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Mexico City
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Withdrawal/Redaction Sheet
Clinton Library
DOCUMENT NO.
SUBJECT/TITLE
DATE
RESTRICTION
AND TYPE
001. fax
re: Manifest (2 pages)
05/01/1997
b(7)(E), b(7)(F)
002. fax
re: Manifest (1 page)
04/30/1997
b(7)(E), b(7)(F)
003. fax
re: Manifest (3 pages)
04/30/1997
b(7)(E), b(7)(F)
004. fax
re: Manifest (1 page)
04/30/1997
b(7)(E), b(7)(F)
COLLECTION:
Clinton Presidential Records
Speechwriting
Lissa Muscatine
OA/Box Number: 12087
FOLDER TITLE:
Mexico City
2017-1164-S
rc2828
RESTRICTION CODES
Presidential Records Act - [44 U.S.C. 2204(a)]
Freedom of Information Act - [5 U.S.C. 552(b)]
P1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRA]
b(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA]
b(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of
P3 Release would violate a Federal statute [(a)(3) of the PRA]
an agency [(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
b(3) Release would violate a Federal statute [(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
b(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P5 Release would disclose confidential advice between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors [a)(5) of the PRA]
b(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy [(a)(6) of the PRA]
b(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA]
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed
b(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
of gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
PRM. Personal record misfile defined in accordance with 44 U.S.C.
b(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
2201(3).
concerning wells [(b)(9) of the FOIA]
RR. Document will be reviewed upon request.
UNITED STATES INFORMATION SERVICE
U.S. EMBASSY, MEXICO CITY
FAX
FROM:
Donald R. Hamilton, Minister-Counselor for Public Affairs
TO:
John Funderburk
FAX NO.: 202-456-5340
Following are the scene-setters for the possible events in Mexico City.
TOTAL NUMBER OF PAGES:
8
If you don't receive all the pages of this fax, call 211-0042, ext. 3530. Callers
from the United States should call 011-525-211-0042.
10'd
MIXAM SISO ASSHAWAWH
7:81
SCENE-SETTER FOR ANTHROPOLOGICAL MUSEUM
Context:
Mexico City's national Museum of Anthropology is one of the world's great museums and
Mexicans are exceptionally proud of everything from its distinctive architecture to its unparalleled
collection. The Anthropology Museum has a close working relationship with many institutions in
the United States, especially the Smithsonian's National Gallery of Art in Washington. From last
June through October the Smithsonian was host to a splendid exhibit of Olmec art from Mexico
and to reciprocate, sent the exhibit called "Masterworks of the U.S. National Gallery" to the
Anthropology Museum in Mexico City. It closed last week. Your guide will be the museum
director and he may well be accompanied by senior officials from the National Council for Culture
and the National Institute for Anthropology and History.
Objectives:
To further demonstrate your interest in Mexico's history and your appreciation for the
cultures which existed here in pre-Hispanic times.
To enjoy one of the world's finest museums.
Talking Points:
--In visiting a museum such as this it is somewhat humbling to realize the breadth and antiquity of
Mexican history through its 30 centuries.
--It is difficult to recognize that there was a thriving city of perhaps 200,000 people in what is
now Mexico City long before any Europeans had dreamt that this hemisphere existed.
--My visit to Mexico is also driving home to me that the fusion of European and indigenous
cultures began in Mexico almost a full century before the first European colonists arrived in
what is now the United States.
20'd
MIXAM SISO
DT:81
SCENE-SETTER FOR MEXFAM
Context:
MEXFAM is a Mexico associate of Planned Parenthood International and receives funding from
USAID. The center you are visiting, called "La Conchita" (the little shell), is fundamentally a
youth recreation center, but it also conducts outreach to the more than 1,000,000 people who live
in the area. Aside from providing a recreational opportunity for youth, their purpose is to provide
family planning information for secondary school Mexicans (in Mexico, secondary means
essentially through the ninth grade; the time after that is called preparatory). Although family
planning is the fundamental purpose, apart from sports, there are other activities as well: some
training in mechanics, computers, etc. The autonomous Federal Elections Institute also is
operating an information center on the premises, up through the July 6 Mexico elections. Pending
vetting of the script, there will likely be a skit or sketch carried out by young people affiliated with
the school which they perform in neighborhoods outside the center to make people aware of
family planning issues.
Objectives:
To get an appreciation for the work that private organizations are doing to convey
family planning information to young people in the lower and lower-middle class strata of
greater Mexico City.
To get some sense of what the lower echelons of urban life in Mexico are like.
Talking Points:
--I'm really pleased to be here and to see the valuable work that MEXFAM is carrying out to
ensure that young people in this capital have the information that they need to make wise
decisions.
50'd
SISO ISSHAMAMH
DT
SCENE-SETTER FOR VISIT TO TEMPLO MAYOR (PRINCIPAL TEMPLE)
Context:
As Cortez and his conquistadores consolidated their conquest of the island city of Tenochtitlan,
which served as the capital of the Aztec empire, all of the religious sites relating to the Aztec
empire were destroyed. Among them was the Templo Mayor, or principal temple, of the Aztecs.
As it was destroyed and its building materials recycled into new buildings, especially the cathedral
next door, the site of the principal temple was lost in history until 1978, when a construction
project unearthed the Templo Mayor site. Finding such a site constituted a major event in
Mexican archaeology and helped define the modern world's understanding of the empire of the
Aztecs. The Aztecs were a warrior people and extremely violent in their approach to life. During
your visit to the Templo Mayor sites, both outdoors and indoors, you will see ample evidence not
only of the human sacrifices that they practiced, but also of the bloody conflicts they believed to
have taken place among their gods.
Objectives:
Whether a public or OTR visit, the objective is simply to expand your
knowledge of and show your interest in the pre-Colombian cultures of which
Mexicans are so proud.
Talking Points:
think it is wonderful that in spite of the financial and logistical burdens involved, that the
people of Mexico have made this special effort to preserve this immensely important historical
monument right in the very heart of their nation and this, the world's largest city.
Da'd
SCENE-SETTER FOR COFFEE WITH MRS ZEDILLO
Context:
By her own choice Mrs. Zedillo is not a broadly known public figure in Mexico. Naturally,
people know who she is, but she has preferred to keep a rather low profile here, not picking up
many of the public charitable and social events that some of her predecessors have taken.
Objectives:
To establish a personal relationship which should make the rest of the visit and and
any subsequent contacts more smooth.
Talking Points:
Talking points will be developed when more is known of the schedule and whether or not Mrs.
Zedillo has been in Yucatán with Mrs. Clinton.
NOTXEW SISO ASSHAWRWH
ST:81 1.661-97-888
50'd
SCENE-SETTER FOR ARRIVAL IN MERIDA
Context:
As you know, the Mexicans were anxious for a visit to Merida during the initial schedule in which
both the President and First Lady would come. Merida is the capital of the state of Yucatán and
shares the Yucatán Peninsula with the states of Quintana Roo (home to the famous resort of
Cancún) and the state of Campeche. The Yucatán Peninsula is best known as being the center of
the Mayan empire and is dotted with archaeological sites. It is also the site of the first encounter
between the conquistadores and the indigenous peoples of Mexico. Yucatán is somewhat
removed from the mainstream of Mexican political life because of its geographic isolation.
Objectives:
A quiet and low-key arrival in Merida is desired, although because the First
Lady is arriving ahead of the President, we can expect a fair bit of media interest
as a lead-up to the Presidential visit. It is quite likely that the First Lady would be
met by Mrs. Nilda Patricia Velasco de Zedillo, First Lady of Mexico, Mrs. Amira
Hernández de Servera, wife of the Governor of the state of Yucatan, and by
Mrs. Lulu Ululani de Gurria, wife of Mexico's Foreign Minister. The Mexicans
envision this as a public event.
Talking Points:
--I have come to Merida in order to see some of the splendors that my husband, because of his
recent injury, is not able to join me in. I can tell you that he is extremely disappointed that he
will not have the chance to see some of the things that I am going to be able to see on this trip.
--While my principal objective is to see some of the archaeological heritage of Yucatán and indeed
of Mexico and the entire world, I also hope to get a chance to see some of the social programs
which have been undertaken in order to advance the people of Yucatán.
90°d
SCENE-SETTER FOR VISIT TO AND LUNCH AT FRANZ MEYER MUSEUM
Context:
The Franz Meyer Museum is a private museum occupying a site owned by the Government of
Mexico. The site is a 17th-century building which has served many purposes over the years,
including that of a hospital. The Museum is dedicated to the decorative arts and offers one of the
finest appreciations of colonial art and artifacts in Mexico City. The quiet and classic Spanish
colonial courtyard in the Museum would make an excellent site for the luncheon to be hosted by
Mrs. Jones for Mexican women of accomplishment. Mrs. Jones has curated an exhibit in this
museum. The exhibit dealt with the history of English ceramics in Mexico.
Objectives:
0
To get a finer appreciation of the colonial history of Mexico, since most of your
other cultural site visits have been dedicated to pre-Colombian history.
10'd
MIXEW SISO ASSHAWAWH
91:81
TOTAL P.08
SCENE-SETTER FOR CIUDADELA MARKET
Context:
The Ciudadela (see-you-dah-DE-la) market is one of the capital's leading markets for Mexican
handicrafts ("artesanias" - are-tay-sah-NI-ahss). Unlike some of the other markets, this one is
visited by both tourists and Mexicans alike. It contains a nice selection of Mexican handicrafts
ranging from silver through carved wood, textiles and glassware.
Objectives:
To share an experience that most American tourists in Mexico have and to perhaps
find some nice souvenirs of your trip to Mexico.
00
CICO
JT.OT
ICCT-C7-WAH
35501 r.002
VISIT OF THE PRESIDENT AND FIRST LADY
TO
MEXICO CITY, MEXICO
MAY 5, 1997
EVENT:
Airport Arrival of the First Lady
DATE:
Monday, May 5, 1997
TIME:
7:00 PM
LOCATION:
Mexico City International Airport-Marina Ramp
ATTENDEES:
Greeter: Regan Burke, First Lady's Lead Advance
PRESS:
Closed Press
REMARKS:
None
SCENARIO:
First Lady de-boards plane and proceeds via
motorcade to the Presidente Inter-Continental
Hotel.
APR-30-1997 16:47
MEXICO CITY STAFF ADV
35501 P.002
Visit of the President and First Lady
To
Mexico City, Mexico
March 5-7. 1997
Event:
Arrival Ceremony
Date:
Tuesday, May 6, 1997
Time:
9:05-9:45 am
Location:
Campo Marte, Mexico city, Mexico
Attendees:
Greeters: President and Mrs. Zedillo
Attendees: Various Mexican and American
dignitaries and The Cabinet.
Press:
Open Press
Remarks:
Remarks with consecutive translation
Scenario:
The President and First Lady will be greeted at
the arrival point by President and Mrs. Zedillo.
The Presidents and First Ladies will be announced
on to the stage.
The program begins with a 21 gun salute followed
by the Mexican National Anthem and the US National
Anthem.
President Zedillo makes remarks, followed by
remarks by President Clinton.
Following the presidential remarks, officials from
the US and Mexico are recognized.
President Zedillo's military aide will ask
permission for a review of troops, at which point
the military parade begins, passing from left to
right in front of the reviewing stand.
President Zedillo, will then thank President and
Mrs. Clinton and conclude the ceremony.
The President and First Lady exit stage left and
work a rope line.
Depart Campo Marte via motorcade en route Los
Pinos Presidential Palace.
Withdrawal/Redaction Marker
Clinton Library
DOCUMENT NO.
SUBJECT/TITLE
DATE
RESTRICTION
AND TYPE
001. fax
re: Manifest (2 pages)
05/01/1997
b(7)(E), b(7)(F)
COLLECTION:
Clinton Presidential Records
Speechwriting
Lissa Muscatine
OA/Box Number: 12087
FOLDER TITLE:
Mexico City
2017-1164-S
rc2828
RESTRICTION CODES
Presidential Records Act - [44 U.S.C. 2204(a)]
Freedom of Information Act - [5 U.S.C. 552(b)]
P1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRA]
b(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA]
b(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of
P3 Release would violate a Federal statute [(a)(3) of the PRA]
an agency [(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
b(3) Release would violate a Federal statute [(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
b(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P5 Release would disclose confidential advice between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors [a)(5) of the PRA]
b(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy [(a)(6) of the PRA]
b(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA]
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed
b(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
of gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
PRM. Personal record misfile defined in accordance with 44 U.S.C.
b(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
2201(3).
concerning wells [(b)(9) of the FOIA]
RR. Document will be reviewed upon request.
APR-30-1997 17:21
MEXICO CITY STAFF HDV
35502 P.002
The Trip of The President of The United States and First Lady
To Mexico City, Mexico
May 5-7, 1997
EVENT:
US Embassy Meet and Greet
DATE:
Wednesday May 7, 1997
TIME:
6:40-7: 30 P.M.
LOCATION:
US Embassy, Mexico City
ATTENDEES:
Ambassador Jones, Secretary of State Madeline Albright and US
Embassy Employees (750)
PRESS:
Closed
REMARKS:
Introductions by Ambassador Jones and Secretary of State Albright
SCENARIO:
The President and First Lady arrive by motorcade at US Embassy and proceed from
basement arrival point to ground floor.
Ambassador Jones introduces Madeline Albright from off-stage after brief remarks.
Secretary of State Albright gives brief remarks and introduces President Clinton and The
First Lady.
The President and First Lady enter from off-stage onto platform.
Ambassador Jones goes to microphone at end of applause and recognizes a group of pre-
school children (12-20 children of embassy employees) sitting near the platform who will
sing a short Hello song to the President and First Lady.
After song is completed President Clinton approaches podium and the First Lady takes seat
(stage left) along with Secretary Albright and Ambassador Jones (both stage right).
President Clinton addresses US Embassy Employees and families.
Once remarks are completed all four principals exit platform and work a small rope line.
Exit from ground atrium to inside hallway.
President proceeds to end of hallway for photo with Marine Honor Guard.
Depart for motorcade on route to airport.
Withdrawal/Redaction Marker
Clinton Library
DOCUMENT NO.
SUBJECT/TITLE
DATE
RESTRICTION
AND TYPE
002. fax
re: Manifest (1 page)
04/30/1997
b(7)(E), b(7)(F)
COLLECTION:
Clinton Presidential Records
Speechwriting
Lissa Muscatine
OA/Box Number: 12087
FOLDER TITLE:
Mexico City
2017-1164-S
rc2828
RESTRICTION CODES
Presidential Records Act - |44 U.S.C. 2204(a)]
Freedom of Information Act - [5 U.S.C. 552(b)]
P1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRA]
b(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA]
b(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of
P3 Release would violate a Federal statute [(a)(3) of the PRA]
an agency [(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
b(3) Release would violate a Federal statute [(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
b(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P5 Release would disclose confidential advice between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors [a)(5) of the PRA]
b(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy [(a)(6) of the PRA]
b(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA]
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed
b(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
of gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
PRM. Personal record misfile defined in accordance with 44 U.S.C.
b(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
2201(3).
concerning wells [(b)(9) of the FOIA]
RR. Document will be reviewed upon request.
APR-30-1997 11:56
MEXICO CITY PRESS ADV
35503 P.002
VISIT OF THE PRESIDENT
TO
MEXICO CITY, MEXICO
MAY 5 -7, 1997
EVENT:
The Present and Future of Mexico-United States
Relation's
DATE:
Wednesday, May 7. 1997
TIME:
10:20 am - 11:50 am
LOCATION:
National Auditorium
ATTENDEES:
An assortment of Mexican business leaders, Cabinet members,
political leaders, Congressional members, human rights activist,
educators, diplomatic corps, college students, and various ethnic
groups. (9,500 plus)
PRESS:
Open
REMARKS:
Speech
in
TRANSLATION:
Simultaneous
SCENARIO:
The PRESIDENT and the First Lady arrive to the National Auditorium
and will be met by President and Mrs. Zedillo. Prior to their antval, the audience was
shown o 12 minute video on
.
The First Lady and Mrs. Zedillo will be announced
(off-stage) into the room where they will proceed directly to their seats in the front row.
The PRESIDENTS will remain back-stage to view a 3 minute video on a TV monitor. At the
conclusion of the video, PRESIDENT CLINTON and President Zedillo will be announced (off
stage) into the auditorium. President Zedillo speaks and Introduces the PRESIDENT. The
PRESIDENT speaks. Upon the conclusion of his remarks, the PRESIDENT exits stage left. The
First lady and Mrs. Zedillo will join their spouses for the off stage exit.
Draft: April 30, 1997
Withdrawal/Redaction Marker
Clinton Library
DOCUMENT NO.
SUBJECT/TITLE
DATE
RESTRICTION
AND TYPE
003. fax
re: Manifest (3 pages)
04/30/1997
b(7)(E), b(7)(F)
COLLECTION:
Clinton Presidential Records
Speechwriting
Lissa Muscatine
OA/Box Number: 12087
FOLDER TITLE:
Mexico City
2017-1164-S
rc2828
RESTRICTION CODES
Presidential Records Act - [44 U.S.C. 2204(a)]
Freedom of Information Act - [5 U.S.C. 552(b)]
P1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRA]
b(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA]
b(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of
P3 Release would violate a Federal statute [(a)(3) of the PRA]
an agency [(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
b(3) Release would violate a Federal statute [(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
b(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P5 Release would disclose confidential advice between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors [a)(5) of the PRA]
b(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy [(a)(6) of the PRA]
b(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA]
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed
b(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
of gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
PRM. Personal record misfile defined in accordance with 44 U.S.C.
b(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
2201(3).
concerning wells [(b)(9) of the FOIA]
RR. Document will be reviewed upon request.
APR-30-1997 10:22
MEXICO CITY STAFF HDV
35501 P.003
THE TRIP OF THE PRESIDENT
TO
MEXICO CITY, MEXICO
MAY 5 - 7, 1997
EVENT:
Cultural Presentation
DATE:
Tuesday May 6, 1997
TIME:
7:55 p.m. - 9:10 p.m.
LOCATION:
Palace of Bellas Artes
GREETERS:
Ricardo Calderon Director of the Performance Theater
will greet on arrival at the Loading Dock.
President and Mrs. Zedillo will greet on the third
floor at the elevator.
ATTENTEES:
U.S.
MEXICO
THE PRESIDENT & Mrs.Clinton President & Mrs. Zedillo
TBD
TBD
PRESS:
Pool
SCENARIO: THE PRESIDENT and The First Lady arrive via motorcade
Palace of Bellas Artes. THE PRESIDENT and The First Lady proceed
to the elvators where they are welcomed by the Director of the
Performance Center. THE PRESIDENT and The First Lady proceed up to
the box level where they are greeted by President and Mrs.
Zedillo who will escort them to the Presidential Box.
THE PRESIDENT and The First Lady enter the box and standing with
President and Mrs. Zedillo, they acknowledge the audience. The
Mexican National Anthem will be played followed by the American
National. Anthem.
THE PRESIDENT and The First Lady will view a cultural performance
which will include the National Symphony Orchestra of Mexico,
soprano Maria Luisa Tamez, tenor Alfredo Portilla and the Bellas
Artes Choir.
After the performance and the departure of President and
Mrs. Zedillo, THE PRESIDENT and The First Lady will have a brief
tour of the Garcia Ponce Art Exhibit given by Agustin Arteaga -
Director of the Palace Bellas Artes Art Museum.
THE PRESIDENT and The First Lady will depart Palace of Bellas
Artes via motorcade en route National Palace.
m.kreiss
draft 3 4-30-97 09:00a.m.
CATCO
RAFT
THE TRIP OF THE FIRST LADY
TO
MEXICO CITY, MEXICO
MAY 5-7, 1997
EVENT:
Visit to MEXFAM
DATE:
Tuesday, May 6, 1997
TIME:
11:00 a. m. - 12:00 noon
LOCATION:
"La Conchita" Juvenile Recreation Center
ATTENDEES:
TBD
GREETERS:
XXX
PRESS:
Open
REMARKS:
None
SCENARIO:
HRC is greeted curbside, by XXX.
XXX escorts HRC into Library for Roundtable Discussion
w/X participants.
Upon conclusion of Roundtable Discussion, XXX leads HRC
on a tour of the facility.
Upon conclusion of tour, XXX leads HRC to outdoor skit
venue. (HRC and roundtable participants will have reserved seating in first row of
audience).
Upon conclusion of skit, HRC ascends the stage, stage right,
delivers brief remarks & thanks audience/participants from standing microphone on
stage.
HRC descends stage right and walks to motorcade
arrival/departure point.
HRC departs.
Withdrawal/Redaction Marker
Clinton Library
DOCUMENT NO.
SUBJECT/TITLE
DATE
RESTRICTION
AND TYPE
004. fax
re: Manifest (1 page)
04/30/1997
b(7)(E), b(7)(F)
COLLECTION:
Clinton Presidential Records
Speechwriting
Lissa Muscatine
OA/Box Number: 12087
FOLDER TITLE:
Mexico City
2017-1164-S
rc2828
RESTRICTION CODES
Presidential Records Act - [44 U.S.C. 2204(a)]
Freedom of Information Act - [5 U.S.C. 552(b)]
P1 National Security Classified Information [(a)(1) of the PRA]
b(1) National security classified information [(b)(1) of the FOIA]
P2 Relating to the appointment to Federal office [(a)(2) of the PRA]
b(2) Release would disclose internal personnel rules and practices of
P3 Release would violate a Federal statute [(a)(3) of the PRA]
an agency [(b)(2) of the FOIA]
P4 Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential commercial or
b(3) Release would violate a Federal statute [(b)(3) of the FOIA]
financial information [(a)(4) of the PRA]
b(4) Release would disclose trade secrets or confidential or financial
P5 Release would disclose confidential advice between the President
information [(b)(4) of the FOIA]
and his advisors, or between such advisors [a)(5) of the PRA]
b(6) Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
P6 Release would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of
personal privacy [(b)(6) of the FOIA]
personal privacy [(a)(6) of the PRA]
b(7) Release would disclose information compiled for law enforcement
purposes [(b)(7) of the FOIA]
C. Closed in accordance with restrictions contained in donor's deed
b(8) Release would disclose information concerning the regulation of
of gift.
financial institutions [(b)(8) of the FOIA]
PRM. Personal record misfile defined in accordance with 44 U.S.C.
b(9) Release would disclose geological or geophysical information
2201(3).
concerning wells [(b)(9) of the FOIA]
RR. Document will be reviewed upon request.
Background Notes: Mexico 04/97
http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/mexico_0497_bgn.html
U.S. Department of State
Background Notes: Mexico, April 1997
Released by the Bureau of Inter-American Affairs.
OFFICIAL NAME: United Mexican States
PROFILE
GEOGRAPHY
Area: 1,972,500 sq. km. (761,600 sq. mi.); about three times the size of Texas.
Cities: Capital--Mexico City (15 million, 1990 census). Other cities--Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla,
Leon.
Terrain: Coastal lowlands, central high plateaus, and mountains up to 5,400 m. (18,000 ft.).
Climate: Tropical to desert.
PEOPLE
Nationality: Noun and adjective--Mexican(s).
Population (1997 est.): 95 million. Annual growth rate (net): 1.8%.
Ethnic groups: Indian-Spanish (mestizo) 60%, Indian 30%, Caucasian 9%, other 1%.
Religions: Roman Catholic 89%, Protestant 6%, other 5%.
Language: Spanish.
Education: Years compulsory--12. Literacy--89%.
Health (1996 est.): Infant mortality rate-30/1,000.
Life expectancy--male 70 yrs., female 76 yrs.
Labor force (33 million): Agriculture, forestry, hunting, fishing--26%. Services--24%. Commerce--24%.
Manufacturing--15%. Construction--6%. Transportation and communication--4%. Mining and
quarrying--1%.
GOVERNMENT
Type: Federal republic.
Independence: First proclaimed September 16, 1810; republic established 1824.
Constitution: February 5, 1917.
Branches: Executive--president (chief of state and head of government). Legislative--bicameral.
Judicial--Supreme Court, local and federal systems.
Political parties: Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), National Action Party (PAN), Party of the
Democratic Revolution (PRD), Labor Party (PT), and several small parties.
Suffrage: Universal at 18.
Administrative subdivisions: 31 states and a federal district.
ECONOMY
GDP (1997, proj.): $370 billion.
Per capita GDP (1997, proj.): $3,911.
Annual real GDP growth (1997, proj.): 4.5%; (1996): 5.1%; (1995): -6.2%
Avg. annual real GDP growth (1989-94): 3%.
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Inflation rate (1997, proj): 18%; (1996): 28%.
Natural resources: Petroleum, silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber.
Agriculture (5.8% of GDP): Products--corn, beans, oilseeds, feedgrains, fruit, cotton, coffee, sugarcane,
winter vegetables.
Industry: Types--manufacturing (22% of GDP), services, commerce, transportation and
communications, petroleum and mining.
Trade: (1996, Bank of Mexico): Exports--$96 billion: manufacturing 84%, petroleum and derivatives
10%, agriculture 5%, other 1%. Major markets: U.S. (84%), Europe (4%), South America (4%), Canada
(2%).
Imports--$89.5 billion: intermediate goods 80%, capital goods 10%, consumer goods 7%, other 3%.
Major sources: U.S. (76%), Europe (9%), Japan (5%), Canada (2%) (1996, U.S. Department of
Commerce). Imports from U.S.--$56.8 billion. Exports to U.S.-- $73 billion.
Average exchange rate (1996): 7.60 pesos = U.S. $1.
PEOPLE
Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world and the second-most populous
country in Latin America after Portuguese-speaking Brazil. About 70% of the people live in urban areas.
Many Mexicans emigrate from rural areas that lack job opportunities--such as the underdeveloped
southern states and the crowded central plateau--to the industrialized urban centers and the developing
areas along the U.S.-Mexico border. According to some estimates, the population of the area around
Mexico City is about 20 million, which would make it the largest concentration of population in the
world. Cities bordering on the United States, such as Tijuana and Ciudad Juarez, and cities in the
interior, such as Guadalajara, Monterrey, and Puebla, have undergone sharp rises in population.
HISTORY
Highly advanced cultures, including those of the Olmecs, Mayas, Toltecs, and Aztecs, existed long
before the Spanish conquest. Hernando Cortes conquered Mexico during the period 1519-21 and
founded a Spanish colony that lasted nearly 300 years. Independence from Spain was proclaimed by
Father Miguel Hidalgo on September 16, 1810; this launched a war for independence. An 1821 treaty
recognized Mexican independence from Spain and called for a constitutional monarchy. The planned
monarchy failed; a republic was proclaimed in December 1822 and established in 1824.
Prominent figures in Mexico's war for independence were Father Jose Maria Morelos; Gen. Augustin de
Iturbide, who defeated the Spaniards and ruled as Mexican emperor from 1822-23; and Gen. Antonio
Lopez de Santa Ana, who went on to control Mexican politics from 1833 to 1855.
Santa Ana was Mexico's leader during the conflict with Texas, which declared itself independent from
Mexico in 1836, and during Mexico's war with the United States (1846-48). The presidential terms of
Benito Juarez (1858-71) were interrupted by the Hapsburg monarchy's rule of Mexico (1864-1867).
Archduke Maximilian of Austria, whom Napoleon III of France established as Emperor of Mexico, was
deposed by Juarez and executed in 1867. General Porfirio Diaz was President during most of the period
between 1877 and 1911.
Mexico's severe social and economic problems erupted in a revolution that lasted from 1910-20 and
gave rise to the 1917 constitution. Prominent leaders in this period -- some were rivals for power -- were
Francisco I. Madero, Venustiano Carranza, Pancho Villa, Alvaro Obregon, Victoriano Huerta, and
Emiliano Zapata.
The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), formed in 1929 under a different name, continues to be the
most important political force in the nation. It emerged as a coalition of interests after the chaos of the
Revolution as a vehicle for keeping political competition in peaceful channels. For almost 70 years,
Mexico's national government has been controlled by the PRI, which has won every presidential race
and most gubernatorial races.
GOVERNMENT
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The 1917 constitution provides for a federal republic with powers separated into independent executive,
legislative, and judicial branches. In practice, the executive is the dominant branch, with power vested in
the president, who promulgates and executes the laws of the Congress. The president also legislates by
executive decree in certain economic and financial fields, using powers delegated from the Congress.
The president is elected by universal adult suffrage for a six-year term and may not hold office a second
time. There is no vice president; in the event of the removal or death of the president, a provisional
president is elected by the Congress.
The Congress is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Consecutive re-election is
prohibited. Senators are elected to six-year terms. Implementing constitutional changes made in 1996,
for the first time on July 6, 1997, 32 of the 128 seats in the Senate will be elected by proportional
representation from party lists on a national basis. With this change, some states may have more
Senators than others. The 32 Senators elected in 1997 will only serve three-year terms, in order to bring
the entire Senate back into the same cycle in the year 2000. Deputies serve three-year terms. In the lower
chamber, 300 Deputies are directly elected to represent single-member districts, and 200 are selected by
a modified form of proportional representation from five electoral regions created for this purpose across
the country. The 200 proportional representation seats were created to help smaller parties gain access to
the Chamber.
The judiciary is divided into federal and state court systems, with federal courts having jurisdiction over
most civil cases and those involving major felonies. Under the constitution, trial and sentencing must be
completed within 12 months of arrest for crimes that would carry at least a two-year sentence. Practice
often does not meet this requirement. Trial is by judge, not jury, in most criminal cases. Defendants have
a right to counsel, and public defenders are available. Other rights include defense against
self-incrimination, the right to confront one's accusers, and the right to a public trial. Supreme Court
Justices are appointed by the President and approved by the Senate.
National Security
Mexico's armed forces in 1995 numbered about 175,000. The army makes up about three-fourths of the
total. One year of limited training is required of all males at age 18. Principal military roles include
national defense, narcotics control, and civic action assignments such as road-building, search and
rescue, and disaster relief.
Principal Government Officials
President--Ernesto ZEDILLO Ponce de Leon
Foreign Minister-Jose Angel GURRIA Trevino
Ambassador to the U.S.--Jesus SILVA-HERZOG Flores
Ambassador to the United Nations--Manuel TELLO Macias
Ambassador to the OAS--Carmen MORENO de del Cueto
Mexico maintains an embassy in the United States at 1911 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC
20006 (tel. 202-728-1600). Consular offices are located at 2827 16th St. NW, 20009 (tel.
202-736-1012), and the trade office is co-located at the embassy (tel. 202-728-1686).
Consulates general are located in Chicago, Dallas, Denver, El Paso, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New
Orleans, New York, San Antonio, San Diego, and San Francisco; consulates are (partial listing) in
Atlanta, Boston, Detroit, Philadelphia, Seattle, St. Louis, and Tucson.
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon was sworn in on December 1, 1994, as the President of Mexico. A
trained economist with degrees from Yale, Zedillo served as Secretary of Programming and Budget and
Secretary of Education in the Salinas Administration prior to being elected.
President Zedillo continued the process already underway of opening Mexico's political system,
reforming the justice system, curtailing corruption, strengthening the fight against narcotics trafficking,
and furthering Mexico's market-oriented economic policies. A severe financial crisis occupied much of
the Zedillo Administration's attention in 1995-96, creating a need for difficult emergency economic
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stabilization policies and intensified longer-term economic restructuring. Significant progress has been
achieved in some areas.
Political Scene
Unexpected and traumatic events in early 1994 convulsed the Mexican political scene. In January 1994,
peasants in the state of Chiapas briefly took up arms against the government, protesting alleged
oppression and governmental indifference to poverty. The government and the Zapatista Army of
National Liberation (EZLN) have negotiated on topics such as granting greater autonomy to indigenous
peoples since then, reaching several partial accords. There have been no clashes since the government's
unilaterally declared cease-fire in 1994, and the two sides remain committed to a negotiated peace
settlement.
In March 1994, PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio was assassinated. In September 1994,
PRI Secretary General Jose Francisco Ruiz Massieu was also assassinated. Although the gunmen in both
murders and co-conspirators in the Ruiz Massieu murder were tried and convicted, the Mexican public is
not satisfied that all the truth behind these crimes has been uncovered.
Investigations into the murders resulted in the apprehensions in February 1995 of a second gunman in
the Colosio murder, the arrest of the brother of former president Carlos Salinas as a suspected
mastermind behind the second crime, and the filing of charges in March 1995 against the brother of Ruiz
Massieu for obstructing investigations into the murder. Additional charges, including illegal enrichment
for amassing multi-million dollar fortunes in overseas bank accounts, were filed against both men and
investigations were widened to include their associates.
This has led to a flurry of public scandals regarding supposed attempts at obstruction of justice and
allegations of major corruption in police, judicial, military and other authorities, as well as big business,
including allegations of ties to narcotics trafficking. The atmosphere of scandal around former President
Carlos Salinas has turned him into something of an arch-villain in the popular mind.
A new group of uncertain origin and size, the Popular Revolutionary Army (EPR), made its appearance
in southern Mexico on June 28, 1996. The Government considers the EPR a terrorist organization and
has vowed to bring the group to justice. This and the assassination of senior law enforcement officers by
suspected drug traffickers in northern Mexico also has contributed to increased attention and concern
over public safety.
Recent Elections and Electoral Reform
A record 78% of registered voters cast ballots in the August 21, 1994, elections. Election officials
declared Zedillo of the PRI the winner with 49% of the vote, followed by National Action Party (PAN)
candidate Diego Fernandez de Cevallos with 26% and Cuauhtemoc Cardenas of the Party of the
Democratic Revolution (PRD) with 17%. Despite isolated incidents of irregularities and problems, there
was no evidence of systematic attempts to manipulate the elections or their results, and critics concluded
that the irregularities which did occur did not alter the outcome of the presidential vote. Civic
organizations fielded more than 80,000 trained electoral observers; foreigners many from the United
States were invited to witness the process, and numerous independent "quick count" operations and
exit polls validated the official vote tabulation.
These extraordinary electoral observation measures were needed to overcome public suspicions that
electoral fraud might be committed. Over the years, the PRI has relied on extensive patronage and
massive government and party organizational resources to maintain its continuance in power. In many
cases, the party has been accused of fraud. However, as numerous electoral reforms implemented since
1989 have aided in the further opening of the Mexican political system, opposition parties have made
historic gains in elections at all levels. Most of the concerns shifted from fraud to campaign fairness
issues.
In 1989, the PAN became the first opposition party to win a state governorship (in Baja California.) The
PAN now governs four states: Guanajuato, Baja California, Jalisco, and Chihuahua. The party has also
won a number of mayoral races, especially in urban areas. In recent years, however, controversies
regarding state electoral results and/or campaign practices in Yucatan, Tabasco and elsewhere have
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pointed out the need for electoral practices to catch up with reformed electoral laws in some areas of the
country.
During 1995-96 the political parties negotiated constitutional amendments to address electoral campaign
fairness issues, which passed unanimously. In these negotiations, the parties were supported by
consultations with civic organizations. It proved a disappointment when implementing legislation could
not also be passed by consensus due primarily to disagreements over levels of public funding for
political parties. The package of laws passed by the PRI majority in congress did include, however,
major points of consensus that had been worked out with the opposition parties. The thrust of the new
laws is to have public financing predominate over private contributions to political parties, to tighten
procedures for auditing the political parties, and to strengthen the authority and independence of
electoral institutions.
Even before the new electoral law was passed, opposition parties have obtained an increasing voice in
Mexico's political system. While the ruling PRI still has substantial majorities in both houses of the
Mexican Congress, 40% of its Chamber of Deputies and 33 of 128 senators were members of opposition
parties. The PAN -- the largest opposition group -- rules over 37% of the country at the state and local
levels.
The court system was also given greatly expanded authority to hear civil rights cases on electoral matters
brought by individuals or groups. In short, a serious effort was made to "level the playing field" for the
parties.
On July 6, 1997, all 500 members of the Chamber of Deputies and 32 members of the 128-member
Senate will be elected. Also, an election will be held for the first time to choose the Mayor of Mexico
City (to be known as the "Chief of Government of the Federal District"). This official was previously
appointed by the president. Elections for state governors, state congresses, and/or for town mayors will
be held in 11 states.
Other Reforms
To help reorganize the Mexican justice system, President Zedillo appointed as Attorney General a
respected member of the opposition PAN party, the first time an opposition member has held a cabinet
post in Mexico. (Attorney General Antonio Lozano was dismissed in late 1996 amid controversy
regarding investigations into prominent murder and corruption cases.) Constitutional and legal changes
were adopted to improve the performance and accountability of the Supreme Court and the Office of the
Attorney General and the administration of federal courts. The Supreme Court, relieved of
administrative duties for lower courts, was given responsibilities for judicial review of certain categories
of law and legislation. A variety of laws was also passed in 1995-96 to help control organized crime.
Although the constitution provides for three branches of government, the Mexican presidency
traditionally occupies a dominant position. In order to overcome this "presidentialism," the Zedillo
Administration has sought to develop a greater role for the Congress, notably by inviting the
participation of a multi-party legislative commission in the Chiapas peace negotiations and seeking
congressional approval of the financial assistance package signed by the U.S. and Mexico in February
1995. The judicial reforms mentioned above are in part designed to allow the judicial branch of
government to become a more effective counter-weight to the other two branches. The Zedillo
Administration has also promoted a "New Federalism" to devolve more power to state and local
governments, starting with pilot programs in education and health.
Education
Although educational levels in Mexico have improved substantially in recent decades, the country still
faces daunting problems. Education is one of the Government of Mexico's highest priorities and it has
increased the education budget 7.2% over 1996 to $15 billion for 1997 -- one-fourth of the total budget.
Education in Mexico is also being decentralized from federal to state authority in order to improve
accountability.
Education is mandatory from ages six through 18. The increase in school enrollments during the past
two decades has been dramatic. By 1994, an estimated 59% of the population between the ages of six
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and 18 were enrolled in school. Primary (including preschool) enrollment in public schools from 1970
through 1994 increased from less than 10 million to 17.5 million. Enrollment at the secondary public
school level rose from 1.4 million in 1972 to as many as 4.5 million in 1994. A rapid rise also occurred
in higher education. Between 1959 and 1994, college enrollments rose from 62,000 to more than 1.2
million.
Although education spending has risen dramatically, given increased enrollment, a net decline occurred
in per student expenditures. The Mexican Government concedes that despite this progress, 2 million
children still do not have access to basic education, and hopes to provide access to half of those children
by the year 2000.
ECONOMY
Sustained economic growth is vital to Mexico's prospects for a successful evolution to a more
competitive democracy. Mexico's level of economic prosperity has a direct, though proportionally
smaller impact on the U.S. as it affects trade and migration. In recent years Mexico has sought economic
prosperity through liberalization of its trade regime. In January 1994, Mexico joined Canada and the
United States in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which will phase out all tariffs
over a 15-year period. Four months later, in April 1994, Mexico joined the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD). Mexico was the first Latin American member of the
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC), joining in 1993, and in January 1996, became a
founding member of the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Mexico's NAFTA membership helped the Mexican economy grow by 3.5% in 1994. Following the
December 1994 devaluation of the peso, however, Mexico experienced a severe financial crisis that also
threatened the stability of other emerging market economies, especially in Latin America.
The United States responded by leading a group of international lenders in making available to Mexico
over $40 billion in international financial assistance, including $20 billion from the United States. This
action helped stabilize the Mexican economy, allowing Mexico to repay the loans to the United States
more than three years ahead of schedule and with $580 million in interest.
In 1996, Mexico's economy grew over 5%, recovering from the recession more briskly than anticipated.
Inflation fell, unemployment fell and the peso stabilized. Mexican real GDP is expected to grow about
4% in 1997.
Although the 1995 recession was severe, with real GDP falling 6.2%, tough stabilization measures
averted an even more serious collapse and brought about a rapid recovery. NAFTA contributed to the
process of adjustment by enabling Mexico to reduce its current account deficit through increased exports
rather than through slashing imports from the United States, as it had following the 1982 debt crisis.
Trade
Mexico was the United States third-ranked trading partner in 1996, accounting for 9% of U.S. trade. In
1996, U.S. $56.8 billion in exports to Mexico were almost equal to our exports to Japan, even though the
Mexican economy is just one-seventh the size of Japan's. The United States was Mexico's predominant
trading partner, accounting for 84% of Mexican exports and 76% of Mexican imports. The chief U.S.
exports to Mexico were motor vehicle parts, office equipment, and agricultural products; the top imports
from Mexico included petroleum, cars and coffee. The United States in 1996 was the source of 60% of
all direct foreign investment in Mexico.
U.S.-Mexico trade increased during NAFTA's first three years. In 1996, U.S. exports to Mexico were up
36% and U.S. imports from Mexico were up 80% over 1993 levels. Cyclical economic factors, rather
than NAFTA, caused a trade deficit in 1995 and 1996; strong growth in U.S. demand, along with the
Mexican recession and devaluation of the peso, increased U.S. imports while slowing growth in U.S.
exports.
NAFTA eliminates restrictions on the flow of goods, services, and investment in North America. In
addition to phasing out tariffs, NAFTA eliminates, as far as possible, non-tariff barriers and promotes
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safeguards for intellectual property rights -- patents, copyrights, and trademarks. The pact also includes
provisions on trade rules and dispute settlement, and its parallel labor agreement seeks to ensure full
protection of workers' rights.
Through its supplemental environmental cooperation agreement, NAFTA marked the first time in the
history of U.S. trade policy that environmental concerns have been addressed in a comprehensive trade
agreement. The pact also serves as a basis for enhancing ongoing U.S.-Mexico cooperation on a host of
other issues that do not respect national borders.
Agriculture
Mexico's agrarian reform program began in 1917, when the government began distribution of land to
farmers. Extended further in the 1930s, this cooperative agrarian reform, which guaranteed small farmers
a means of subsistence livelihood, also caused land fragmentation and lack of capital investment, since
commonly held land could not be used as collateral. This, combined with poor soil, several recent years
of low rainfall, and rural population growth, has made it difficult to raise the productivity and living
standards of Mexico's subsistence farmers.
Mexico's agricultural sector continues to experience heavy debt problems, even as the government seeks
to foster a shift to a market-oriented and competitive farming industry. High interest rates for loans have
compounded the difficulty for producers, and the 1994 peso crisis exacerbated the decline in
productivity. According to the Mexican Government's office of statistics, agriculture accounted for 5.8%
of GDP in 1996.
In an effort to raise rural productivity and living standards, Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution was
amended in 1992 to allow for the transfer of communal land to the farmers cultivating it. They then
could rent or sell it, opening the way for larger farms and economies of scale. By early 1996, however,
only six farmers' cooperatives had voted to disincorporate. Since communal land use is formally
reviewed only every two years, privatization of these communal lands may continue to be very slow.
In the past, the government encouraged production of basic crops such as corn and beans by maintaining
support prices. In order to rationalize its agricultural sector, Mexico is phasing out its support price
scheme. Corn production dropped in 1995 and 1996 as more was imported. The government in 1996
crafted federal-to-state agreements targeted at each states' most urgent needs, with the goal of increasing
the use of modern equipment and technology in order to increase per-acre productivity.
In addition to this new initiative, the government is continuing PROCAMPO, the rural support program
which provides the approximately 3.5 million farmers who produce basic commodities - about 64% of
all farmers - with a fixed payment per hectare of cropland.
Manufacturing and Foreign Investment
Mexico's manufacturing sector in 1996 accounted for 22% of the GDP and 21% of employment in the
formal urban economy. Manufacturing grew 11% after having declined 5% during Mexico's recession in
1995.
The industrial sector as a whole, which along with manufacturing includes construction, electricity and
mining, grew 10% in 1996, following a drop of 8% in 1995. Construction rebounded with 11% growth
after declining 23% in 1996.
In December 1993, Mexico passed a new foreign investment law which promotes competitiveness and
established clear rules for the entry of international capital into productive activities. The law also
permits foreigners to own non-residential property in the "restricted zones" - within 100 kilometers (62
miles) of the border and 50 kilometers of the coasts. Residential property in these zones still must be
acquired via a trust through a Mexican financial institution. Total new direct foreign investment in 1995
was $7 billion, down from $11 billion in 1994. Direct foreign investment of at least $8 billion is widely
expected to have taken place in 1996, although the final tallies have not been released.
Transportation and Communications
The Zedillo Administration is continuing the previous government's modernization of infrastructure and
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services, deregulation and development of more efficient transport systems, and increased privatization.
Mexico's land transportation network is one of the most extensive in Latin America. More than 4,000
kilometers (2,400 miles) of four-lane highway have been built through government concessions to
private sector contractors since 1989. The 36,000 kilometers (22,000 miles) of government-owned
railroads in Mexico are currently being privatized through sale of 50-year operating concessions. The
Northeast railroad, Mexico's primary freight carrier, was privatized early in 1997 for $1.4 billion.
Another significant section, the Northwest railroad, will be privatized by mid-1997.
Tampico and Veracruz, on the Gulf of Mexico, are Mexico's two primary seaports. Recognizing that the
low productivity of Mexico's 79 ports poses a threat to trade development, the government has steadily
been privatizing port operations to improve their efficiency.
A number of international airlines serve Mexico, with direct or connecting flights from most major cities
in the United States, Canada, Europe, Japan, and Latin America. Most Mexican regional capitals and
resorts have direct air service to Mexico City or the United States. Airport privatization, based on the
successful experience with ports, should begin by the end of 1997.
Mexico has taken significant steps to modernize its telecommunications system. A key element was the
privatization in 1990 of the national telephone company, Telefonos de Mexico (TELMEX), which was
sold to a consortium of Mexican investors, Southwestern Bell, and France Telcom. This privatization
has meant an increased rate of infrastructure enhancement. In addition, eight regional companies are
providing cellular telephone service to various parts of Mexico, resulting in a dramatic expansion of
cellular telephone users. Two larger communications satellites have been ordered to replace the two now
in use. The government has also opened the telecommunications sector to greater foreign investment.
Starting in 1997, long-distance telecommunications service will be a much more competitive industry in
Mexico, with nine consortia (two of them having significant fiber optic systems of their own) giving
Telmex strong competition for the customer base.
FOREIGN RELATIONS
The Government of Mexico has sought to maintain its interests abroad and project its influence largely
through moral persuasion. In particular, Mexico champions the principles of non-intervention and
self-determination. In its efforts to revitalize its economy and open up to international competition,
Mexico has sought closer relations with the U.S., Western Europe, and the Pacific Basin. While the
United States and Mexico are often in agreement on foreign policy issues, some differences remain--in
particular, relations with Cuba. The U.S. and Mexico agree on the ultimate goal of establishing a
democratic, free-market regime in Cuba but disagree on tactics to reach that goal.
Mexico actively participates in several international organizations. It is a supporter of the United Nations
and Organization of American States systems and also pursues its interests through a number of ad hoc
international bodies. Mexico has been selective in its membership in other international organizations. It
declined, for example, to become a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.
Nevertheless, Mexico does seek to diversify its diplomatic and economic relations, as demonstrated by
its accession to GATT in 1986; its joining APEC in 1993; becoming, in April 1994, the first Latin
American member of the OECD; and a founding member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in
1996. Mexico attended the 1994 Summit of the Americas, held in Miami, and agreed to assume
responsibility for coordination of the agenda item on education.
U.S.-MEXICAN RELATIONS
U.S. relations with Mexico are as important and complex as with any country in the world. A stable,
democratic and economically prosperous Mexico is fundamental to U.S. interests. Our relations with
Mexico have a direct impact on the lives and livelihoods of millions of Americans whether the issue is
trade and economic reform, drug control, migration, or the promotion of democracy. The U.S. and
Mexico are partners in NAFTA, and enjoy a rapidly developing trade relationship.
The scope of U.S.-Mexican relations goes far beyond diplomatic and official contacts; it entails
extensive commercial, cultural, and educational ties, as demonstrated by the nearly 290 million legal
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crossings from Mexico to the United States in fiscal year 1995. In addition, more than half a million
American citizens live in Mexico. More than 2,600 U.S. companies have operations there, and the U.S.
accounts for 60% of all foreign direct investment in Mexico. Along the 2,000-mile shared border, state
and local governments interact closely.
Since 1981, the management of the broad array of U.S.-Mexico issues has been formalized in the
U.S.-Mexico Binational Commission, composed of numerous U.S. cabinet members and their Mexican
counterparts. The Commission holds annual plenary meetings, and many sub-groups meet during the
course of the year to discuss trade and investment opportunities, financial cooperation, consular issues
and migration, legal affairs and anti-narcotics cooperation, cultural relations, education, energy, border
cooperation, environment, labor, agriculture, health, housing and urban development, transportation,
fisheries, tourism, and science and technology.
A strong partnership with Mexico is critical to controlling the flow of illicit drugs into the United States.
The U.S. has certified Mexico as fully cooperating in this effort based on an unprecedented level of
cooperation on counternarcotics and Mexico's own initiatives in fighting drug trafficking. This is the
best way to ensure that Mexico's cooperation and anti-drug efforts grow even stronger.
During 1996, the U.S. and Mexico established a High-Level Contact Group (HLCG) on narcotics
control to explore joint solutions to the shared drug threat, to coordinate the full range of narcotics issues
and to promote closer law enforcement coordination.
The United States and Mexico have a long history of cooperation on environmental and natural
resources issues, particularly in the border area, where there are serious environmental problems caused
by rapid population growth, urbanization, and industrialization. Cooperative activities between the U.S.
and Mexico take place under a number of agreements such as:
A 1944 treaty creating the International Boundary and Water Commission, which has a
wide range of responsibilities for solving U.S.-Mexico water and boundary problems such
as distributing the waters of the Colorado River and the Rio Grande between the two
countries; jointly operating international dams and other joint flood control works along
boundary rivers; and solving border water quality control problems. Since the early 1980's
the IBWC has focused on border sanitation and groundwater resources.
The 1983 La Paz Agreement to Protect and Improve the Border Environment.
The 1993 North American Commission on Environmental Cooperation, created under
NAFTA by the U.S., Mexico, and Canada, to strengthen environmental laws and address
common environmental concerns; and
A November 1993 agreement between the U.S. and Mexico, also under NAFTA,
establishing the Border Environmental Cooperation Commission (BECC) which works with
local communities to build or upgrade environmental infrastructure such as wastewater
treatment plants, drinking water systems, and solid waste disposal facilities; and the North
American Development Bank (NADBANK), which leverages private sector capital to
finance border environmental infrastructure projects certified by the BECC.
PRINCIPAL U.S. OFFICIALS
Ambassador--James R. Jones
Deputy Chief of Mission--Charles H. Brayshaw
Minister-Counselor for Political Affairs--Barbro A. Owens-Kirkpatrick
Minister-Counselor for Economic Affairs--William Brew
Counselor for Labor Affairs--John Ritchie
Minister-Counselor for Public Affairs (USIS)--Donald R. Hamilton
Minister-Counselor for Consular Affairs--Bruce Beardsley
Consul General (Acting) --Richard Gonzalez
Counselor for Scientific and Technological Affairs--Paul Maxwell
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http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/mexico_0497_bgn.html
Counselor for Commercial Affairs--Kevin C. Brennan
The U.S. Embassy in Mexico is located at Paseo de la Reforma 305, 06500 Mexico, DF. U.S. Mailing
Address: Box 3087, Laredo, Texas 78044-3087. Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-5) 211-0042. The
Embassy and the 18 other U.S. Consulates General, Consulates, and consular agents provide a range of
services to American students, tourists, business people, and residents throughout Mexico.
U.S. Consulates General and Consulates and Officials
Consulate General, Ciudad Juarez--Larry Colbert
Address: Avenida Lopez Mateos 924-N, 32000 Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua
Mailing Address: Box 10545, El Paso, Texas 79995-0545
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-16) 13-4048
Consulate General, Guadalajara--Danny B. Root
Address: Progreso 175, 44100 Guadalajara, Jalisco
Mailing Address: Box 3088, Laredo, Texas 78044-3088
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-38) 25-2998
Consulate General, Monterrey--Eileen M. Heaphy
Address: Avenida Constitution 411 Poniente, 64000 Monterrey, Nuevo Leon
Mailing Address: Box 3098, Laredo, Texas 78044-3098
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-83) 45-2120
Consulate General, Tijuana--Mirta Alvarez (Acting)
Address: Tapachula 96, 22420 Tijuana, Baja California Norte
Postal Address: P.O. Box 439039, San Diego, California 92143-9039
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-66) 81-7400
Consulate, Hermosillo--Sandra Salmon
Address: Calle Monterrey 141 Pte., 83260 Hermosillo, Sonora
Postal Address: Box 3598, Laredo, Texas 78044-3598
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-62) 17-2375
Consulate, Matamoros--Atim E. Ogunba
Address: Ave. Primera 2002, 87330 Matamoros, Tamaulipas
Postal Address: Box 633, Brownsville, Texas 78522-0633
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-88) 12-4402
Consulate, Merida--David R. Van Valkenberg
Address: Paseo Montejo 453, 97000 Merida, Yucatan
Postal Address: Box 3087, Laredo, Texas 78044-3087
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-99) 25-5011
Consulate, Nuevo Laredo--Isiah L. Parnell
Address: Calle Allende 3330, Col. Jardin, 88260 Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas
Postal Address: Box 3089, Laredo, Texas 78044-3089
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-87) 14-0512
Consular Agents
Acapulco--Joyce Anderson
Address: Hotel Club del Sol, 39300 Acapulco, Guerrero
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-74) 85-7207 or 5-6600
Cabo San Lucas--David Greenberg
Address: Blvd. Marina Y Calle del Cerro, Local No. 3, Zona Centro,
Cabo San Lucas, Baja California Sur
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-114) 3-3566
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http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/mexico_0497_bgn.html
Cancun--Carole Butler
Address: Plaza Caracol 2, 30 piso, 320323 Blvd. Kukulkan,
Km. 8.5, Zona Hotelera, Cancun, Quintana Roo
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-988) 3-0272
Mazatlan--Jerianne Nelson Gallardo
Address: Hotel Playa Mazatlan, Roldolfo T. Loaiza 202,
Zona Dorada, 82110 Mazatlan, Sinaloa
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-69) 13-4444, ext. 285
Oaxaca--Mark A. Leyes
Address: Alcala 201, Desp. 206 Oaxaca,
68000 Oaxaca, Oax.
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-951) 4-3054
Puerto Vallarta--Laura Holstrom
Address: Edificio Vallarta, Plaza
Zaragoza 160, Piso 2, Int. 18, 48300 Puerto Vallarta, Jalisco
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-322) 2-0069
San Luis Potosi--Kathleen C. Reza
Address: Francisco de P. Moriel 103-10, Desp. 1, San Luis Potosi,
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-481) 2-1528
San Miguel de Allende--Philip Maher
Address: Dr. Hernandez Macias 72, 37700 San Miguel de Allende, Guanajuato
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-415) 2-2357 or 2-0068
Tampico--Mary Elizabeth Alzaga
Address: Ejercito Mexicano No. 503-203, Col.Guadalupe
89120 Tampico, Tamaulipas
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-12) 13-2217
Veracruz--Edwin L. Culp
5 de Junio 388, Veracruz
Telephone (from the U.S.): (011)(52-29) 31-5821
OTHER CONTACT INFORMATION
American Chamber of Commerce of Mexico, A.C.
Lucerna 78-4
06600 Mexico, D.F. Mexico
Tel: (525) 724-3800
Fax: (525) 703-3908
E-Mail: [email protected]
(Branch offices also in Guadalajara and Monterrey)
U.S. Department of Commerce
International Trade Administration
Office of Latin America and the Caribbean
14th and Constitution, N,W.
Washington, D.C. 20230
Tel: 202-482-0305; 202-USA-TRADE
Fax: 202-482-0464
TRAVEL AND BUSINESS INFORMATION
The U.S. Department of State's Consular Information Program provides Travel Warnings and Consular
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Background Notes: Mexico 04/97
http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/mexico_0497_bgn.html
Information Sheets. Travel Warnings are issued when the State Department recommends that Americans
avoid travel to a certain country. Consular Information Sheets exist for all countries and include
information on immigration practices, currency regulations, health conditions, areas of instability, crime
and security, political disturbances, and the addresses of the U.S. posts in the country. Public
Announcements are issued as a means to disseminate information quickly about terrorist threats and
other relatively short-term conditions overseas which pose significant risks to the security of American
travelers. Free copies of this information are available by calling the Bureau of Consular Affairs at
202-647-5225 or via the fax-on-demand system: 202-647-3000. Travel Warnings and Consular
Information Sheets also are available on the Consular Affairs Internet home page: http://travel.state.gov
and the Consular Affairs Bulletin Board (CABB). To access CABB, dial the modem number:
(301-946-4400 (it will accommodate up to 33,600 bps), set terminal communications program to N-8-1
(no parity, 8 bits, 1 stop bit); and terminal emulation to VT100. The login is travel and the password is
info (Note: Lower case is required). The CABB also carries international security information from the
Overseas Security Advisory Council and Department's Bureau of Diplomatic Security. Consular Affairs
Trips for Travelers publication series, which contain information on obtaining passports and planning a
safe trip abroad, can be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954; telephone: 202-512-1800; fax 202-512-2250.
Emergency information concerning Americans traveling abroad may be obtained from the Office of
202-647-4000. Overseas Citizens Services at (202) 647-5225. For after-hours emergencies, Sundays and holidays, call
Passport Services information can be obtained by calling the 24-hour, 7-day a week automated system
($.35 per minute) or live operators 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. (EST) Monday-Friday ($1.05 per minute). The
number is 1-900-225-5674 (TDD: 1-900-225-7778). Major credit card users (for a flat rate of $4.95)
may call 1-888-362-8668 (TDD: 1-888-498-3648)
Travelers can check the latest health information with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia. A hotline at (404) 332-4559 gives the most recent health advisories,
immunization recommendations or requirements, and advice on food and drinking water safety for
regions and countries. A booklet entitled Health Information for International Travel (HHS publication
number CDC-95-8280) is available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402,
tel. (202) 512-1800.
Information on travel conditions, visa requirements, currency and customs regulations, legal
holidays, and other items of interest to travelers also may be obtained before your departure from a
country's embassy and/or consulates in the U.S. (for this country, see "Principal Government Officials"
listing in this publication).
U.S. citizens who are long-term visitors or traveling in dangerous areas, are encouraged to register
at the U.S. embassy upon arrival in a country (see "Principal U.S. Embassy Officials" listing in this
publication). This may help family members contact you in case of an emergency.
Further Electronic Information:
Department of State Foreign Affairs Network. Available on the Internet, DOSFAN provides timely,
global access to official U.S. foreign policy information. Updated daily, DOSFAN includes Background
Notes; Dispatch, the official weekly magazine of U.S. foreign policy; daily press briefings; directories of
key officers of foreign service posts; etc. DOSFAN's World Wide Web site is at http://www.state.gov;
this site has a link to the DOSFAN Gopher Research Collection, which also is accessible at
gopher://gopher.state.gov
U.S. Foreign Affairs on CD-ROM (USFAC). Published on a quarterly basis by the U.S. Department of
State, USFAC archives information on the Department of State Foreign Affairs Network, and includes
an array of official foreign policy information from 1990 to the present. Priced at $76 ($95 foreign),
one-year subscriptions (MSDOS and Macintosh compatible) are available from the Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, P.O. Box 371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954. To order,
call (202) 512-1800 or fax (202) 512-2250.
12 of 13
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12
13
2
Mexico City
M
EXICO CITY is a city of superlatives: It is both
the oldest (670 years) and the highest (2,240
meters, or 7,349 feet) city on the North Amer-
By Frank
ican continent, and with nearly 24 million inhabitants, it is the most
"Pancho" Shiell
populous city in the world. It is Mexico's cultural, political, and
financial core-on the verge of the 21st century but clinging to its
Updated by
deeply entrenched Aztec heritage.
Patricia Alisau
Before the 16th-century arrival of the conquering Spaniards, Mexico
City was the flourishing capital of the Aztec civilization. Well over 500
years after the mysterious demise of the great city of Teotihuacan-
whose gargantuan pyramids just northeast of the city are a must-see-
wandering Aztecs in search of their prophesied promised land would
build their city upon encountering an eagle, perched on a prickly pear
Two volcanoes and a pyramid complex
cactus, holding a snake in his beak. In 1325, the official date of the
founding of Mexico City (upon which historians disagree), they dis-
covered it on this very spot. Called Tenochtitlan, even then it was the
flank Mexico's capital, once the center
biggest city in the Western Hemisphere and, according to historians,
one of the three largest cities on earth. Tenochtitlan occupied what
of Aztec civilization and now the
was then an island in shallow Lake Texcoco, connected to lakeshore
satellite towns (now neighborhoods) by a network of calzadas (canals
country's cosmopolitan business, art,
and causeways; now freeways). When he first laid eyes on the city,
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés was dazzled by the glistening
and culinary hub. From the Alameda, a
metropolis, which reminded him and his men of Venice.
leafy center of activity since Aztec times,
A combination of factors made the conquest possible. The supersti-
tious Aztec emperor Moctezuma II believed the white, bearded Cortés
on horseback to be the mighty plumed serpent-god Quetzalcoatl, who,
to the Zona Rosa, a chic shopping
according to a tragically ironic prophesy, was suppose to arrive from
the east in the year 1519 to rule the land. Moctezuma therefore wel-
neighborhood, Mexico City offers
comed the foreigner with gifts of gold and palatial accommodations.
endless options to urban adventurers.
But in return, Cortés initiated the bloody massacre of Tenochtitlan,
which lasted almost two years. Joining forces with him was a massive
Day trips might include colonial Puebla,
army of Indian "allies," gathered from other settlements like Cholula
and Tlaxcala, who were fed up with the Aztec Empire's domination
where mole sauce and Talavera tiles
and taxation. With the strength of their numbers and the European
tactical advantages of brigantines built to cross the lake; imported
originated, or the floating gardens of
horses, firearms, and armor; and, inadvertently, smallpox and the
common cold, Cortés succeeded in devastating Tenochtitlan. Only
two centuries after it was founded, the young Aztec capital lay in
Xochomilco.
ruins, about half of its population dead from battle, starvation, and
contagious European diseases to which they had no immunity.
Cortés began building the capital of what he patriotically dubbed New
Spain, the Spanish Empire's colony that would spread north to cover
what is now the United States southwest and south to Panama.
Because he had difficulty pronouncing the word Tenochtitlan, he
named the city Mexica (Meh-she-ka), which was the real name of the
Aztecs (the Spaniards were the ones who had originally dubbed the
Mexica Indians "Aztecs"). At the site of the demolished Aztec cere-
monial center-now the 10-acre Zócalo-he started building a church
(the precursor of the gigantic Metropolitan Cathedral), mansions, and
government buildings. He utilized the slave labor-and artistry-of
the vanquished native Mexicans. On top of the ruins of their city, and
using rubble from it, they were forced to build what became the most
European-stvle citv in North America. but unlike the random lavour
14
Mexico City
Exploring
15
cated grid pattern of the Aztecs. The Spaniards also drained and filled
ruins, but cosmopolitan, historic Mexico City is an important desti-
in Lake Texcoco, preferring wheels and horses (which they introduced
nation in itself, more foreign and fascinating than many major capi-
to Mexico) over canals and canoes for transport. (The filled-in lake
tals on far-away continents. And since so many flights from the
bed turned out to be a soggy support for the immense buildings that
United States pass through the capital, visitors should not pass up the
have been slowly sinking into it ever since they were built.) For much
opportunity to stop here at least for two days but preferably for five.
of the construction material they quarried local volcanic porous stone
called tezontle, which is the color of dried blood and forms the thick
EXPLORING
walls of many historic downtown buildings.
During the colonial period, the city grew, and the Franciscans con-
Orientation
verted the Aztecs to Christianity. In 1571 the Spaniards established
the Inquisition in New Spain and burned heretics at its headquarter
Most of Mexico City is aligned around two major intersecting thor-
oughfares: Paseo de la Reforma and Avenida Insurgentes. Administra-
palace, which still stands in Plaza de Santo Domingo.
tively, the city is divided into 16 delegaciones (districts) and about 400
More than 200 years later, Mexicans rose up against Spain. The his-
colonias each with street names fitting a given theme, such as rivers,
toric downtown street 16 de Septiembre commemorates the "decla-
philosophers, doctors, or revolutionary heroes. The same street can
ration" of the War of Independence. On that date in 1810, Father
change names as it goes through different colonias, making it a bit
Miguel Hidalgo rang a church bell and cried out his history-making
more difficult to find an address. Hence most street addresses include
grito (shout) to his countrymen "to recover the lands stolen three cen-
the colonia they are in, and, unless you're going to an obvious place, it
turies ago from our forefathers by the hated Spaniards
Viva Mex-
is very important to tell your taxi driver the name of the colonia.
ico!" That "liberty bell," which now hangs above the main entrance
to the National Palace, is rung on the eve of every September 16 by
The principal sights of Mexico City are organized into three tours.
You need a full day to cover each thoroughly, though each can be
the president of the republic.
done at breakneck speed in four or five hours. Tour 1, Zócalo and
Today, travelers flying into or out of Mexico City get an aerial view
Alameda Park, concentrates on a relatively compact area that can be
of the still-remaining portion of Lake Texcoco on the eastern out-
seen on foot. Its focus is historical, since the Zócalo, its surrounding
skirts of the city; at night the vast expanse of city lights abruptly ends
Centro Histórico, and Alameda Park were the heart of both the Aztec
at a black void that appears to be an ocean.
and the Spanish cities. The second tour, taking in Reforma, Zona
Rosa, and Chapultepec Park, will necessitate some form of trans-
In-flight views also provide a panorama of the vast, flat 1,482-square-
kilometer (572-square-mile) Valley of Mexico, the Meseta de Anahuac,
portation if done in its entirety, but strong walkers can cover most of
completely surrounded by mountains, including, on its south side, two
it on their own. Exploring San Angel and Coyoacán in southern Mex-
supposedly extinct and usually snowcapped volcanoes, both well over
ico City will also require a taxi ride or two. Originally separate colo-
17,000 feet high: Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl. ("Popo," as the first
nial towns, both were absorbed by the ever-growing capital, yet they
volcano is affectionately called, started to bubble and boil in December
retain their original pueblo charm and tranquility.
1994, and villages surrounding the volcano had to be evacuated tem-
Tour 1: Zócalo and Alameda Central
porarily.) The volcanoes are separated by the 2½-mile-high Cortés Pass,
from which the arriving conquistador, after a nine-month trek from
Numbers in the margin correspond to points of interest on the Zócalo
Veracruz, gazed down for his first astonishing glimpse of Tenochtitlan.
and Alameda Central map.
Unfortunately, the single most widely known fact about the capital is
The Zócalo (formal name: Plaza de la Constitución) of Mexico City
that its air is polluted. Many foreigners envision the city as being
was built by the Spaniards on the site of the main temple complex of
wrapped in black smog every day; they picture gray skies and streets
Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire. This enormous paved
packed with vehicles. But in reality, although the capital does have a
square, the largest in the Western Hemisphere, was built by Indian
serious pollution problem, it also has some of the clearest, bluest skies
slave labor on the site of the Aztec ceremonial center, which once com-
anywhere. At 7,349 feet, it often has mild daytime weather perfect for
prised 78 buildings. Throughout the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries,
sightseeing and cool evenings comfortable for sleeping. Mornings can
the Spaniards and their descendants constructed elaborate churches
be glorious-chilly, and bright with the promise of the warming sun.
and convents, elegant mansions, and stately public edifices, many of
which have long since been converted to other uses. There is an air of
Smog is not the only thing Mexico City has in common with Los
Angeles: The city lies on a fault similar to the San Andreas in Califor-
Old Europe to this section of the city, which, in its entirety (the Centro
nia. In 1957 a major earthquake took a tragic toll, and scars are still
Histórico), is a national monument that has been undergoing a major
visible from the devastating 1985 earthquake (8.1 on the Richter
refurbishing; at press time much had already been accomplished and
scale); the government reported 7,000 deaths, but according to vox
even more was underway. Imposing buildings are constructed with the
ubiquitous blood-red volcanic tezontle stone and the quarry stones
populi the death toll reached 50,000.
that the Spaniards recycled from the rubble of the Aztec temples they
Growing nonstop, Mexico City covers about a 1,000-square-
razed. Throngs of small shops, eateries, cantinas, and street vendors
kilometer (386-square-mile) area of the valley. The city limits are sur-
contribute to an inimitably Mexican flavor, even an exuberance.
rounded on three sides by the state of Mexico and bordered on the
Repaved, pedestrian-only streets, such as La Palma and Motolinia,
south hv the state of Morelos. Advertising campaigns and tour pack-
add to the delightful strolling opportunities.
18
Mexico City
During the daytime, the downtown area is filled with people and
19
vibrant with activity. As in any other big city, travelers should be alert
to pickpockets, especially on crowded buses and subways, and avoid
New CDA.
CANDELARIA
Parque
dark, deserted streets at night.
Balbuena
Zócalo means "pedestal" or "base": In the mid-19th century an inde-
pendence monument was envisioned for the square, but it was never
Cintura
built. The term stuck, however, and now the word zócalo is applied
to the main plazas of most Mexican cities. Mexico City's Zócalo
Plaza Torres
Quintero
Corona
(since it's the original, it is always capitalized) is used for government
rallies, protest marches and sit-ins, and festive events. It is also the
Ramon
San Pabto.
focal point for Independence Day celebrations on the eve of Septem-
ber 16 and is spectacularly festooned during the Christmas-New Year
Apartado
holiday season. Flag-raising and -lowering ceremonies take place here
MERCED
Roldán
in the early morning and late afternoon.
Plaza-
Carretones
Around the square are the two most important symbols of church
ep
1
and state in Mexico. On the north side is the Catedral Metropolitana
(Metropolitan Cathedral), which, over the centuries, has sunk notice-
ably into the spongy subsoil. Its lopsidedness is evident when viewed
ZOCALO
from across the square, but engineering projects to stabilize the struc-
ture are always being undertaken. Construction on this oldest and
Zocale
puid
largest cathedral in Latin America began in 1573 and continued inter-
Hall
de
mittently throughout the next three centuries. The result is a medley
20
of baroque and neoclassical touches. Inside are four identical domes,
their airiness made earthbound by rows of supportive columns. There
Honduras
PINO SUAREZ
are five altars and 14 chapels, mostly in the fussy, Churrigueresque
ALLENDE
style, an extremely decorative form of Spanish Baroque from the mid-
uguay
Vizcainas
17th century. Like most Mexican churches, the cathedral is all but
overshadowed by the innumerable paintings, altarpieces, and stat-
acuba
CATOLICA
Netzahuafcóyott
ues-in graphic color-of Christ and the saints.
10
Adjacent to the cathedral, the comparatively small 18th-century
Meave
Vizcainas
Torre Latinoameri-
cana, 8
Sagrario Church, even more tilted, has an elaborate Churrigueresque
Mina
eralli
facade.
Turn left as you leave the cathedral and walk one block north on Sem-
SALTO DEL AGUA Plaza
2
inario to view the excavated ruins of the Templo Mayor (Great Temple
Pugibet
Delicias
of the Aztecs). It was unearthed accidentally in 1978 by telephone
Arcos de Belen
repairmen and has since been turned into a vast and historically signif-
Museo Mural Diego
icant archaeological site and museum. At this temple, dedicated to the
Rivera, 15
Palacio de Bellas
Artes, 11
Palacio de Iturbide, 6
Palacio Nacional, 4
Templo Mayor, 2
Aztec cult of death, captives from rival tribes-as many as 10,000 at a
time-were sacrificed to the bloodthirsty god of war, Huitzilopochtli.
de Loza
Seven rows of leering stone skulls adorn one side of the structure.
Donde
Rosolds
The adjacent Museo del Templo Mayor contains 3,000 pieces
Ciudadela
BALDERAS
unearthed from the site and from other ruins in central Mexico; they
include ceramic warriors, stone carvings and knives, skulls of sacrifi-
cial victims, a rare gold ingot, models and scale reproductions, and a
Zócalo and Alameda Central
REVOLUCION
Bucker
Cristobal
La Iglesia de San
Francisco, 7
Monte de Piedad, 5
Museo Franz
room on the destruction of Tenochtitlan by the Spaniards. The cen-
Colón
500
500 yards
Mayer, 12
Museo José Luis
Cuevas, 3
terpiece is an eight-ton disk discovered at the Templo Major; it
depicts the myth of the goddess Coyolxauhqui (the moon), who was
decapitated and dismembered by her brother, Huitzilopochtli, for try-
Caso
Reforma
CUAUNTEMOC
ing to persuade her 400 other brothers to murder their mother. Cor-
ner of Guatemala and Argentina.
$3. V Tues.-Sun. 9-6. Call
la
Centro
Incerna
5/542-4784 to 4786 to reserve English-language tours.
sejuebjns
LOSE
Roma
Alameda Central, 13
Casa de los Azulejos,
Catedral Metropoli-
tana, -
Dirección General de
Correos, 10
Hemiciclo a Benito
As you return to the Zocalo on Seminario, make a quick detour one
Juárez, 14
3
block east to Calle Academia and the Museo José Luis Cuevas. One of
20
Mexico City
Exploring
21
Cuevas, who is ranked as one of the country's best contemporary artists.
The sensational Sala Picasso contains more than 30 original works by
still see it); and it was one of the first cantinas to allow women. Stop in
for a drink, lunch, dinner, or a snack.
the Spanish master. Up-and-coming Latin American artists may be seen
at rotating temporary exhibits. Academia 13, 5/542-8959.
Small
admission fee. Weekdays noon-8, weekends 10-6. Closed Wed.
There are two notable sites one block north of Cinco de Mayo on
Calle Tacuba at the Plaza Manuel Tolsá: the Palacio de Minería, a
As you return to the Zócalo on Seminario, the first building on your
19th-century architectural landmark; and the neo-classical Museo
4
left is the vast Palacio Nacional, or National Palace, which was initi-
Nacional de Arte (National Art Museum), which contains a superb
ated by Cortés on the site of Moctezuma's home and remodeled by
collection of religious and contemporary artwork. The museum is at
the viceroys; its current form dates from 1693, although a third floor
Calle Tacuba 8, 5/512-3224.
$2. Tues.-Sun. 10-5.
was added in 1926. Now the seat of government, it has always served
as a public-function site. In fact, during colonial times, the first bull-
From Calle Tacuba, walk two blocks south to Calle Madero, one of the
fight in New Spain took place in the inner courtyard.
city's busiest and most typical streets in terms of its architectural vari-
ety. On the south side of Calle Madero, between Bolívar and Gante, is
Diego Rivera's sweeping, epic murals on the second floor of the main
6
the Palacio de Iturbide (Emperor Iturbide's Palace), which has been
courtyard have the power to mesmerize. For more than 16 years
converted into a branch of Banamex (Banco Nacional de México). This
(1929-45), he and his assistants mounted the scaffolds day and night,
handsome Baroque structure-note the imposing door and its carved-
perfecting techniques adapted from Renaissance Italian frescoes. The
stone trimmings-was built in 1780 and became the residence of Itur-
result, nearly 1,200 square feet of vividly painted wall space, is
bide in 1822. One of the heroes of the independence movement, the
grandiosely entitled Epic of the Mexican People in Their Struggle for
misguided Iturbide proclaimed himself emperor of a country that had
Freedom and Independence. The larger-than-life paintings represent
thrown off the imperial yoke of the Hapsburgs only a year before; his
two millennia of Mexican history, as seen through the artist's vivid
empire, needless to say, was short-lived. Major cultural exhibitions are
imagination. The innocence of pre-Hispanic times is portrayed by idyl-
held in the atrium. Calle Madero 17, 5/518-2187.
Free.
3
Inner
lic, almost sugary scenes of Tenochtitlan. Only a few vignettes-a las-
atrium: weekdays 9-6, and on weekends during exhibitions.
civious woman baring her leg in the marketplace, a man offering a
7
human arm for sale, and the carnage of warriors-acknowledge other
La Iglesia de San Francisco, built on the site of Mexico's first convent
aspects of ancient life. As you walk around the floor, you'll pass
(1524), is located a block west of the palace, on the same side of Calle
images depicting the savagery of the conquest and the hypocrisy of the
Madero. Moctezuma's zoo was supposed to have stood on the site in
Spanish priests, the noble independence movement, and the bloody
Aztec times. The present 18th-century French Gothic church is one of
revolution. Marx appears amid scenes of class struggles, toiling work-
the newest buildings on the street. The beautiful ceiling paintings are
being restored.
ers, industrialization (which Rivera idealized), the decadence of the
bourgeoisie, and nuclear holocaust. The murals are among Rivera's
8
In stark contrast to the church is the Torre Latinoamericana (Latin
finest works. They are also the most accessible and probably the most
American Tower), once the tallest building in the capital. This 47-
visited of the artist's paintings. The palace also houses two minor
story skyscraper was built in 1956, and on clear days the observation
museums-dealing with 19th-century president Benito Juárez and the
deck and restaurant on the top floors afford fine views of the city.
Mexican Congress-and the liberty bell rung by Padre Hidalgo to pro-
Calle Madero and Eje Central Lázaro Cárdenas.
$3. a Observa-
claim independence in 1810 hangs high on the central facade. It
tion deck: daily 10 AM-11:30 PM.
chimes every eve of September 16, while from the balcony below, the
president repeats the historic shout for independence known as el
Three other interesting buildings are off Eje Central Lázaro Cárde-
9
Free. Daily 9-5. Closed holidays.
nas, a main thoroughfare. The 17th-century Casa de los Azulejos
grito.
(House of Tiles) is catercorner from the tower, on the north side of
As you leave the building turn left and then right onto the south side
Calle Madero at the corner of Callejón de la Condesa. Its well-
of the Zócalo, which is occupied by the twin buildings of Ayun-
preserved facade of white, blue, and yellow tiles, iron grillwork bal-
tamiento (City Hall). The one on the west, decorated with colonial
conies, and gray stonework make it among the prettiest Baroque
tiles of arms of Cortés and other conquistadores, was originally built
structures in the country. Currently occupied by Sanborns, a chain
in 1532, destroyed by fire in 1692, and rebuilt in 1722. In 1935, the
store/restaurant, it was built as the palace of the counts of the Valle de
Distrito Federal needed more office space; to maintain architectural
Orizaba, an aristocratic family from early Spanish rule. Reopened in
symmetry in the Zócalo, the "matching" structure across the street
March 1995 following refurbishing, the interior is more dazzling
(20 de Noviembre) was built. Complete your tour of the square by
than ever. A Moorish patio, a monumental staircase, and a mural by
5
heading north, through the arcade, on 5 de Febrero. The Monte de
Orozco are worth seeing. This is a good place to stop for lunch, and
Piedad (Mountain of Piety) will be on your left, at the far northwest
the shops upstairs have an excellent selection of jewelry and crafts at
corner of the Zócalo. It was built to help the poor in the late 18th cen-
fair prices. Calle Madero 4. V Daily 8 AM-10 PM.
tury on the site of an Aztec palace. It currently houses the National
10
Continue north on Callejón de la Condesa to the Dirección General
Pawn Shop, which sells jewelry, antiques, and other pawned goods.
de Correos (General Post Office) at the corner of Calle Tacuba and
Mon.-Sat. about 10-7.
Eje Central Lázaro Cárdenas. This neo-Renaissance building (1908)
TIME OUT At Cinco de Mayo 10 is one of Mexico City's most venerable and atmo-
epitomizes the grand imitations of European architecture common in
spheric cantinas, Bar la Opera 12 5/512-8959). The bar-restaurant
Mexico during the Porfiriato, or dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz
22
Mexico City
Exploring
23
the postal history of Mexico. 0 Mon.-Sat. 8 AM-midnight, Sun. 8-4.
tion, "God does not exist," which he later replaced with the bland
Museum: Weekdays 9-7.
Free.
"Conference of San Juan de Letrán." Following the hotel's destruc-
tion in the 1985 earthquake, this gentle and poetic mural, which sur-
"
The most celebrated public building of the Díaz period is the Palacio de
vived undamaged, was moved in its entirety across the street to the
Bellas Artes (Fine Arts Palace), which is diagonally across from the post
museum built to house it. Museo Mural Diego Rivera, at Calles
office, at the corner of Eje Central Lázaro Cárdenas and Avenida Juárez
Balderas
and
Colón,
5/510-2329.
$2. 0 Tues.-Sun. 10-6.
and across from Alameda Park. This colossal marble palace was con-
structed as an opera house between 1904 and 1934, with time out for the
Tour 2: Reforma, Zona Rosa, and Chapultepec Park
revolution. Today the theater serves as a handsome venue for interna-
tional and national artists, including such groups as the Ballet Folklórico
Numbers in the margin correspond to points of interest on the Cha-
de México. It boasts a Tiffany stained-glass curtain depicting the two vol-
pultepec Park, Reforma, Zona Rosa, and Downtown Historic Sec-
canoes outside Mexico City. In addition, the palace is renowned both for
tion map.
its architecture-by the Italian architect Adamo Boari, who also designed
The Paseo de la Reforma, modeled after the Champs-Elysées in Paris,
the post office-and for its paintings by several celebrated Mexican
was built by Emperor Maximilian in 1865 to connect the Palacio
artists, including Rufino Tamayo and Mexico's trio of muralists: Rivera,
Nacional with his residence, the Castillo de Chapultepec. Reforma is
Orozco, and Siqueiros. In the palace Rivera reconstructed his mural Man
at the Crossroads, which was commissioned for and then torn down
30 blocks long, so public transportation is recommended if you want
from Rockefeller Center in New York City, because of its political mes-
to cover all the sights described. Begin at Reforma's northern end,
about 2 kilometers (1 mile) north of Bellas Artes, in the area known
sage (epitomized by the face of Lenin). Temporary art exhibits are also
as Tlatelolco (Tla-tel-ohl-coh). Before the conquest, Tlatelolco and
held at the palace. 5/510-1388. 0 Tues.-Sun. 10:30-6:30.
Tenochtitlan were sister cities, and the domain of Cuauhtémoc, the
Aficionados of colonial Spanish decorative and applied arts should
last Aztec emperor. In modern times its name makes residents shud-
12
detour at this point to visit the Museo Franz Mayer, located one block
der, because it was here that several hundred protesting students were
west of the rear of the Palacio de Bellas Artes, facing the north side of
massacred by the Mexican army in 1968. The 1985 earthquake
Alameda Park. The museum opened in 1986 in the 16th-century Hos-
destroyed several high-rise apartment buildings in Tlatelolco, in
pital de San Juan de Dios. Exhibits include 16th- and 17th-century
which hundreds perished.
antiques such as wooden chests inlaid with ivory, tortoiseshell, and
1
The center of Tlatelolco is the Plaza de las Tres Culturas, so named
ebony; tapestries, paintings, and lacquerware; Rococo clocks, glass-
because Mexico's three cultural eras-pre-Hispanic, colonial, and
ware, architectural ornamentation; and an unusually large assort-
modern-are represented on the plaza in the form of the small ruins of
ment of Talavera ceramics and tiles. Wall plaques explain in detail the
history of the production of tiles (azulejos), a technique carried from
a pre-Hispanic ceremonial center (visible from the roadway); the Igle-
sia de Santiago Tlatelolco (1609) and Colegio de la Santa Cruz de
Mesopotamia and Egypt to the Persians, Arabs, and Spaniards, who
brought it to Mexico. It also has an impressive collection of more
Tlatelolco (1535-36); and the ultra-contemporary Ministry of Foreign
than 700 different editions of the book Don Quixote. The museum
Affairs (1970). The church contains the baptismal font of Juan Diego,
the Indian to whom the Virgin of Guadalupe appeared in 1531. The
building is faithfully restored, with pieces of the original frescoes
Colegio (college), founded by the Franciscans after the Conquest, was
peeking through; classical music plays in the background. Av.
Hidalgo 45, at the Plaza Santa Veracruz, 5/518-2267.
$1.25. 0
once attended by the sons of the Aztec nobility. The plaza is bounded
on the north by Manuel González, on the west by Av. San Juan de
Tues.-Sun. 10-5. Call ahead for an English-speaking guide.
Letrán Norte, and on the east by Paseo de la Reforma, between Glo-
13
Alameda Central (Alameda Park), across Avenida Hidalgo from the
rieta de Peralvillo and Glorieta Cuitláhuac.
Plaza Santa Veracruz, has been one of the capital's oases of greenery
The plaza itself can be seen in passing, but nearby are two other
and a center for activities since Aztec times. The Indians held their
2
points of interest. Between República de Chile and Allende is the Mer-
tianguis (market) on the site. In the early days of the Viceroyalty, it was
cado de la Lagunilla, known affectionately as the Thieves' Market.
where victims of the Inquisition were burned at the stake. National
Go on Sundays, when it is busiest, and watch your money: Here,
leaders, from 18th-century viceroys to Emperor Maximilian and Pres-
along with the usual flea-market fare, you can find antiques (some of
ident Díaz, clearly envisioned the park as a symbol of civic pride and
them fake), toys, secondhand books and clothes, semiprecious stones,
prosperity: Over the centuries, it has been endowed with fountains,
art, and some handicrafts.
railings, a Moorish kiosk imported from Paris, and ash, willow, and
poplar trees. Its most conspicuous man-made structure is the white
3
Nearby is Plaza Garibaldi, Mexico City's mariachi square (see
14
marble semicircular Hemiciclo a Benito Juárez (monument to Juárez)
Nightlife, below). Pass through here during the day, but return at
on the Avenida Juárez side of the park. It is a fine place for strolling
night, when it resounds with music and festivity until the wee hours,
(and resting) and listening to live music on Sundays and holidays.
especially on weekends. One warning: Late at night things can get a
bit raucous. Choose a cantina, order a tequila; the musicians will be
15
Fonart, the government-owned handicrafts chain, has a store at
Avenida Juárez 89, just west of the park (see Shopping, below). At the
around shortly to serenade you (tipping is essential). Late at night,
far western side of the Alameda is Museo Mural Diego Rivera, built to
well-to-do Mexicans usually park along the west side of the square to
enjoy some "drive-up" mariachi serenading especially for them. On
display Diego Rivera's controversial mural Sunday Afternoon Dream
wall
of
the
Hotel
the north side of the square is the Mercado de San Camilito, where
26
Mexico City
Exploring
27
5
The Castillo de Chapultepec, like the Palacio Nacional, witnessed the
turbulence and grandeur of all Mexican history. In its earliest permu-
rooms on the upper floor contain faithful ethnographic displays of
current indigenous peoples, using maps, photographs, household
tations, its home on the Cerro del Chapulín (Grasshopper Hill) was a
objects, folk art, clothing, and religious articles.
Mexica palace, where the Indians made one of their last stands
5/553-1902.
$3. © Tues.-Sat. 9-6, Sun. and holidays 10-6.
against the Spaniards; later it was a Spanish hermitage, gunpowder
plant, and military college. Emperor Maximilian used the castle
Other sights in the first section of Chapultepec Park include three
(parts of which date from 1783) as his residence, and his example was
small boating lakes; the Casa del Lago, a cultural center; a botanical
followed by various presidents from 1872 to 1940, when Lázaro Cár-
garden; archaeological excavations (visitable by appointment); and
denas decreed that it be turned into the National History Museum.
the zoo housing Mexico's pandas, gifts from China. Los Pinos, the res-
idential palace of the president of Mexico, is located on the park's
Displays on the museum's ground floor cover Mexican history from the
southern boundary, at Avenida Constituyentes and Parque Lira. It is
conquest to the revolution; the bathroom, bedroom, tea salon, and gar-
heavily guarded and cannot be visited. The less crowded second and
dens were used by Maximilian and his wife, Carlotta, during the 19th
third sections contain a fancy restaurant, amusement parks (see What
century. The ground floor also contains works by 20th-century mural-
to See and Do with Children, below), the national cemetery, and the
ists O'Gorman, Orozco, and Siqueiros, whereas the upper floor is
Lienzo Charro (rodeo).
devoted to temporary exhibits, Díaz's malachite vases, and religious
art. Situated on top of a hill, the Castillo is accessible by car, on foot (10
TIME OUT After visiting the museums, take a five-minute taxi ride just north of the
minutes), or by a free but unreliable shuttle bus and elevator.
5/
park to Colonia Polanco, which is quickly upstaging the Zona Rosa as
553-6242.
$2. Tues.-Sun. 9:30-5.
the chic place for shopping and dining. The outdoor tables at San-
borcito's, also known as Restaurante Polanco, are usually filled by the
Just down the hill from the Castillo is the Museo Galeria de la Lucha
residents of this well-heeled, tranquil neighborhood. It has a small but
del Pueblo Mexicano por su Liberatad, which goes by the more fanci-
moderately priced menu and is especially good for brunch. Julio Verne
ful Museo del Caracol (Museum of the Snail) because of its spiral
and Emilio Castelar, overlooking a lovely park with a statue of Lincoln.
shape. The museum concentrates on the 400 years from the Viceroy-
alty to the Constitution of 1917, using dioramas and light-and-sound
Reforma wends its leisurely way west into the wealthy neighbor-
displays that children can appreciate.
5/553-6285.
$1.25. 9
hoods of Lomas de Chapultepec, where most of the houses and
Tues.-Sun. 9-5.
estates are behind stone walls.
6
The Museo de Arte Moderno (Museum of Modern Art) is just north
of the Castillo on the south side of Reforma. Two rooms are devoted
Tour 3: San Angel and Coyoacán
to plastic arts from the 1930s to the 1960s; a third focuses on the past
Numbers in the margin correspond to points of interest on the San
20 years; and a fourth room and annex house temporary exhibits of
Angel and Coyoacán map.
contemporary Mexican painting, lithography, sculpture, and photog-
raphy.
5/553-6211.
$3. Tues.-Sun. 10-6.
To explore the southern part of the city-which until 50 years ago
was separate pueblos-take a taxi or pesero down Avenida Insur-
The private collection of painter Rufino Tamayo now has a permanent
7
gentes. At 34 kilometers (21 miles) the longest avenue in the city,
home in the sleek and austere Museo Rufino Tamayo. Tamayo's
Insurgentes did not exist as such before the 1920s.
unerring eye for great art is evidenced by paintings and sculptures by
such contemporary masters as Picasso, Miró, Warhol, and Henry
Get off at Avenida La Paz. On the east side of Insurgentes is a bizarre
Moore. In Chapultepec Park, on the north side of Paseo de la Reforma
monument to revolutionary leader and onetime president Alvaro
1
and west of Gandhi, 5/286-6519.
$3. Tues.-Sun. 10-6.
Obregón. The gray granite Monumento al General Alvaro Obregón
marks the spot where the national hero Obregón was gunned down
The greatest museum in the country-and arguably one of the finest
in a restaurant in 1928. Its main attraction used to be none other than
8
archaeological museums anywhere-is the Museo Nacional de
Obregón's hand and forearm-eerily preserved in formaldehyde-
Antropología (National Museum of Anthropology), just west of the
which he lost in a 1915 battle. However, it's been removed for burial.
Museo Rufino Tamayo. Even its architectural design (by Pedro
Ramírez Vázquez) is distinguished. The collection is so extensive-cov-
Cross Avenida Insurgentes on Avenida La Paz, then take the southern
ering some 100,000 square feet-that four hours are barely adequate to
fork off Avenida La Paz (Calle Madero) until you come to the Plaza
see it. However, bilingual guides take you through the highlights in
San Jacinto. You are now in San Angel, a little colonial enclave of cob-
two-hour tours. English guidebooks are available in the bookshop.
blestoned streets, gardens drenched in bougainvillea, stone walls, and
pastel houses.
Begin in the Orientation Room, which traces the course of Mexican
prehistory and the pre-Hispanic cultures of Mesoamerica. There are
Plaza San Jacinto is interesting in its own right. In 1847 about 50
12 rooms on the ground floor, including preclassical cultures, Teoti-
Irish soldiers of St. Patrick's Battalion-who had sided with the Mex-
huacan, the Toltecs, Oaxaca, the Maya, and the north and west of
icans in the Mexican-American War-had their foreheads branded
Mexico. The so-called Aztec calendar stone and profusely feathered
here with the letter D (for deserters) and were then hanged by the
Aztec headdresses, reconstructed Mayan temples, and reproductions
Americans. These men had been enticed to swim the Rio Grande and
of the Mayan paintings from the ruins of Bonampak are just some of
desert the ranks of U.S. General Zachary Taylor by pleas to the his-
the highlights. Statuary, jewelry, weapons, clay figurines, and pottery
toric and religious ties between Spain and Ireland; as settlers in Mex-
ican
Texas
tren
XW
97 97-100
representing day and night, light and
darkness, or life and death. Some
modern writers, with more drama
than truth, have claimed that the
losing team-or sometimes the
winning team-were ceremonially
sacrificed after a match.
According to legend, the Toltec ruler
was so powerful that he boastfully
All the World
challenged the water gods to a match.
He won and, as a prize, claimed their
Is Aztec Land
treasures of greenstone, turquoise, and
gold. In revenge they withdrew their
rain, and the city had to succumb.
How Tula really came to fall as a
When the Aztec became strong
great city is not known. It did not
enough, one of their rulers ordered
9
disappear as a settlement, and
that every book that dealt with their
certainly was a town important
history be burned and new ones be
enough later so that an Aztec king's
written so as to show the glory of his
daughter married its ruler. The site
people since all the world belonged to
has important buildings from periods
them. Thus the people that met the
that date after its mythical ending.
European conquerors were able to
Nevertheless, it seems eventually to
invent their own past. This is not a
have ceased to be a powerful force,
unique feat in history, but our own
and its fall may have been connected
inquisitive need for knowing the real
with the wanderings of Nahuatl-
story has not been helped by it.
speaking tribes, one of which may
They claimed to have come from
have been the later powerful Aztec.
Aztlán, the Place of Cranes,
somewhere in the north, led by four
God-Bearers, together with six other
96
Ancient Mexico
Nahuatl-speaking groups. They told of
their deeds in their long pilgrimage,
when their tribal god, Huitzilopochtli,
the Left-Handed Hummingbird, told
them not to settle permanently until
they reached a place in the middle of a
lake where, on a stone, an eagle,
Huitzilopochtli's totemic sign, would
be seen devouring a serpent, the old
god Quetzalcoatl's emblem.
Their trek had many stops and
many battles. After overcoming the
temptation to stay put in several
places, they finally reached the
foretold spot and there they founded,
under their chieftain Tenoch, Cactus
on a Stone, the city of Tenochtitlán, in
his name. This was Mexico City, later
the center of Anahuac, the known
Figure 36. This famous sculpture, found
world, the land around water. There
accidentally during the laying of cable for the
they grew powerful until they could
Mexico City telephone system, is one of the
conquer the Valley of Mexico, and
masterworks of Aztec art. It represents
from that base they became the
Coyolxauhqui, the sister of the Aztec tribal
god Huitzilopochtli. According to legend, she
overlords, the feeders of the gods.
harassed their mother and was killed and
That is the Aztec tradition and, like
dismembered by Huitzilopochtli. (Photo by C.
many official traditions, it contains
Alcazar, Historia del arte mexicano SALVAT 2:55)
more than slight exaggeration. The
city could hardly have been founded
by the Aztec. Proof is abundant of its
having been inhabited prior to their
Ancient Mexico
All the World is Aztec Land
99
98
founding date of A.D. 1325. Formative
Period figurines from about 1000 B.C.
were found during excavations for the
building of the Latin American Tower,
one of downtown Mexico City's tallest
edifices; these figurines can still be
seen in the tower's observation room
on the fiftieth floor. Teotihuacán
remains have been found, though
without good controls, within city
limits. While the cathedral was being
repaired, in the 1970s, archaeological
excavations were carried out and
pottery from about A.D. 1000 to 1100
was found.
More important, in Tlatelolco, about
a mile north of the center of the city,
while a subway station was under
construction, evidence was unearthed
for a settlement from about A.D. 1100.
Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlán were small,
neighboring islands in one of the lakes
Figure 37. This large stone conch was dug at
the site of the Aztec Templo Mayor (main
temple) at Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital,
where economic and military power met
religious and administrative centralization.
This great, teeming metropolis awed the
Spanish conquerors. (Historia del arte mexicano
SALVAT 2:32)
100
Ancient Mexico
All the World is Aztec Land
that covered the central part of the
their pottery, Tenochtitlán Black-on-
Valley of Mexico until the final part of
Orange, is a variant of an earlier ware,
the nineteenth century, when it was
Tenayuca Black-on-Orange, which was
finally drained. Tlatelolco, the Place of
widely distributed in the Valley until
the Earth Mound, seems to have been
fashion changed and the new design
an important market center for the
was introduced. Cholula Polychrome,
Valley long before the date the Aztec
also associated with them, was an
claim they got there.
imported ceramic ware that had a
The Aztec themselves could well
wide distribution for some two
have come, as they said, from the
hundred years before the Aztec came
north, and some authors place their
forth. It is also associated with other
origin in the south of the state of
types, from the south and west, like
Guanajuato in northcentral Mexico, or
Tlahuica Polychrome and Tenango
from the west, from the state of
Brown-on-Tan.
Nayarit. (There is no evidence for their
Their double temples on top of
having come from California.) They
pyramids, dedicated, respectively, to
could just as well have been another
the Rain God and to their tribal hero,
of the many farmer groups that settled
although not found in Toltec
in the Valley for thousands of years,
construction, were common in the
acquired their ethnic characteristics
Valley of Mexico long before the
after the fall of Teotihuacán, and were
Aztecs arrived. They were erected in
able to survive the chaos after Tula's
other places as well, like Tenayuca and
demise. Their culture shows a typical
Santa Cecilia, north of Mexico City,
Mesoamerican life with one difference:
where well-preserved and restored
in their central compound they kept a
buildings still can be seen. Human
patch of ground arranged with cacti
sacrifices, of course, had been
and stones to remind them of the
common earlier, although the Aztecs
northern desert.
performed this ritual on a much larger
Otherwise, though, their cultural
scale. Their god, Huitzilopochtli, was
traits were those of their neighbors:
their own version of Tezcatlipoca,
Ancient Mexico
All the World is Aztec Land
102
103
whom they also worshiped, but other
groups had equivalent tribal ancestors
as deities.
The story about their conquests, on
the other hand, is mostly true. After
taking over the Valley by forming an
alliance with two other towns,
Tlacopan and Texcoco, they extended
their domain to most of Central
Mexico and south to the confines of
the Maya area. Their city grew to a
size and magnificence that astounded
the Europeans who saw it, and they
established an empire that was
sustained by tribute paid in large
quantities and by trade channeled
through the Tlatelolco market.
Figure 38. Mitla, a Late Postclassic site in
Aztec conquest and its consequent
Oaxaca, was inhabited at the time of the
tribute brought to their city many
conquest. Its walls are famous for their
riches, which made it a highly
decoration. In local lore Mitla was associated
cosmopolitan settlement very much
with the underworld and the souls of the
like Teotihuacán. Goods from many
dead. (Photo by William M. Ferguson and
provinces were brought in for
John Q. Royce)
payment of taxes, and these were
exchanged in the market for other
merchandise and re-exported to far
places. The distribution of Tenochtitlán
Black-on-Orange and Cholula
Polychrome throughout Mesoamerica
is witness to their activity.
104
Ancient Mexico
All the World is Aztec Land
105
Their splendor was not limited to
efficient messenger service had to be
goods but included the use of human
established to carry news to the
beings on a gigantic scale. The tribute
central government by relays of
they received in labor enabled them to
runners. These served to advise
build huge public works and private
Moctezuma of the arrival of the
palaces. Caravans of hundreds of
Europeans but were not enough to
human carriers moved through the
raise the countryside to the defense of
city. Prisoners from many wars were
the capital.
brought for sacrifice; with their blood
Military organization was another
and hearts the gods, especially the
shortcoming. The Aztec empire was
sun, could be fed and thus the
based on military rule and paid for it
universe kept from collapsing again, as
by having to garrison provinces and
the Aztecs believed it had already
borders. Roads had to be patrolled and
done four times before present
caravans protected. The army was not
mankind was placed on earth.
enough for the task, and more and
Ambassadors from many towns came
more of the work had to be carried out
to be awed by the spectacle; they
by Otomi mercenaries who, when the
returned to their lands with the
time came, did not defend Mexico City
message that it made sense to
from the Europeans. Unconquered
acknowledge Aztec might.
groups, like the Tarascan in the West,
Aztec strength had its limits,
the Mixtec in the South, or the
though, and the Spanish conquerors
Tlaxcaltec, uncomfortably near their
seized on these weaknesses. Distance,
heartland, had to be continually
as with Teotihuacán's domain, was
fought and contained. With the
one. The empire stretched so far that it
coming of the Spanish, some groups
was hard to control it. Some part or
saw their opportunity to defeat the
another was constantly in rebellion
Aztecs. The Tlaxcaltec became their
and the central government had to
allies; others did not resist them.
intervene in innumerable local wars if
Social imbalance was one more
it was to remain dominant. An
weakness. With the growth of the
106
Ancient Mexico
All the World is Aztec Land
107
empire, the original nobility was
unable to cope with the job of
administration, yet they continued to
do so until the end of the fifteenth
century. By that time the work of
running the world was so big that the
Aztec ruler Ahuizotl started
appointing commoners to high posts.
An enormous bureaucracy resulted. At
his death his successor, Moctezuma,
after putting down many local revolts,
tried to reverse this policy. When the
Spanish arrived, though, the
reorganization had not been
completed. This transitional situation
greatly helped them.
Political entanglements were
probably decisive, too. The original
alliance of the Aztec with Texcoco and
Figure 39. The Great Temple of the Aztecs
towered 135 feet high and dominated the
ancient ceremonial center of Tenochtitlán. The
Spaniards built over the sacred site in creating
today's Mexico City, but between 1978 and
1982 the area was excavated.
108
Ancient Mexico
All the World is Aztec Land
109
Tlacopán developed into a fine game
to the south, which brought them
of intervention politics. Zones of
cotton, cacao, copper, and gold, goods
influence were always contested, and
that were used as coinage in pre-
finally the Aztec were able to
Hispanic Mexico, which unbalanced
determine their allied rulers'
the market further. The solution might
succession by forcing the election of
have been, perhaps, a period of peace,
their preferred candidates. At the
to enable them to digest and adapt to
arrival of the Spanish, opposition had
the new scale of their economy, but
developed and, in Texcoco it was
instead they embarked on successive
decisive in allowing the Europeans
enterprises, each of which
time and resources for the siege of
progressively weakened their real
Mexico City.
power. At the arrival of the
The Aztec had really fallen into a
Europeans, regardless of the Aztecs'
trap of their own making. In achieving
apparent grandeur, they were in
their greatness, they became too large
disarray.
and prepared their own downfall.
Their conquests, which they
themselves believed were holy quests,
were only futile movements in an
unending and hopeless cycle for
survival. Their first conquest, the
Valley of Mexico, had subjected a
number of towns that produced the
same goods as the Aztecs themselves.
When the produce came to market as
tribute, it competed ruinously against
the Aztec farmer. All movements after
that were ill-fated.
Their next conquest was the Valley
of Morelos and the Balsas River region
110
Ancient Mexico
All the World is Aztec Land
111
U.S. First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton
(Opening Remarks at the Women's Roundtable--Harare--3/21/97)
Thank you for joining me this afternoon. I am looking forward to
learning more about what you are doing, and the activities you
are undertaking here in your country.
On our trip to Africa, my daughter Chelsea and I have been
privileged to see, first-hand, Africa's democratic and economic
renewal. I look forward to learning about the progress that is
happening here in Zimbabwe.
I know, and all of you do as well, that a democracy depends on
the full integration of women into society, especially on seeing
to it that women have equal access to the same tools of
opportunity as men do. Tools such as education and health care,
legal rights and political participation, a chance to participate
fully in the economy, and to have their economic contributions
appropriately valued. I have had an opportunity to learn more in
just a brief time I've been here and talking with the women who
met me at the airport and the wonderful conversation that I had
with President and Mrs. Mugabe and the reception that the
President hosted for me at which he introduced me to a number of
prominent women here in your country.
I know from what I have already learned and what I expect to see
in my visit here that you have been making remarkable progress
at both the grassroots level and the highest levels of government
on issues ranging from education to health care, from employment
to AIDS. I'm particularly interested in hearing how each of you
in your various capacities have seen the progress that has been
made here in your country and what obstacles are still to be
overcome and how we might work together as women supporting one
another in areas such as micro-credit and healthcare that were
highlighted at the Beijing Conference on Women.
As I have travelled around the world and I saw it again here on
this continent in Senegal and South Africa, women are coming
together in a spirit of solidarity to solve problems for
themselves, to work with the men in their families and their
communities, to create better opportunity for girls and boys.
So I would like to hear from each of you as to what you see as
the accomplishments and the continuing challenges that confront
women and men in your society.
U.S. First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton
(Closing Remarks at the Women's Roundtable--Harare--3/21/97)
Well this has been very interesting to me. I hope it's been of
use to you to hear each other speak about all of these issues and
to know how committed you are to resolving a lot of these
problems that have been posed, and I do hope that there can be
a continuing dialogue, not only within Africa, but around the
world, so that when it comes to economic empowerment or micro-
credit, we learn from each other.
You know Bangladesh is not the only model. That's a good model,
but India has some good models, and Latin America, and the more
information, to go back to your point, the more we can make and
form choices about what will work best in our various situations.
So I hope that we will be able to continue this kind of dialogue
and that more and more women will find their place in it and be
able to make the changes in their own lives and in their families
and in their communities that would benefit them and their
children in the future.
MEXFAM Site Visit
MEXFAM is a non-profit organization dedicated to social service and directed by
volunteers. It was founded in 1965 and is a member of the International Planned
Parenthood Federation (IPPF). MEXFAM, with USAID funding, provides high quality
family planning and health services, as well as sex education, in 26 states of
Mexico and to over 400,000 families. Its programs include:
Medical Services Centers: Clients of these centers, located in both rural and
urban areas, receive specialized medical attention in family planning, gynecology,
urology, maternal and child health, and other medical specialties. Laboratory
services are provided as well.
Community Doctors: These MEXFAM doctors are placed in urban marginal areas
where there is a consistent lack of medical care, and provide general medical and
family planning services.
Industry Program: MEXFAM provides family planning information and services in
the workplace.
Community Health Promotion: MEXFAM trains and provides basic medical
equipment to volunteer promoters in rural communities, who in turn offer
information, and primary health and family planning services.
"Gente Joven" (adolescents) program: Information and orientation for young
people on human sexuality and family life.
Mrs. Clinton's visit would be to an activity of the Gente Joven program, at the
Juvenile Recreation Center "La Conchita" in a lower class neighborhood of Mexico
City. The site consists of two soccer fields, two basketball courts, and one
building, which houses the administrative offices, several small rooms for
workshops, and two large meeting rooms. The site belongs to the government of
the Federal District, which sponsors a day care center for the elderly, and aerobics,
sewing, handicrafts, and boxing classes free for community members. There is a
MEXFAM psychologist on site during working hours, and she provides reproductive
health and family planning information to anyone requesting it. MEXFAM also
carries out group activities there, such as educational talks and community theater.
The amount of time needed for the visit is 30 minutes. The first activity would be
a 10-minute skit, performed by MEXFAM personnel, and dealing with adolescent
reproductive health issues. The skit will be participative in that, besides the
performers on the stage, other performers will be planted in the audience to ask
questions. Mrs. Clinton will then move to the meeting room where she will meet
with MEXFAM personnel, the performers, and several youth leaders from the
community for 15 minutes for a discussion of relevant issues. Mrs. Clinton will
then make a five-mintue walk-through of the Recreation Center to see the other
activities taking place.
MEXFAM - "La Conchita" Juvenile Recreation Center
Location: The site is approximately 5 kms. from Los Pinos and travel
time is roughly 15 minutes. The recreational facility is located on
Calle "1st de Noviembre" off the road to Santa Fe, turn in front of
the IMSS housing complex. Proceed down the hill 300 yards and the
recreational center is on the right. The FLOTUS' car can be parked
just inside the gate entrance.
Description: The community recreational center was built 10 years ago
by the local delegation (Alvaro Obregon) of the Mexico Federal
District Government. The area's population is approximately 1.2
million inhabitants, many of which are lower income families. There
are 7-8 centers of this type in the Obregon service area that provide
importance social support services to its population. The area is
characterized as being a "working class neighborhood", whose
inhabitants have had limited educational opportunities, moderate to
high unemployment, particularly among the youth, and have suffered the
brunt of the economic recession that started in 1994.
"La Conchita" facility consists of a simple building, which houses
administrative offices, library, dental clinic, seniors meeting room,
and classrooms of various types including auto mechanics, handicrafts,
beauty school, sewing and computer training. On the outside a large
area is devoted a multipurpose use area (theater) and active sport
fields - two soccer fields, two basketball courts and exercise area.
USAID Support to MEXFAM:
1. Overall Institutional Support
MEXFAM is a non-profit organization dedicated to social service and
directed by volunteers. It was founded in 1965 and is a member of the
International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF). MEXFAM provides
high quality family planning and health services, as well as sex
education, in 26 states of Mexico and to over 400,000 families. USAID
has supported MEXFAM for over 9 years, mainly with technical
assistance, management and marketing training. Its programs include:
Medical Services Centers: Clients of these centers, located in both
rural and urban areas, receive specialized medical attention in family
planning, gynecology, urology, maternal and child health, and other
medical specialties. Laboratory services are provided as well.
Community Doctors: These MEXFAM doctors are placed in urban marginal
areas where there is a consistent lack of medical care, and provide
general medical and family planning services.
Industry Program: MEXFAM provides family planning information and
services in the workplace.
Community Health Promotion: MEXFAM trains and provides basic medical
equipment to volunteer promoters in rural communities, who in turn
offer information, and primary health and family planning services.
"Gente Joven" (Adolescents) Program: Information and orientation for
young people on human sexuality and family life.
2. Specific Support of the "La Conchita" Adolescents Program
MEXFAM has been working with local social workers from the delegation
to supplement their efforts to provide the area's youth information
and orientation on human sexuality and family life.
This service includes the provision of a MEXFAM psychologist on-site
during the working hours (8 a.m. to 8 p.m.) to provide reproductive
health and family planning information to anyone requesting it.
MEXFAM also carries out group activities, including educational talks
and community threater skits.
USAID's technical and financial support was instrumental in assisting
MEXFAM in first introducing community youth between the ages of 12-20
years with educational materials and professional consultative
services on human sexuality and family planning matters. The La
Conchita program has been in operation for approximately 2 years. It
serves 2,000 youth on a regular basis.
In the long-term, USAID's most important contribution to Gente Joven
has been assisting MEXFAM centers to be sustainable since their
survival depends on their ability to mobilize financial support,
including the subsidized social programs for the poor and adolescents.
Expected Scenario of First Lady's Visit
Total time required on-site for the visit is 30 minutes. It is not
clear right now if Sra. Zedillo will accompany Mrs. Clinto to this
site.
The first activity would be a 10-minute skit, performed by MEXFAM
personnel, and highlights adolescent reproductive health issues. The
skit will be participative in that, besides the performers on the
stage, other performers will be planted in the audience to ask
questions. Mrs. Clinton will then move to a meeting room inside the
building (adjacent to the Library) where she will meet and have
informal dialogue with a small group of youth and 1-2 MEXFAM staff
members for 15 minutes of discussion on reproductive health issues and
the program's impact on their lives. Mrs. Clinton will then make a
five-mintue walk-through of the Recreation Center to see the other
activities taking place before departing the site.
Principal Representatives at the Site
USAID Site Coordinator:
Jeff Boyer
MEXFAM Representatives:
Sra. Ramona Pando de Cosío
( President )
Lic. Alfonsio Lopez Juarez
( Director )
Lic Higinio Dominquez Mondragon
( Metro. Prog. Coordinator )
Lic. Maria del Carmen Leyte Guerreo
( Local Coordinator )
La Conchita
Representatives:
Sr. Carlos Mejia, Center Director
Sr. Arturo Baez, Area Director
Obregon Delegation:
Sr. Manuel Diaz Infante
( Chief Delegate )
Lic. Leticia Coello Garrido
( Sub-Delegate )
Family Planning Scene Setter
Setting: The visit coincides with the halfway point of Mexico's
National Population Program 1995-2000 and USAID's Population Strategy
in Mexico. Government of Mexico support for population and
reproductive health activities is very strong despite current economic
conditions. Mexico is to be commended for being absolutely committed
to the international call for "Health for All."
Article 4 of the Mexican Constitution affirms that each person has the
right to decide the number and spacing of their children freely,
responsibly, and in an informed manner. Mexico historically and
currently puts this into action through its National Population
Program. Natural population growth has declined since 1972 from 3.39
percent to 2.05 percent in 1995, and net population growth after
migration is 1.8 percent. The average number of children per family
has declined in this same period from 6.36 to 2.81. USAID support,
currently scheduled to terminate in 1998, represents less than 5
percent of Mexico's overall annual expenditure on population programs.
Mexico's financing of 95 percent of the costs of these programs is a
tangible sign of their commitment and self-reliance.
The USG/Mexico partnership in the population arena is a true success
story. Thanks in large part to USAID assistance, ever increasing
numbers of men and women have access to safe and efficacious methods
of family planning; 56 percent of married women of child bearing age
now use modern contraceptives, almost double the rate since 1978. The
support of USAID has been critical in increasing the quality of care,
and in expanding services, especially in the economically depressed
rural areas of southern Mexico and in urban-marginal neighborhoods of
Mexico city, where USAID efforts have been targeted.
President Zedillo declared in his 1996 State of the Union Address that
Mexico's greatest challenge is providing health care services,
including reproductive health, to those who lack access to them. A
visit to population programs would demonstrate similar support for
reproductive health programs on behalf of the USG, and would also
provide concrete evidence of the benefits of this support.
Theme: A strong message of support for health programs in Mexico,
especially reproductive health. This also would be an opportunity to
get an "up-close and personal" look at what the recent vote in
Congress to release population funds was all about.
Supporting Events: Good examples of Mexico's efforts in providing
family planning and reproductive health services for both the insured
and uninsured can be seen anywhere, both in large urban areas and in
the smallest rural communities. Visitors will be able to see first
hand the impact which the USG, through USAID, has had in improving the
lives of poor women through increasing the access to and quality of
family planning and other reproductive health services.
IMSS Site Visit-Mexico City
The Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS) Obstetrics and Gynecology
Hospital "Luis Castelaza Ayala," founded in 1978, is located in the San Angel
section of Mexico City, approximately 5 miles south of the proposed MEXFAM
site. This third-level hospital has 2,350 employees and serves 430,000 IMSS
affiliates from the Federal District, and the states of Chiapas, Morelos, Guerrero,
and Querétaro. The hospital has 448 beds - 314 for ob/gyn, 30 for surgical
oncology, and 104 for pediatrics. The occupation rate for the entire hospital is
89%, and for gynecology 99.8%, obstetrics 82.1% and pediatrics 115.8%. Every
day, fifty to sixty babies are delivered and 500 patients are seen in outpatient
consultations.
USAID has trained doctors and nurses in reproductive health, helped develop
evaluation of reproductive health counseling, supported outreach to schools and
communities and worked with them on decentralization to the state.
Mrs. Clinton's one-hour visit to this hospital would be as follows:
1. Presentation and welcome in the ground floor auditorium.
2. Visit to the outpatient consultation section, on the basement level and ground
floor. There are 26 physicians' offices, or consultorios on these floors, but we
suggest a visit to the consultorios on the basement level since this is where
reproductive health and family planning services are provided.
3. Elevator/stairs to the third floor for tour of postpartum area. This hospital was
certified by UNICEF in January 1997 as a Mother and Child Friendly Hospital.
While touring this floor, Mrs. Clinton can observe rooming in and exclusive
breastfeeding-two important criteria for UNICEF certification. There are three beds
in each room, and Mrs. Clinton will have the opportunity to speak with postpartum
women.
4. Elevator/stairs to second floor for tour of premature baby area. Premature babies
are placed in four separate sections, depending on their health status: incubators
(20), thermal beds (52 in two sections, one for babies with infections), and normal
cribs for those babies preparing to leave the nursery. Mothers are invited to be
with their babies until 1:00 p.m. daily, and while there, they are given instructions
on breastfeeding and child care, and extract their breast milk for storage in the
hospital's seventh-floor milk bank.
5. Elevator/stairs to first floor administrative offices and meeting room for
discussion with hospital employees and patients.
Locals call Mexico City "el DF" - short for the Federal District - though it has
spilled over into the neighboring State of Mexico and is gradually encroaching on all
the neighboring towns and villages in the valley. It is a sprawling megalopolis
screaming for a caesarian section. It has to be delivered of the monstrous
bureaucratic baby that has inflated it to bursting point. Foreigners can only conceive
what it has become if they can imagine New York, Washington and Chicago all
packed into the District of Columbia and surrounded by the Rockies. Unless the
smokestack industries are banished from the valley and the federal government is
moved far enough away to place it out of the reach of commuters, Mexico City is
doomed.
This is the dismal truth. The incomparable mountain valley of Mexico -
Tenochtitlán - that Alfonso Reyes once called "the air's most limpid domain," is now
the biggest bowl of smog in the world. The iron-clad Spaniards who once beheld it
from the pass between the snowtopped volcanoes, remembered in their old age the
astonishing clarity of the air that allowed them to see from such a distance the
enchanted city on the lake. And today many Mexicans, now middle-aged, can still
remember the view from the opposite end when the air, like a huge lens, provided
them with a panoramic vista of the snowy mountain tops, sometimes massive and
clear, at other times floating in the sheer blue sky. Now their presence there has to be
taken on faith alone.
The days themselves had a clearer shape then. Mornings were lofty and blue.
Then, after lunch, storm clouds dragged a sudden deep dusk over the city. Rolling
down Reforma or Insurgentes - you could set your watch by them - they would burst
in unison over palaces and slums, drowning the geranium pots in the patio railings,
flooding the narrow streets until it seemed that the primeval lake had once again
reclaimed the city. They generally disappeared in time to reveal a sumptuous, slightly
vulgar, sunset. Then the huge lens, washed clean, brought the night sky down to the
rooftops, where lucky children got a close up of every star in the galaxy.
All that, alas, is a thing of the past, though of a remarkably recent past. The
Mexican painter José Maria Velasco's matchless nineteenth-century landscapes prove
that the valley had not changed much in the previous hundred years. The industrial
takeoff of the fifties transformed it, turning Mexico's once crystalline penthouse of a
city into a disaster area.
The facts alone are frightening. The valley of Mexico contains the D.F. plus
twelve industrial municipalities pertaining to the neighboring State of Mexico. In
Mexico, the word "Mexico" may refer to three different things: the country, the state
or the city. To avoid confusion we will abide by the following rules. "Mexico" alone
will refer to the entire country; the "State of Mexico," to the federal unit and the
"DF," or "Mexico City," will refer exclusively to the capital. The DF, incidentally, was
created out of a rib taken from the State of Mexico in 1824. The valley area
represents a mere 0.005% of the national territory (or about 10,000 square
kilometers) but lodges 17 million inhabitants, which is 25% of Mexico's total
population; 50% of the country's industrial capacity is located there as well as 58% of
all vehicles and 42% of the country's permanently employed work force, which
receives 53% of the total wage bill. The city buys 49% of all durable consumer goods
and has 60% of all the telephones. About 50% of the population consists of
government employees and their dependents.
Mexico can barely hold its head up now. It has become an octopus, every arm
ousily scavenging and feeding the insatiable capital, which swallows up everything in
ight with scant respect for our so-called federalism and our sporadic attempts at
rassroots democracy. The DF is the brain, heart and belly of the entire organism.
41
Being both the ceremonial center and the administrative plexus of the republic, the
town is always packed with petitioners, especially in the government offices. The
religious center of Mexico is also there, not in the Cathedral, as one might think, but
in the shrine of the Virgin of Guadalupe. This is the magnetic pole for all true
Mexicans, including Marxists and practicing atheists. Every year on 12 December, the
anniversary of the Virgin's apparition in 1531, pilgrims troop in from every part of
the country, some advancing on their knees and wearing scapularies of spiny cactus
leaves. The whole city comes to a standstill.
The failure of the agrarian reform has poured millions of peasants into the valley
area, where misery at least has company and even the unemployed have a sporting
chance of getting some money somehow. About 5 of the 17 million inhabitants live at a
bare subsistence level. Their squalid shanty towns in sand pits or cheek by jowl with
some of the more august residential districts, are a vivid reproach to the system.
For the bright, ambitious youngster from the provinces, with no private means
to sustain him, Mexico City has traditionally been the only option. An internal brain
drain toward the capital has existed since the earliest days of the republic, which led a
famous female wit of the time to say "outside Mexico City, it's all Cuautitlan" - the
sticks. There is reason to hope, though. The new ecological consciousness is giving
these young provincials second thoughts. They are beginning to treasure the clear air
and blue skies of their home towns. The risk of succumbing to galloping inertia in the
provinces is far outweighed by the threat of lung cancer in the capital. Even the
authorities are taking notice. After decades of allowing speculators to destroy
landmarks in the city, they have now created an office to restore the buildings and
protect them from further vandalism. Thanks to this official change of heart,
(vigorously implemented during the López Portillo regime by the regent of the city,
Carlos Hank González, as well as by the efforts of various private foundations),
enough has been preserved to show why in 1803 the German traveler and
polymath Alexander von Humboldt, was moved to call our capital "the City of
Palaces."
Chapultepec
One spot of abiding charm is the promontory and castle of Chapultepec, which
as every Mexican schoolboy knows, means "Grasshopper Hill." Four centuries ago,
the hill stood on the western shore of Lake Texcoco. Until fairly recent times, it
marked the western limit of the city, but now it is merely the western limit of the
downtown area. The castled hilltop rises above a park of abuehuetes, those aged
cypresses that are the moss-bearded ancients of the Mexican forest. The park is
Mexico's homage to the Bois de Boulogne. The Emperor Maximilian, who gave the
castle its present appearance and devoted much attention to the grounds, had much
admired the Bois on his first visit to Paris and sought to reproduce the effect here.
Like the Bois, Chapultepec is a naturally spreading expanse of woods, meadows
and lakes. It is a place for children's parties, piñatas and toy balloons, for flying kites,
impromptu soccer games and monumental museums. The most ancient artifacts can
be seen in the Museum of Anthropology, the most modern - including a frail wicker
op-art semblance of a Rolls-Royce - in the Rufino Tamayo Museum. (The Museum of
Modern Art across the street comes a poor second in the avant-garde stakes.) The
museum architecture is either masonry-impressive (Anthropology and Tamayo) or
black-glass curvilinear (Modern Art). The perilously polished marble floors are their
most visible trait in common.
Cars now whiz by the Reforma throughway and plunge into what were once the
42
Spaniards, the Indians were sent literally beyond the pale. The canals were filled in
and eventually the lake itself was drained to avoid the periodic and disastrous floods.
Inevitably, the land filled in between the original islands was soggy. Just how soggy
can be deduced from the swaybacked cornices and rooflines of many a colonial
building: the prime example is relatively new, the Palace of Fine Arts which has sunk
several feet below street level. (Modern engineering has solved the problem by using
pilings or "floating" foundations.)
The National Palace
For political reasons, Cortés insisted on building the capital of New Spain
directly on top of the Aztec capital. It would not do to move elsewhere and leave the
natives free to return to the shrines of their ancient allegiances. The land itself was
endowed with spiritual authority, so the true source and seat of power must remain
where it had always been. For the same reason Cortés built his own palace on the site
and foundation of Moctezuma's. Known as the "New Houses of Cortés" - to
distinguish it from the "Old Houses" on the site of Axayatl's palace across the square
- it was bought by the Spanish Crown from Cortés's son and heir, Martín, to be used
as the official residence of the viceroys (one of whom was a descendant of
Moctezuma, and another a descendant of Cortés).
It is curious to note that the viceroys held court seated on a velvet pillow under a
portrait of the reigning monarch (an iconic custom now made universal by
photography). This Moorish custom of sitting on cushions and carpets on state
occasions survived in New Spain until 1700, when Philip V, the first Bourbon King
of Spain, introduced some newfangled contraptions to the Spanish court: chairs.
In 1692, Indian rioters set fire to the Palace (there was no corn, no money, and a
suspicion of hidden stores in the Palace itself). The damage to the building was soon
repaired, but the surroundings remained squalid beyond belief. Contemporary records
tell us about public latrines and vegetable stalls next to each other in the middle of the
square. In 1789, almost a century after the Indian riot, a recently arrived viceroy, the
second Count Revillagigedo, shocked by the filth he saw and smelled from his
windows, set about cleaning up the mess. He cleared away the stalls and the itinerant
merchants, ordered the level of the square to be lowered, then paved and fitted it with
covered gutters for sewage and rainwater. During these excavations, the old Aztec
calendar stone came to light, undoubtedly part of the sacred treasure the Aztecs had
concealed during the last days of Tenochtitlán. By similar accidents, other important
discoveries have been made. The building of the metropolitan subway, aside from
casting up numerous idols and other objects, uncovered the small round temple in the
Pino Suárez station, while a couple of electricians setting up a lamp post near the
Cathedral hit solid rock instead of the mushy subsoil they expected and found another
archeological stone that led to the Aztec Templo Mayor, now being excavated.
In 1793, during the same Viceroy's term of office, the square as we know
it was taking shape, the south and west sides being much as they are now. In 1803,
Tolsà's equestrian statue was unveiled on its handsome pedestal in a smalloval
garden at the south-east corner of the square. After having been moved, since then,
to various sites in the city, the Caballito seems finally to have found a permanent
resting place in a small plaza facing the Neo-Classical palace built by his own maker
for the School of Mines. The horse, incidentally, was a percheron by the name of
Tambor, "Drum." The illustrious Baron von Humboldt was present at the unveiling.
Mexico City was at the peak of prosperity at the time. It was the golden age of the
hacienda and the wealth of the second silver boom had not yet been dissipated. The
hacendados and the mining millionaires, as well as the merchants and bankers who
50
married into the aristocracy showed their wealth by building palaces and endowing
convents, hospitals, schools and churches in the capital. Revillagigedo was a man of
the Enlightenment, patron of arts and sciences, sponsor of expeditions, energetic
enforcer of law and order. Alexander von Humboldt looked around him and was
impressed. This was when he called Mexico "the City of Palaces," a description we
cannot forget despite the mounting evidence to the contrary.
Like all wars, the struggle for Independence brought disorder, poverty, and
destruction. No renaissance followed the peace; instead a series of revolutions and
palace coups from which Mexico has never entirely recovered. In spite of the
revolutionary blather, the country has so far only succeeded in finding stability and
prosperity under the one-man rule of Porfirio Díaz, and under the one-party rule of
the PRI.
Curiously enough, when independence was finally achieved, the spotlight of
history turned away from the National Palace to blaze upon the nearby Palace of the
Marquess de Jaral de Berrio, the owners of Tambor, incidentally, the percheron of
Tolsà's equestrian masterpiece. An incomparable example of Mexican Baroque at its
richest and most elegant, the palace had passed through marriage to the princely
Sicilian house of Moncada. It was then occupied by a Conservative Creole officer,
Agustín de Iturbide. Alarmed at the liberal turn that post-Napoleonic politics were
taking in Spain, he decided to join forces with the Insurgent leaders to effect the
definitive break with Spain in 1821. The Decree of Independence was ceremoniously
signed in the palace which he occupied.
Iturbide showed his colors soon enough, promoting himself to Emperor and
granting himself and his family huge possessions and impressive cash rewards. He
insisted upon being addressed as "His Most Serene Highness" and adopted all the
Napoleonic trappings of empire. Thus arrayed, he and his wife posed for countless
portraits. A scant year later, he was tumbled from his pasteboard throne and sent into
exile by the rebellious Antonio López de Santa Anna (of Alamo fame). Iturbide's
empire did not last, though the palace from which he organized it, fortunately did. It
has since been known as the Palacio de Iturbide and might again have become an
imperial palace had Maximilian survived because Maximilian, having lost all hope that
Carlota would give him a son, adopted one of the Iturbide grandchildren and named
him heir to the throne.
When Iturbide's brief empire came to a close, the National Palace became once
again the residence of the head of state. While preserving all its traditional functions,
with the institution of the Republic, the palace now acquired many new ones. It had
always housed the ceremonial apartments, the various ministries, the mint, the palace
prison and the garrison, and now room was also found in its endless loggias, corridors
and patios, to accomodate both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, as well as
the Supreme Court. The separation of powers was clearly not taken literally in the
early days.
Juárez was ousted from his quarters in the palace by the French Intervention, but
returned after the defeat of Maximilian's empire. He died in office, in the bedroom he
had always occupied in the palace. In Mexico, no armed takeover is ever considered
successful if it does not culminate in the physical possession of the National Palace.
The American troops realized that and flew the American flag from the central
flagpole on the Mexican Day of Independence, two days after the Battle of
Chapultepec. The 1910 Revolutionary factions fought over it as if it were the
Republic itself. A cheery image from the early days of the Revolution has been
preserved by the photographer Casasola's ubiquitous camera. After taking Mexico
City, a group of revolutionaries took possession of the palace. They pose with their
51
rifles and sombreros behind Pancho Villa and Zapata. Pancho Villa is sitting on the
gilded Presidential chair, bursting with glee, while the mustached Zapata on his left
stares somberly into the camera's eye.
The palace is too old and has served too many masters to have come through
history with its image untarnished. It is too big, and has always been too densely
populated, teeming at all hours with equerries and maids and pages and soldiers and
ladies-in-waiting and ushers and body-guards, and today with motorcyclists and
secretaries and helicopter pilots and applicants for jobs and solicitors of official
favors. One can imagine almost anything happening in the more florid periods of its
past. Even Maximilian, a rather insipid paragon of a prince, turns out to have had a
little side door for certain court ladies. His infidelities were no secret. In the country
that invented machismo, even the Emperor had to prove that he could be unfaithful.
The Palace now, however, under an uninterrupted series of PRI presidents, has
become increasingly straitlaced and formal, in fact rather like what it was in don
Porfirio's day.
The scattered remnants of our sumptuous past are many, but they tend to be
overlooked amidst the far more numerous reminders of our stricken present.
Skyscrapers rise where there is no room for a single additional car to park. Gardens
mysteriously disappear. Communications are hideously clogged. Mexico City has been
undergoing open-heart surgery since the early sixties when it was decided to revive its
circulation by installing a metropolitan subway system (el metro) sufficient to its
needs. The metro now moves millions of passengers a day, but is still only a by-pass.
The population explosion is unabated: the heartbreaking truth seems to be that it is
the poorest and the most deprived that multiply fastest of all.
Take the "Marías," for instance, those tiny Indian women who come down to the
city from their native mountains rarely knowing more than a couple of words of
Spanish. You find them always in the more affluent commercial neighborhoods,
wherever there are people who can afford to be sensitive and charitable with their
small change. They sit on the sidewalks of the Zona Rosa (the "pink-light" district, with
everything that that implies), carrying their sucklers and surrounded by crawlers and
toddlers in various states of undress. Many simply beg, though the more enterprising
sell black avocados, peanuts or rape root (jicama), or else peddle packs of real
American chewing gum and cigarettes (smuggled, of course, though one wonders
who provides them with their stock in trade). They tread the same pathways toward
Tenochtitlán and speak the same language as their Otomí forebears, and they are
barely tolerated by the authorities, and exploited by them, exactly as they were in
Moctezuma's days.
We are all Mexicans just the same. The problem now is simply that the melting
pot is overloaded and cannot do its job.
PAGE
29
52ND STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright 1990 The Seattle Times Company
The Seattle Times
October 7, 1990, Sunday, Final Edition
SECTION: TRAVEL; Pg. J7
LENGTH: 666 words
HEADLINE: MUSEUM OF TREASURES TRACES MEXICAN CIVILIZATIONS
BYLINE: BY JACK BROOM
DATELINE: MEXICO CITY
BODY:
Even people who don't consider themselves museum buffs are likely to enjoy a
visit to the National Anthropology Museum, home of Mexico's greatest
archaeological treasures.
Exhibits in this handsome building in Chapultepec Park present the history
and relationship between Mexico's major civilizations, including the
Teotihuacans, Toltecs, Aztecs and Mayans.
The success of the 24-year-old museum lies only partly in the artifacts
themselves. Equally important is the thoughtful way they are displayed;
lighting, positioning and the use of maps, replicas and scale models all play a
part.
For example, to see the pyramid city of Teotihuacan, visitors pass under a
low arch in front of a full-size reproduction of a 30-foot-tall section of one
of the city's major temples.
Carved faces of the gods are painted in the original shades of rose and
turquoise. Nearby, a topographical map and 60-foot-long scale model help convey
Teotihuacan's size and layout - useful preparation before a visitor actually
travels to the ruins, 30 miles northeast of Mexico City.
These days, some of the museum's oldest treasures are also some of its
newest: about 120 pieces disappeared in a daring burglary in the early hours of
Christmas Day 1985.
For museum officials, the caper was both a shock and an embarrassment:
reports indicated the few guards on duty were sleeping off a Christmas Eve
revelry.
Some experts pegged the market value of the irreplaceable items at $ 10
million; others put the estimate much higher. Archaeologists and government
leaders feared the pieces may have been spirited from the country and lost
forever.
So it was a huge relief, and a salve to Mexico's national ego, when
detectives recovered nearly all of the missing items in excellent condition last
year. The caper was blamed on two novice thieves about 30 years old who
allegedly traded a few pieces for cocaine.
PAGE
30
The Seattle Times, October 7, 1990
"We have recovered part of our injured pride," said President Carlos Salinas
de Gortari, presiding over a ceremony at the museum after the relics were
returned.
Not all of the pieces are yet back on display. For example, a new, more
secure exhibit area is being prepared for the jade burial mask of a Mayan ruler.
Throughout the museum, visitors have room to stop and ponder some of larger
and more powerful pieces, including the round, 12-ton stone used by the Aztecs
as an altar for the sacrifice of human hearts.
The museum's most striking piece is the 12-foot-wide Aztec Calendar Stone
weighing 24 tons and displayed vertically on a 5-foot-tall pedestal. Flanking
the stone are panels that depict the piece in its original vibrant colors,
showing the gods and representations of the seasons.
The major floor of the anthropology museum consists of 12 rooms around a
large courtyard. Proceeding counter-clockwise, the visitor first gets an
introduction to the concepts of anthropology, then progresses through a series
of rooms dedicated to Mexico's major pre-Hispanic cultures.
The second floor depicts the lifestyles of today's major Indian groups in
Mexico.
All of the museum's charts and displays are in Spanish, but tours in other
languages, including English, are conducted frequently through the day at no
charge other than the museum admission price of 10,000 pesos ($ 3.50). Times of
the tours are posted near the museum's ticket booth.
The museum is closed on Mondays, open from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m. on other weekdays
and Saturdays and from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. on Sundays. Admission is free on
Sundays, but foreign-language tours are not conducted.
Another important archaeological museum in Mexico City is the Templo Mayor
(Great Temple) in the city center. This temple foundation was excavated after a
a utility digging crew struck a stone carving on the site six feet underground
in 1978.
Walkways lead the visitor over a large, open excavation and then into the
museum, where displays explain the significance of the site and its temples,
carvings and shrines.
GRAPHIC: PHOTO
LANGUAGE: ENGLISH