearers classified the
In his preparations for the congress, which was scheduled to be held in
Olympic games in their mental museum along with the mysteries of Eleusis
for Sloane, the the Princeton University teacher who was his colleague in
spring of 1894, Coubertin found his main support in the person of Professor the
or the Delphic Oracle-dead things that could be revived only in the theater."
But Coubertin was persistent. One Adolphe de Palissaux had proposed an
sessions. Their English colleague, Herbert, took an interest preparing in
international congress for the "Study of Questions of Amateurism," and he
technical portion of the program, but evinced little enthusiasm the
and Coubertin joined forces to bring it actually into being. They secured the
revival of the Olympic games, in which regard he reflected the attitude over of the his
backing of the French Sports Union for their idea, and Coubertin personally
drew up the preparatory program. Three commissioners were to have charge
her "England, which regarded bodily strength and vigor the exclusive of
country at the moment. As Coubertin so aptly expresses his thoughts:
of the preparations: Mr. C. Herbert, secretary of the Amateur Athletic
Association, who represented Great Britain and the colonies; Professor W. M.
in his England, he succeeded in interesting personages of great
and enthusiasm in the two countries upon which he had based his hopes, France
children, was not enthusiastic." However, while Coubertin found property little
Sloane of Princeton University, who represented the American continent; and
Baron de Coubertin, representing France and Continental Europe.
the project. The Duke of Sparta, the King of Belgium, the Prince prominence of
The program, printed in French and English, contemplated the discussion
Crown Prince of Sweden, and many prominent figures in the European Wales,
and study of seven questions closely related to the problems of amateurism,
of political world accepted honorary memberships in the congress. Mr. Balfour
and to these seven Coubertin on his own initiative added an eighth, which
program. openly expressing some skepticism regarding the Olympic portion of the
England accepted and evinced great interest in the program, although
read as follows: "Regarding the possibility of the revival of the Olympic
games. Under what conditions could they be re-established?"
Thus modestly was launched the idea that was eventually to occupy the
dominant position in the discussions of the congress and develop within a few
on May. 28 Victor Balck announced the arrival of Lieutenants Bergh and
Most enthusiastic of all nations invited to the congress was Sweden,
years into the great world-wide Olympic movement.
holding The one of the Olympic celebrations at Stockholm on some future date. of
Brakenberg to represent Sweden and to request on her behalf the honor and
Baron de Coubertin's ideas on the subject were perhaps put more explicitly
in a circular dated January 19, 1894, which was sent to athletic organizations
only actual opposition to the congress came from the
all over the world. Today's athletic groups, struggling with the same problems,
and Gymnastic still Society, which wrote that that organization "had always believed Belgian
will read his document with interest. It said:
in believed that gymnastics and other sports were opposed and
principle"; and, not content with sending this letter, it organized contrary violent
Above all things it is important to preserve the noble and chivalrous
congress. propaganda among gymnastic organizations all over Europe against the
qualities in athletics that have characterized it in the past, in order that it
may continue effectively to play the part in modern education that the
the opening of the momentous congress, the French Gymnastic previous to
The shadow of the Franco-Prussian War was felt when, just
ancient Greeks attributed to it. Imperfect humanity tends always to
transform the Olympic athlete into the paid gladiator. These two formulae
announced that it would not participate if Germany was admitted to Union
are not compatible, and we must choose between them. As a protection
failure congress, creating a situation that fortunately was smoothed over the
against the lure of money and professionalism that threatens to engulf
them, the amateurs all over the world have drawn up complicated rules
individual only German present, appeared at the congress on his own initiative as the an
of Germany to send official delegates. Baron von Reiffenstein, through the
full of compromise and contradictions; too frequently the letter rather
and not as a representative of his country.
than the spirit of the law is followed out. Reform must come, and before
undertaking it we must discuss it. The questions that are found on the
Germany, Sweden, Belgium, Italy, and Spain did attend, however; and Russia,
Official delegates from France, England, the United States, Greece,
there Bohemia, Holland, and Australia sent proxies or letters. Hungary,
*Coubertin, Une campagne de vingt-et-un ans, p. 90.
were seventy-nine delegates representing a total of Altogether forty-nine
tCoubertin, Souvenirs 'Amérique et de Grèce.
"Coubertin, Une campagne de vingt-et-un ans, pp. 91-2.
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organizations when the six-day congress was opened at the Sorbonne in the
great amphitheater where the world of science had just celebrated the Pasteur
in When 490 Darius of Persia sent an army to capture and enslave Eretria and
Jubilee.
surrendered B.C. with Hippias, former tyrant of Athens, as its leader, Eretia Athens
The congress was opened by Baron de Courcel, and the discussion of the
Athenians." some twenty-five miles from Athens, "thinking to do the same Marathon, to the
a plain by treachery after a long siege and Hippias landed at was
Olympic games was presided over by M. Bikelas, representative of Greece.
The enthusiasm of Baron de Coubertin proved to be catching, and in short
order his project of the revival of the games overshadowed the other matters
that were up for discussion. As the delegates pictured the idea of a great
the athlete the Spartans, and for two days and two nights, without to enlist
Pheidippides, aid of because of his strength and courage, was dispatched
international athlétic meeting along the lines of those celebrated in ancient
his great ran, swimming rivers and climbing mountains rest, this
history, the possibilities of the project became so clear that they felt the
army start with the full moon.
story would to the warlike Spartans and returned with the news en that route. the Spartan He told
urge to get under way at once.
Baron de Coubertin, an indefatigable writer as well as an inspiring worker,
Meanwhile news came of the landing of the Persians at
made use of his literary ability to stir up popular interest in his proposition
Pheidippides, to the bearing spear and shield, marched with his troop Marathon, to and
by writing an article proposing Paris, with its international exposition planned
for the opening of the twentieth century, as the logical site for the first
guard sought of to surprise the Athenians through an attack by sea, Persians
invaders while official Athens cringed and prayed. As the give battle
revival of the games. This article had been published in the Revue de Paris
that number approximately twenty thousand at Marathon, the Greeks, leaving a rear
on the eve of the congress, and the delegates were well acquainted with it.
genius of warriors but numbering among their leaders the with half
But now, with enthusiasm fully aroused, six years seemed too far away,
that is Miltiades, still swarmed suddenly down from the mountains and, great in military
and the delegates demanded action. The iron was hot and it was time to
Athens. regarded as a tactical classic, slaughtered the Persians and a battle saved
strike. Such ardor might easily cool in the six years intervening before 1900.
Someone suggested 1896. Coubertin took his Greek friend Bikelas aside, and
in an instant, between the two, a great inspiration flashed-Athens, the capital
his champion, already fatigued by his long journey to Sparta and Olympic
Flushed with victory, the Athenian generals dispatched their
of Greece! What more fitting site for the celebration of the games of the 1st
Olympiad?
the feet of Athens, gasped, "Rejoice, we conquer," and completely
spent, reached victory, and history tells how Pheidippides, his strength city glad
tidings personal of exploits in the battle, to bring to the beleaguered return the and
The idea swept the congress like wildfire. By unanimous vote the delegates
chose Athens and the date of 1896. The games should be held every four
Here, those to whom he had delivered the message with his dropped dead at
years in the leading cities of the world, the program should be exclusively
modern, and an International Olympic Committee of fifteen should be named
this and historic proposing the modern marathon race to re-enact and games,
in surely, was a classical example of the spirit of the Olympic dying breath.
to have supreme authority over the celebration.
games that, event, M. Bréal made a contribution to the success of commemorate the Olympic
And so, amid strange scenes in which the practical men of the athletic
as we shall see, was far beyond his wildest dreams.
world found their petty differences dissipated under the mystic spell of the
*Herodotus, VI, 102.
atmosphere of ancient Greece that was cast over the conference through the
inspired stage management of its great protagonist, the Olympic dream of
Baron de Coubertin took definite shape for the first time.
And little, perhaps, did Michel Bréal, one of the delegates, realize that the
enthusiasm generated in his soul by the 1894 congress that led him to offer
a trophy for a marathon race would prove the inspiration for an event that
would develop into the real high light of every Olympic revival.
M. Bréal knew his history. His soul was moved by the history of the
ancient Hellenes and the efforts of Coubertin and his associates to bring to
life once more the high ideals and courage of those classic heroes of another
age. At the closing banquet of the Paris congress he rose to his feet and
delivered a stirring address eulogizing the Olympic games and their indelible
effect on the character of the nation that conducted them.
This Frenchman, like Coubertin, was a man not only of words but of
action. A few days after the congress he sent word to Baron de Coubertin
recalling the legendary feat of Pheidippides and offering a trophy for a race
to be held over the same course of roughly twenty-six miles at Athens in 1896.
Pheidippides, history tells us, was an Olympic champion of about 500 B.C.
Official Report - Xth Olympiad 1932, L.A.
There is, and will continue to be, argument over the success of the
Olympic games as a builder of international good will. It is the fate of the
games that the good will goes largely unnoticed while the inevitable incidents
to the contrary are given undue prominence. No one can doubt, however,
that the chances are improved for reaching Coubertin's goal of a "stronger
and better individual" tested by the searing heat of Olympic competition,
when the Olympic torch is being kept alight by those who themselves have
been exposed to its flame.
504
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Olympic Games
The Olympic Games are an international sports festival that began in ancient
Greece. The original Greek games were staged every fourth year for several
hundred years, until they were abolished in the early Christian era. The revival
of the Olympic Games took place in 1896, and since then they have been staged
every fourth year, except during World War I and World War II (1916, 1940,
1944).
Perhaps the basic difference between the ancient and modern Olympics is that
the former was the ancient Greeks' way of saluting their gods, whereas the
modern Games are a manner of saluting the athletic talents of citizens of all
nations. The original Olympics featured competition in music, oratory, and
theater performances as well. The modern Games have a more expansive athletic
agenda, and for two and one-half weeks they are supposed to replace the rancor
of international conflict with friendly competition. In recent times, however, that
lofty ideal has not always been attained.
THE ANCIENT OLYMPICS
The earliest reliable date that recorded history gives for the first Olympics is 776
BC, although virtually all historians presume that the Games began well before
then.
It is certain that during the midsummer of 776 BC a festival was held at Olympia
on the highly civilized eastern coast of the Peloponnesian peninsula. That
festival remained a regularly scheduled event, taking place during the
pre-Christian golden age of Greece. As a testimony to the religious nature of the
Games (which were held in honor of Zeus, the most important god in the ancient
Greek pantheon), all wars would cease during the contests. According to the
earliest records, only one athletic event was held in the ancient Olympics--a foot
race of about 183 m (200 yd), or the length of the stadium. A cook, Coroibus of
Elis, was the first recorded winner. The first few Olympics had only local appeal
and were limited to one race on one day; only men were allowed to compete or
attend. A second race--twice the length of the stadium--was added in the 14th
Olympics, and a still longer race was added to the next competition, four years
later.
When the powerful, warlike Spartans began to compete, they influenced the
agenda. The 18th Olympics included wrestling and a pentathlon consisting of
running, jumping, spear throwing (the javelin), discus throwing, and wrestling.
Boxing was added at the 23d Olympiad, and the Games continued to expand,
with the addition of chariot racing and other sports. In the 37th Olympiad (632
BC) the format was extended to five days of competition.
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The growth of the Games fostered "professionalism" among the competitors,
and the Olympic ideals waned as royalty began to compete for personal gain,
particularly in the chariot events. Human beings were being glorified as well as
the gods; many winners erected statues to deify themselves. In AD 394 the Games
were officially ended by the Roman emperor Theodosius, who felt that they had
pagan connotations.
THE MODERN OLYMPICS
Development
The revival of the Olympic Games in 1896, unlike the original Games, has a
clear, concise history. Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), a young French
nobleman, felt that he could institute an educational program in France that
approximated the ancient Greek notion of a balanced development of mind and
body. The Greeks themselves had tried to revive the Olympics by holding local
athletic games in Athens during the 1800s, but without lasting success. It was
Baron de Coubertin's determination and organizational genius, however, that
gave impetus to the modern Olympic movement. In 1892 he addressed a meeting
of the Union des Sports Athletiques in Paris. Despite meager response he
persisted, and an international sports congress eventually convened on June 16,
1894. With delegates from Belgium, Britain, France, Greece, Italy, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, and the United States in attendance, he advocated the revival of
the Olympic Games. He found ready and unanimous support from the nine
countries. De Coubertin had initially planned to hold the Olympic Games in
France, but the representatives convinced him that Greece was the appropriate
country to host the first modern Olympics. The council did agree that the
Olympics would move every four years to other great cities of the world.
Thirteen countries competed at the Athens Games in 1896. Nine sports were on
the agenda: cycling, fencing, gymnastics, lawn tennis, shooting, swimming, track
and field, weight lifting, and wrestling. The 14-man U.S. team dominated the
track and field events, taking first place in 9 of the 12 events. The Games were a
success, and a second Olympiad, to be held in France, was scheduled. Olympic
Games were held in 1900 and 1904, and by 1908 the number of competitors more
than quadrupled the number at Athens--from 311 to 2,082.
Beginning in 1924 a Winter Olympics was included--to be held at a separate
cold-weather sports site in the same year as the Summer Games--the first held at
Chamonix, France. In 1992 about 2,174 athletes from 63 nations competed at
Albertville, France, in a program that included Alpine and Nordic skiing,
biathlon, ice hockey, figure skating, speed skating, bobsledding, and luge. But
the Summer Games, with its wide array of events, are still the focal point of the
modern Olympics. The standard events are archery, basketball, boxing, canoeing
and kayaking, cycling, equestrian arts, fencing, field hockey, gymnastics,
handball, judo, modern pentathlon, rowing, shooting, soccer, swimming and
diving and synchronized swimming, track and field, volleyball, water polo, weight
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lifting, wrestling (both freestyle and Greco-Roman), and yachting. The Games
are governed by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), whose
headquarters is in Lausanne, Switzerland.
Although the Olympic Games have been increasingly politicized, the ideal of the
world's best athletes competing against each other in the arena of so-called pure
sport has been at least partially realized, especially from the athletes' point of
view. And even though skill and courage are manifested by most Olympic
participants, the great gold medalists are the ones who are most often
remembered.
In 1912, Jim THORPE, an American Indian, won both the decathlon and
pentathlon in Stockholm; Thorpe was eventually honored as the greatest athlete
of the first half of the 20th century. Over three Olympiads (1920, Antwerp; 1924,
Paris; and 1928, Amsterdam), Paavo NURMI, the Flying Finn, earned 6
individual gold medals in running, for distances from 1,500 m to 10,000 T. In
1924 and 1928, Nurmi's accomplishments were accompanied by those of U.S.
swimmer Johnny WEISSMULLER, who took 5 gold medals in the freestyle
sprints. In the 1932 Olympics, held in Los Angeles, American athlete Babe
Didrikson ZAHARIAS won 3 medals--2 gold, in the javelin and 80-m hurdles,
and a silver, in the high jump. When Nazi Germany hosted the 1936 Games in
Berlin as a showcase for Aryan supremacy, the black American Jesse OWENS
won 4 gold medals in what many experts consider the best track and field
performance in Olympic history.
Unheralded 17-year-old Bob MATHIAS arrived in London for the 1948 Games
and astonished all with his victory in the decathlon; he repeated his feat in 1952
to become the only two-time decathlon winner. The Helsinki Games of 1952
belonged, however, to Emil "The Terrible" ZATOPEK of Czechoslovakia, who
became, and still is, the only man in Olympic history to win the 5,000 T, 10,000
T, and marathon in a single Olympiad. Also in 1952, U.S. diver Patricia
MCCORMICK won both golds in women's diving, and she became the only
person to repeat this double victory when she won again in 1956. The Melbourne
Games of 1956 were the beginning of two other notable winning streaks spread
over several Olympics--Al OERTER of the United States garnered the first of 4
consecutive discus titles (1956-68), a feat never equaled in any event, and
swimmer Dawn FRASER of Australia won the first of her 3 consecutive gold
medals (1956-64) in the 100-m freestyle.
The Olympics in Rome, in 1960, marked a gold-medal performance by the U.S.
basketball team that is said to be the finest in Olympic annals; the team included
such All-Americans and future professionals as Oscar ROBERTSON, Jerry
WEST, Jerry Lucas, Walt Bellamy, Terry Dischinger, Bob Boozer, Darrall
Imhoff, and Adrian Smith, and their closest margin of victory was 24 points.
Rome also marked the first gold medals for New Zealand's Peter SNELL, in the
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800-m run, and Ethiopia's Abebe BIKILA, who won the marathon running
barefoot; they repeated their victories in Tokyo in 1964, with Snell also taking
the gold in the Olympic "mile" (1,500 m).
The 1968 Olympics in Mexico City were characterized by many great individual
performances, but none was so spectacular as the long jump of Bob BEAMON,
who broke the world record by 55 cT (21.5 in). In 1972 in Munich, Mark SPITZ
earned 7 gold medals in swimming, more than anyone in any Olympiad. Lasse
VIREN of Finland took gold medals in both the 5,000-m and 10,000-m runs, and
he became the only man ever to repeat this double, in Montreal in 1976.
Montreal was also the site of the emergence of Romania's Nadia COMANECI,
the marvelous 14-year-old gymnast who won 3 gold medals and accumulated 7
perfect scores during the competition. In both 1972 and 1976 the USSR's Vasily
ALEXEYEV won gold medals in the super-heavyweight weight-lifting division.
And although the world's strongest man fared poorly at the Moscow Games in
1980 (and retired soon thereafter), his teammate, swimmer Vladimir Salnikov,
was proclaimed the greatest distance swimmer of all time after winning gold in
the 400-m and 1,500-m freestyle events.
The Winter Olympics have witnessed outstanding performances as well. The
Austrian Toni SAILER won all 3 gold medals in men's Alpine skiing in 1956 (at
Cortina la'Ampezzo, Italy), an achievement matched only once, by the
Frenchman Jean Claude KILLY in 1968 (at Grenoble, France). Sonja HENIE of
Norway, still possibly the greatest of all figure skaters, won 3 consecutive gold
medals (1928, St. Moritz, Switzerland; 1932, Lake Placid, N.Y.; and 1936,
Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany), and she was the first skater to parlay her
athletic success into a lucrative career in entertainment. That path was also
taken by such well-known American figure skaters as Dick BUTTON (1948, St.
Moritz; and 1952, Oslo), Carol Heiss (1960, Squaw Valley, Calif.), Peggy
FLEMING (1968, Grenoble), Dorothy HAMILL (1976, Innsbruck, Austria), and
Scott HAMILTON (1984, Sarajevo, Yugoslavia). In 1980, in Lake Placid, the
underdog U.S. hockey team stirred America's spirits by snatching the gold medal
from the heavily favored Soviets, and Eric HEIDEN of Wisconsin won all 5 gold
medals in men's speed skating, an unparalleled accomplishment. Although the
U.S. team did not perform as well as expected overall at the 1984 Games,
American Alpine skiers were much better than ever before--the MAHRE
brothers, Phil and Steve, won gold and silver medals, respectively, in the slalom,
and Bill JOHNSON took the gold in the men's downhill, the first such victory
ever for an American; for the women, Debbie ARMSTRONG earned the gold
medal in the giant slalom, while teammate Christin Cooper followed with the
silver.
Almost all athletes who take part in the Olympic Games stress that, for them, the
rites of Olympic passage are apolitical--that while there is, of course, a great
sense of pride in competing for one's country, the cameraderie shared by the
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athletes is the most rewarding of Olympic experiences.
The ideology of nationalism, which swept the world during the early 20th
century, left its mark on the Olympics. Athletic nationalism was brought to a
peak by Nazi Germany, which staged the 1936 Games in Berlin and used the
Olympics to propagandize its cause. The Germans built a powerful team through
nationalized training and scientific advances and dominated the Games in terms
of medals won.
The political overtones of the Olympics did not lessen with the fall of Nazi
Germany. In 1956, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon boycotted the Melbourne Games to
protest the Anglo-French seizure of the Suez Canal, and the Netherlands, Spain,
and Switzerland boycotted as well to protest the USSR's invasion of Hungary. In
Mexico City in 1968, American blacks Tommie Smith and John Carlos used the
victory pedestal to publicize their disdain for racial discrimination in the United
States. In Munich in 1972, 11 Israeli athletes were massacred by
nonparticipating Palestinian terrorists. And in 1976 in Montreal, 33 African
nations, to be represented by about 400 athletes, boycotted the Games to protest
South Africa's apartheid policies.
The most serious disruptions to the modern Olympics, however, occurred in 1980
and 1984. In 1980 the U.S. government led a boycott of the Summer Games in
Moscow to protest the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Under strong
pressure from the Carter administration, the U.S. Olympic Committee voted to
boycott the Games, thus depriving the Russians of their chief athletic
competition. Although a total of 81 nations were represented in Moscow, about
40 nations followed the U.S. lead (among them West Germany, China, and
Japan), depriving the Soviets of their chief athletic competition and raising
doubts about the future of the Olympic movement. Such fears were well founded.
Although the 1984 Winter Games, held early in the year in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia,
proceeded without boycotts, the Summer Games, held in Los Angeles, were
undercut by an Eastern-bloc boycott led by the USSR. Fear of an openly hostile
environment in Los Angeles was cited by the Soviet Olympic Committee as the
reason for the USSR's nonparticipation, but most commentators believed the
reasons to be political: a reflection of the poor state of recent U.S.-Soviet
relations, simple revenge for the U.S. boycott of the Moscow Games, and possible
embarrassment to the Soviets on worldwide television caused by planned
anti-Soviet demonstrations and possible defections of Eastern-bloc athletes. The
popularity and financial success of the 1984 Los Angeles Games were, however
greater than anticipated.
In 1988 the Winter Games--in Calgary, Alberta, Canada--went on without
international incident. At the Summer Games, in Seoul, South Korea, East met
West in Olympic competition for the first time since 1976, with only six nations
(including Cuba and North Korea) boycotting, and the focus returned to the
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athletes. There was suspicion that the use of performance enhancing drugs was
widespread after Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson tested positive and was stripped
of his gold medal. The 1992 Winter and Summer Games (in Albertville, France,
and Barcelona, Spain, respectively) were notable as the first Olympics without
the Eastern-bloc sports machine, the last for the "Unified Teams" from the
former USSR, and for the return of South Africa.
1. Back to Main
2.
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1896 Athens, Greece
http://www.sportsnetusa.com/olympics/1896.html
1896
Athens, Greece
April 6 - 15, 1896
311 Athletes
13 Nations
9 Sports
The first Olympic Games of the modern era were held in Athens Greece after a 1503
year break in the action when the Roman Emperor Theodisis banned the Games in
the year 393 A.D. The Games were revived by a Frenchman named Baron Pierre de
Coubertin who became obsessed with the idea of Olympic competition that could
inspire athletes from around the world to come together in a rivalry of nations based upon a vision of international
understanding and peace through sports.
Though the Games were anxiously awaited by more than 34 countries, only 13 nations were able to assemble enough athletes
to participate. The 311 atheletes that did take part in the games were an odd mix of both seasoned athletes and interested
amateurs who wished for nothing but the chance to make their country proud and put themselves in the forefront of modern
Olympic history. Some 100,000 Greek spectators filled the restored Panathenaic Stadium to watch this historical event take
place before their very eyes.
Track and Field, cycling, fencing, gymnastics, shooting, swimming, tennis, weightlifting, and wrestling were the sports of the
first modern Olympiad. The home country Grecians were the dominant nation winning 47 medals while the Americans could
only muster 19 medals, Germany had 15 and France 11. The Americans did, however, take 11 gold medals compared to
Greece's 10, which as it turns out made for an interesting rivalry going into the final event, the Marathon.
Attention to all aspiring journalists - Can you write a great Story?
Have you ever dreamed of being a sports writer? Well, here's your chance to have your name on the Internet as a featured
writer. You write it and we'll publish it and give you the credit of authorship. Here are some of the historical Olympic figures
and/or events of the first Olympiad that you can write about:
Spiridon Louis
James Connolly
Arthur Blake
Robert Garrett
Georgios Averoff
The First Modern Marathon
Thomas Burke
Theodoros Deligiannes
Emperor Theodisis
Baron Pierre de Coubertin
These are merely suggestions, so don't limit yourself to these choices - write about anything having to do with the first
Olympiad! Send your stories, fun facts, or research papers by e-mail to [email protected]
Back To History Menu
Back to Olympics Main Menu
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Olympics History
http://www.sportsnetusa.com/olympics/history.htm
Welcome to Olympics History!
Arilker
Herein you may find all sorts of tidbits, little known facts, ramblings,
musings, recitations and dissertations about all that has occurred in the
history of the Games since they began in Athens one hundred years ago.
The Olympic Games celebrates each "Olympiad" (a period of four successive years)
and are held at the beginning of the Olympiad of which they are celebrating. The
Olympic Games in Atlanta in 1996 will open the XXVIth Olympiad. When they are
not held, the number of the Olympiad remains the same. This was the case in 1916
(VIth Olympiad), 1940 and 1944 (XIIth and XIIIth Olympiads), when no Games were held. Why were there no Games held?
Teachers who want to involve their classes in learning about Olympics History may encourage their students to
e-mail articles, news stories, and research papers to us. We will feature one or more schools each month and
publish work produced by their students. Stay tuned as we present each Olympiad, starting with the first year of
the Games and continuing through the centennial celebration of Olympics in Atlanta in 1996!
Celebrating 100 Years of Olympic Pride
1896
1900
1904
1908
Athens, Greece
Paris, France
St. Louis,USA
London, England
1912
1916
1920
1924
Stockholm,Sweden
Berlin,Germany
Antwerp,Belgium
Paris,France
1928
1932
1936
1940
Amsterdam,Holland
LosAngeles,USA
Berlin,Germany
Tokyo,Japan
1944
1948
1952
1956
London,England
London,England
Helsinki,Finland
Melbourne,Australia
1960
1964
1968
1972
Rome,Italy
Tokyo,Japan
MexicoCity,Mexico
Munich,Germany
1976
1980
1984
1988
Montreal,Canada
Moscow,USSR
Los Angeles,USA
Seoul,Korea
1992
1996
2000
2004
Barcelona,Spain
Atlanta,USA
Sydney,Australia
?
The Centennial Torch Trademark consists of the graphic elements depicting the five-star flame, the column base formed by
the centennial "100" and Olympic Rings, and the words "Atlanta 1996." The column alludes to the classical origins of the
Games in ancient Greece, while the star-flame represents the aspirations of humanity. Together, they comprise the hope of
Atlanta, unifying the world in the centennial celebration of the Games.
The Quilt of Leaves weaves together graphic images that symbolize Atlanta's grace and natural beauty, the ancient traditions
of the Olympic Games and the cultural heritage of the American South. As a symbol for the Games, the quilt mirrors the
marriage of colors created in the Parade of Nations, as the cultures of the world blend their flags into a singular expression of
human harmony. As the essence of the quilt, the leaves provide a direct link to Atlanta, reflecting the canopy of shade for
which the City of Trees is known. In Olympic history, the leaves also emerged as a sacred symbol of glory and peace, a jewel
in the crown of the olive branch placed on the head of the victor.
Pictograms symbolize the sports of the 1996 Centennial Olympic Games. Classical in style, each pictogram portrays the
well-toned body of the elite athlete and recalls the traditional Greek figures on amphoras -- the famed Grecian urns of
antiquity.
Let the Games Begin
On April 10, 1896, the first modern Olympic Games began with a race of 25 men from Marathon to Athens, Greece. The
record books say it covered 25 miles in just under 3 hours. Actually, it never ended. It was the beginning of an unparalleled,
inspiring journey around the world to Atlanta, Georgia, the home of its 100th anniversary.
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The Olympic Motto
http://www.atlanta.olympic.org/acog/welcome/d-motto.html
1996 CENTENNIAL OLYMPIC GAMES
Atlanta 1996''
Citius, Altius, Fortius
The Olympic Motto is "Citius, Altius, Fortius," which translated from Latin means "Faster, Higher, Braver."
However, the universally accepted meaning is "Swifter, Higher, Stronger" and is meant to express the
aspirations of the athletes in the Olympic Movement. The motto is also a fitting one for all human activity
since it sets no limits on people's ability to improve the human condition.
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Along the way, it thrilled us with Jim Thorpe's never-to-be-repeated pentathlon and decathlon victories of 1912 and distance
runner Paavo Nurmi's stunning record of seven consecutive gold medals and three silvers from 1920 to 1928.
We marveled at the courage and quiet dignity of Jesse Owens as he achieved greatness in 1936, the grace and skating genius
of Sonia Henie in her three consecutive Olympic championships from 1928 to 1936, and the amazing Bob Mathias who set
new world records in both the 1948 and 1952 decathlons.
It brought us the unforgettable exploits of Babe Zaharias Didrickson, Rafer Johnson, Muhammed Ali, Bruce Jenner, Olga
Korbut, the inspiring 1980 U.S. Hockey Team, and all of the world's greatest athletes striving for perfection.
But the Olympic spirit is about more than just the victory of athletes. It is a triumph of humanity as well as the most perfect
demonstration of brotherhood, camaraderie, and goodwill this planet has ever seen!
Just For Kids
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Page 5
25TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
The Associated Press
The materials in the AP file were compiled by The Associated Press. These
materials may not be republished without the express written consent of The
Associated Press.
June 5, 1992, Friday, PM cycle
SECTION: Sports News
LENGTH: 424 words
BYLINE: By NIKOS KONSTANDARAS, Associated Press Writer
DATELINE: ANCIENT OLYMPIA, Greece
BODY:
The Olympic flame began its journey to Spain for the Olympics in Barcelona
after being lit today amid the ruins of the sanctuary where the games were born.
The flame symbolizing the Olympic spirit was lit by the rays of the mid-day
sun beaming into a concave mirror on an altar to Hera, one of the principle
ancient gods honored at pine-forested Olympia.
"Apollo, god of the sun and of the idea of light, send your rays and light
the sacred torch for the hospitable city of Barcelona,' called Maria Pombouki,
an actress dressed as an ancient Greek high priestess, invoking another patron
of Olympia.
She and another 21 young women performed the lighting ceremony.
"The flame with which you entrust us will be the guiding light of a
celebration which will be as much yours as ours, and which intends to be for
all," said Pasqual Maragall, mayor of Barcelona and president of his city's
Olympic Organizing Committee.
He brushed away tears of emotion when the head of the metal torch erupted in
a bright flame as the sun's rays hit it.
In the ancient stadium where the games were held for over a thousand years
after they were founded in 776 B.C., the flame began a relay that will end in
Barcelona on July 24, the eve of the 25th Olympics.
The games will commence when an archer shoots an arrow carrying the flame
into a cauldron above the Olympic Stadium.
Savvas Saritzoglou, Greece's discus champion, set out from Ancient Olympia
with the torch and a sprig of olive - the kind used to crown ancient victors.
Another 364 runners were each to carry the flame another kilometer, until
reaching Athens on Sunday.
Page 6
The Associated Press, June 5, 1992
From there, a Spanish frigate, the Cataluna, will start out Monday for
Empuries, a city in Spain founded by the ancient Greeks.
The flame will cover 3,564 miles en route to Barcelona.
It will travel by plane, ship and hydrofoil as well as be carried by runners
and cyclists in reaching all of Spain.
The ancient games were held in honor of the gods every four years, with
participants from all Greek city states.
For their duration, the normally quarrelsome Greeks had to declare a truce so
that athletes could train, travel and compete in the games without hindrance.
The games were abolished by the Roman Emperor Theodosius I in 394, as they
were judged pagan after Christianity took root.
The modern games were revived in Athens in 1896.
Today's ceremonies began with a wreath-laying ceremony at a grove dedicated
to French Baron Pierre de Coubertin, the driving force behind the modern games'
revival.
LANGUAGE: ENGLISH
OLYMPIA AND THE MUSEUM
CULT AND GAMES: The ancient cult and myths of Olympia
Places, like men, have their destinies. On the remote slopes of Mount
Parnassos, Apollo brought together the Hellenes under the Delphic Amphik-
tyony, and delivered oracles to both Greeks and "barbarians." There was,
however, another remote corner of Greece, in the western Peloponnesos,
which became the first home of athletics and whose name, as a result, spread
throughout the world: Olympia.
The green landscape of Olympia, peaceful and serene, unfolds between
two rivers, the Alpheios and the Kladeos (fig. 16). In ancient times, it was full
of plane-trees, and wild olives; in the dialect of the local inhabitants, the
beautiful grove was known as the Altis. Whereas the god Apollo had found it
necessary to lead men himself to the awe-inspiring rock of Delphi, the rich
plain of Olympia was easily accessible and hospitable, as if asking to be chosen
for habitation. It was only natural that men should decide to build their houses
there at the beginning of the 2nd millennium B.C., or perhaps a little earlier.
The apsidal dwellings discovered in the deeper layers of soil on the site of the
sanctuary belong to the Middle Helladic period (1900-1600 B.C.). The first
settlers knew nothing of Zeus and the Olympian gods. Tradition has it that the
earliest cult was that of Kronos. This ancient god, father of Zeus, was wor-
shipped on the imposing hill that dominates and bounds the northern side of the
5
sanctuary. The hill was dedicated to him, as its name - Kronion - implies. At
the foot of the hill stood other sanctuaries dedicated to female deities: Aphro-
dite Ourania, Eileithyia (and the dragon-shaped daemon Sosipolis), the
Nymphs; finally there was the "Gaion," one of the earliest sanctuaries and
oracles, belonging to the very first diviner, the goddess Gaia (Earth), and to her
daughter Themis. We have no way of knowing when and how the cult of
Pelops - - the mysterious hero who gave his name to the Peloponnesos -
reached Olympia, or why he became associated with the sacred Altis as the
local "daemon," holy and venerable, worshipped next to Zeus. It is quite
probable that his cult is older than that of Zeus, and that his temenos - the
Pelopion - - within the sanctuary, is the oldest known monument of the cult,
dating back to the same period as the Hippodameion — Hippodameia's
sanctuary - whose position is unknown to us. The ancient Greeks knew that
this region, named Pisatis, from its capital, Pisa, was ruled by king Oinomaos,
who had a daughter called Hippodameia. Before giving away his daughter in
marriage, Oinomaos demanded that her suitor should defeat him in a chariot
race. If, however, the suitor lost the race, Oinomaos would kill him. The king
had killed thirteen such suitors when Pelops came to Pisa. He was the son of
Tantalos, from distant Lydia, and his purpose was to take Hippodameia as his
wife. During the crucial chariot race, he defeated the cruel king and married
Hippodameia, This was how Pelops became associated with Olympia and was
henceforth worshipped in the sacred Altis.
There exists another myth, however, which supplies us with clearly histori-
cal information. The myth says that when the time came for the Herakleidai to
return to their fatherland, the Peloponnesos, they went through a series of
mishaps and calamities. Finally, the Delphic god advised them to find a
"three-eyed" guide and go through "the narrow pass." On their way they
encountered the one-eyed Oxylos, a descendant of Aitolos, who had been king
of Elis before going into exile to the land that later took his name: Aitolia.
Oxylos was riding a horse, and therefore was "three-eyed." The Herakleidai
asked him to guide them across to the Peloponnesos. Oxylos took them to
Arkadia, while he turned west with the Aitolians and travelled to Elis, which
was then inhabited by the Epeians. A battle ensued between the Aitolians and
the Epeians and culminated in a heroic duel between the Aitolian Pyraichmes
and the Epeian Degmenos; Pyraichmes emerged the victor. Thus Oxylos be-
came once again king of Elis and the Aitolians lived peacefully side by side
with the former inhabitants of the region.
The myth of Oxylos is a good illustration of what recent historical research
refers to as the descent of the western Greek tribes into the Peloponnesos at
the end of the Mycenaean era. It appears that the cult of Zeus dates from that
time, and that he was worshipped as a warrior god, as shown by the early
figurines representing him with a helmet. This warlike attribute is still manifest
in the archaic cult statue of Zeus (circa 600 B.C.) which was housed in the
Heraion, next to the seated Hera.
The Olympic Games
It was only natural that the new cult of the "father of men and gods" should
acquire a predominant place in the sacred grove and that the shrine should end
by belonging mainly to him. But apart from the great altar, where the richest
sacrifices were offered, there were several other altars in the Altis. Pausanias
6
on - implies. At
e deities: Aphro-
Sosipolis), the
t sanctuaries and
Earth), and to her
how the cult of
Peloponnesos -
cred Altis as the
Zeus. It is quite
IS temenos - the
ment of the cult,
- Hippodameia's
Greeks knew that
y king Oinomaos,
ay his daughter in
it him in a chariot
kill him. The king
He was the son of
lippodameia as his
I king and married
1 Olympia and was
with clearly histori-
the Herakleidai to
hrough a series of
ed them to find a
On their way they
who had been king
his name: Aitolia.
.. The Herakleidai
kylos took them to
elled to Elis, which
en the Aitolians and
itolian Pyraichmes
r. Thus Oxylos be-
efully side by side
t historical research
J153
he Peloponnesos at
Leus dates from that
1. Vase painting from the 5th century B.C. depicting the abduction of Hippodameia by
shown by the early
Pelops in his chariot (Arezzo, Museo Archeologico).
bute is still manifest
1 was housed in the
mentions 69, and we know he has not included all of them in his account. This
means that Olympia was a sacred site where the ancient cults of the indigenous
people continued to be practised next to the Olympian religion introduced by
the settlers from western Greece. But this was not the factor that consecrated
Olympia as the greatest Panhellenic sanctuary and determined its character and
en and gods" should
significance. Olympia owes its very special place among the other Greek
he shrine should end
sanctuaries to the games performed there every four years. The ancient Greeks
ar, where the richest
ascribed the beginning of the Olympic Games to mythical times. This implies
I the Altis. Pausanias
that the Olympic Games were believed by the Greeks to be of a most ancient
7
and sacred origin and that they formed an integral part of the ancestral cult.
Modern research is far from unanimous in interpreting the institution of the
games. Some scholars believe that man's natural disposition to train himself
and compete with others was the main motive that led the Greeks to introduce
athletic games. But most scholars associate the introduction of the games with
burial rites, because we know that in Homeric times games were held in
honour of the dead.
However may one interpret the birth of the Olympic Games, their impor-
tance exceeds the limitations of both the time and the place where they were
originally instituted. It is no exaggeration to say that those games gave birth to
yet another Greek idea, a whole attitude to life — the attitude of a free man
competing with his peers, naked, unfettered by any element foreign to his own
body, conforming only to the rules of the game, with the sole aim of winning
for himself an olive crown - in other words a purely moral victory - and the
praise of his fellow-men.
The significance of the Games in Greek history
The Olympic Games proved to be historical landmarks for the ancient
Greek world. The year 776 B.C., which was the date of the first Olympiad, is
also the first certain and accurate chronology in Greek history, because
henceforth the names of victors in every Olympiad were officially recorded.
The first victor was Koroibos of Elis, who won the one-stade race. But there is
a second, far more important historical conclusion to be drawn from the Olym-
pic Games: the Greeks, though divided into numerous tribal groups, though
scattered over a vast area from Asia Minor to Italy and from Africa to
Macedonia, though organized into hundreds of small states often at war with
each other, had a deep awareness of their ethnic unity, which set them apart
from the other inhabitants of the world. Only free Greeks were allowed to
participate in the Olympic Games; that is why the highest officials and judges
of the Games were named Hellanodikai, an ancient title that shows the su-
preme significance of the Olympic Games in the life of the Greeks. Their
celebration demanded that all Greeks be present in peaceful assembly in the
sacred grove. For this purpose the spondophoroi, noblemen of Elis followed by
an official retinue acted as heralds travelling to all the Greek cities well ahead
of the Games, in order to proclaim the "ekecheiria", i.e. a truce, a suspension
of hostilities that would last up to three months. Thus all the Greeks could
proceed without fear to Olympia and attend the most splendid Panhellenic
assembly, where they could not only admire youths excelling in athletic
games, but also single out famous noblemen and illustrious sages, listen to
poets and musicians, and above all mingle among themselves: the Dorians of
Sicily with the Ionians of the East, the Greeks of Kyrene with their distant
brothers from Macedonia. It is impossible for us to visualize that unique and
8. Stater of Elis with a portrait of Zeus, the most important deity worshipped at Olym-
pia. Middle of the 4th century B.C. Winged victory running to the left holding a crown in
her hand, also on a coin from Elis. Silver tetradrachm struck by Philip II of Macedonia to
commemorate his victory in the horse race in 356 B.C. It depicts the winning rider and
the horse. (Athens, Numismatic Museum).
12
9. Reconstruction of the hippodrome at Olympia. On the left can be seen the hippaphesis
soul-stirring 76th Olympiad (476 B.C.) when Greeks from all over the world
watched Themistokles, the victor of Salamis, entering the Altis. Plutarch tells
us that the whole day long, the crowds forgot about the athletes and the
contests in order to acclaim the man who had led them to victory.
All this took place under the gaze and protection of the great Zeus, a
warrior himself, who always stood by the Hellenes, whether in the struggles of
war or in the peaceful contests of athleticism. In return, the Greeks, being a
deeply religious people, offered him the arms which had brought them victory
and the spoils of war which the god had helped them appropriate. The victors
set up their own statues in the shrine of Zeus, not out of arrogance, but with the
piety of those who can accept a god's gift in perfect humility. As the years
went by, the votive offerings in the sacred grove grew more and more numer-
ous, till they could be numbered by the thousands; they included precious and
famed weapons which eventually made Olympia the most complete museum of
the war history of Greece.
16
Torch Lighting Olympia, GReece
619-7088
OLYMPIA
dances. that of Hippodameia and that of Physkoa. The first is na-
med after the well-known heroine of the East Pediment of the
of the Temple of Zeus, next to the altar of the Nymphs of Kalli-
Temple of Zeus, who as mentioned, established the Heraia, and
stephanos. After a sacrifice was made on this altar, a child both of
the second is a local nymph with whom the god Dionysus fell in
whose parents were living, climbed up the sacred tree and with a
golden knife cut branches to be made into the crowns of the vic-
love.
The games and festivals of the Heraia did not take place at the
tors. Some say that the Kallistephanos Olive was brought as a
same time as the Olympic Games, but an interval of time always
plant by Hercules from the land of the Hyperboreas Far North ).
separated them. According to one theory the alternation of the
and others say that after a prediction made by the Delphic oracle
Olympic Games to take place in every Apollonios and Parthenios
to Iphitos, King of Elis, the sacred tree was found wrapped in a
month was on account of the Heraia. So, if the Heraia consistently
cobweb, in the opisthodomos of the Temple of Zeus.
took place in the month of Parthenios, the Olympic Games took
In the earlier Olympic Games the prize was an apple or a bron-
place on one occasion before them and on the next occasion after
ze tripod. However, from the 7th Olympiad ( 752 B.C. ); they
them. so that this women's festival would not lose its significance.
started to crown the winners. During this Olympiad the Messenian
Daikles, who won the Stade race, was the first Olympic victor to
be honoured with the crown of the wild olive.
THE PANHELLENIC OLYMPIC GAMES
The crown of the wild olive was the most idolised aspiration of
Greek youth. This clearly shows that for the Greeks the contest
did not take place either for simple exhibition, or riches, but for
The Panhellenic Olympic Games grew out of a festival of local
character. However, it seems that the Truce, which was establi-
spiritual improvement, for the harmonious development of body
and mind, for the worship of beauty and nobility. In the Stadium
shed by the largest cities of the Peloponnese, was initiated by the
of Olympia displays of strength had to be combined completely
panpeloponnesian games which in the course of time became pan-
with good character and a cultivated mind. That was the ideal aim
hellenic and attracted the attention of the whole of the then known
of the Olympic Games the harmonious existence, within the sa-
world, whither the Greeks had spread.
The Ionian cities of Asia Minor, Cyprus together with other
me individual, of virtue and strength, for the creation of spiritual
and bodily perfection and of a generation endowed with virtue and
Greek Islands, the colonies of the Pontus, North Africa, Magna
strength.
Graecia, as well as the cities of continental Greece joyfully re-
Herodotus. the Father of History, expresses the profound mea-
ceived the Olympic proclamation of peace. Thus the Sanctuary of
ning of the Olympic Games very well, when describing the co-
Olympia rapidly became the most enviable panhellenic religious
nversation of Xerxes, Mardonius and other Persian officers with
and competitive centre. Moreover. the Olympic Games really idea-
some Greek deserters who went from the Arcadians to the Persian
lised Greek Life. They represented a lofty ideal which for many
camp after the Battle of Thermopylae. Once they had explained, it
centuries inspired the youth of ancient times, an ideal which, th-
says, that the Greeks at that time held contests for athletes and
rough honourable and noble competition, sought to develop the
horse races at Olympia, Xerxes, being curious, asked what were
mind and strengthen the body in order to create a superior charac-
the prizes for the winners. They replied a crown of wild olive.
ter.
Then a staff officer, Tritandaechmes, son of Artabanus, spoke to
Mardonius who had induced the Persian king to campaign against
Greece and said : Alas, Mardonius, against whom have you brou-
The radiant spirit of Olympia gradually diffused to all Greek ci-
ght us to fight ? With men who compete not for money but for
ties. The fact that the Olympics were celebrated in honour of
virtue. ( Herodotus Book VIII, 26).
Zeus, the great god of all the Greeks, consolidated their religious
importance. Moreover, the principle of the Sanctuary was not to
debase the religious concept of the contests at Olympia by awar-
ding a monetary prize to the winner, but by preserving «crow-
The ideals to which the Olympic Games aspired are verified by
ning». to ensure the moral superiority of the Olympics as contests
the strict rules for the athletes taking part. The athletes had to be
of virtue.
Greek freemen - slaves were forbidden to take part who had
The Olympic Games did not award money or silver but crowns.
not commited any crime or impious act, broken the rules of the
The winners received only a crown of wild olive. plaited from a
Games or the Truce. In addition, they had to have trained in their
branch of the sacred tree, the «Olive of Kallistephanos» ( beautiful
place of origin for ten months before the Games, and during the
10
crown ). The Olive of Kallistephanos grew near the opisthodomos
last month. in Elis or Olympia.
11
Elis was a very ancient city built on the left bank of the Peneios
it was established that there should be ten, and this number remai-
river. It was unwalled and had some notable public buildings. It
ned constant until the very last Olympiad.
had four gymnasiums for training athletes, a building for the Hel-
lanodikai ( Umpires ) where they were taught their responsibilities
by the Thesmophylakes or Gaurdians of the Law : there was also a
important theatre and Bouleuterion and a special house for the six-
The events which were included in the Olympic programme can
teen Eleian women who every four years wove the sacred peplos
be divided into althletic and equestrian contests. The former were
of Hera and organised the Heraia.
held in the Stadium and the latter in the Hippodrome. The compe-
This city-state, which lay about fifty kilometres from Olympia
titors in the athletic events were divided according to age into men
- near modern Amaliada - had overall control of the Sanctuary
and boys, and those in the equestrian contests, into chariot races
and, from its great priestly families, the Iamides and Klytiades, it
and horse races.
appointed its priests alternately. Also, the Council ( Boule ) of
The most ancient athletic event was the Stade race which was
Eleians organised the Olympic Games, and while they were in
run the length of the Stadium, that is 192.25 m., and was the only
progress, met in the Bouleuterion at Olympia. This is why it is
contest until 728 B.C. From then on, the number of competitions
called the Olympic Council.
gradually increased.
The control which the Eleians exercised over the Sanctuary was
724 B.C.: Diaulos or two-stade race ( 192.25 m. X 2).
the cause of a long and enduring quarrel between them and Pisa, a
720 B.C.: Dolichos, that is the distance of 24 stades (192.25 m. X 24).
neighbouring city of Olympia to which the Sanctuary originally
708 B.C.: Wrestling and Pentathlon. The Pentathlon comprised
belonged. The discord which broke out from time to time develo-
the following events long jump. discus, javelin, running and
ped into bloody conflicts between the two cities in 572 and 472
wrestling.
B.C., the result being the defeat of the Pisans and the destruction
688 B.C.: Boxing.
of their city. The last vain attempt of the Pisans was in 364 B.C.
648 B.C.: Pankration. This was a very tough and dangerous sport
However. the Olympiads which had been supervised by the Pisans
being a combination of wrestling and boxing.
in 748. 644 and 364 B.C. were not recognised by the Eleians who
632 B.C.: Stade race and Boys' Wrestling.
called then non-Olympiads.
616 B.C.: Boys' Boxing.
However, after the destruction of Pisa, Elis permanently supe-
520 B.C.: Hoplite race. This was an impressive race in which ath-
rvised the Sanctuary and the Games. The wise administration of
letes ran in complete bronze armour.
the city always had at its disposal the impartial judges. the Hella-
200 B.C.: Finally, the Boys' Pankration.
nodikai who were entrusted with the smooth running of the Games
The equestrian competitions were established in 680 B.C. with
and the rigid application of the rules. In this task they were assi-
the Tethrippon ( a chariot race for four horses ), according to Pau-
sted by a corps of officials (a kind of police force ) the Alytai,
sanias. But according to Pindar, they were established much ear-
the lictors, the flagellators and so on, who were directed by the
lier in 740 B.C., when Samos from Mantinea won the Tethrippon.
Alytarch ( chief of the Alytai ).
More races were introduced after that.
648 B.C.: Horse race for stallions.
The Hellanodikai were Eleian citizens elected by lot for a single
408 B.C.: The Synoris or two-horse chariot race.
Olympiad, and while performing their duties they wore an impo-
384 B.C.: Four-horse chariot race for one-year-olds.
sing purple cloak. Among their various responsibilities, was the
268 B.C.: Two-horse chariot race for one-year-olds.
enforcing of severe penalties for people who violated regulations.
256 B.C.: Horse race for one-year-old stallions.
and also the prize-giving for the winners. Their decisions were al-
It is worth noting that in these games, the owners and not the
ways respected, even in cases where they were clearly unjustified.
charioteers were declared winners. Thus, although the presence of
Those who maintained that they had been wronged could appeal to
women at the Olympic Games was strictly forbidden, it was also
the Olympic Council which had the power to punish the Hellano-
possible for women to be declared winners. The first woman to be
dikai severely. But these rules were rarely applied because the
declared winner of the Tethrippon in 396 (?) and 392 B.C. was
Hellanodikai always judged fairly and with impartiality, virtues
Kyniska. sister of Agesilaus II, King of Sparta. who also set up
which were recognised by all the Greeks and which maintained the
her statue in the Altis. Later on, in 268 B.C., the winner was Ve-
high prestige of the Olympic Games.
lestiche from Macedon. but most of the others were Spartan women.
The numbers of Hellanodikai changed at different times corre-
Apart from athletics and horse events, after 396 B.C. contests
12
sponding to the number of clans of Eleians. However. in 348 B.C.
for heralds and trumpeters were included in the programme. This
13
happened in the Sacred Altis, near the entrance to the Stadium, in
trainers, the lords of Elis and even the delegates from the Greek
the space which is in front of the north side of the Echo Colonna-
de. According to Pausanias (V,22,1) there was an altar there
cities formed a procession which set out from the Prytaneion going
along the Processional way, entered the Sacred Altis from the
which was not used for sacrifices for any god but as a Bema ( ro-
South Processional Gate, passed in front of the east side of the
strum on which the heralds and trumpeters would compete. The
Temple of Zeus and arrived at the Great Altar of Zeus. There a
winners of these competitions would either announce the names of
hecatomb was sacrificed to the God, that is an offering of one
other winners or sound the trumpet for different commands through-
out the Games.
hundred oxen, the largest sacrifice to take place in the Sanctuary
during the Games. When these acts of worship were finished, the
track events were held ( Stade, Diaulos and Dolichos races ).
On the fourth day, the tough games took place, namely Wre-
stling, Boxing, the Pankration and the Hoplite race.
On the eve of the Olympic Games, the Hellanodikai, the athle-
The prizes were awarded on the last day in the entrance of the
tes and their trainers would set off from Elis walking along the
Temple of Zeus. There, on the table of ivory and gold made by
Sacred Way and arrive at Olympia. A little after Elis on the Sac-
Pheidias' apprentice, Kolotis, were the garlands of wild olive.
red Way was a holy spring, Pierra, where sacrifices were made.
Previously, a bronze tripod had been used for same purpose. The
Meantime the Theoroi, that is the delegates of the Greek cities,
Hellanodikai crowned the winners with these garlands while the
who followed the Games from seats of honour and finally the
crowd cheered and showered them with flowers and leaves.
crowds of pilgrims would arrive. After a little while, the great fe-
After the prize-giving, the Eleians laid on a feast in the Pryta-
stival of Greece would begin.
neion in honour of the Olympic champions, to which were invited
Originally, the games would only last one day. However, when
the officials, the delegates of the Greek cities and all the distingui-
new events were established later on and word of these had
shed people visiting the Sanctuary. Meanwhile, in the vale of
spread, other days were added. Thus from 680 B.C. they lasted
Olympia, the friends, relatives and fellow citizens of the winners
two days, from 632 B.C., three, and from 472 B.C. five days.
celebrated the victories until the following day when the return ho-
On the first day of the festival, the athletes were registered in
me began.
the Bouleuterion. There, in front of the statue of Zeus Orkios, the
Guardian of Oaths who held thunderbolts in his hands, oaths wo-
uld be taken when a boar had been sacrificed. The athletes would
swear that they had trained for ten months and that they would
The Olympic Games were protected with laws so strictly enfor-
compete fairly, abiding by the rules. As well as the athletes, their
ced that the high standards of the competitions were maintained.
fathers, brothers and trainers also had to swear and maintain that
Athletes who transgressed these rules were punished with fines,
the athletes had, in fact, trained together according to the rules
disqualification or public flogging, according to the gravity of the
and that they had all the qualifications which allowed them a place
offence.
in the Games. Finally, the Hellanodikai would take their oaths to
An infringement which the Hellanodikai punished with suitable
judge the Games with impartiality. After the oaths, the contests of
harshness was bribery since it was in total contrast to the original
the heralds and trumpeters would take place, followed by those of
spirit of the Olympic Games, namely to compete with honour.
the boys.
That is why all those who bribed their opponents so that they co-
The start of the Games in the Stadium had a particularly festive
uld win, and also those who accepted money to lose, were banned
character. since the Hellanodikai and athletes always entered by
from competing and had to pay heavy fines. With these fines, they
the official entrance, the Krypte, marching slowly and with dignity
contributed to the cost of the Zanes, the statues of Zeus which
according to Philostratos. There they were met by the priestess of
stood by the official entrance to the Stadium as a warning to the
the goddess Demeter Chamyne, the only woman who could
athletes. On the statues themselves were written various didactic
lawfully attend the Games, and by the masses of spectators. And
epigrams. One of these told how the Olympic victor must win not
when everything was ready, the herald would proclaim the great
with money but with fleetness of foot and strength of body, and
Olympic message to all the Greeks that the Games were beginning.
another how these statues teach all Greeks not to offer money to
On the second day, the horse races took place in the Hippodro-
win an Olympic event. ( Pausanias V,21,4).
me. and afterwards, the Pentathlon in the Stadium.
In 388 B.C., the first penalty for bribery was imposed, and with
The third day was the most splendid of the Games. In the mor-
14
the fines which the offenders paid the first six Zanes were made
ning of that day, the priests, the Hellanodikai, the athletes and
and erected in front of the entrance to the Stadium. This severe
15
penalty acted as a deterent maintaining the ancient tradition of the
already mentioned, in those events, the owners and not the chario-
Games until 332 B.C. The feeling of Greek world and the cities
teers were awarded the prize.
stopped this means of payment because the punishment of the ath-
All women who violated the above rules were thrown over the
letes ruined the reputation of their native city. In 332 B.C., after
edge of Typaion, the mountain which lies to the south-east of
the second case of bribery. six other Zanes were set up while in
Olympia beyond the Alpheios. There is no historical source which
the Roman period, more were added making a total of sixteen.
could verify that this harsh penalty was ever imposed. Neverthe-
Until the start of the 4th century B.C. the ideal of honourable
less, it was said that a Rhodian woman, Pherenike or, according
competition prevailed at Olympia without exception. The athletes
to others, Kallipateira, daughter of the Olympic champion Diago-
entered the arena with the noble dream of victory. However, they
ras, brought her son, Peisirodos to Olympia to take part in the
fully realized that a victory is not won with money and that only
boys' events because her husband had died. Being very crafty, the
by long hours of practice and persistent effort could they triumph.
Rhodian woman disguised herself as a male trainer and, together
That is why the Olympic winners became symbols of strength and
with the others, entered the Stadium unnoticed. Her son was dec-
virtue in every clan and every city, and were respected throughout
lared winner and his mother, so overwhelmed with joy, ran to Pei-
the whole of Greece. This explains why the winners could dine
sirodos. But, as she leapt into the arena, her tunic caught on the
free at the Prytaneion in Athens and why Solon established a mo-
fence revealing that she was, in fact, female. Then she was arre-
netary prize for those of his fellow citizens who by victory brou-
sted and brought before the Hellanodikai to be tried according to
ght honour to the city. Again, in Sparta, it was usual for the king
law. However, out of respect for her father, her three brothers and
to fight with a crowned victor by his side. In every Greek city the-
her son. her life was spared, for all were Olympic champions. Af-
re was the fine tradition of pulling down part of the walls so that
ter this episode. which probably took place in 396 B.C., they ma-
an Olympic winner could return home in a four-horse chariot be-
de a law which obliged the trainers to enter the Stadium naked like
cause, according to Plutarch, walls are of little use to a town when
the athletes.
its citizens can fight and win.
It is said that Fate kept a beautiful death in store for Diagoras,
A separate honour for a champion was that an ode be written
Pherenike's father, the most renowned boxer in Greece. In 448
for him by a famous poet such as Simonides, Bacchylides or Pin-
B.C., then an old man, he came to Olympia as a distinguished
dar who would celebrate their virtue and courage. However, the
champion and had the joy of seeing his sons, Akousilaos and Da-
greatest of all honours was that a statue of himself could be dedi-
magetos. both win on the same day, the one in the Pankration and
cated in the Sacred Altis. Down the centuries, inscribed on the ba-
the other in Boxing. In the hour of triumph, the sons of this Olym-
se of the statue was his name and that of his father and city. The
pic champion, ran to their father and crowned him with their gar-
first statues of Olympic winners to be set up in the Sanctuary were
lands and, raising him on their shoulders, carried him round in the
those of Praxidamas of Aegina who won the Boxing in 544 B.C.
crowd. And while the crowd cheered and applauded with frantic
and Opountios Rexivios who won the Pankration in 536 B.C. They
enthusiasm, showering the happy father with flowers, a Spartan
were made of wood, the one of cypress and the other of fig. From
roared in a thunderous voice Die now Diagoras, you will not as-
then on, little by little. the Sacred Altis became crowded with
cend to Olympus. In other words you will not become a god. but
hundreds of statues of Olympic victors.
this honour is enough for you. A little while later, Diagoras was
dead on the shoulders of his children.
The severity of the rules of the Olympic Games were not only
restricted to athletes, trainers and the Hellanodikai, but extended
Apart from the representatives of the Greek cities, great politi-
to the spectators who were not allowed to be slaves or anyone
cians, famous generals, previous Olympic winners, philosophers,
guilty of impious acts. Barbarians non-Greeks ), however, could
orators and intellectuals were always present at the Olympic Ga-
watch the Games.
mes and its various rituals. This panhellenic gathering gave them
Women were also forbidden to watch the Games. However,
all the opportunity to communicate with the Greeks. but also gave
Pausanias tells us that this prohibition only extended to married
to all the Greeks the opportunity to honour and admire their great
women. It is a difficult problem whether or not maidens were allo-
works.
wed to attend the Games since the Heraia had been established for
Two of the Seven Sages of ancient Greece are said to have died
them. Moreover, in the equestrian events, women could enter
at an advanced age while attending the Games at Olympia Chi-
16
teams and charioteers and could even be declared winners, for, as
lon of Sparta, in 556 B.C., when overcome with great emotion as
17
he embraced his Olympic victor son, and Thales of Miletus in 548
B.C., while watching the games in the scorching heat ( Diogenes
tic ideology, even invited the Greeks to unite not only against the
Laertios 1,72 and I, 38-39 ).
Persians, but also against the tyrants and in particular against Dio-
Important philosophers like Plato and Aristotle were regular
nysios, Tyrant of Syracuse. Finally Isocrates, with the same aim,
spectators at the Games ; great poets such as Simonides, Bacchyli-
distributed at the panhellenic celebration at Olympia, in 380 B.C.,
des. Pindar and others celebrated with their verses the Olympioni-
copies of his panegyric in which he made an appeal to Athens and
Sparta to unite and effectively confront the barbarian threat.
kai ( Olympic winners ), and famous artists such as Pythagoras,
Myron, Pheidias, Paionios, Praxiteles, Lyssipus and others ador-
This idea of panhellenic unity and peace, which was persistently
ned the Sanctuary with their masterpieces and thus became known
cultivated at all the Sanctuaries and particularly at the Sanctuary
to the ends of the world.
of Olympia, through the panegyrics reached the furthest corners of
Greece, and though the idea was never realised, it did however
Great tyrants, politicians and kings themselves took part in the
help to mould the national conscience of the Greeks.
Games with the aim of increasing their political power through an
Olympic victory. Thus the Tyrants of Syracuse Gelon and Hieron
were distinguished as Olympic winners in the four-horse chariot
THE MACEDONIANS AND THE ROMANS
race in 488 and 464 B.C. respectively. Later in 416 B.C., Alci-
biades the Athenian politician took part in the Games with seven
chariots and after being declared the winner of the four-horse cha-
The panhellenic celebration of the Olympic Games survived and
flourished from 776 B.C., which is its historical beginning, until
riot race. he celebrated the victory by giving a banquet for the par-
the end of the 4th century B.C.
ticipants in the rejoicing. Finally in 356 B.C., Philip II, King of
After the Battle of Chaeronea 338 B.C. ). and the domination
Macedonia. father of Alexander the Great. won the horse race.
It is reported that after the Persian wars, in 476 B.C., Themi-
by the Macedonians of Greek lands, the Macedonian Kings Philip
stocles was also present at the most brilliant Olympics which had
II and Alexander the Great built the Philippeion at Olympia and
promoted the Sanctuary and the Games in which Philip II, in 356
ever taken place. As he entered the Stadium. although the games
B.C., had formerly been distinguished as a winner. The Greek ori-
had already begun the Greeks stopped watching them in order to
cheer. That day in the Stadium the gratitude of all Greeks was
gin of the Macedonian kings, which was an indispensible prerequi-
site for participation in the Olympic Games, had earlier been
concentrated on honouring the heroic victor of Salamis.
scrutinised when King Alexander I 498 - 454 B.C. ). was acce-
Later in 444 B.C., Herodotus read to the rejoicing crowd
extracts from his histories about the victories of the Greeks over
pted by the Hellanodikai having previously succeeded in proving
his descent from the Temenides. an old royal line from Argos in
the Persians, and among others he moved the young Thucydides.
the Peloponnese ( Herodotus V, 22 ).
afterwards himself to become a great historian.
It is certain that Alexander the Great particularly respected the
On other occasions, chosen personalities of the ancient world.
Sanctuary at Olympia and the Games. This explains why at Issos,
with the authority in which they were held throughout the whole
of Greece. delivered the panegyrics from the Bema which had
during his campaign, he freed a prisoner from Thebes immediately
he heard that the man was an Olympic winner. Furthermore, in
been placed for this purpose in the opisthodomos of the Temple of
324 B.C., he chose to announce to the Greeks at Olympia his dec-
Zeus. In these speeches they emphasised the need for panhellenic
ree which gave a general amnesty to all exiles, and sent Nikanor
brotherhood, especially after the catastrophic outcome of the Pelo-
to read it out in the crowded Stadium.
ponnesian War. Thus it is clear that the Sanctuary at Olympia
After the death of Alexander the Great the ancient splendour of
tried to impart to the whole of the Greek world its spirit of peace
the Olympic Games gradually gave way, in spite of the fact that
and brotherhood.
his successors raised new monuments and supported the Sanctuary
At the end of the 5th century B.C.. Gorgias of Leontini was the
financially.
first to raise the voice of peace on behalf of the Greeks. saying in
In 146 B.C. Greece was conquered by the Romans. Then, for
his Olympic speech that victories against the barbarians are wor-
the Olympic Games and the Sanctuary the long Roman era began
thy of anthems. but against the Greeks they are worthy of lamenta-
which lasted several centuries. During this period the right of the
tions. Later Lysias. in his Olympic oration given in 384 B.C., em-
Romans to participate in the Olympic Games was recognised. sin-
phasised the peaceful and brotherly meaning of the celebrations at
ce it was first settled that they were of Greek origin. Thus many
Olympia. saying that he who established the games - he meant
emperors and officers were distinguished as Olympic winners.
Idaean Hercules - believed that through them he would initiate
18
However, in 85 B.C.. Sulla pillaged the Greek sanctuaries and
panhellenic friendship. Lysias. the exponent of a broader democra-
in particular the Sanctuary at Olympia. because he needed money
19
to conduct the war against Mithridates, while, in 80 B.C., in order
II decreed that the Temple of Zeus should be burned. Terrible ear-
to celebrate the triumphs of that same war the Olympic Games
thquakes in 522 and 551 A.D. completed the destruction.
(175th Olympiad), were held at Rome.
During the 5th century A.D., the area was occupied by Chri-
During the reign of the Emperor Octavian Augustus 30 B.C. -
stians who built a Byzantine Church on the site of the workshop of
14 A.D.) the Sanctuary grew and revived. But later the Olympic
Pheidias. Thereafter the erosion of Kronos Hill and flooding by
Games experienced the vanity and imperious behaviour of the Em-
the rivers Alpheios and Kladeos which spilled onto the ruined
peror Nero. The 211th Olympiad, which should have taken place
monuments, gradually covered them with a layer of earth which
in 65 A.D., took place in 67 A.D., so that he himself could take
made them disappear and at the same time protected them for ma-
part in them. At these Games, Nero included other contests
ny centuries. In the course of time, even the historical name of
unheard of until then in the programme of the Olympic Games and
Olympia was forgotten and its location was sometimes called Se-
he was many times declared Olympic winner. Namely, it is repor-
rviana and sometimes Antilalo.
ted that he won the artistic contests for tragic actors and musi-
cians. even though he had a voice worse than a crow's. It is wor-
th noting that the Eleians did not enter this Olympiad in their offi-
THE EXCAVATIONS
cial register.
During the 2nd century A.D., and particularly during the reign
From the beginning of the 18th century antiquarians and ar-
of the philhellene Emperor Hadrian 117 138 A.D.), the
chaeologists began to search for the forgotten site of the Olympic
Sanctuary revived once again. But from the 3rd century A.D., its
Games. In 1723, the French monk Bernard de Montfaucon wrote a
influence was yearly more and more restricted and the Greek cities
letter to Cyrenes, the Archbishop of Corfu, in an unsuccessful at-
were no longer interested in the Olympic Games. However, from
tempt to convince him to pursue the exploration of Olympia. La-
this period the Olympic Games acquired virtually an international
ter, in 1767, the German archaeologist Winckelmann intended to
character. since athletes from all of the countries of the far-flung
secure the permission of the Sublime Porte, in order to excavate
Roman Empire ( Egyptians, Phoenicians, Armenians and others ),
the Stadium, but in 1768 he died before managing to realise his
arrived at Olympia to lay claim to Olympic victory.
objective.
In 267 A.D., many buildings were destroyed ( the Echo Colon-
In May 1829, hasty excavations in the Temple of Zeus and the
nade. the Metroön, the Leonidaion and others ), so as to construct
Byzantine Church were made by a French team which, after the
from the rubble a hastily built wall to the south of the Sanctuary,
Sea Battle of Navarino ( 1827 ), followed the expedition of Gene-
to protect the Temple of Zeus and the chryselephantine statue of
ral Maison to the Peloponnese Expédition Scientifique de
the god from the expected invasion by the Herulians. But the inva-
Morée ). The finds from these excavations metopes from the
ders did not get as far as Olympia and the Games continued to
opisthodomos of the temple and fragments of metopes from the pro-
take place for many years to come. However, at the 262nd Olym-
domos - were sent to Paris to adorn the collections in the Louvre.
piad ( 269 A.D. ), the registers of the Olympic winners stopped.
The first systematic excavations were made between 1875 1881
Thereafter there is no more historical information about the Ga-
by the German Archaeological Institute, funded by the German
mes. nor are there references to the names of Olympic winners,
government. Most of the buildings of the Sanctuary, 130 statues,
except for the Games of 373 and 385 A.D.
6000 coins, 400 inscriptions, many clay objects, 1300 gold and
It is evident that the end is approaching.
15,000 bronze objects were found in these excavations at a depth
of 5 -7 metres. The same Institute later continued excava-
tions, and also reconstructed part of the Krypte and many columns
THE ABOLITION OF THE GAMES
in the Palaestra and the Temple of Hera. Between 1958-61. the
German Institute completed the excavations of the Stadium and up
In the Games of 385 A.D., Varazdates the Armenian, after-
to the present time pursues research on various other monuments
wards King of the Armenians. won the Boxing. He is also the last
in the Sanctuary.
known Olympic victor. Eight years later. in 393 A.D., the Olym-
pic Games took place for the last time. The next year 394 A.D. ).
they were abolished by Theodosius the Great. and a little later
THE REVIVAL OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES
395 A.D. ). Pheidias' chryselephantine statue of Zeus was taken
to Constantinople.
During the 19th century. the rich Olympic tradition preserved in
Thus Olympia was deserted. Christian fanaticism wrought de-
the writing of ancient authors. roused the highest aspirations of the
20
struction in the deserted Sanctuary in 426 A.D., when Theodosius
nations of the world for noble contest. fraternization and for pea-
21
ce. So the Olympic Games, which is identified with these great
aspirations. became a symbol of modern athletics and contributed
After the first Olympiad, which was very successful, the Games
decisively to their development.
took place in 1900 at Paris, in 1904 at St. Louis, in 1908 at Lon-
don and in 1912 at Stockholm.
In the 19th century, many countries of the world, particularly
England. Germany and Canada organised athletic galas which we-
The Olympic Flag was chosen by the synod of the International
re given the imposing name «Olympic Games». In Greece, where
Olympic Committee which took place in 1914 at the French town
the Olympic tradition had profound roots, the first attempt at the
of Lyons. The flag depicts five coloured, linked circles on a white
revival of the Olympic Games was made in 1838 by the municipa-
background. The five circles, which are blue, yellow, black, green
lity of Pyrgos in Elis, near Olympia, but the outcome is not
and red. symbolise the unity of athletes of the five continents and
known. Later Games with the name «Olympic» were established
world brotherhood in general.
by the E. Zappas Foundation and took place in Athens in 1859,
In 1916, the Games should have taken place at Berlin, but they
1870. 1875 and 1887.
were cancelled because the First World War intervened. After the
All these attempts at the revival of the Olympic Games had a
war they took place in 1920 at Antwerp and in 1924 at Paris.
limited national or local character. However, at the end of the
Since 1924, the Winter Olympic Games, which only includes
19th century. the French Baron Pierre de Coubertin was inspired
winter sports, has been organised every four years. These Games
with the idea of establishing an International Olympic Games and
take place in the winter of the same year in which the Olympics
made the appropriate suggestion to the international congress for
also take place.
athletics. which took place in Paris in 1894. It was proposed that
In 1928 the Games took place at Amsterdam, in 1932 at Los
the Olympic Games should take place every four years, as in anti-
Angeles and in 1936 at Berlin. At the Olympic Games held in
quity. but each time in a different country. They would include in
Berlin. the ceremony of the lighting of the Olympic Flame was
instituted. as we shall see below.
the programme new competitions in addition to the old ones, to
In 1940 and 1944, the Games were cancelled because of the Se-
ensure the right of athletes from all over the globe to take part
regardless of race. class. politics or creed. Finally, thanks to their
cond World War. After the war they took place normally in 1948
at London, in 1952 at Helsinki, in 1956 at Melbourne, in 1960 at
international character. they would promote peace and cooperation
between nations.
Rome. in 1964 at Tokyo, in 1968 at Mexico, in 1972 at Munich,
Coubertin's suggestion combined in the best manner the compe-
in 1976 at Montreal, in 1980 at Moscow. In 1984 they are
titive traditions of the ancients with the requirements of the mo-
scheduled to take place at Los Angeles.
dern era. For this reason, it was unanimously decided at the
In 1961, the International Olympic Committee within the frame-
Congress. attended by representatives from thirteen countries, to
work of their efforts towards the dissemination of Olympic ideolo-
revive the Olympic Games and at the same time Athens was cho-
gy. founded the International Olympic Academy at Olympia. The-
sen as the centre for the First International Olympiad. Since then,
re, in new buildings, which are near the ancient Stadium, athletes,
the Olympic Games are supervised by the International Olympic
teachers of gymnastics and others involved with athletics are invi-
Committee. which on each occasion appoints a town ( not a
ted from all over the world to stay and to discuss subjects relating
to athletics and the Games.
state ). to be responsible for their organisation, following an appli-
cation by the town. At the same time, the International Olympic
In the village of ancient Olympia, the Museum of the Modern
Committee cooperates with the National Commitees of the Olym-
Olympic Games is under the auspices of the Greek Olympic Ga-
pic Games, founded in various countries and so guides the interna-
mes Committee. In this museum rare objects, memorabilia of the
tional effort for the development of athletics.
modern Olympics, are on exhibition medals of the Olympic win-
The first International Olympic Games took place in Athens be-
ners, torches used to carry the Olympic Flame from 1936 on-
tween 5th -15th April, 1896, at the Panathenaikon Stadium. Athle-
wards, Olympic coins, a rich photographic archive, as well as a
tes from thirteen countries took part. The Olympic Hymn, written
collection of Olympic stamps, unique in the whole world. which
by the Greek national poet Kostis Palamas and set to music by the
belonged to the founder of the Museum and the great friend of
Greek composer Spyros Samaras, was instituted at this Olympiad.
Olympia. G. Papastephanou.
The Marathon Race ( 42,000 metres ). was also instituted in me-
From 1896 until today, the Olympic Games have developed
mory of the heroic Athenian warrior. who on the day of the Battle
great worldwide authority, have materially served their peaceful
of Marathon ( 490 B.C. ). brought news of the victory to Athens
aims and are beloved by all the nations of the world. Thus the vi-
and then collapsed and died. The race was won by the Greek
sion of the Baron Pierre de Coubertin became a reality. Greece,
22
runner Spyros Louis.
wishing to honour him, raised a monument to him at Olympia. Be-
side this monument, near the ancient Stadium, at a place named
23
«The Coubertin Grove». a year after his death, in 1938, was pla-
ced his heart preserved in a glass jar. This was the last wish of the
great reviver of the Olympic Games.
LIGHTING THE OLYMPIC FLAME
In 1936 the Olympic Games were enhanced by a brilliant cere-
mony. At the XIth Olympiad, which took place in that year, the
Olympic Flame was lit on the sacred site of Olympia and then ta-
ken to the Olympic Stadium at Berlin. The ceremony instituted in
that year now takes place before each Olympiad, symbolically pre-
serving historical continuity and the sacred links of the Games wi-
th the place where they originated, Olympia.
Traditionally, the arrival of the Olympic Flame at the Stadium
marks the opening of the Games. Throughout their duration, la-
THE ARCHAELOGICAL SITE
sting many days, the flame burns continuously on a huge altar and
is only extinguished at the close of the Games.
The lighting of the Olympic Flame takes place on the altar of
Hera. which is in front of the Heraion. During the ceremony the
F
ROM THE village at ancient Olympia, a developing tourist
centre, ( population C. 1000 ), an asphalt road lined with lau-
altar is surrounded by girls dressed as ancient pristesses, while the
rels, cypresses and olive trees, leads the visitor to the ar-
Vestal priestess. using a concave mirror made of metal, lights a
chaeological site.
torch from the rays of the sun and immediately transfers the flame
Approaching the site, one meets the bridge over the Kladeos, a
to a krater ( a small pottery vase ). containing inflammable mate-
rapid winter torrent, which flows past the Sanctuary and a little
rial. Then all the priestesses form the procession of the dance,
farther on joins the Alpheios. On the right bank of the river, rising
which passes through the Krypte, the official entrance into the Sta-
in the west, is a succession of low hills covered with green vege-
dium. There the Vestal priestess lights a torch from the sacred fla-
tation, which end up at Dhrouvas Hill.
me in the krater and hands it to the first runner who runs across
The Sanctuary is on the right bank of the Alpheios, the most
the Stadium, in the company of other runners, to the Coubertin
celebrated Peloponnesian river, which spreads out in a fertile val-
Grove. which is in the area of the International Olympic Academy.
ley. Beyond the Alpheios. to the south-east, Mount Lapithis and
The marble altar of the Olympic Flame, made in 1936 for the
Mount Tipaion delineate the horizon.
first such ceremony, has been placed in the Coubertin Grove. besi-
To the north and east. picturesque villages nestle among a series
de the monument to Pierre de Coubertin. On reaching the Grove,
of small hills, planted with pines, which. descending gradually to-
the first runner lights the marble altar in honour of the man who
wards the Sanctuary, reach the conical shaped Kronos Hill.
revived the Olympic Games and afterwards sets off. so beginning
The monuments of Olympia are situated in this extraordinary
the traditional race to Athens.
landscape, between Kronos Hill and the confluence of the Rivers
The flame is always taken to Athens by runners who each go
Alpheios and Kladeos.
one kilometre. From Athens it is taken to the country for which it
is destined sometimes by boat, or by plane, or using lazer beams,
so far a unique innovation at the Olympic Games in Montreal, Ca-
DESCRIPTION OF THE MONUMENTS
nada. in 1976. The Olympic Flame has also been carried in the
traditional manner over long distances, by thousands of runners
The entrance to the site is next to the bridge over the River Kla-
each going one kilometre, for example to Berlin ( 1936 ). to
deos and near the foot of Kronos Hill, along a steep path which
Munich 1972 ), and most recently to Moscow (1980).
descends to the Sanctuary.
The Olympic Flame generates feelings of friendship and brothe-
Immediately after entering the Sanctuary. descending 4 to 5 me-
rhood amongst nations and each time rekindles mankind's great
tres below the level of the entrance, one becomes aware of the
aspirations for world peace, the primary object of the International
great depth of deposit removed during excavations which brought
Olympic Games. which is why the flame is always welcomed eve-
these monuments to light. The extent of damage to the monuments
24
rywhere with emotional demonstrations and festivities.
is also immediately apparent the process of decay began when
25
Olympia
THE MESSENIANS AND NAUPACTIANS
The painted decoration of the statue will have helped to enliven
DEDICATED TO OLYMPIAN ZEUS,
the entire composition, but no idea of this can now be formed.
A TITHE FROM THE BOOTY TAKEN IN WAR
This Nike is the earliest known monumental depiction of the
goddess, and the question arises as to what experience lay behind
PAEONIOS OF MENDE MADE (m)
the power of the statue, which captures the sensation of flight so
WHO MADE THE ACROTERIA FOR THE TEMPLE
perfectly and convincingly. It was, moreover, a very bold device
Design: a.
FOR WHICH HF. WON 11 PRIZEJ
to allow the body of the statue, which is 9 m above the ground, to
lean forward so far, giving the viewer below the sensation that
Nike is descending from heaven.
The above inscription. incised on the base of the statue. gives a full
For the viewer, the body was the vehicle through which the
entire movement was expressed: the hands were so freely spread
account of the work: Nike, or Victory, personification of the
favourable outcome of battle. was dedicated by the Messenians and
open at the edges of the himation, thereby obscuring the static
constraints imposed by the garment, which was skilfully dis-
Naupactians for their victory over the Spartans in the Archidamian
posed at the back of the statue. By these means, the gifted sculp-
War, probably in 421 BC.
for succeeded in achieving balance without detracting from the
It was sculpted by Paconios
of Mende. in Chalkidiki. who
visual effect of flight.
THE NIKE
The charm of the delicate chiton. which clings to Nike as she
also made the acroteria for the
descends from the sky. allowing the outlines of her body to be
temple of Zeus at Olympia.
seen. contributes much to the outstanding formal and stylistic
The statue was found in
value of the statue. The sculptor has successfully rendered the
OF
December 1875. during exca-
decorative play of the drapery on and around the body. while
vations in the Altis, the sacred
retaining intact the feeling of strength exuded by the goddess's
PAEONIOS
grove at Olympia, in front of
the south-east corner of the
vigorous youthful body.
Today, after twelve years, we have the opportunity to see the
temple of Zeus.
Nike of Paconios once more. standing in the room that was
On the spot where it was
found now stands part of the
originally intended for it at the Museum of Olympia.
It is indeed fortunate that the statue was erected by the distin-
triangular statue-base, which was originally 8.81 m high.
The statue of Nike. which was carved from Parian marble. has
guished sculptor Stelios Triantes, who, with his vast experience,
great admiration and profound knowledge of ancient art. has
a height of 2.115 III and. together with the wings, will have been
completely succeeded in capturing the impression desired by his
almost 3 m. The entire monument was thus about 10.92 m in
ancient counterpart: that of Nike, triumphant, powerful yet
УПОУРГЕЮ ПОЛӀТӀЕМОҮ 0 Z' ЕФОРЕІА KAAEIKON APXAIOTHTON J ICOM
MINISTRY OF CULTURE 0 7th EPHORATE OF CLASSICALANTIQUITIES J icom
height. automatically suggesting to the viewer the idea of Nike.
descending in triumph from Mount Olympos and holding sway
light. passionate and daring. woman and goddess, descending
from the sky and conquering all the elements of nature.
over the elements of nature.
This is still the impression given by the monument. even
though much of the statue is now missing: apart from the face
and parts of the body. a large part of the wings and the himation
blowing in the wind. which h conveyed the feeling of flight. are lost.
I his impression of flight W.IN remforce In the cagle. symbol of
XENI ARAPOJANNI
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OLYMPIA AND THE MUSEUM
CULT AND GAMES: The ancient cult and myths of Olympia
Places, like men, have their destinies. On the remote slopes of Mount
Parnassos, Apollo brought together the Hellenes under the Delphic Amphik-
tyony, and delivered oracles to both Greeks and "barbarians." There was,
however, another remote corner of Greece, in the western Peloponnesos,
which became the first home of athletics and whose name, as a result, spread
throughout the world: Olympia.
The green landscape of Olympia, peaceful and serene, unfolds between
two rivers, the Alpheios and the Kladeos (fig. 16). In ancient times, it was full
of plane-trees, and wild olives: in the dialect of the local inhabitants, the
beautiful grove was known as the Altis. Whereas the god Apollo had found it
necessary to lead men himself to the awe-inspiring rock of Delphi, the rich
plain of Olympia was easily accessible and hospitable, as if asking to be chosen
for habitation. It was only natural that men should decide to build their houses
there at the beginning of the 2nd millennium B.C., or perhaps a little earlier.
The apsidal dwellings discovered in the deeper layers of soil on the site of the
sanctuary belong to the Middle Helladic period (1900-1600 B.C.). The first
settlers knew nothing of Zeus and the Olympian gods. Tradition has it that the
earliest cult was that of Kronos. This ancient god, father of Zeus, was wor-
shipped on the imposing hill that dominates and bounds the northern side of the
5
on - implies. At
: deities: Aphro-
Sosipolis), the
! sanctuaries and
Earth), and to her
how the cult of
Peloponnesos -
cred Altis as the
Zeus. It is quite
S temenos - the
ment of the cult,
- Hippodameia's
Greeks knew that
y king Oinomaos,
by his daughter in
.t him in a chariot
kill him. The king
He was the son of
ippodameia as his
king and married
1 Olympia and was
with clearly histori-
the Herakleidai to
rough a series of
ed them to find a
On their way they
who had been king
his name: Aitolia.
.. The Herakleidai
ylos took them to
:lled to Elis, which
n the Aitolians and
itolian Pyraichmes
Γ. Thus Oxylos be-
efully side by side
[ historical research
he Peloponnesos at
Leus dates from that
1. Vase painting from the 5th century B.C. depicting the abduction of Hippodameia by
shown by the early
Pelops in his chariot (Arezzo, Museo Archeologico).
bute is still manifest
I was housed in the
mentions 69, and we know he has not included all of them in his account. This
means that Olympia was a sacred site where the ancient cults of the indigenous
people continued to be practised next to the Olympian religion introduced by
the settlers from western Greece. But this was not the factor that consecrated
Olympia as the greatest Panhellenic sanctuary and determined its character and
en and gods" should
significance. Olympia owes its very special place among the other Greek
he shrine should end
sanctuaries to the games performed there every four years. The ancient Greeks
.r, where the richest
ascribed the beginning of the Olympic Games to mythical times. This implies
1 the Altis. Pausanias
that the Olympic Games were believed by the Greeks to be of a most ancient
7
and sacred origin and that they formed an integral part of the ancestral cult.
Modern research is far from unanimous in interpreting the institution of the
games. Some scholars believe that man's natural disposition to train himself
and compete with others was the main motive that led the Greeks to introduce
athletic games. But most scholars associate the introduction of the games with
burial rites, because we know that in Homeric times games were held in
honour of the dead.
HoweVer may one interpret the birth of the Olympic Games, their impor-
tance exceeds the limitations of both the time and the place where they were
originally instituted. It is no exaggeration to say that those games gave birth to
yet another Greek idea, a whole attitude to life - the attitude of a free man
competing with his peers, naked, unfettered by any element foreign to his own
body, conforming only to the rules of the game, with the sole aim of winning
for himself an olive crown - - in other words a purely moral victory - - and the
praise of his fellow-men.
The significance of the Games in Greek history
The Olympic Games proved to be historical landmarks for the ancient
Greek world. The year 776 B.C., which was the date of the first Olympiad, is
also the first. certain and accurate chronology in Greek history, because
henceforth the names of victors in every Olympiad were officially recorded.
The first victor was Koroibos of Elis, who won the one-stade race. But there is
a second, far more important historical conclusion to be drawn from the Olym-
pic Games: the Greeks, though divided into numerous tribal groups, though
scattered over a vast area from Asia Minor to Italy and from Africa to
Macedonia, though organized into hundreds of small states often at war with
each other, had a deep awareness of their ethnic unity, which set them apart
from the other inhabitants of the world. Only free Greeks were allowed to
participate in the Olympic Games; that is why the highest officials and judges
of the Games were named Hellanodikai, an ancient title that shows the su-
preme significance of the Olympic Games in the life of the Greeks. Their
celebration demanded that all Greeks be present in peaceful assembly in the
sacred grove. For this purpose the spondophoroi, noblemen of Elis followed by
an official retinue acted as heralds travelling to all the Greek cities well ahead
of the Games, in order to proclaim the "ekecheiria", i.e. a truce, a suspension
of hostilities that would last up to three months. Thus all the Greeks could
proceed without fear to Olympia and attend the most splendid Panhellenic
assembly, where they could not only admire youths excelling in athletic
games, but also single out famous noblemen and illustrious sages, listen to
poets and musicians, and above all mingle among themselves: the Dorians of
Sicily with the Ionians of the East, the Greeks of Kyrene with their distant
brothers from Macedonia. It is impossible for us to visualize that unique and
8. Stater of Elis with a portrait of Zeus, the most important deity worshipped at Olym-
pia. Middle of the 4th century B.C. Winged victory running to the left holding a crown in
her hand, also on a coin from Elis. Silver tetradrachm struck by Philip II of Macedonia to
commemorate his victory in the horse race in 356 B.C. It depicts the winning rider and
the horse. (Athens, Numismatic Museum).
12
9. Reconstruction of the hippodrome at Olympia. On the left can be seen the hippaphesis
soul-stirring 76th Olympiad (476 B.C.) when Greeks from all over the world
watched Themistokles, the victor of Salamis, entering the Altis. Plutarch tells
us that the whole day long, the crowds forgot about the athletes and the
contests in order to acclaim the man who had led them to victory.
All this took place under the gaze and protection of the great Zeus, a
warrior himself, who always stood by the Hellenes, whether in the struggles of
war or in the peaceful contests of athleticism. In return, the Greeks, being a
deeply religious people, offered him the arms which had brought them victory
and the spoils of war which the god had helped them appropriate. The victors
set up their own statues in the shrine of Zeus, not out of arrogance, but with the
piety of those who can accept a god's gift in perfect humility. As the years
went by, the votive offerings in the sacred grove grew more and more numer-
ous, till they could be numbered by the thousands; they included precious and
famed weapons which eventually made Olympia the most complete museum of
the war history of Greece.
16
olympics/ Themes
Host to Re world.
We are privileged to sue pple how all are
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FIRST LADY HILLARY RODHAM CLINTON
STATEMENT FOR THE KINDLING OF THE OLYMPIC FLAME
MARCH 30, 1996
I am honored to represent the American people at this
celebration of the 100th anniversary of the modern Olympic Games.
It is a special privilege to be here in Greece, the birthplace of
the Olympics, and of the many traditions and institutions that
sustain and enrich the human family to this day.
The flame we have just kindled will serve as the guiding
light of the centennial games this summer in Atlanta. But while
this new flame came to life just minutes ago, it is endowed with
the spirit of thousands of athletes and Olympic contests that
have taken place here and around the world.
That spirit stretches back nearly three thousand years, to
the first foot race held here at Olympia and the presentation of
a crown of olives to the victor [Koroibos of Elis]. It grew only
greater as the peasant Spiridon Loues crossed the finish line in
the first Olympic marathon one hundred years ago, inspiring the
princes of Greece to carry him to a place of honor in the royal
box.
Every four years, the family of nations gathers to pursue
excellence and to find peace and camaraderie through sport. That
is the heart of the Olympic ideal. It is a testament to the
power and vision of Greek civilization.
In Ancient Greece, warring city states would call a truce
every four years so that all of Greece's finest athletes,
warriors, poets, and artists could attend the games and honor the
gods. In the modern Olympics, distinctions of class,
nationality, and race are forgotten in contests judged by
individual strength, speed, and endurance.
These Olympic games, which have moved princes to lift
peasants onto their shoulders, emphasize an inescapable dimension
of the human experience -- that we are all members of one human
family. Our victories and defeats are not purely our own, they
are shared with the world.
Through these games, we have respected a common language of
perfect tens and world record times; established common rituals
in the lighting of the Olympic torch and the parade of nations;
and shared a common memory peopled by the triumphs and defeats of
our world's greatest athletes.
Most importantly, we have forged bonds of international
goodwill and understanding. This summer will mark the largest
gathering of nations at an Olympics. Athletes from 197 countries
will
go to Atlanta not just to test their abilities against their
counterparts, but also to make lasting friendships and gain new
sights into foreign cultures.
So this flame which leaves Olympia today on a four-month
journey through Athens, across the Atlantic to the United States,
carries much more than light and heat. It carries the legacy of
our human family, of Koroibus of Elis, of Spiridon Loues, and of
the young women and men who will convene in Atlanta this summer.
Through them, the Olympic spirit will only grow faster, higher
and stronger.
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