Ask the Scholar
Document scope · 1 page
Scholar
Ask about this object, its catalog metadata, its source description, or the page inventory.
For page-specific OCR and visual context, open one of the page chats.
Source Description
Records pertain to the Office of Science and Technology Policy.
Scholar Source Context
Document identity
localId
285792787
label
National Commission on Superconductivity
core
doc
dtoType
document
citationUrl
pageCount
1
Source metadata
id
285792787
contentType
document
title
National Commission on Superconductivity
description
Records pertain to the Office of Science and Technology Policy.
citationUrl
identifierLocal
62103-003
collections
Records of the White House Office of Science and Technology (George H. W. Bush Administration)
John F. O'Neil Subject Files
largeImageUrl
imageCount
1
hasImages
yes
source
import
hasTranscription
no
Source extras
naId
285792787
levelOfDescription
fileUnit
recordType
description
ocrSource
nara-archive
Single page context
seq
1
pageIndex
0
type
document
mediaId
cc6ffc46982da871
ocrText
Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
2005-0336-F
2005-0336-F
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Science and Technology Policy, Office of (OSTP)
Series:
O'Neil, John F., Files
Subseries:
Reports and Publications Files
OA/ID Number:
62103
Folder ID Number:
62103-003
Folder Title:
National Commission on Superconductivity
Stack:
Row:
Section:
Shelf:
Position:
0
0
0
O
Report of the
National Commission on
Superconductivity
August 7, 1990
Report prepared in accordance with provisions of the Omnibus Trade
and Competitiveness Act of 1988 (PL 100-418, Section 5143)
Report of the
National Commission on
Superconductivity
August 7, 1990
Report prepared in accordance with provisions of the Omnibus Trade
and Competitiveness Act of 1988 (PL 100-418, Section 5143)
National Commission on Superconductivity
725 17th Street N.W., Room 5026
Washington, DC 20506
(202) 395-7200
August 7, 1990
The President
The White House
Washington, D.C. 20500
Dear Mr. President:
The final report of the National Commission on Superconductivity is enclosed
pursuant to Public Law 100-418. The Commission came to a clear consensus on
several major policy issues for U.S. research and development and
commercialization in superconductivity:
Strengthening of mechanisms that encourage enhanced industrial participation
in superconductivity R&D through the leverage of federal investments in
agency and university laboratories. This leverage reduces U.S. disadvantages
of high interest rates, unfavorable tax policy, antiquated antitrust laws and
other factors to compete effectively internationally for the great market
potential that we foresee.
Improvement of the business environment to encourage investment in long-
range R&D leading to advanced, high-volume manufactured products.
Identification of two ambitious goals to provide impetus and focus for U.S.
superconductor technology:
- an ultra high-speed computer operating at a million times the speed of
today's state-of-the-art machines,
- a prototype high temperature superconductor wire and magnet project.
The existence of these goals will provide targets and focus for the generic
directions of superconductivity products, specifically advanced electronics
and energy-related equipment with important fallout in other areas such as
medical imaging. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) is suggested as the lead agency for the high-performance
computing goal because of multiple defense-related requirements. The great
importance of wires and magnets to energy efficiency makes the Department
of Energy the natural lead agency for the second goal.
- 2
Stable, strongly funded support of the university base, particularly for
individual investigators. Breakthroughs will be required for large-scale use
of superconductivity and it has been demonstrated repeatedly that these are
most likely to originate from individual or small groups of researchers at
universities, federal laboratories or industrial laboratories. University
research provides the talent for tomorrow's technology. Positive actions are
needed to reinforce support for the individual academic researcher.
Establishment of a standing oversight group that will generate sound
information on quality of the various superconductivity programs and
establish support criteria and priorities.
These investments will pay abundant dividends.
Superconductivity is unique in its visibility and public appeal, as well as the
basis for a wide range of promising applications that are important to the
nation's future. Long term, well directed government support is essential to
successful exploitation of the advanced products that will flow from the science
of today.
The Commission was composed of dedicated individuals who though otherwise
fully employed, gave freely of their time and energies. The presence of
government employees as members of the Commission was extremely valuable
and we hope that the resulting document will be more comprehensible and
useful as a consequence of their efforts. The entire Commission worked hard, in
a most harmonious manner, and as Chairman, I am indebted to them all for their
vigor, intelligence, expertise and courtesy. We were fortunate to have the
support of Dr. Bromley and his staff, the Office of Science and Technology
Policy, and the National Critical Materials Council.
Sincerely yours,
8 w. micle
D. W. McCall, Chairman
National Commission
on Superconductivity
Enc.
As above
Membership of the
National Commission on Superconductivity
Dr. H. Kent Bowen, Massachusetts Institute of
Dr. Siegfried S. Hecker, Los Alamos National
Technology
Laboratory
Dr. Praveen Chaudhari, IBM Thomas J. Watson
Dr. John K. Hulm, Westinghouse Science and
Research Center
Technology Center
Chapter Chairman
Hon. Sidney L. Jones, United States Department
Ms. Barbara Drake, United States Department of
of the Treasury
Justice
Dr. George A. Keyworth, Hudson Institute
Hon. Travis P. Dungan, United States Department
Hon. John Lyons, National Institute of Standards
of Transportation
and Technology
Dr. Craig I. Fields, Defense Advanced Research
Dr. David W. McCall, AT&T Bell Laboratories
Projects Agency
Commission Chairman
Chapter Chairman
Dr. Robert San Martin, United States Department
Hon. Donna Fitzpatrick, United States Department
of Energy
of Energy
Dr. Alan Schriesheim, Argonne National Labora-
Dr. Theodore H. Geballe, Stanford University
tory
Chapter Chairman
Dr. Irving Shain, Olin Corporation
Dr. Ralph Gomory, Sloane Foundation
Chapter Chairman
Dr. John B. Goodenough, University of Texas,
Dr. Arthur W. Sleight, Oregon State University
Austin
Dr. Martin Sokoloski, National Aeronautics and
Mr. Robert E. Grady, United States Office of
Space Administration
Management and Budget
Dr. Edward Teller, Lawrence Livermore National
Dr. K. Theodore Hartwig, Jr., Texas A&M Uni-
Laboratory
versity
Dr. John A. White, National Science Foundation
Coordination of the Commission has been provided by the National Critical
Materials Council.
Dr. Robert Post, Executive Director
Mrs. Mary Chuckerel, Administrative Assistant
Mr. Perry Lindstrom, Technical Director
A number of individuals worked closely with the Commission in the prepara-
tion of this report. Special thanks goes to the following people for their con-
tributions.
Dr. Bruce Abell, Hudson Institute
Mr. Edward Murphy, United States Department of
Dr. Bobby Dunlap, Argonne National Laboratory
the Treasury
Dr. Stephen Freiman, National Institute of Stan-
Dr. Francis H. Patten, Defense Advanced Re-
dards and Technology
search Projects Agency
Mr. George Kovatch, United States Department of
Mr. John Pfeiffer, United States Office of Man-
Transportation
agement and Budget
Mr. William Laffer, United States Department of
Dr. Rod Quinn, Los Alamos National Laboratory
Justice
Dr. Eugene Stark, Los Alamos National
Laboratory
The Commission benefited from expert testimony and other input given gen-
erously by the following individuals.
Dr. Kay Adams, Lockheed Research and Develop-
Dr. Eric Gregory, Intermagnetics General
ment Division
Mr. Joseph Hezir, United States Office of Man-
Dr. John Alic, Office of Technology Assessment
agement and Budget
Mr. Tom Arnold, Arnold, White and Durkee
Mr. Tom Jorde, University of California, Berkeley
Hon. Erich Bloch, National Science Foundation
Dr. David C. Larbalestier, University of Wiscon-
Dr. R. W. Boom, University of Wisconsin
sin
Dr. A. J. Braginski, Institute fur Schichtund Ion-
Dr. Paul Maxwell, House of Representatives Staff
technik, Julich
Dr. Edward J. Mead, E. I. du Pont
Mr. David R. Burton, U.S. Chamber of Com-
Dr. C. J. Mole, Westinghouse Electric Corpora-
merce
tion
Dr. Alan F. Clark, National Institute of Standards
Dr. Richard W. Ralston, Lincoln Laboratory
and Technology
Dr. Maxine Savitz, Allied-Signal, Garrett Process-
Dr. Edward W. Collings, Battelle Columbus Lab-
ing Division
oratories
Dr. Ronald M. Scanlan, Lawrence Berkeley Na-
Dr. Ian F. Corbett, Rutherford Appelton Laborato-
tional Laboratory
ry, United Kingdom
Dr. Susan M. Schoenung, W.J. Schafer and Asso-
Dr. Mildred Dresselhaus, Massachusetts Institute
ciates, Inc.
of Technology
Dr. Thomas R. Schneider, Electric Power Re-
Mr. Stephen J. Entin, Institute for Research on the
search Institute
Economics of Taxation
Dr. Howard O. Simmons, David Taylor Research
Dr. Gregory Eyring, Office of Technology Assess-
Center, United States Navy
ment
Dr. Michael Superszynski, David Taylor Research
Mr. Gilbert Fayl, Commission of European Com-
Center, United States Navy
munities
Dr. Janet Tillinger, Texas A&M University
Ms. Irene M. Fedun, AT&T Bell Laboratories
Dr. Anthony Warren, High Tc Superconco
Dr. Fred Fickett, National Institute of Standards
Mr. W. Fredrick Wright, AT&T Bell Laboratories
and Technology
Dr. Gregory Yurek, American Superconductor
Mr. Jack C. Goldstein, Arnold, White and Durkee
Table of Contents
V
Prologue
vii
Executive Summary
Chapter I. Technical and Competitive Issues
1
Scientific Perspective
1
Discovery
1
Recent Progress
2
Areas of Research
3
Industrial Perspective
3
Historical
4
Industry Sectors
6
Country Perspective
7
United States
7
Japan
Federal Republic of Germany
8
9
Summary
Superconducting Electronic Devices and Components
9
Superconducting Wires
10
10
Recommendations
Chapter II. Legislative Issues
Legal and Regulatory Barriers
11
Tax Policy Barriers
11
Antitrust Policy Barriers
12
Intellectual Property Law Barriers
13
Summary of Legal and Regulatory Barriers
13
Technology Transfer and the Federal Laboratories
14
i
Chapter III. Enhancement of Superconductivity Research and Development
Introduction
17
Flow from Research to Market
17
Discoveries and Inventions
17
Enabling Technology
19
Manufacture and Commercialization
19
Support Funding
20
Government Funding
20
Industrial Programs
21
Institutional Responses
22
Universities
22
National Laboratories
23
Industry
23
Consortia
24
Improvement and Coordination of Superconducting Data Bases
24
Recommendations
24
Chapter IV. National Security
Military Applications
27
Electronics Applications
28
High-Power Applications
30
Relationship of Military and Commercial Development
32
Appendix I. Published Reports on Superconductivity
35
Appendix II. Relationships among Superconductivity Technologies and Applications
37
Appendix III. Proposal for an International Committee on Superconductivity
39
Appendix IV. Proposal for Superconductivity Research in High Schools
41
Appendix V. Research Needs for Refrigeration for Superconductivity Electronics
43
Appendix VI. Superconducting Wire
45
Conventional Low-temperature Superconducting Wire
45
High-temperature Superconducting Wire
47
Appendix VII. Low-temperature Superconducting Magnets
51
Superconducting Magnets
51
Competition among Low-Tc Magnet Builders
51
Magnets for National Security
52
SMES for Power Load Leveling
53
Motors and Generators
55
MRI
56
ii
Appendix VIII. Legal and Regulatory Barriers
59
Tax Policy Barriers
59
Antitrust Policy Barriers
61
Intellectual Property Law Barriers
63
Appendix IX. 1990 Federal Funding Details for Superconductivity
69
Department of Energy
69
Department of Defense
71
National Science Foundation
72
National Aeronautics and Space Agency
72
Department of Commerce
72
Appendix X. Glossary of Technical Terms
73
iii
Prologue
The National Commission on Superconductiv-
improvement in magnets made possible through
ity was created through legislation (Public Law
the zero direct current (dc) resistance property of
100-418, The Omnibus Trade and Competitive-
superconducting materials. The strength of the
ness Act of 1988) to "review all major policy
magnetic field of permanent magnets is limited by
issues regarding United States applications of
the saturation of iron or other magnetic metals.
recent research advances in superconductors in
Electromagnets based on normal high conductivity
order to assist the Congress in devising a national
metals can achieve higher magnetic fields, but the
strategy, including research and development
resistance of the coils generates heat that must be
priorities, the development of which will assure
removed by cooling water. A very high field
the United States leadership in the development
magnet, say 10 tesla (T), requires removal of heat
and application of superconducting technologies."
equal to the power needed by a small city. A
This legislation was a clear response to the explo-
magnet based on a superconducting coil can do
sion of interest in superconductors that began with
the same job while creating no heat at all. Mag-
the discovery of oxide materials that retain their
nets are useful in medical imaging, scientific
superconductivity to much higher temperatures
research, and similar pursuits. They also can be
than had been previously achieved. Over the 3
used to store energy and to help level the load of
years of this new era, important advances have
generating facilities. More important, all motors
come in rapid succession, and the measures of
and generators are based on magnets, and super-
progress have broadened beyond critical tempera-
conducting magnets offer higher efficiency and
ture to include critical current capacity, critical
much smaller machines. Superconducting technol-
magnetic field, processing, and other factors.
ogy's potential in the area of motors and power
Rapid progress continues in response to a world-
generation equipment is huge. In addition, electric
wide emphasis on superconductivity science and
power can be transmitted from generator to user
technology. This activity is authentically global,
more efficiently through superconducting wires
with large numbers of publications from the Euro-
and cables. Thus, the fabrication of wire to build
pean Community, Japan, and the United States, as
magnet coils is a key enabling technology.
expected, and surprisingly large outputs also from
the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, China,
The second broad area of application is in the
India, and other countries.
electronics field. Superconducting junctions are
enormously sensitive to magnetic fields and are
Superconductivity is a phenomenon of almost
unique sensors capable of detecting blood flow
mystical character. The name itself, implying
and neuron signals in the brain or identifying
above or beyond conductivity, suggests properties
military targets, to cite extreme examples. In
that are at least unexpected, if not wholly improb-
addition, these "Josephson" junctions can exist in
able. Even today, scientists tend to think of super-
electronically identifiable states, possibly forming
conductivity as a phenomenon in a class by itself,
the basis of a new kind of electronics to process
and intelligent nonscientists are susceptible to the
data orders of magnitude faster than the semicon-
charm of the field. Public awareness and enthusi-
ductor circuits that create the miracles of today.
asm has been sustained over the 3 years of the
The long-term potential of this new electronics in
"high-temperature superconductivity era," and
terms of the kinds of information processing that
political leaders have encouraged vigorous, well-
become accessible, such as weather prediction or
funded programs.
rapid code breaking, is very great.
What are these remarkable properties? There
High-temperature oxide superconducting ma-
are two broad areas of application. The first is the
terials are in an early stage of their development
V
and the current emphasis is on enabling technolo-
progress towards useful conductors has been less
gies. Progress has been rapid, and it is expected to
impressive, despite several decades of develop-
continue. During 1989 and 1990, researchers from
ment. The high-temperature superconductors are
around the world reported important new results
oxide materials which are even more brittle than
in the following areas:
the intermetallic compounds, but the superior
temperature performance is attracting intensive
demonstration of ultrahigh magnetic field
efforts to fabricate these materials into useful
performance
conductors. There will be low-temperature appli-
cations for oxide superconductors (for example, in
low-temperature growth of epitaxial films
the generation of ultrahigh magnetic fields), and
the low-temperature/high-temperature distinction
fabrication of non-hysteretic tunnel junctions
may become less useful as time goes on.
that operate at 77K
Many reports on superconductivity have been
production of superior passive microwave
published over the last 3 years, including general
cavities and devices
studies as well as more narrowly defined reports
directed at specific areas of application, such as
flux pinning, to maintain currents in high
electric power or military uses. The earlier studies
magnetic fields
were largely carried out by experts in the field of
superconductivity, technically trained representa-
steady progress in wire making
tives of Federal agencies or customer industries,
or both. The Commission has a uniquely broad
single crystal growth and melt texturing to
mixture of technical specialists, government agen-
improve bulk samples
cy representatives, and individuals drawn from the
management ranks of industry and the Federal
increased understanding derived from crystal
laboratories. A number of Commission members
chemistry, electron doping, and quantitative
have been key participants in earlier studies, and
measurements of normal and superconducting
the Commission heard testimony from many ex-
state properties
perts in related areas. Thus, the Commission is
well positioned to assess the contemporary wis-
Discussions of the field of superconductivity
dom of the field that is ably stated in earlier re-
usually focus on low-temperature and high-temp-
ports and to interpret the patterns in the context of
erature materials. The low-temperature materials
broader policy issues. We are indebted to the
fall into two classes, ductile alloys such as niobi-
authors of the earlier reports (see Appendix I) and
um-titanium (Nb-Ti), which can be formed into
trust that the present report will confirm the wis-
strong wires and cables, and brittle intermetallic
dom of their conclusions.
compounds such as niobium tin (Nb₃Sn), where
vi
Executive Summary
Recent scientific and technical progress in
mechanism to engage U.S. industry in cost-shared,
oxide superconductors bring the revolutionary
collaborative R&D. Industry-led consortia (or alli-
promises for commercialization of these materials
ances) are beginning to pool the resources of U.S.
closer to reality. However, the road to widespread
industry and leverage them with university and
applications remains long and arduous. The Unit-
Federal laboratory research. These mechanisms
ed States must make a sustained, concerted effort
should all be strengthened and others, such as the
to compete effectively for potential markets and to
new Advanced Technology Program initiative of
realize the enormous opportunities offered by the
the Department of Commerce, should be encour-
discovery of the materials.
aged.
First and foremost is the need to develop an
To provide impetus and focus to the U.S.
industrial technology base and a manufacturing
effort to commercialize superconductor technolo-
capability for superconductor technology and
gy, the Commission recommends setting two
products. The investment and participation of U.S.
ambitious goals for these collaborative R&D
industry in superconductivity research and devel-
programs: an ultra highspeed computer, and a
opment is insufficient, especially compared to the
prototype, high-temperature superconductor wire
situation in Japan, where industrial R&D is twice
and magnet project.
as large, making the Japanese better able to take
advantage of innovative research and to develop
The intrinsic advantage of high processing
products for the marketplace. To a large extent, a
speed and low power dissipation of superconduc-
disadvantageous business environment in the
tors combined with continued advances in mas-
United States, rooted in high interest rates, unfa-
sively parallel computer architecture opens the
vorable tax policy, antiquated antitrust laws, and
possibility of reaching the petaflop computer
other factors, discourages U.S. industry from
regime-a millionfold improvement over today's
investing in high-risk technologies such as super-
technology.¹ There are several defense require-
conductivity.
ments for such computing speed-including real-
time image and information processing, cryptogra-
Until structural repairs are made to improve
phy, and anti-submarine target identification-that
the business environment, the resulting disadvan-
should justify defense support for the long-term
tage can be offset by leveraging industry's invest-
goal of petaflop computing. Novel applications in
ment with Federal R&D funds to build a level
the commercial sector-such as improved global
playing field for U.S. industry. The Commission
climate modeling, weather forecasting, and aero-
supports the efforts of the Defense Advanced
dynamic aircraft design-will follow. In addition,
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to develop
the advances required in thin-film synthesis and
superconductor technologies and insert these in
superconducting digital electronics necessary for
U.S. industry because of the convincing advantage
petaflop computing will stimulate innovation in
that superconductors provide for military require-
U.S. commercial electronics and computer indus-
ments and the beneficial spinoff they will have on
tries.
the commercial sector.
A concerted national effort is required to
Better mechanisms must be developed to
develop high-temperature superconducting wire
realize the potential of superconductors for com-
suitable for magnets, motors, generators, energy
mercial applications. The Department of Energy
storage systems, and transmission lines. This will
Superconductivity Pilot Center programs at three
require a research and technology development
of its laboratories appear to be a very effective
effort beyond the scope of universities or individ-
vii
ual companies. The enormous potential improve-
The Commission recommends establishment
ments of such devices in energy efficiency leads
of a standing oversight group that will generate
us to suggest a lead role for the Department of
sound information on progress in superconductivi-
Energy laboratories in developing generic, but
ty. This group would report to the President's
commercially useful, superconducting wire and
Science Advisor and the Office of Science and
prototype magnets. The Department will have to
Technology Policy (OSTP) on the effectiveness of
collaborate closely with universities to incorporate
research being supported by the various agencies,
the latest scientific innovations and with industry
on the effectiveness of mechanisms for coupling
to assure commercialization potential. Such an
government R&D investments and U.S. industrial
effort will also be very beneficial to defense ap-
activity, on the establishment of research priori-
plications where magnets, motors, generators, and
ties, and on gaps in technical programs.
electric propulsion could be improved significant-
ly by superconductors.
The Commission suggests the creation of an
international committee to enhance planning and
Next to encouraging greater industry participa-
cooperation among the programs of the various
tion in superconductivity R&D, the Commission
nations. This group is not to be confused with the
strongly recommends increased support for uni-
standing oversight group recommended above.
versity research scientists and engineers. Although
we are encouraged by recent technical progress, it
The Commission proposes that the National
is clear that continued innovation and scientific
Science Foundation, with the cooperation of in-
breakthroughs will be required to achieve the full
dustry and other government agencies, should
potential of the new superconductors. It has been
increase support for science education in the early
demonstrated repeatedly that these are most likely
grades and on through college. This is vitally
to originate from individual researchers or small
important for maintaining the Nation's supply of
groups of researchers at universities, Federal labo-
scientists, engineers, and mathematicians. Super-
ratories, or industrial laboratories. The history of
conductivity, with its public appeal, should be a
superconductivity supports this contention. Sup-
useful subject for stimulation of student interest in
port for university research is also important be-
these fields.
cause it provides the talent for tomorrow's tech-
nologies.
1. The speed of a computer is measured in terms of the number of floating point numerical operations (flops) it
can carry out per second. Today, 10⁹ operations per second, a gigaflop, is fast. A petaflop is 10¹⁵ operations per
second. Massively parallel system architecture will be required to build a petaflop machine. The role of supercon-
ductivity would be to enhance the performance of individual processors.
viii
Chapter I
Technical and Competitive Issues
It is generally accepted that recent discoveries
The discovery of the high-temperature super-
in superconductivity will result in products with
conductors has also revitalized interest in the
significant market value. A number of studies
search for new classes of superconducting materi-
have shown that, for this to happen, a sustained
als, from organic metals to the more traditional
effort will be required in an environment that
alloys, that are now referred to as the low-temper-
combines industrial knowledge of markets and
ature superconductors.
product development with both engineering exper-
imentation and fundamental materials research. In
a globally competitive environment, superconduc-
Recent Progress
tivity is therefore a test case of the determination
of our Nation to persevere and to cooperate in a
Critical Temperature (Tc)
well-defined technical area.
The highest reported superconducting transi-
In this chapter, the scientific and technological
tion temperature in the layered copper oxide com-
developments that need to take place, the indus-
pounds has quadrupled in the last 4 years, and
tries that might be affected, and the setting for
currently the highest confirmed value is 125 Kel-
these developments in the United States, Japan,
vin (K),¹ well above the boiling temperature of
and the Federal Republic of Germany are summa-
liquid nitrogen, which is 77K, or -196°C. This
rized, followed by the Commission's recommen-
increase has been accomplished by greatly extend-
dations.
ing the family of superconducting copper oxides.
This family consists of materials having supercon-
ducting layers containing one or more copper
Scientific Perspective
oxide sheets separated by "inactive" layers of
variable oxygen content. Clarification of the crys-
Discovery
tal chemistry of these oxides has proven to be a
fascinating chapter in the history of materials
High-temperature superconductors were
science.
discovered by Bednorz and Mueller in 1986 at the
IBM Research Laboratory in Zurich. These super-
Critical Current (Jc)
conductors are layered compounds of copper
oxide containing lanthanum and barium. Since
As important as critical temperature is critical
that discovery, extraordinary progress has been
current. A critical current density of over 5 X 10⁶
made by scientists working at university, industri-
amperes per square centimeter (A/cm²) at 77K-a
al, and government laboratories in many countries.
value, in principle, adequate for almost all con-
Although the frenetic effort immediately following
ceivable applications-has been demonstrated.
the discovery has abated, a large, steady activity
This value has been achieved in materials in thin
continues. The largest and most coordinated
films and demonstrates the magnitudes of current-
efforts are in the United States, Japan, and Ger-
ly attainable densities.
many, but significant programs are also being
pursued in other European countries and particu-
Critical Magnetic Field (Hc)
larly in the U.S.S.R. The driving force for this
activity comes not only from the intrinsic intellec-
Several groups in Germany and in Japan have
tual challenge of the phenomenon itself, but also
shown that critical current densities in the new
more substantially from the large scale of its
oxide materials measured at 4.2K, the temperature
potential applications.
of liquid helium, and at magnetic fields greater
1
than 25 tesla (T) exceed those of the best tradi-
mechanisms for superconductivity or for new
tional materials. Plans are under way in both
materials.
Japan and Germany to build magnets with these
materials.
Grain Boundaries
Devices
In sharp contrast to low-temperature supercon-
ductors, grain boundaries in high-temperature
Rudimentary thin-film devices (supercon-
superconductors limit current densities in polycry-
ducting quantum interference devices, or
stalline materials. Systematic studies with bicrys-
SQUID's) that use Josephson junctions to measure
tals have shown that the critical current densities
small magnetic fields or are passive components
are a function of the misorientation of the two
for microwave applications have been built and
grains adjoining the boundary, but the origin of
operated successfully. Significant progress has
this behavior has not been established. Empirical-
been made in producing tunnel junctions of these
ly, this means that wires must be made of aligned
materials.
grains if high current densities are to be achieved.
Japanese laboratories have recently been able to
Although these accomplishments demonstrate
produce high-current-density wires primarily be-
that remarkable progress has been made in super-
cause they have been able to align grains within
conductivity in the last 4 years, much still needs
the wire.
to be done before widespread commercial applica-
tions of the high-temperature superconductors can
From a practical standpoint, it is important to
be realized.
understand the origin of the grain boundary be-
havior and, based on this understanding or
Low-Temperature Superconductors.
through empiricism, to minimize or eliminate the
limitations it introduces. Eliminating these limita-
Progress in low-temperature superconductors
tions would greatly expedite the fabrication of
is steady and primarily aimed at technological
these materials in both films and wires. For films,
applications. For example, exploratory work on
it would relax the requirement of epitaxial growth,
the use of superconductivity for digital applica-
and for wires, it would remove the need to devel-
tions continues in Japan and to a lesser extent in
op processes that align grains.
the United States. Researchers in the United
States, Japan, and Germany are competing to
Processing
improve wires for magnets used primarily in high-
energy particle accelerators and medical applica-
The ability to fabricate thin films and wires
tions of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
with the required properties represents a funda-
mental enabling technology that, once demonstrat-
ed, would help remove the skepticism of U.S.
Areas of Research
industry regarding the commercial opportunities
these materials offer.
Theory of High-temperature Superconductivity
The electronics industry looks for the ability
The Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer (BCS)
to prepare films with the desired properties on
theory of superconductivity provided a conceptual
arbitrary substrates at the relatively low tempera-
framework against which all experimental obser-
tures used in the fabrication of integrated circuitry
vations could be viewed. Although it has had
on semiconductor chips. Controlled fabrication of
remarkable success, the applicability of BCS to
tunnel junctions with long life and in narrow-line
high-temperature superconductors is not universal-
patterns is a prerequisite to active devices in high-
ly accepted. It would be highly desirable to have a
ly integrated microchips.
theoretical framework not only for its intrinsic
intellectual interest but also to help find what
Power applications all depend on the avail-
limits critical current densities and upper critical
ability of long-length wires, tapes, or composite
fields, to show how equilibrium or nonequilibrium
cables. The manufacture of multifilamentary
devices operate, and to guide the search for new
superconductive wires with sufficient current-
2
carrying capacity, mechanical strength, and the
ence gained from low-temperature superconductiv-
ability to remain superconducting in high magnet-
ity applications suggests that the temperature of
ic fields remains a formidable challenge, albeit
operation should be no more than approximately
one in which much progress has been made. This
two-thirds of the Tc to ensure stable performance
development needs to be integrated with overall
of devices. For bulk applications, such as motors
conductor design that accounts for the necessary
or magnets, gas compression-expansion techniques
thermal, mechanical, and electrical stability re-
or bath cooling will be adequate to support ap-
quired in the end-use applications. Although im-
plications in the near term, and longer term devel-
portant contributions to the solution of this prob-
opment will not be constrained by lack of ade-
lem can be expected to come from individual
quate refrigeration. A neon refrigerator operating
investigators, the development of a manufacturing
at approximately 30K is an attractive option,
capability will require an interdisciplinary effort.
particularly where we wish to combine ease of
refrigeration with superior properties of high-tem-
New Materials
perature superconductivity. However, refrigeration
may be a powerful enabling technology for micro-
In some applications, notably in electronics
electronic devices, such as computer microproces-
and instrumentation, it is desirable that a device's
sors, that are characterized by very small size,
operating temperature be below room temperature,
light weight, ruggedness, varied operating envi-
but for most other applications, the need for re-
ronments, and relatively low cost.
frigeration is a constraint. Even in space applica-
tions, the highest transition-temperature materials
The goal for microelectronics is to develop
(125K) are barely acceptable for ambient-tempera-
microscale refrigerators. Ideally, such refrigerators
ture operation. Finding new materials-including
would have the same operating life as the micro-
new classes of materials-with still higher transi-
electronics themselves, so the refrigerators could
tion temperatures is therefore an important goal.
be incorporated directly into the devices. In light
The search for these materials is currently guided
of the size of the market for high-speed digital
by crystal chemistry and by the intuition of the
products, these novel technologies could provide
investigator rather than by an established theoreti-
the single greatest competitive advantage in the
cal framework.
whole realm of superconductivity.
Mechanical Properties
Industrial Perspective
The high-temperature superconductors have an
anisotropic crystal structure, which imparts to
Historical
them a highly anisotropic thermal expansion;
moreover, they are brittle ceramics. Consequently,
Superconductivity remained an academic
the high-Tc materials tend to crack during process-
scientific phenomenon until the late 1950's, when
ing and device fabrication and under tensile me-
two important scientific discoveries led the way to
chanical loads, making the fabrication of many
the technological application of low-temperature
high-Tc devices difficult. For example, these prop-
superconductors. The first of these was the dis-
erties limit the radius of curvature with which
covery of type II superconductors and the realiza-
wires can be bent in the winding of magnet coils.
tion of materials that can support supercurrent
Work is needed to explore how to form these
densities of 10⁶ A/cm² at magnetic fields greater
materials into desired shapes. Although this prob-
than 10 T (see Appendix VI). These advances in
lem is difficult, experience with brittle low-Tc
materials science opened up the possibility of a
materials suggests that the problem will prove to
wide range of applications of superconductors to
be tractable, but that it requires sustained effort.
electric power equipment, high-energy accelerators
such as the Tevatron and the Superconducting
Refrigeration
Super Collider (SSC), MRI for medicine, fusion
devices, and levitation systems for transportation.
Most high-temperature superconducting de-
vices will require cooling well below their transi-
Around 1960, a second major discovery was
tion temperature for effective operation. Experi-
the realization of electron tunneling through thin
3
insulating barriers between separate superconduc-
simple and well developed. Operation near 30K
ting regions. This was followed shortly thereafter
with neon refrigeration is also attractive.
by the theoretical prediction and experimental
realization of electron-pair tunneling, or Josephson
Industry Sectors
tunneling, through thin barriers. These advances
soon led to the realization that the zero-voltage
The potential application of superconductors
critical current of a Josephson-tunnel junction
to specific industry groups will now be summa-
could be used as a bi-stable electronic element of
rized, including present development work in low-
interest for digital electronics and computer appli-
temperature-superconductor systems. Substitution
cations. The coupling of such elements in a
of high-temperature superconductors could occur
SQUID provides the possibility of detecting small
in most cases as these materials develop.
changes of magnetic field on a much smaller scale
than previously available. For example, changes
Computers and Communications Industry
as small as 10⁻¹¹ gauss are readily measurable. For
comparison, the Earth's magnetic field is approxi-
The inexorable trend towards miniaturization
mately 0.5 gauss.
of electronic components continues in the comput-
er and telecommunication industries. High-temper-
In the 30 years since 1960, considerable prog-
ature superconductors offer a unique opportunity
ress has been made in developing the technology
to combine semiconductors and superconductors
of low-temperature superconductors for applica-
at temperatures where both operate optimally.
tions, specifically in the development of supercon-
Such hybrid systems offer the potential of extend-
ductor magnets, accelerators, and medical
ing miniaturization further than a straightforward
imaging. However, superconductors have not been
extension of today's silicon technology could.
widely applied in the electric power industry.
Such enhancements are desirable in our goal of
There are many factors involved, but one of the
increasing the speed of computers. Since this is an
most important is the inconvenience of the liquid-
important goal, we suggest that considerably more
helium refrigeration technology needed to operate
emphasis be placed on programs exploring novel
low-temperature superconductors.
devices. For example, if a three-terminal super-
conductor device were developed, it would in-
Low-temperature superconductors have been
crease significantly the probability of using
used to build Josephson circuits and SQUID's.
superconducting devices as active elements in
Various prototype superconducting computer chips
commercial computer circuits. All superconductor
were developed in the past decade by IBM in the
microcircuit work is being done with low-Tc
United States and by ETL in Japan. The applica-
films, but as the ability to prepare high-precision
tion of SQUID's to medicine, geophysical explo-
high-Tc films improves, high-Tc superconducting
ration, and military sensors was also widely
microcircuits will emerge. The United States and
explored. Nevertheless, the general impact upon
Japan are running neck and neck in this area,
the communications and electronics industries of
ahead of the rest of the world. Some of the early
low-temperature superconductors has been minus-
products in high-Tc superconductors are likely to
cule compared with the enormous industrial
be SQUID's (discrete devices) and microwave
growth realized from silicon microcircuits.
components, which are passive.
The 1987 discovery of high-temperature su-
Energy Industry
perconductors with critical temperatures currently
around 125K opened up the possibility of operat-
For 30 years, efforts in the United States have
ing at temperatures above the constraint set by
been made to develop superconducting power-
helium or hydrogen refrigeration. An operating
system components such as generators, transmis-
point of 77K, the boiling point of liquid nitrogen,
sion lines, transformers, motors, and energy
is a much more attractive goal than one of 4K, the
storage magnets with low-Tc materials. Despite
boiling point of liquid helium. Because nitrogen is
considerable technical success with prototypes of
a component of Earth's atmosphere, it is relatively
generators and lines, the technology is currently
inexpensive and its refrigerator technology is
moribund in the United States, except for an inter-
4
esting project on superconducting magnetic-energy
Transportation Industry
storage. This latter work is supported by the Stra-
tegic Defense Initiative (SDI) and the Electric
The magnetically levitated train is a topic of
Power Research Institute (EPRI) as a possible
widespread public interest, and the Commission
energy source for beam weapons and electric-
discussed the issue at some length. Safe, high-
power load leveling.
speed ground transportation is a recognized na-
tional need of great benefit to U.S. society. Three
Low-Tc superconducting generators are cur-
general types of systems are under consideration:
rently under development by SUPER GM in Ja-
pan, by Siemens in West Germany, by Alsthom in
Advanced (rolling) railway technology
France, and in the U.S.S.R. Unless the United
States participates in this area, this market will be
Electromagnetic (that is, not superconducting)
lost to foreign competition. Despite the fact that
levitated trains (EMS-MAGLEV)
the growing pace of development in the less de-
veloped countries and Eastern Europe will expand
Electrodynamic (superconducting) levitated
the worldwide market for generators and motors
trains (EDS-MAGLEV)
and also create market opportunities for energy-
storage systems, there is no large-scale program
The choice among these systems will be
for motors and generators in the United States
largely one of performance including cost, speed,
now. Because of structural disincentives for long-
convenience, safety, and other aspects. It is possi-
range investment or risky investment (see Chapter
ble that rolling technology might apply in certain
II), U.S. industry does not choose to compete for
areas while MAGLEV would apply in others.
these potentially large markets. In view of the
While EDS-MAGLEV is currently the only
nature of the problem of magnet fabrication with
MAGLEV that uses superconducting magnets,
high-Tc wire highlighted above, the Department of
advances in high-temperature superconductivity
Energy laboratories would appear to provide an
could also benefit the EMS-MAGLEV technolo-
opportunity for a collaborative government-indus-
gy. The field of superconductivity would also
try effort to develop the essential enabling tech-
benefit through advances in wire technology,
nology in this field.
magnet design, linear motor design, and the devel-
opment of shielding technology. The National
Low-Tc magnets have been widely tested in
MAGLEV Initiative, which is transportation-
advanced energy-conversion devices such as toka-
oriented, will very likely stimulate activity in the
maks (fusion) and magnetohydrodynamic (MHD)
U.S. industrial sector. Thus, assuming that
systems, where they serve as an enabling technol-
MAGLEV is sound from a transportation perspec-
ogy.
tive, its implementation would provide an impor-
tant stimulus to the development of superconduc-
Aerospace Industry
tivity as a basis for commercial applications. The
Japanese National Railway has achieved speeds of
The aerospace industry has a strong interest in
more than 300 miles per hour (mph) in a
both the electronic and the energy applications of
32-passenger vehicle levitated by a supercon-
superconductors because both areas are important
ducting magnet. However, there is strong competi-
for military and space technology. The present
tion in this area from other types of systems. For
emphasis is on thin-film processing and character-
example, SNCF in France has operated a
ization for applications in the detector and sensor
steel-wheeled train, the Train à Grande Vitesse
area. In the longer term, the interests also include
(train of great speed, or TGV), at speeds up to
power generation equipment, motors, magnetic
320 mph and MBB in West Germany has
shielding, energy storage devices, particle acceler-
achieved speeds of 256 mph with an
ators, and rail gun launchers. Present oxide super-
EMS-MAGLEV system using conventional elec-
conductors are marginally able to operate in space
tromagnets.
without refrigeration.
5
Superconducting motors and generators have
candidates when operated at liquid-helium or
the potential to reduce the size and weight of all
liquid-neon temperatures.
electric-drive ship-propulsion systems, as has been
demonstrated by the U.S. Navy. There is also the
Another application of superconductivity to
possibility of using high-field superconducting
medicine is the use of SQUID's to detect magnet-
magnets as an aid to an MHD ship drive in salt
ic signals from the brain, heart, and muscles and
water. The Japanese have a 100-foot-long vessel
to analyze the location of specific signals to better
scheduled for completion and testing in 1991.
understand the body's electrical systems. The
high-temperature superconductors can, in princi-
Materials
ple, give higher resolution simply because the
detector can be closer to the source of the signal
The yearly demand for low-temperature-super-
in the human body. This advantage arises from
conducting wire has remained at less than $100
the simpler design of the cryogenic equipment for
million worldwide. In the United States, this mar-
77K operation.
ket has fallen into the hands of small entrepre-
neurial businesses because of lack of interest from
Instrumentation Industry
big companies. However, in Japan and Europe the
big electric companies have subsidiaries that are
More and more useful instruments are being
active in offering low-Tc product lines, usually
created to exploit the various phenomena that take
more advanced than U.S. material because the
place in high magnetic fields produced by low-Tc
parent company provides ample R&D funds.
coils. For example, the analysis of small energy
Copper wire companies, such as Sumitomo and
differences between the various protons bound
Furukawa in Japan and Otokumpu in Europe, are
into complex biological molecules is made possi-
extremely active in developing both low- and
ble by NMR performed in highly uniform high-
high-Tc wires. The world's chemical companies
magnetic fields provided by low-Tc magnets. Two
have recently realized the potential for high-Tc
other commercial applications using superconduc-
materials and some, such as Du Pont, Hoechst,
tivity are magnetometers and high-speed sampling
and ICI, have committed significant R&D funds.
oscilloscopes.
Medical Industry
Other developments, such as compact light
sources that produce monochromatic x-ray radia-
A revolutionary approach to producing images
tion suitable for x-ray lithography, would benefit
of organs in the bodies of living creatures by
the electronics industry but may also find applica-
noninvasive means is the use of nuclear magnetic
tions in medicine. These machines, with selective
resonance (NMR) combined with computer-based
radiation wavelengths, would produce enhanced-
analysis. Magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI,
contrast images while minimizing radiation doses
requires a large-volume uniform magnetic field,
to the patient. Higher magnetic fields from super-
usually provided by a large superconducting (low-
conductor magnets allow the apparatus to be made
Tc) magnet. Dynamic MRI is now under develop-
more compact.
ment to observe the motion of organs, such as the
heart and its fluids.
Country Perspective
MRI has already revolutionized internal diag-
nostic procedures in the developed countries. It is
Much has been written about the comparison
anticipated that in the future it will be augmented
between the activities in the United States and
by magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), in
Japan in the field of high-T_-superconductivity
which it will also be possible to analyze organs
R&D. Japan is clearly the principal actor among
for biological function. These developments will
the Asian nations, though India and China have
require large and uniform magnetic fields. The
active research groups. We give below a brief
high-temperature superconductors, which may be
summary of the work being carried out in several
able to produce magnetic fields substantially larg-
European countries, followed by a more indepth
er than the low-temperature superconductors, are
comparison of the United States, Japan, and Ger-
many.
6
In Europe, Germany is the principal competi-
applauded. The U.S. provision of data bases and
tor, although France, England, the Netherlands,
updates open to all is a contribution to this coop-
and Italy contribute strongly to the overall Euro-
eration that deserves special mention.
pean effort. Oxford Instruments of England, for
example, supplies low-Tc high-field magnets for
United States
MRI scanners. Moreover, the European Economic
Community (EEC) fosters collaborative R&D
The Federal Government is the largest source
programs that involve university, industrial, and
of high-Tc research and development funds, sup-
national laboratory teams for three or more coun-
plying $130 million in fiscal year 1990, followed
tries. The immediate response to the advent of the
by industry, with $66 million, and special State
high-Tc superconductors was the establishment of
programs, with approximately $15 million.² Most
national research centers and an EEC thrust. In
of the work, 49 percent, is performed by industry,
this report we highlight the German activities, as
while Federal laboratories perform 26 percent and
these appear to be most strongly coordinated with
universities perform 25 percent. Federal funds are
industry for the exploitation of applications.
authorized annually, and the commitments by
industry typically range from 1 to 3 years.
Eastern Europe, particularly the U.S.S.R., has
a distinguished history of superconductivity re-
As reported by industry, 28 percent of its
search; they have made a number of fundamental
effort is in basic research for fundamental under-
contributions to theory, in particular to our under-
standing, 47 percent is in applied research on the
standing of high-field superconductors. After
process and device scale, and 26 percent is in the
1960, high-field multifilamentary conductors of
development of larger scale components and sys-
niobium-zirconium and Nb-Ti were developed and
tems aimed at applications. Thin films for elec-
used in low-Tc magnets for accelerators, bubble
tronics applications are the sole aim of 53 percent
chambers, hot-gas MHD systems, and experimen-
of the companies; bulk superconductors, such as
tal fusion systems of the tokamak type. Various
wires, are the focus of 22 percent; and 25 percent
advanced electrical machines-including dc
work in both areas.
homopolar and ac synchronous generators-have
been developed in the 2- to 20-megawatt (MW)
Department of Defense support constitutes 47
range; a 300-MW generator for use in the Soviet
percent of all Federal funding, or 29 percent of all
electric power grid is under construction. The
U.S. efforts. This fact indicates a strong, but not
Soviets are also experienced in refrigeration tech-
overwhelming, emphasis on defense applications.
nology, and they have extensive experience with
high-technology ceramic materials. They have
It is estimated that there are 1,000 full-time
allocated substantial funds to research on high-Tc
researchers in high-temperature superconductivity
materials, and various laboratories have repro-
in the United States. Three companies report
duced and confirmed most of the experimental
having more than 20 researchers. Of these three
results reported from the United States and Japan.
companies, two are in computers and communica-
However, there is little evidence that linkages
tions and the third is a materials supplier.
between science and industry have been devel-
oped in this area. Russian industry is not yet in a
Integration of industry, university, and Federal
position to compete commercially in a free world
laboratory research results for applications devel-
market.
opment is a challenge being addressed by several
major efforts.
Before summarizing the respective-indeed
competitive-efforts in the United States, Japan,
Japan
and Germany, attention is called to the fact that
international cooperation is excellent on the fun-
Japan's total effort in high-Tc superconductivi-
damental theory of high-Tc superconductors and
ty is equivalent to $165 million per year. Industry
on how to address the materials problems that
supports $86 million and the government most of
underlie the principal enabling technologies. In
the remainder. Industry performs 57 percent of
view of the long-term nature of the challenge of
Japan's high-Tc R&D, with the remainder primari-
high-Tc superconductors, this cooperation is to be
ly in national laboratories and in some universi-
7
ties. Funding commitments are generally
more material than can be recounted here. In this
long-term. The Ministry of Education supports
area, the United States is competing with a Japa-
several three-year university programs. The Minis-
nese program that is a source of national pride to
try of International Trade and Industry (MITI)
the Japanese people and is focused on those mar-
supports two 10-year high-Tc programs, including
kets that are most challenging in the long term.
materials and process work at the International
Perhaps the Japanese recognize that the structural
Superconductivity Technology Center (ISTEC)
disincentives to U.S. industry put it at a disadvan-
and the national laboratories, and a bridging fo-
tage in long-term economic competition.
rum between this program and industry.
The primary vehicle for integrating research
Industry reports that 37 percent of its efforts
results into practical applications is within each
are in basic research, 42 percent in applied re-
individual company. The government support is
search, and 20 percent in development. Forty-one
focused on ten large companies; continuing efforts
percent of the companies are pursuing thin films
in low-Tc superconductivity development and
exclusively, 7 percent bulk, and 51 percent both
applications provide a productive template for
areas.
rapid commercial applications of high-Tc super-
conductivity. The Commission believes that Japa-
Approximately 1,200 full-time researchers
nese industrial activity is ahead of industrial work
work in high-Tc superconductivity. Nine compa-
elsewhere.
nies have more than 20 researchers each. The
companies represent diverse industries.
Federal Republic of Germany
ISTEC is a major initiative by MITI, but it is
The Federal Republic of Germany has a long
viewed as focusing on enabling and new-materials
history of excellent fundamental research and
research rather than specific applications develop-
vigorous development in superconductivity and its
ment.
applications. This continues to be the case with
the new high-Tc superconductors. Germany has
The success of Japan's superconductivity
the largest overall program in Europe for their
effort has been demonstrated by the early devel-
development; present government support is about
opment of prototype wires, coils, and micropro-
$50 million per year, with at least 50 percent
cessors. Mitsubishi has produced 2-centimeter
more from industry. The German program is also
lengths of YBCO (YBa₂Cu₃O₇-x) wires that can
one of the best coordinated in the world, rivaling
carry currents of 730,000 A/cm² at 77K. Sumi-
that of the Japanese. It must be noted that
tomo expects to market high-Tc magnet coils by
research dollar values are highly leveraged be-
1991, based on BSCCO (Bi₂Sr₂CaCu₂O₈) tape,
cause the salaries of all university professionals
currently capable of producing a 140-gauss mag-
and many industry and laboratory professionals
netic field at 77K in a 1-T magnetic field. Furu-
are paid through other means.
kawa has demonstrated 210,000 A/cm² in a
BSCCO tape at 4.2K and 30 T. Results of this
The German Ministry for Research and Tech-
genre pave the way for substitution of high-Tc for
nology (BMFT) supplies about half the govern-
low-Tc materials in high-magnetic-field applica-
ment funding for superconductivity research. This
tions.
program supports four major thrusts in universi-
ties, industry, and government laboratories: devel-
In the digital-circuit arena, Fujitsu has demon-
opment of superconducting magnets, cryogenics,
strated an eight-bit low-Tc microprocessor based
development of practical conductors, and new
on Josephson junctions. It operates 10 times faster
applications for superconductors. Another quarter
than gallium arsenide (GaAs) circuits with only
of the government support is through the DFG,
0.2 percent as much power dissipation.
the German equivalent to the U.S. National Sci-
ence Foundation (NSF); this support goes exclu-
These are only some examples of Japan's
sively to universities for fundamental research.
prowess and long-term commitment to winning
The final fourth is direct funding to the two major
the race for advanced superconductor markets.
government laboratories-the Kernforschungszen-
The reports listed in Appendix I provide much
trum, Karlsruhe (KFK), and the Kernforschungs-
8
anlage, Julich (KFA)-and to the several Max
well positioned to develop and exploit any break-
Planck Institutes for the entire spectrum of very
through achievements in the enabling technolo-
fundamental to applied research.
gies.
Accurate levels of industrial support are diffi-
cult to obtain, but estimates range from half to
Summary
more than all the amount the government sup-
plies. The major industries supporting high-Tc
Almost all the research related to applications
research are Hoechst, a major chemical company;
can be divided into two broad categories. The first
Siemens/Vacuumschmelze, a diverse large-equip-
of these is directly important to the computer,
ment manufacturer (and its superconductor subsid-
communication, aerospace, and instrumentation
iary); Daimler-Benz/AEG/Dornier another large
industries. We shall broadly define this category
conglomerate; and Bosch, a major electronics
as superconducting electronic devices and compo-
company. Siemens has historically produced most
nents. The second is of direct concern to the
of Europe's superconducting magnets and has
energy industry but also influences the medical
been very strong in development. Vacuum-
and transportation industries, and this we shall call
schmelze is one of the best and largest supercon-
superconducting wire products. Programs in the
ducting-wire manufacturers in the world and has
United States, Japan, and Germany can be com-
already produced relatively long lengths (100
pared using this categorization.
meters) of a composite silver-clad YBCO wire.
Hoechst, Daimler, and Bosch have been aggres-
Superconducting Electronic
sive in producing high-Tc films, microwave com-
Devices and Components
ponents, devices, and wires. Many small compa-
nies are involved in the development of possible
Research in this area is largely, but not com-
products through joint funding with universities.
pletely, evolutionary. That is, the research will
A key feature of the industrial activity is contin-
continue to produce improvements and innova-
ued involvement with conventional superconduc-
tions through a systematic and sustained effort.
tor applications, including several international
We understand well enough our goals and what is
large-scale projects such as fusion or accelerator
needed to improve materials and processes to the
cavities and magnets.
point where successful devices and components
can be built. No fundamental limitations in mate-
In addition to the several Max Planck Insti-
rials have been identified. These can be for analog
tutes, there are about 15 universities active in
or for digital applications.
high-Tc research; some of these have been long-
time leaders in fundamental superconductivity
However, there is also the potential in this
research. Their support is frequently contingent
category for either unanticipated applications or
upon industrial involvement, and personnel ex-
for a revolutionary new device. Invention and
changes are common and intensive. Funding com-
discovery cannot be planned, but a climate condu-
mitments are long, up to 7 years, which enhances
cive to their occurrences can be. It will require an
the ability to draw bright, young researchers to
emphasis on device physics and a concomitant
the field.
search for novel devices and applications.
Two major government laboratories, KFK and
The United States and Japan lead the world in
KFA, take on advanced technology development
the superconducting components and device area.
in conjunction with industry. KFA formed a new
The Japanese commitment to the evolutionary
electronics institute for semi-superconducting
approach is firm and broad. There is a strong
hybrid devices.
cross flow among various institutions to rapidly
assimilate new results that may lead to products.
Overall, Germany has a long-term commit-
The United States has only recently embarked on
ment, is well-balanced between low- and high-Tc
encouraging sustained cross flow among universi-
R&D, and includes university-government labora-
ty, government, and industrial laboratories. These
tory-industry consortia or collaborations that are
efforts should be encouraged and monitored to
9
ensure industry participation (see Chapter III for
cations, and refrigeration techniques. For research
further discussion).
on wires, coordination needs to be improved and
a goal set for the use of wires. Such an approach
There appears to be no systematic approach to
would provide the United States with an enabling
encouraging revolutionary devices or new applica-
technical base from which industry could com-
tions in the United States, Japan, or Germany.
pete. Hence, we recommend the following:
Here, perhaps, may be a unique opportunity for
the United States to establish a leadership pro-
The Federal Government must continue to
gram.
foster a broad base of research on supercon-
ducting materials as part of a larger effort on
Superconducting Wires
materials science.
Germany and Japan have produced many of
A national coordinated effort to develop and
the first prototype wires of the high-temperature
to use wire made with high-temperature
superconductors. Although there is a program in
superconducting materials should be estab-
the United States, it lacks the coordinated focus
lished to enable commercialization of motors,
that appears to be present in Germany and Japan.
generators, and other products. Department of
Success in this area will be directly related to
Energy laboratories are well positioned to lead
strengths in materials science and the pull to use
this effort with strong input from universities
the wire for some significant application. In Japan
and industry.
there is a commitment to make magnets from
high-temperature superconducting wires. Such a
There is significant potential for making dis-
commitment is lacking in the United States.
coveries that lead to new electronic devices
with great impact on society, particularly in
the high-temperature superconductor area.
Recommendations
This type of effort needs to be encouraged
through increased attention and funding. The
Recent scientific and technical progress in
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
oxide superconductors bring the revolutionary
(DARPA) is sensitive to important defense
promise for commercialization of these materials
needs and would be the logical lead agency to
closer to reality. There is an ongoing need to
stimulate industry activity.
maintain a strong, sustained program in the field
of superconductivity. In high-temperature
Compact refrigeration techniques could great-
superconductivity this spans the range from funda-
ly affect semiconductor and superconductor
mental issues connected with the mechanism of
devices. Research in this area needs to be
superconductivity through a search for new mate-
strengthened.
rials to prototype devices and components. The
Federal Government in the United States must
The recommendations made in the "Wise
continue to play a pivotal role through funding
Men" report (see Appendix I, item 8) that
mechanisms to promote cooperation among uni-
urge collaboration among industry, university,
versities, industry, and Federal laboratories. It
and government laboratories must be sus-
must also provide significant encouragement for
tained until we can properly assess their im-
researchers to work on novel devices, new appli-
pact.
1. Kelvin is a temperature scale for which OK corresponds to -459 degrees Fahrenheit and room temperature is
approximately 300K. Note also that the units are Kelvin and not degrees Kelvin.
2. The breakdown of funding given in this section is taken from the 1990 Office of Technology Assessment
Report High Temperature-Superconductivity in Perspective. Note that this breakdown covers only high-Tc expendi-
tures, while the tables in Chapter III cover both high- and low-Tc activity.
10
Chapter II
Legislative Issues
Legal and Regulatory Barriers
The Commission received testimony from
outside experts who made specific suggestions for
Superconductivity is an extraordinarily prom-
revision of the U.S. tax code to help reduce the
ising technology. However, there is a general
high cost of capital. However, it is beyond the
perception that the level of industrial investment
scope of this report to reiterate those recommen-
in superconductivity research and development in
dations inasmuch as most of them have been
the United States is too low, especially in view of
reviewed extensively elsewhere.
the international competition in this area. To
overcome the technical barriers necessary to bring
Nevertheless, the cost of capital is such an
applied superconductivity to the marketplace
overwhelmingly important barrier to increased
rapidly enough for the United States to be com-
industry R&D investment, including superconduc-
petitive, barriers to increased industry investment
tivity R&D, that it must be re-emphasized.
in superconductivity research and development
Among the issues that would have to be addressed
(R&D) will have to be surmounted.
to reduce the cost of capital are the need to elimi-
nate the basic tax bias against saving and invest-
Superconductivity has three attributes that are
ment, the need to remove the double taxation of
relevant in assessing government policies that are
corporate income paid as dividends, and the need
barriers to increased industry investment in R&D.
to reduce the capital gains tax.
First, the technology probably will be very expen-
sive to develop. Second, investments in the tech-
In addition, several suggestions that apply
nology are extremely risky. That is, even if large
specifically to R&D investments were presented
sums are invested, there is no guarantee that all
to the Commission. Some of those that have di-
the technical barriers to practical high-temperature
rect implications for superconductivity research
superconductivity will be overcome. Third, even if
investment could be adopted without general tax
the technology does eventually prove practical, it
reform. Primarily, they involve restructuring the
could be many years before a firm recovers its
Research and Experimentation (R&E) Tax Credit.
investment in R&D and starts to make a profit.
These three attributes make investment in super-
Beginning in 1990, current law provides for a
conductivity R&D more sensitive than many other
credit generally equal to 20 percent of a tax-
kinds of R&D investment to government tax,
payer's qualified incremental research expendi-
antitrust, and patent policies.
tures in excess of a fixed amount. Startup compa-
nies can also qualify for the credit. This is a sig-
nificant improvement over prior law, in which the
Tax Policy Barriers
base was a 3-year moving average. Under the
previous law, the effective advantage of the R&E
Several features of the U.S. tax code tend to
Tax Credit was much less than 20 percent; some
reduce saving and investment and to increase the
estimate only a 3-percent incentive, too small to
cost of capital-a disincentive to industry invest-
have much effect on industrial investment. Autho-
ment in R&D. This, in turn, limits the level of
rization for the credit will expire at the end of
effort focused on the development of new technol-
1990 unless it is extended by law.
ogy because it reduces the rewards for basic and
applied research. Removal of these tax policy
Another structural defect is that large
barriers is essential to encouraging increased
increases in R&D spending are not encouraged
industry investment in research on superconduc-
because no credit is available on expenses that
tivity.
exceed 50 percent of current qualified expenses.
11
In addition, expenses for research carried on out-
firm acting alone might be capable of, thereby
side the United States are not eligible for the tax
making available economies of scale and scope
credit. Nor is the tax credit available after com-
and eliminating unnecessary duplication of effort.
mercial production is begun, which ignores the
fact that global competition requires accelerated
For all these reasons, superconductivity is a
implementation, with research, development, and
natural candidate for the formation of joint R&D
initial production frequently taking place in a
ventures. Many firms that could not even consider
continuum of activity.
investing in superconductivity on their own might
be willing to participate in a joint venture with
Another factor limiting the tax impact of the
other firms-provided that such ventures will not
R&E Tax Credit is the effect of apportionment of
expose them to liability under the antitrust laws.
domestic research and development expenses to
foreign source income as required under current
The antitrust laws originated in the last centu-
tax rules. And finally, the continual threat of
ry, when foreign competition was not a significant
repeal of the R&E Tax Credit, which has always
factor. Now, however, many U.S. companies must
carried an expiration date, reduces the impact of
compete in worldwide markets against foreign
the tax credit as an incentive. Research and devel-
companies whose operations are largely beyond
opment is by its nature long-term, and to be an
U.S. antitrust regulation. One attempt to modern-
effective incentive, the R&E Tax Credit and the
ize U.S. antitrust laws relevant to commercializa-
allocation rules for foreign source income should
tion of technology is the National Cooperative
be made permanent, as the Administration has
Research Act of 1984 (NCRA). The NCRA cur-
proposed.
rently provides limited protection from State and
Federal antitrust laws for coordinated R&D activi-
Adoption of any or all of these suggestions
ties, which could include joint ventures formed
would tend to encourage R&D investment, espe-
for the purpose of engaging in precompetitive
cially in long-range, high-risk R&D, which char-
research and development related to superconduc-
acterizes superconductivity research.
tivity. However, the provisions of the NCRA as
currently structured limit its usefulness.
Antitrust Policy Barriers
Most important, production and marketing are
not covered by the NCRA. This feature limits the
The same three attributes of high-temperature
impact of the NCRA as a stimulus to coordinated
superconductivity that entered into the analysis of
research and development. The nature of competi-
tax policy barriers to increased industrial invest-
tion in international high-technology markets is
ment in R&D also are relevant in assessing the
such that bringing a product to market quickly
impact of antitrust laws. Because development of
is essential. Modern technology transfer, however,
high-temperature superconductivity will require
is not based on a stepwise transition from inno-
large speculative investments and may take many
vation to development to commercialization. Rath-
years to pay off, relatively few firms will likely
er, transfer often involves an interactive process,
be willing to undertake such investments on their
with simultaneous investment in research, devel-
own. The Commission received testimony indicat-
opment, production, and marketing. These steps
ing that fewer than a dozen U.S. corporations
are integrally linked and frequently can be con-
have significant programs in superconductivity
ducted more efficiently through cooperative ef-
R&D.
forts. Such activities, however, are not currently
protected under the provisions of the NCRA.
However, by pooling their efforts and sharing
Antitrust laws in the United States are still a
risk, firms can greatly reduce the risk borne by
major concern for industrial firms wishing to
each individual firm investing in high-temperature
engage in cooperative programs to commercialize
superconductivity R&D. Moreover, combining
superconductivity.
knowledge, skills, expertise, and technology can
greatly increase the likelihood that the R&D ef-
An extension of the NCRA to production or
forts will be successful. Cooperation also makes
to production and marketing would encourage
possible a larger scale of operation than any one
industry investment in cooperative superconduc-
12
tivity research and development as well as
respects from those of our international competi-
commercialization. Action on the several bills
tors. There are ongoing negotiations on the possi-
currently pending in Congress that would extend
bility of bringing the U.S. system into harmony
the NCRA to cover production or production and
with those in effect in Japan and Europe. The
marketing would greatly assist U.S. competitive-
most significant difference is that in the United
ness in developing and commercializing products
States the system is based on the "first to invent"
based on superconductivity. It should be noted
concept, whereas elsewhere the system is based
that legislation supported by the Administration,
on the "first to file" concept.
transmitted to Congress by the Departments of
Justice and Commerce, would extend the NCRA
Other issues include extending exemptions
to cover production but would exclude marketing.
from the Freedom of Information Act, increasing
the public availability of foreign patent applica-
There are, of course, serious concerns about
tions, modifying the Doctrine of Patent Misuse
the possible abuse of extended provisions of the
and antitrust restrictions to permit patent holders
NCRA, but anticompetitive behavior would still
to maximize their return by licensing, encouraging
be illegal and significant penalties for such behav-
Japan to change its system substantially to elimi-
ior would remain in place. However, the resulting
nate flood patenting, and strengthening the ability
stimulus to industry investment in superconductiv-
of the Patent Office and the courts to protect
ity research, development, and commercialization
intellectual property rights by full implementation
would be an important outcome.¹
of the High Temperature Superconductivity Initia-
tive.
Intellectual Property Law
Barriers
Summary of Legal and
Regulatory Barriers
Several steps have been taken to revise the
American patent system in ways that affect the
The preceding tax, antitrust, and intellectual
field of applied superconductivity. One change
property issues are discussed more fully in Ap-
has been directed specifically at the science and
pendix VIII, along with more specific recommen-
technology of superconductors. In July 1987, the
dations that were presented to the Commission by
President announced the High Temperature Super-
outside experts.
conductivity Initiative with the stated objectives
of improving cooperation among government,
Reducing the cost of capital, extending certain
industry, and universities in research and enabling
exemptions from the antitrust laws, and full
U.S. firms to move quickly in turning scientific
implementation of the High Temperature Super-
advances into new or improved products and pro-
conductivity Initiative to strengthen intellectual
cesses. The President called for stronger intellec-
property rights under the patent laws will be cru-
tual-property protection and requested the Patent
cially important in preventing the relative decline
Office to accelerate the review of applications
of the United States in key technologies such as
dealing with superconductivity.
superconductivity. But other significant steps must
also be taken, including investing in science and
In reviewing the impact of current intellectual
technology education to provide the skilled work
property laws on U.S. industrial investment in
force needed in modern society, enforcing trade
innovation and commercialization of technology,
policies designed to open markets abroad, and
external experts presented several suggestions for
providing strong support for those Federal agen-
improvement of the domestic patent situation.
cies that conduct or fund research in superconduc-
These changes would provide U.S. inventors with
tivity. Taken together, these steps will help the
greater protection and would allow them to com-
United States to remain competitive with Japan
pete in the international marketplace.
and the European Community and in time will
certainly encourage the successful commercializa-
Among the issues discussed was harmonizing
tion of innovative technologies such as high-tem-
the U.S. patent system, which differs in several
perature superconductivity.
13
Technology Transfer and the
amount of royalties received by the laboratories
Federal Laboratories
under licensing agreements with industrial
organizations have been reviewed recently in a
A substantial part of the research on supercon-
Department of Commerce report, "The Federal
ductivity carried out in the United States takes
Technology Transfer Act of 1986: The First Two
place at the Federal laboratories, primarily under
Years."
funding from the Departments of Defense, Com-
merce, and Energy. This work has tended to be
In 1988, the Department of Energy specifical-
basic, at a precompetitive stage, and not well
ly addressed technology transfer with regard to
enough developed to make the transition to com-
superconductivity when it created the Supercon-
mercialization.
ductivity Pilot Centers at the Argonne, Los
Alamos, and Oak Ridge National Laboratories.
Recognizing that remaining competitive in
These Centers are designed to offer expedited
fields such as superconductivity requires integra-
procedures for concluding collaborative agree-
tion of activities in all sectors of research and
ments, greater protection of intellectual property,
development, Congress has enacted legislation that
and easier access to patents and exclusive licenses
emphasizes the importance of technology transfer
for collaborative R&D. With the leverage provid-
from Federal laboratories to industry and has
ed by the strong basic-research programs and the
substantially improved the ability of the laborato-
major user facilities in the laboratories, the Pilot
ries to carry out this mission. The legislation
Center program was considered to be an effective
includes the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Inno-
model for economically integrating laboratory and
vation Act (1980, Public Law 96-480), the Bayh-
industrial activities in collaborative development.
Dole Act (1980, Public Law 96-517), as amended
(1984, Public Law 98-620), the Federal Technolo-
The Pilot Centers have provided an innovative
gy Transfer Act (1986, Public Law 99-502) and
incentive by granting industrial organizations con-
the National Competitiveness Technology Transfer
tracting with national laboratories the authority to
Act (1989, Public Law 101-189).
withhold for a period of up to 2 years data specif-
ically developed under cooperative R&D
In general, these legislative acts collectively
agreements. Industry has responded well, with
mandate expenditure of funds for technology
approximately 30 agreements signed to date, and
transfer activities, create a presumption of owner-
there are now more proposals involving industry
ship in inventions to government contractors that
than there are funds to support them. While the
are small businesses or not-for-profit organiza-
nature of the agreements vary, the most common
tions, delegate to the directors of laboratories the
mode is a straightforward cooperative agreement
authority to enter into cooperative R&D agree-
with joint funding on a roughly 50-50 basis. The
ments with private organizations and to provide
three Pilot Centers have recently formed an Indus-
exclusive licenses on mutually developed technol-
trial Oversight Committee to ensure that the pro-
ogies, and provide to an inventor who is a gov-
grams are guided by input from industry.
ernment employee an award of at least 15 percent
of any royalties received by the agency from the
In 1989, an amendment to the Technology
invention.
Innovation Act expanded once more the flexibility
given to Federal laboratories. Under the provi-
By Executive Order 12591 (1987), President
sions of this act:
Reagan instructed the agencies to delegate the
authority for implementation of the Federal Tech-
The procedures for forming agreements have
nology Transfer Act to laboratory directors. In
been further decentralized. The Director of a
addition, he required the agencies, to the extent
Federal laboratory (both contractor-operated
permitted by law, to grant title to all contracts to
and Government-operated) has the authority to
inventions made in whole or in part with Federal
execute cooperative agreements with a spon-
funds in exchange for royalty-free use by or on
sor, including assigning or licensing laborato-
behalf of the Government. Subsequent increases in
ry employee inventions to the sponsor. (This
the number of cooperative agreements signed, the
requires the express approval of the funding
number of patents issued and licensed, and the
agency.)
14
Investigators have been provided further in-
At this point, considerable legislation is in
centives. Royalties to the laboratory from a
place to allow the laboratories to pursue technolo-
cooperative agreement may be used by the
gy transfer more effectively than was possible in
laboratory to pay the inventors and for scien-
the past. It will be important to monitor such
tific R&D consistent with the laboratory mis-
activities to ensure that the current legislation is
sion.
adequate. A major task at present is to learn how
to effectively implement what is now available.
The approval process has been accelerated. A
This will require dealing with both legal and
joint work agreement by a laboratory must be
institutional issues. For example, strong cultural
approved or disapproved by the Federal fund-
differences exist between the Federal laboratories
ing agency within 90 days after submission. A
and industrial organizations that may cause diffi-
cooperative agreement under the joint work
culties in some areas-such as the conflict be-
statement must be approved or disapproved
tween freedom of publication and proprietary
within 30 days after submission.
rights. Agreements such as those developed by the
Pilot Centers have been effective in putting to-
Protection of data has been expanded. Public
gether disparate infrastructures. Concerns about
dissemination of commercially valuable data
potential conflicts of interest involving compensa-
generated under a cooperative agreement may
tion of investigators working simultaneously under
be withheld for a period of up to 5 years.
a collaborative agreement and on related work
These data are expressly exempted from a
within the base programs are expected to be re-
Freedom of Information Act request.
solved.
1. A recent report by the Office of Technology Assessment, High-Temperature Superconductivity in Perspective,
states that "antitrust restrictions are not a serious inhibitor to U.S. competitiveness in HTS technology." (8, 118)
Our analysis of the impact of antitrust policy leads us to believe that the OTA report was referring only to pre-
competitive R&D and did not take into account the continuum of research, development, production, and marketing
that is required for effective commercialization in a worldwide competitive environment.
15
Chapter III
Enhancement of Superconductivity Research
and Development
Introduction
essential that the planning be made and the devel-
opment be undertaken with the recognition that a
There has been a strong response throughout
sustained effort is required. The lessons learned
the scientific and engineering communities to the
from the past 30 years of experience following the
discovery of high-temperature superconductivity
basic scientific discoveries of conventional super-
by Bednorz and Mueller. Individual scientists at
conductors are useful in planning for the future. It
universities and Federal laboratories and in indus-
is the object of this chapter to discuss how the
try have undertaken new lines of research de-
"push" from bench-top discoveries can be coordi-
signed to understand the new superconductors and
nated with the "pull" of the marketplace.
to measure their physical properties. New ways of
dealing with the interdisciplinary nature of the
subject and the transfer of potential technology
Flow From Research to Market
from research laboratories to manufacturing plants
have already been set up. University-based super-
The steps which must be traversed following
conductivity centers; consortia among industry,
the bench-top discovery by Bednorz and Mueller
universities, and Federal laboratories; alliances of
and subsequent discoveries and inventions related
venture capital companies with larger industrial
to the synthesis, properties, and theoretical
laboratories; Pilot Centers at national laboratories
understanding of improved superconductors are
with industrial partners; and numerous State-sup-
shown schematically in Table III-1. Both large-
ported efforts are already functional. Federal sup-
scale power technologies and small-scale electron-
port for these programs comes mainly from the
ic technologies are considered together. It is quite
National Science Foundation, the Department of
likely that one or the other may proceed more
Energy, and the Department of Defense. The new
rapidly because the obstacles to be overcome in
Advanced Technology Program supported by the
processing long lengths of superconducting wire
Department of Commerce (DOC) and a Defense
for winding solenoids are unrelated to those for
Advanced Research Projects Agency venture
making reliable and reproducible tunnel junctions.
initiative offer further opportunities for supercon-
It is clear that at a comparable stage in the devel-
ductivity technology.
opment of conventional superconductors, the new
superconductors would be in the 1965 era and
It is the opinion of this Commission that these
have not yet taken step 2, the development of the
new approaches to coordinate and improve re-
enabling technology. It is necessary to produce
search and development efforts are experimental
the superconductors in usable forms, shapes, and
in themselves, and close attention needs to be paid
combinations before devices can be produced.
to ascertain how well they realize their potential.
It is important to monitor the progress being made
Discoveries and Inventions
from laboratory science to commercial product in
order to eliminate bottlenecks and to speed the
From past experience, it is expected that most
process by ensuring that adequate support goes to
of the discoveries and inventions of ways to make
the most effective organizations. Judging from all
better superconductors will be forthcoming from
past experience, it will take more than a decade of
individuals and small groups with independent
sustained effort before the new superconductors
programs. These programs are where break-
enter the marketplace in a significant way. It is
throughs in new materials and the fundamental
17
Table III-1
Flow From Discovery to Market
Step
Objective
Activity
Considerations
Examples
1
Discovery, invention
Undirected research
Support of individual
Synthesis, theory, properties,
investigators
processing
2
Enabling technology
Directed generic
Interdisciplinary research
Flexible wires, Josephson
research
programs
devices
3
Manufacture,
Production of items
Demand, cost, reliability,
Motors, generators, computers
commercialization
for market
competition
understanding of materials are likely to emerge.
recommend protection of PI grants. The Commis-
While discoveries cannot be planned, the climate
sion found vigorous support for enhanced PI
in which they flower can be improved. This can
funding in testimony and in previous reports
best be realized by continuation of the successful
(Appendix I) on superconductivity. There is a
methods our country has used in the past, namely
Commission consensus for increased PI funding
supporting strong individual and small-group re-
for superconductivity research. No one questioned
search efforts that are rated by peer review and
the need and the benefits to the Nation. In fact,
are locally directed by the principal investigators
grant size has decreased in recent years and the
(PI's). The scientific and technological challenges
cost of doing research with modern instrumenta-
and opportunities deriving from the discovery of
tion has risen rapidly. NSF Director Bloch ac-
high-temperature superconductivity have stimulat-
knowledged the problem when he spoke to the
ed widespread activity in the past 3 years. There
Commission.
has been a large increase in the number of work-
ers entering the field in different disciplines, in-
Why have PI funds lost ground when all
cluding physics, chemistry, material science and
parties recognize their importance and advocate
engineering, chemical engineering, electrical engi-
increases? The NSF is the major provider, and the
neering, and mechanical engineering. Even though
overall NSF budget has risen significantly. Clear-
the available funding has increased, it has not
ly, competition for funds has been intense. The
come close to keeping up with the increased de-
number of proposals for research funding received
mand. As a result, many highly qualified PI's at
in the Division of Materials Research of the NSF
universities are currently being seriously under-
more than doubled during the 1980's-from 650
funded or not funded at all. The situation has
in 1980 to 1,328 in 1989-but the number of
recently become so serious that we can no longer
awards decreased from 347 to 309. The individual
take it for granted that this country will be first in
research scientist can be neglected as agencies
the basic sciences that relate directly to competi-
seek funds to finance new and large-ticket
tiveness in superconductor-based technologies.
projects that are proposed and encouraged by
Europe is becoming increasingly strong in this
well-focused special interest groups with political
area, and the Japanese are now making a national
backing. Dr. D. Allan Bromley recently spoke to
commitment to an increased level of basic
this issue: "One of the reasons for this problem at
research in the PI mode. They well appreciate that
NSF is that the agency has taken on additional
technological breakthroughs normally depend on
responsibilities in recent years. For example, its
advances in basic science carried out essentially in
portfolio now includes greatly expanded science
the mode of Bednorz and Mueller.
and mathematics education programs, supercom-
puting centers and computer networking. Despite
The need to give priority funding to PI's has
the promise of a larger budget each year, overall
been emphasized by nearly every committee that
funding at NSF has not kept pace. " The Com-
has assessed research funding in recent years.
mission calls for more attention to the strength of
Even those reports directed at major facilities
PI grants on the part of NSF. Similar comments
18
apply to other agencies, as well, such as DOE's
enabling technology development to the end-use
Basic Energy Sciences program. The Commission
product. For example, DOE should play a similar
concludes that PI funding can be greatly improved
role to that played by DARPA in facilitating the
by infusion of funding at levels that are modest in
manufacture of high-Tc power devices.
the context of total expenditures. Success in this
stage requires collaboration between the research
community and industry's development effort to
Manufacture and Commercialization
ensure that research directions mesh with product
development.
Large commitments of people and money are
required to proceed both with the development of
prototype devices and, eventually, the manufactur-
Enabling Technology
ing of complete systems for the marketplace.
Moving from research to development and then to
Step 2 from Table III-1, the development of
commercialization prematurely can be a very
enabling technology, involves the directed
expensive, even a fatal, error. There should be
research that leads to the generic understanding
timely feedback from the marketplace to guide the
and technology needed for production of devices
generic research and prototype development.
and systems for the marketplace. For example, to
There can even be national and international con-
manufacture magnets, motors, and other large
sensus and coordination on the selection of techni-
components, it is necessary to wind coils of wire
cal targets.
or tape. To do this, large lengths of flexible
superconducting wire and cable, with improved
superconducting properties-such as high Tc, Hc,
Pull From the Market
and Jc-are needed. "Improved" is defined for the
purpose of this chapter as meaning distinctly
The evolution of conventional supercon-
better figures of merit than those available using
ducting technology is worth recalling. The impe-
classical superconductors, which will introduce
tus for developing the large-scale technology
technologies or make possible significantly more
came from the high-energy physics community.
efficient devices than are currently available. Here
Immediately after the discovery of high-Jc super-
the "enabling technology" would be the process-
conductivity in 1961, it was realized that super-
ing of superconductors and normal metals into
conductors offered the only possibility for meeting
long lengths of flexible superconducting wire and
the need to scale up to higher energy accelerators.
cable; it does not yet exist for high-Tc supercon-
As a result, throughout the 1960's, 1970's, and
ductors.
1980's, there has been sustained government
support to provide the "pull" to get through step
For the small-scale electronic Josephson de-
2. As yet, there has been no comparable "pull" for
vices, an example of enabling technology is the
high-Tc superconductors. Although there are many
fabrication of reproducible superconductor-
sectors that can benefit mightily once the enabling
insulating-superconductor (SIS) tunnel junctions
technology is available, there is no currently iden-
or weak superconductor-normal metal-supercon-
tified need for which high-Tc technology offers
ductor (SNS) links. When properly made, such
the only technical solution. Compelling reasons
devices make possible circuits and computers that
may emerge when the improved superconductors
are orders of magnitude faster than those currently
are more fully appreciated. As an example, recent
available. Generic research involves learning how
results obtained in Germany and Japan show that
to grow films with controlled microstructure,
short lengths of wire carry useful currents in the
orientation, interfaces, and barriers. It is being
highest test field available, 26 T. Such results
actively pursued on an international level. The
show that magnets for NMR experiments in the
processing is common to both the military and
25- to 50-T range are possible. These magnets
commercial sectors. Therefore, coordination
could revolutionize molecular biology by the
among mission-oriented funding agencies of the
imaging and mapping of large molecules. They
Federal Government, numerous State agencies,
might also lead to compact x-ray sources and
industrial laboratories, and the NSF is helpful all
other technologically valuable devices. The need
around. There is a need to bridge the gap from
to support high-Tc technology for 10 or more
19
years into the future becomes evident when its
international spending for 1990 is given in Table
integrated effect is considered. A strong supercon-
III-2. For a more detailed breakdown see Appen-
ductor technology can do much to help the United
dix IX.
States maintain technological leadership in the
next century.
The United States and Japan (when estimated
salaries are included) are spending at comparable
While both commercial and military markets
rates, while Europe is somewhat lower. The total
for improved superconductors share the need to
funding for R&D, about $800 million, is very
build roughly the same generic technologies,
large when compared with the total sales of super-
ultimately different requirements of performance,
conductor-based products, about $400 million.
cost, and reliability will cause the paths to di-
Anecdotal evidence of Soviet Union and Eastern
verge. In Chapters I and IV we discuss the needs
European activity indicates that the number of
of and opportunities for U.S. industry to develop
people involved is comparable with that of the
commercial markets and the needs of the military
United States, Japan, or Europe. Numbers of
market that have been identified. New modes of
research papers published support this conclusion
support funding and new interorganizational struc-
and indicate considerable activity in other coun-
tures already in place are designed so that per-
tries as well. Thus, there is a worldwide expecta-
ceived requirements can be brought to bear early
tion that superconductivity has an extremely pro-
in the development stage.
mising economic future.
Table III-3 gives an indication of where U.S.
Support Funding
Government agency money is spent. In-house
means Federal laboratory expenditure of DOE,
Government Funding
DOD, and DOC. It should be kept in mind that
university funding covers groups, centers, and
The Commission has been frustrated in its
user facilities in addition to grants to individuals.
efforts to catalog R&D funding for superconduc-
The data indicate that mission-oriented laborato-
tivity. U.S. Government agency expenditures are
ries spend about half the money, while universi-
relatively easy to obtain, but interpretation of the
ties and industries share the rest.
data is tricky when large expenditures move on or
off the budget, as with the magnet coils for the
A very crude distinction between basic and
Superconducting Super Collider (SSC). Expendi-
applied work is given in Table III-4.
tures of foreign governments are even more
difficult to assess owing to inconsistent reporting
Again, the numbers are easily confused. For
practices, such as the exclusion of salaries, which
example, DOE funding for superconductivity in
is a major factor. Industry funding is very difficult
connection with high-energy and nuclear physics,
to estimate, as corporations do not publish sub-
SSC magnets, and magnetic fusion energy
ject-area breakdowns of their R&D expenditures.
research, which totals $81.8 million in 1990, has
Industry also spends significant amounts of gov-
ernment agency funds, which tends to mingle and
confuse the two categories. State funding is often
Table III-2
overlooked but is significant and growing. Again,
Estimated High- and Low-Tc Funding by
the numbers are not easy to obtain and are con-
Source, 1990
fusing in format. These uncertainties encourage
(million dollars)
caution in drawing conclusions from published
funding levels. Consequently, the Commission has
Source
Government
Industry
Total
chosen to focus on general aspects of the funding
pattern that are less sensitive to details of the
United States
230 *
70
300
numbers. Even so, funding analysis is best
Japan
100
200
300
approached with skepticism.
Europe
140
60
200
Budgets appear to be changing only slowly in
the 1989-90 time frame. A very rough estimate of
*Does not include an estimated $15 million of State-support-
ed projects.
20
Table III-3
1990 Federal Funding for Superconductivity
(million dollars)
Agency
In-House
Universities
Industry*
Department of Defense
20
16
36
Department of Energy**
86
8
22
National Science Foundation
-
29
-
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
2
5
1
Department of Commerce
3
-
-
(National Institute of Standards and Technology)
Total
111
58
59
*Industry puts an estimated additional $70 million of its own funding into superconductivity.
**A substantial fraction of the DOE funds listed are directed to the fusion energy program and the SSC.
been reported as basic research in some tabula-
ty, and the numbers tend to include building con-
tions. From the point of view of superconductivi-
struction as well as operating budgets. Some State
ty, however, these are applied programs leading to
superconductivity initiatives are funded by Federal
the use of superconducting magnets. Thus, it is
agencies, which tends to lead to double counting.
concluded that Federal agency funding for basic
These funds can also flow through to industry,
research is only about 30 percent of the total. A
further compounding the difficulty of accounting.
large fraction of the basic research effort is devot-
ed to high-Tc superconductors, whereas almost all
Industrial Programs
of the applied work is concerned with low-Tc
superconductors.
A comparison of industry funding for super-
conductivity R&D (Table III-2) indicates that Jap-
State funding levels are less well-known but
anese industry is much more committed than
are considerable. Some tens of millions of dollars
either Europe or the United States. Japanese in-
are probably spent each year on superconductivi-
dustry appears to be spending three times as much
Table III-4
1990 Federal Funding for Superconductivity
(million dollars)
Agency
Basic
Applied
Department of Defense
12
60
Department of Energy*
21
95
National Science Foundation
29
-
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
5
3
Department of Commerce
1
2
(National Institute of Standards and Technology)
Total
68
160
*A substantial fraction of the DOE funds listed are directed to the fusion energy program and the SSC.
21
as industry in either Europe or the United States.
Institutional Responses
Further, there is reason to believe that the U.S.
industrial numbers are inflated. This lack of U.S.
The area of superconductivity provides an
industrial interest leads the Commission to con-
excellent arena for studying and improving inter-
clude that Japanese firms will have a major ad-
actions among the various elements of the U.S.
vantage in terms of commercialization.
technical community. The United States possesses
a university-based research system that is number
The electric utility industry sponsors research
one in the world. The United States has in place a
through the Electric Power Research Institute
large and vigorous Federal laboratory structure
(EPRI). EPRI's current programs support approxi-
that has the expertise, facilities, and scale needed
mately $3.5 million of work in low- and high-
for large, important technical developments. On
temperature superconductivity at universities,
the industrial side, U.S. high-technology laborato-
private industry, and the national laboratories.
ries have been leaders in high-Tc research. Collab-
EPRI is collaborating with both the Federal agen-
oration and coordination of all of these research
cies and private firms with the primary objective
efforts are badly needed to eliminate redundance
of developing the generic technology needed to
and reduce commercialization intervals. New
develop superconductors for large-current applica-
mechanisms to accomplish this have been put in
tions in electric utilities and for performance and
place recently. This is a good time to encourage
efficiency improvements in the use of electricity
these and other mechanisms and to establish pro-
by their customers. The Commission believes that
cedures for monitoring their progress and evolu-
the U.S. effort in energy-related superconducting
tion.
technology is exceedingly weak, much weaker
than in the electronic area. A strong industrial
Universities
initiative in motors and generators must be stimu-
lated. The Department of Energy is the clear
Experimentalists and theorists jumped into the
choice as the lead agency to initiate a program to
study of copper oxide superconductors following
build a small-bore magnet operating at fields
the initial discovery. All known synthesis ap-
greater than 2 T and temperatures greater than
proaches were quickly evaluated, and every char-
25K. A strong high-Tc-wire program is an essen-
acterization tool was directed at this fascinating
tial precursor to magnet development. A joint
class of materials. Condensed-matter theorists
DOE-industry effort is indicated.
applied known models and derived new ones to
explain behavior. The initial challenges were well
A strength of the American system is provid-
met by the existing organizations. However, there
ed by venture capital, which has been the source
are some deficiencies that should be remedied for
of a number of startup companies. Companies are
the long haul, and already some solutions have
started with venture capital when an initially mod-
been put into place. New organizational structures
est need of the market with potential appears to
mentioned below have been formed to overcome
be realizable with technology that exists or almost
specific problems; there is an obvious need to
exists and there seems to be a likelihood of mov-
evaluate their performance and cost effectiveness.
ing rapidly into the marketplace. In the small in-
teractive environment, steps 2 and 3 from Table
It has already been noted that the university
III-1 are narrowed and undertaken rapidly. Ven-
research community has been under financial
ture capital is supplemented by established indus-
stress for some time. For example, the average
trial partners, government small-business grants,
grant size funded by the NSF Division of Materi-
and cooperative programs with universities and
als Research has, in real dollars, decreased by 8
Federal laboratories. It is interesting to note that
percent during the past 5 years while the cost of
one of the startup companies, Superconductor
doing research has gone up. A well-recognized
Technologies, Inc., has more than 30 scientists
lack of modern laboratory space and equipment
and engineers on its staff, making it one of the
and a lack of startup funds for PI's now exists.
largest efforts in the United States.
The universities have responded by seeking addi-
22
tional funding from industry, private donors,
for an industry-driven cooperation that will en-
foundations, and mission-oriented agencies with
hance the transfer of national laboratory technolo-
limited success. The ability of the university com-
gy to industry for rapid commercialization. This
munity to continue generating new discoveries
program will advance the Nation's science and
and insights in superconductivity and to continue
technology base in the laboratories and drive
educating the number of scientists and engineers
generic, enabling technology development in the
to meet the Nation's needs for superconductivity
directions of greatest interest to industry. The
is in jeopardy. The needs are not only confined to
Commission heard many comments, all positive,
superconductivity; to some extent, the transfer of
on the Pilot Centers. It appears that they are well
resources into superconductivity programs has
conceived and off to a fast start. More than 30
been at the expense of other equally important
formal collaborations have been initiated. One
programs in materials science, and funding for
arrangement, involving Los Alamos National
these programs needs to be restored.
Laboratory, du Pont, and Hewlett-Packard in a
3-year, $11 million project for the development of
Traditional university research along depart-
electronic applications, could well be presented as
mental lines is not conducive to the interdisciplin-
a consortium.
ary research that is clearly needed. The Materials
Research Laboratories were set up more than 25
Industry
years ago by DARPA and continue today under
NSF sponsorship to facilitate interdisciplinary
There may only be five corporations in the
research. Those at Stanford, Illinois, Northwest-
United States with programs having more than 15
ern, MIT, Chicago, and Harvard are actively en-
scientists devoted to superconductivity. These are
gaged in superconductivity research. Smaller
AT&T, Du Pont, IBM, TRW, and Superconductor
Materials Research Groups at Minnesota and
Technologies, Inc. The first three and smaller
Wisconsin are similarly involved. A large Center
efforts at Bellcore and elsewhere have been
for Superconductivity, which embraces interinstit-
among the most productive research organizations
utional research projects using resources existing
since the opening of the high-Tc era. Corporations
in different organizations, has been established at
with research programs having between 10 and 15
the University of Illinois with the active participa-
scientists include Bellcore, GE, GM, Rockwell,
tion of Northwestern University, the University of
and Westinghouse. These corporate programs
Chicago, the Argonne National Laboratory, and
emphasize basic research on electronic applica-
industrial partners. A smaller Air Force-supported
tions. The situation today insofar as high-Tc super-
Center for Superconducting Materials Research
conductors are concerned is to be contrasted with
and Electronics has been established at Stanford
what existed in the comparable stage of the devel-
with industrial participation from Conductus,
opment of low-Tc superconductors. Westinghouse,
Hewlett-Packard, TRW, Varian, and Xerox.
GE, RCA, Bell Laboratories, North American, and
other companies were very active in developing
National Laboratories
the generic technology. The present-day tech-
nology that is capable of constructing the SSC
The national laboratories operated by the
magnets, MAGLEV trains, superconducting
Department of Energy have a wealth of expertise,
magnetic energy storage (SMES) coils, and other
established facilities, and connections that are
large-scale projects from Nb-Ti (low-Tc) wire is in
being applied in basic research, enabling technolo-
large measure attributed to development in those
gy development and mission applications. As a
industrial laboratories that later flowed into small-
matter of national policy, these laboratories have a
er, more specialized companies, the Federal
mandate to cooperate with universities and indus-
laboratories, and Japanese and European institu-
try, large and small. Direct experience in sophisti-
tions. In contrast, the response of many companies
cated scaleup has been obtained through programs
today is to support the research efforts of a few
to provide superconducting magnets for high-
scientists for the prime purpose of keeping the
energy physics machines. DOE has established an
company aware of new developments.
innovative program: the Superconductivity Pilot
Centers at the Argonne, Los Alamos, and Oak
The primary reason for the different industrial
Ridge National Laboratories. Funds are provided
response to the opportunities in high-Tc supercon-
23
ductivity relates to the different legal and regula-
Improvement and Coordination
tory environment in which industry currently
of Superconducting Data Bases
operates, as discussed in Chapter II. The cost of
capital in the United States 25 years ago, for
In a fast-moving field such as superconductiv-
instance, was not twice the Japanese cost of capi-
ity, access of U.S. research and development
tal. Because it is not likely that the legislative
personnel in industry, academia, and government
barriers will be removed in the near future, pro-
laboratories to the most up-to-date, accurate data
grams must be developed in which Federal
is essential to rapid commercialization. Data can
support is used in ways that result in increased
take many forms, ranging from the most basic
industrial investment in long-range research, de-
measurements of the electronic and physical prop-
velopment, and production of materials and de-
erties of the superconductors to citations of tech-
vices involving superconductivity. These programs
nical publications and standards. In 1987, Presi-
would allow industry to overcome the disincen-
dent Reagan designated the Ames Laboratory at
tives of tax, antitrust, and patent policies. They
Iowa State University as a Center for Basic Scien-
represent, in large part, the out-of-pocket cost of
tific Information and established a Bibliographic
failure to make the structural corrections neces-
Computer Data Base on Superconductivity in the
sary to allow U.S. industry to compete interna-
DOE Office of Scientific and Technology Infor-
tionally on a level playing field.
mation (OSTI) at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The
Center at Ames publishes a newsletter (High Tc
Consortia
Update) that contains news concerning interesting
reported results, abstracts of the latest papers,
The "Wise Men" report on superconductivity
bibliographic information, and meeting notices.
recommended the formation of four to six Super-
OSTI provides subscribers with on-line informa-
conductivity Consortia involving direct participa-
tion regarding abstracts and actual papers.
tion by universities, industry, and government.
These consortia were intended to do basic re-
Data bases are also required that contain prop-
search and precompetitive R&D over a range of
erty measurements. A prime example is the need
industries, including aerospace, electronics, and
for accurate phase diagrams that describe to the
energy. Two prominent consortia have now been
materials processor the temperature and composi-
established along the lines proposed. MIT, MIT
tional requirements to prepare optimum materials.
Lincoln Laboratories, IBM, and AT&T have
These diagrams also act as guidelines to the com-
formed the Consortium for Superconducting Elec-
positions from which pure single crystals can be
tronics, and other organizations may join in time.
obtained.
The goal is to develop the enabling technology for
thin-film electronics. Planning, sample prepara-
There is also a need for evaluated data bases
tion, device fabrication, and evaluation of results
on other key properties of the high-temperature
are being carried out in a collaborative mode.
superconducting materials. For instance, a reposi-
Researchers of the four member organizations are
tory on critical current measurements, including a
working in their home laboratories. No Consor-
description of test techniques and materials pro-
tium buildings are planned, but a high-technology
cessing information, would be extremely valuable.
facility is in the planning stage. The University of
Evaluated data on fundamental properties of the
Houston has formed a second major consortium,
materials, such as vapor pressures, thermal expan-
the Texas Center for Superconductivity at the
sion, and thermal conductivity, would be equally
University of Houston (TCSUH), with partici-
valuable.
pation of the Microelectronics and Computer
Technology Corporation (MCC). Funding is pro-
vided by the State of Texas, DARPA, and du
Recommendations
Pont. MCC has over a dozen corporate members
and is engaged in other electronics development
The recently implemented mechanisms for
work. TCSUH has programs on both bulk- and
involving industry by leveraging Federal
thin-film-superconductor applications.
funds should be encouraged to evolve. These
24
mechanisms include university centers, super-
the past 3 years and with the increased cost of
conductivity-specific consortia, the Supercon-
carrying out research. Funding for individual
ductivity Pilot Centers at the DOE
research efforts should be given the highest
laboratories, and the Advanced Technology
priority.
Program of DOC.
A program to build a small-bore superconduc-
A high-level external advisory group with
ting magnet operating at fields greater than 2
membership from appropriate industrial and
T and temperatures greater than 25K should
scientific sectors should be established. This
be initiated under joint DOE and industry
group would advise the President's Science
direction. The development of commercial-
Advisor and the Office of Science and Tech-
quality high-Tc wire should be the first step of
nology Policy (OSTP) on the effectiveness of
such a joint program.
research being supported by the various agen-
cies and on the cost effectiveness of new
International cooperation on research and
organizational structures that have been
specific applications should be actively pur-
formed to advance superconductivity develop-
sued. The creation of an International Com-
ment and technology, to encourage the coordi-
mittee on Superconductivity is suggested to
nation of existing programs, and to facilitate
enhance planning for coordination and cooper-
the establishment of research priorities.
ation between the national programs over the
long term and to enhance the effective ex-
A long-term commitment for support for
change of research that is already taking
superconductor research and development
place. The collection and dissemination of
should be made a national policy. A specific
research data, discussed in the appendix,
5-year program with OSTP review annually
should be supported.
should be planned and updated on a yearly
basis. It should be recognized that a sustained
NSF directly, and with the cooperation of
effort well into the next century will be need-
industry and other government agencies,
ed to ensure that the promise of new super-
should support scientific education using
conducting technologies is realized with the
superconductivity as a vehicle in the early
entry of new products into the market.
grades and on through college, as the Science
and Technology Center at the University of
Funding for university-based PI's should be
Illinois is doing. The battle for gaining the
increased substantially and made commensu-
new scientists needed is already lost by grade
rate with the increased number of PI's that
8. Improved science instruction should be
have become active in superconductivity and
implemented in each State.
related condensed-matter science research in
1. Physics Today, (July 1990): 50.
25
Chapter IV
National Security
This chapter evaluates the projected develop-
Electrical machinery
ment of superconductor technology for military
MHD propulsion
applications. An early insertion of high-tempera-
Electromagnetic launchers
ture superconducting microwave and radio fre-
Energy storage
quency (RF) components is likely in the current
course of Department of Defense programs, lead-
As stated in that report, this technology will
ing to the production of hybrid communications
support a number of important military systems,
and electronic-warfare systems. Other sensor and
such as ballistic missile submarines; ballistic
processing systems will follow. Two projects are
missile defense; guidance and electronics for
recommended that are outside the scope of exist-
aviation and tactical missiles; and anti-submarine
ing programs, but of crucial importance to the
warfare (ASW).
future requirements of national security with im-
portant implications in industry and commerce:
The division between electronics and high-
the construction of a petaflop (10¹⁵) speed super-
power applications also is a division between
conducting supercomputer, within a time span of
thin-film and bulk superconductor-materials tech-
10 to 15 years, and the development of a maxi-
nology. A distinction also must be made between
mally efficient superconducting propulsive electric
the low-temperature superconductors and the more
motor; a primary issue here is the development of
recent high-temperature superconductors. The
a manufacturable high-Tc superconductor wire of
high-Tc material, which is more suitable to the
the requisite electric and mechanical capabilities.
requirements of military technology, requires
development to achieve levels of current density
and critical magnetic field to meet applications
Military Applications
criteria.
Superconductor technology, both for the older
From the vantage point of the Nation's overall
low-temperature materials and the new high-
defense posture, the implications of superconduc-
temperature materials, has very wide utility in
tivity range from tactical to strategic. Supercon-
both military and civilian products. A recent
ducting components can address needs that cannot
Defense Science Board¹ report on military appli-
be met otherwise-for example, efficient detection
cations for this technology detailed a number of
of long-wavelength infrared radiation, construction
electronics and high-power applications:
of very small antennas and antenna arrays, detec-
tion of small changes in magnetic field, and mini-
Electronics
mum bandwidth communication in space. Super-
conducting components will permit significant
Infrared sensors
improvement to existing systems' speed, accuracy,
Analog-to-digital converters
capacity, or fieldworthiness. They may extend or
Microwave and millimeter-wave systems
enable capabilities in sensing from space and in
Analog-signal processors
military command, communication, and control
Magnetic-field sensors
systems. Strategically, much faster computation
Digital data processors
and information transfer may enable major new
systems or protocols for developing defense sys-
High Power
tems, such as more practical applications of artifi-
cial intelligence and automated software develop-
Magnets
ment. Superconducting power systems will extend
Energy transmission
design flexibility and available performance to
27
levels significantly beyond present systems, mak-
accurate modeling of turbulent flow, climate mod-
ing possible, for example, submarines that are
eling, and vehicle dynamics, which are important
faster, more maneuverable, and harder to detect.
military needs as well. Teraflop (10¹²) processing
speed is considered necessary in this regime, with
some concomitant increase in memory size to
Electronics Applications
perhaps 10 gigawords. Semiconductor technology
can achieve this goal by the mid-1990's, but
Military and space systems place the greatest
waste heat dissipation becomes significant. Super-
demands on electronic devices, components, and
conductor technology, together with parallel mul-
systems. In this performance-driven field, ultra-
tiprocessor configurations, may be the means to
high speed, low noise, and low power can be
solving these problems.
realized simultaneously in superconductors. Super-
conductive electronics can have a major impact on
Beyond the teraflop processing level, there are
sensor, signal processing, and data processing
military mission-critical information processing
systems. This impact in electronics is based on
requirements for ASW, image analysis, crypt-
several unique attributes that make possible:
analysis, and distributed surveillance-defined as
an assemblage of low-cost sensor platforms for
Ultra-low loss/dispersion transmission lines
observation and communication, configured into a
and filters
redundant network.³ Threshold computational
requirements for such capabilities are about 10¹³
High-speed, low-noise, and low-power
floating point operations per second (flops), and
Josephson junction active devices
mature systems would require capabilities orders
of magnitude higher. It has been estimated that
SQUID's for magnetic and electromagnetic
ASW will require 10¹⁶ flops to protect the U.S.
sensing
coastline by the turn of the century.
Monolithic integrated circuits for both analog
Superconducting technology will have to
(microwave and millimeter-wave) and digital
surmount several obstacles before it can be ap-
components
plied to an advanced computer, notably the large-
scale integration of Josephson junction circuits
Although IBM attempted to develop a super-
and the development of a superconducting transis-
conducting computer a decade ago, the project
tor with power gain. A succession of hybrid tech-
ended because of problems in using lead-based
nologies with semiconductor circuitry seems a
low-Tc tunnel junctions for the circuits. Since
likely route, probably with the introduction of
then, the technology has become more robust, as
superconducting interconnects (on the back
embodied in the marketing of a superconducting
plane).⁴ The combination of high processing
sampling oscilloscope by Hypres, Inc. The delay-
speed and low power dissipation of
power product is orders of magnitude lower for
superconducting electronics, together with parallel
Josephson junctions than for competitive semicon-
multiprocessor architecture, is the most likely path
ductor technology. Even with the expectation of
to the next revolution in digital computation for
further improvement in semiconductor reduction
future military requirements. A worthwhile goal
and integration, the basic problems are heat gener-
for a superconducting supercomputer would be a
ation and complexity of processing. Smaller
petaflop (10¹⁵) capability, with similar enhance-
circuit dimensions will be possible for supercon-
ments to memory size. Such a goal would have
ductors because of much smaller power dissipa-
collateral commercial benefits in the future design
tion. Superconducting interconnects will allow
of airplanes, drugs, chemicals, and the simulation
greater packing density and even 3-dimensional
of phenomena such as the weather.
circuits (because of simpler processing).
Infrared Sensors
The Federal High Performance Computer
Program² plan has set requirements for the devel-
There are several ways that the application of
opment of high-performance computing to meet
superconductivity could affect infrared (IR) sensor
national challenges. Among these challenges are
technology. The performance of mercury-cadmi-
28
um-telluride (HgCdTe) detectors could be im-
entail an integration of the detector and process-
proved by substituting high-Tc superconducting
ing/data extraction functions at the chip level, to
elements, whose operational bandwidth would
form a monolithic microwave integrated circuit.
extend much further into the long-wavelength
All of the above discrete components can be fash-
infrared, to 100 microns. A bolometric mode of
ioned on a chip, along with the A/D converters
detection has been demonstrated, in which the
and amplifiers, and the combination should func-
detector is simply biased in temperature at the
tion optimally at about 80K for the high-Tc case.
high-Tc transition temperature. More speculative
It is now possible to design a high-Tc radar re-
detection modes consist of direct breaking of
ceiver on a chip, excluding the antenna and active
Cooper pairs by the incident photons, leading to
electronics.
an increased quasiparticle tunneling current at a
Josephson junction; indirect modes also may be
The Strategic Defense Initiative Office (SDIO)
possible.
is developing high-Tc superconductive coatings for
the interior walls of accelerator cavities, to in-
The signal processing and data extraction
crease their operational efficiency and to reduce
components following the IR detection elements
the requirements for heat removal. Satisfactory
could be built from superconducting elements. A
electrical performance has been achieved on small
key issue is to employ analog-to-digital (A/D)
samples using a fabrication process that appears to
converters that can operate at the detector temper-
be amenable to scaleup.
ature, allowing integration at the chip level. The
extremely low power dissipation of superconduc-
Magnetic Field Sensors
tor processors offers significant advantages in
lowering the heat load that must be handled by
Superconducting Quantum Interference Devic-
cryocoolers. Conventional semiconductor proces-
es (SQUID's), which function as magnetometers
sors dissipate 10 to 100 times as much power.
and gradiometers, already have been developed
This advantage is particularly significant when
from low-Tc materials and are available commer-
very large IR arrays are used, and in fact such
cially. These devices, which currently operate at
arrays may be feasible only with superconducting
liquid helium temperatures, are under evaluation
A/D converters.
by the Navy for ASW applications and mine
detection. SQUID's have 100 to 1,000 times
Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Systems
greater sensitivity than conventional magnetic
sensors. A high-Tc form of SQUID would have
One property of high-Tc materials that has
slightly less sensitivity than a low-Tc device, but
immediate application is the reduction of surface
much greater ease of operation. The difficulty in
resistance at microwave frequencies, better even
producing a high-Tc SQUID, common to much of
than the conventional low-Tc materials. Transmis-
high-temperature superconducting electronics, is
sion lines at these frequencies have substantially
in the reliable fabrication of a sharp supercon-
reduced loss; other components, such as micro-
ductor-insulator junction.
strip resonators and filters with greatly improved
Q and insertion loss, are being fabricated from
Analog-to-Digital Converters
high-Tc materials. Such components can provide
many of the ingredients for an efficient and very
Although low-Tc A/D converters have been
compact, wideband, communications system.
built, a significant problem remains in fabricating
When combined with a superconducting multiplex
a high-Tc A/D converter, namely the consistent
feed system to a phased array antenna, this will
fabrication of a superconductor-insulator junction.
have a major effect on satellite communications
The basic reason is that such a junction must be
over multiple channels. In time, as better
very narrow, of the order of a few tens of ang-
cryocoolers are developed, it is expected that such
stroms, and the materials are inherently granular.
capability will transfer to aircraft and missiles.
A great deal of progress has been made in solving
this fundamental problem in high-Tc electronics,
As in the case of IR sensor technology, the
though a reasonable production mode is at least 5
transition to superconducting components will
years away.
29
Superconducting A/D converters offer great
tion issues. Systems-level demonstrations of low-
advantages in speed and power efficiency over
Tc digital processing are achievable in the next
comparable semiconductor devices. In making the
few years. Digital processing based on high-Tc is
extrapolation to circuitry with even greater com-
currently impossible.
ponent density, it is clear that the reduced power
dissipation, and consequent reduced cooling re-
As circuit density continues to increase with
quirement, of the superconducting A/D converter
conventional technology, the biggest problem is
will lead to its clear preference. This will make it
heat removal. The very low power requirements
possible to deploy multichannel A/D converters
of Josephson junction technology is partially
for analysis of multi-gigahertz (GHz) spectral
offset by the power required to maintain the low
signals.
temperature. However, the very low power re-
quired by even a large system permits the system
There is a small U.S. effort to integrate a
to be built in a very small volume. The greater
U.S.-developed low-Tc A/D converter into a full
device speed combined with the shorter transit
superconducting analog signal acquisition and
time will provide greater computational capability
processing system.
in low Tc for equivalent total power dissipation,
including cooling. For defense requirements, it
Analog Signal Processors
would be important to develop onboard signal
processors for space applications.
Perhaps the earliest applications of the new
high-Tc materials will be in passive low-loss RF
There is no fundamental reason to believe that
transmission circuitry for analog signal processing
a superconducting equivalent of the transistor is
and for high-speed logic interconnection networks.
not feasible. If such a device can be developed
This property derives not from the perfect dc
that has power gain with very high performance,
conductivity of a superconductor, but from the
it would revolutionize the use of superconducting
low resistance skin resistivity at high frequen-
technology in computing systems. High-Tc materi-
cies-as cited for the microwave application.
als show great potential because they may be
much more compatible with semiconductor mate-
Analog signal processors based on tapped
rials than the older superconductors, thus enabling
delay lines can provide wideband signal process-
hybrid approaches (superconductors with semicon-
ing for wideband radar and communications sys-
ductors).
tems. Superconductor devices have the capability
to perform waveform chirp, convolution, correla-
tion, spectral analysis, and matched filtering with
High-Power Applications
bandwidths as high as 20 GHz. Use of the new
high-Tc materials will allow integration with semi-
The second major area where superconductivi-
conductor devices to expand functional perfor-
ty can have significant military impact is that of
mance. The reduced cooling requirement will
high-power applications. These applications ex-
open deployment opportunities in many wideband-
ploit the high magnetic fields that can be generat-
radar and intercept systems.
ed by high-current-density superconductor materi-
als. Since dc currents persist indefinitely in the
Digital Data Processors
superconducting state, magnetic fields can store
large amounts of energy for extended periods of
A/D converters based on low-Tc technology
time. They can also provide compact, high-mag-
have been built both in the United States and in
netic-field sources for rotating electrical machin-
Japan. Fujitsu has reported an eight-bit micropro-
ery such as motors and generators, and they offer
cessor based on Josephson technology that is 10
the promise of more flexible compact electric-
times faster and consumes 1/500 the power of a
drive systems that provide military platforms with
gallium arsenide version of the microprocessor.
significantly improved speed and maneuverability
The potential benefits of low-Tc digital processing
and less likelihood of detection. Electromagnetic
is very great. Rapid progress is being made by a
launchers can accelerate projectiles to exceptional-
number of Japanese groups in solving the fabrica-
ly high velocities. Superconducting magnets for
30
accelerators can improve high-power sources for
High-Tc materials appear to offer advantages
millimeter wave and optical beams via free elec-
for magnets and their use in SMES, as well as
tron lasers.
insertion into motors and generators. A near-term
goal would be the demonstration of a high-Tc
Superconducting magnetic energy storage
magnet producing a minimum of 2 T, above 25K,
(SMES) is militarily useful as an energy source
with a bore greater than 1 inch and reasonable
for high-power lasers. Such lasers might require
working volume.
1,000 MW in an interval of minutes. SDIO cur-
rently is supporting the development of a 20
Electrical Machinery
megawatt-hour (MWh)/400 MW peak-power
engineering test model of a SMES, constructed of
The largest payoff in high-power applications
low-Tc materials (Nb-Ti). DOE is studying the
could come from the exploitation of superconduc-
industrial economics of SMES units. High-Tc
tor materials in rotating electrical machinery.
superconducting materials are currently under-
Substantial weight and volume savings can be
going rapid improvement in current-carrying
realized by eliminating magnetic materials and
capacity. Their higher operating temperature
customary field windings. Currently, an experi-
promises significant advantages in refrigeration
mental 3-MW low-Tc dc motor has been built for
reliability.
ship propulsion at the David Taylor Research
Center in Annapolis and tested at sea. This motor
A primary issue in the application of high-Tc
was 22 percent smaller than the equivalent con-
materials to magnets, motors, and generators is
ventional air-cooled ac motor.
the requirement for high-current wire with high-
field operating capability and the mechanical in-
Although superconducting motors and genera-
tegrity of Nb-Ti wire for low-Tc applications. This
tors can provide somewhat higher efficiency than
derives from the so-called weak-link problem in
their conventional counterparts, their principal
bulk superconductors, in which the supercurrent is
advantage is reduced size and weight, important
inhibited by intergranular barriers throughout the
on naval ships and especially submarines. More-
material. Present current densities in meter lengths
over, the flexibility afforded in avoiding the drive
of manufactured wire are of the order of a few
shaft is an important feature. High-Tc flux shields
hundred amperes per square centimeter, two or-
also can be built to diminish the electromagnetic
ders of magnitude below useful values. Great
signature of motors, and thereby diminish the
effort is being expended to understand the nature
vessels' vulnerability to detection.
of this problem, and to "texture" the material by
alignment of the individual grains. Some recent
Although the David Taylor Research Center
results on 5-centimeter length samples have
has pioneered the development of superconductiv-
shown the success of this effort, in which thou-
ity electric ship propulsion, the requirement for
sands of amperes per square centimeter are ob-
liquid helium has prevented its acceptance by the
tained even at high magnetic fields (see Appendix
Navy. The development of a high-Tc supercon-
VI).
ducting motor for naval propulsion would lead to
the insertion of this technology and provide an
Magnets
excellent focus for the production of suitable high-
Tc bulk materials. Such a project would be a
The highest magnetic fields that can be
stimulus to applying superconducting technology
achieved by conventional permanent magnets or
to nonstatic components, such as magnets and
electromagnets are about 2 T; superconducting
transmission lines. Several agencies, including
electromagnets can produce magnetic fields of
DOD, DOE, DOT, and NASA, could contribute to
20 T using low-Tc materials. High-Tc materials
the development. The lead agency to establish a
can carry useful currents at 26 T at 4.2K. Al-
nationally focused program to develop practical
though the greatest military and commercial po-
superconductors for magnets, motors, and genera-
tential lies in energy storage and power conver-
tors should be the Department of Energy. Given
sion devices, as cited above, present applications
their success in the Pilot Center concept, the DOE
lie almost entirely in MRI devices using low-Tc
national laboratories should lead a national project
materials.
to develop wires and tapes with specific require-
31
ments for current, field, and temperature. It is
Relationship of Military and
important that there be a strong industrial compo-
Commercial Development
nent to this program.
In addition to the great potential for military
The use of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD)
applications, defense support for superconductivity
drive also is being considered in submarines. 5
R&D will also benefit commercial applications. In
Thrust is developed when an electrical current
the past, demanding defense applications set the
flows through water that is simultaneously flow-
pace for the commercial electronics and computer
ing through a magnetic field. Superconducting
industries. Today, fierce international competition
magnets are the only practical option for produc-
in the commercial sector drives much of that
ing the high magnetic fields needed, with a very
technology. That is, we see spinons from commer-
large bore. The advantages of such a motive
cial to military technology, not only spinoffs. In
source is the elimination of vibrations caused by
fact, since today much of the forefront of semi-
the motor and generator. However, there may be
conductor technology is in Japan, we depend on
signatures associated with the MHD drive that
the Japanese significantly for critical military
mitigate this benefit. The Japanese plan to test this
components. The availability of commercially
mode of propulsion in a 100-foot research vessel
superior technology to other nations or arms mer-
in 1991.
chants runs counter to the U.S. national security
position, which continues to depend on technolog-
Electromagnetic Launchers
ical superiority.
The electromagnetic launcher is of interest
In superconductivity, defense-supported tech-
because it is capable of propelling a large mass to
nology development once again has the opportuni-
a very high velocity. Unlike chemical propulsion
ty to set the pace for applications. This investment
systems, the achievable terminal velocity is not
can be justified strictly on the basis of military
limited by the speed of exploding gas, but rather
requirements. However, it can also have signifi-
by the speed of a traveling electromagnetic pulse.
cant benefit for potential commercial applications.
A projectile could be accelerated to act as an
Unlike the electronics or computer fields, there is
effective kinetic energy weapon. Such applications
no large industry for superconductors. Technology
include: launching close-in ship defense projec-
development is in its infancy. Much must be done
tiles against cruise missiles, or as a hypersonic
to develop generic technologies such as thin films
anti-armor weapon which, because its velocity
and wire making. New ideas and innovations in
could exceed the sound velocity in protective
synthesis, processing, refrigeration, device design,
armor, would be an assured penetrator.
and other areas will be required to realize the
great potential in defense and commercial applica-
Superconducting materials will increase the
tions alike.
feasibility of electromagnetic launchers as military
weapon systems for many of the reasons previous-
Defense support should be structured to si-
ly stated-lower weight, smaller volume, and
multaneously develop a lasting competitive edge
higher efficiency. Superconductor materials would
for U.S. industry. We have noted above that the
be used in the prime power generator, in the ener-
U.S. business climate has private industry looking
gy storage system, and in the high-speed switch,
for leverage from Federal investment in R&D.
which could employ superconducting thin films.
Defense applications provide such leverage for
There are new concepts in electromagnetic
research, development, technology insertion, and
launchers, such as entirely eliminating the rails on
manufacturing.
which the projectile slides, which could be made
feasible only by high-current-density superconduc-
Department of Defense support for university
tor materials.
research in superconductivity should be increased
32
to promote innovation and scientific break-
base. For example, DARPA funded half of the
throughs that will be necessary for achieving the
key innovations in the field of high-performance
full potential of these materials for defense appli-
computing.6 We believe that it can play a similar
cations. It has been demonstrated repeatedly that
role in the application of superconductors. Radio
these are most likely to originate from individuals
frequency and microwave high-Tc superconductor
or small groups of researchers. Universities have
analog circuitry are likely to mature quickly and
been instrumental in the spectacular advances in
could be inserted into communications and sur-
high-temperature superconductors to date. In
veillance systems. These systems also provide a
addition, defense-sponsored university research
proper base to build upon for more difficult
will also have a positive effect on commercial
achievements in superconductivity, such as anten-
applications.
nas, A/D converters, signal processors, and memo-
ry units. By phasing these technology insertions
The promising defense applications discussed
properly, a powerful thrust can be created to
above argue strongly for a broad-based DOD
promote advantage in defense-critical applications
program that sets aggressive goals, such as pas-
and in commercial spinoffs. The SDIO and Navy
sive microwave circuitry, petaflop computing, and
programs are also aimed at specific
electric ship propulsion. Specific applications will
applications-superconducting magnetic energy
allow early participation by U.S. industry in de-
storage and electric ship propulsion, respectively.
velopment and manufacturing. DARPA has been
We strongly encourage the continuation of these
particularly effective in inserting new technology
programs with widespread participation by indus-
into U.S. industry and developing a manufacturing
try, universities, and Federal laboratories.
1. Report of the Defense Science Board Task Force on Military System Applications of Superconductors (October
1988).
2. Executive Office of the President, Office of Science and Technology Policy, (8 September 1989).
3. Unpublished remarks of Dr. G.A. Keyworth II, Hudson Institute.
4. High Temperature Superconductivity in Perspective, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (April
1990).
5. This technology was portrayed fictionally in the novel The Hunt for the Red October.
6. Made in America: Regaining the Productive Edge, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Commission on
Industrial Productivity, (Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1989), 115.
33
Appendix I
Published Reports on Superconductivity
The 15 reports listed below on advances in
(for the years 1988, 1989, and 1990), and the
superconductivity have appeared over the last 3
Commission has not had access to all of these.
years, that is, since the discovery of the copper
Over the same period, 70 books have been pub-
oxide, high-temperature superconductors, and they
lished with titles recognizing superconductivity.
indicate intense interest in the field. Inclusion in
The technical literature has surged from about
this list is somewhat arbitrary, as a recent survey
1,300 papers in 1986 to 7,800 papers in 1989 (see
found 38 published proceedings of conferences
the figure below).
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
PUBLICATIONS
7,000
WORLD
JAPAN
USA
6,000
EUROPE
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
SOURCE: CAS/E. MEAD (duPONT)
35
Research Briefing on High-Temperature Superconductivity, National Academy of Sciences, Committee
on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, Washington, DC (1987).
Proceedings of the 1988 Conference on Electrical Applications of Superconductivity, Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, California (March 1988).
Proceedings of the Electric Power Research Institute Workshop on High-Temperature Superconductivity,
Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California (April 1988).
New Research Opportunities in Superconductivity, A Workshop Report, sponsored by the National
Science Foundation and ONR, Copper Mountain, Colorado (April 1988).
New Research Programs in Superconductivity, Federal Coordinating Committee on Science, Engineering,
and Technology (May 1988).
Commercializing High-Temperature Superconductivity, Office of Technology Assessment (June 1988).
Military Systems and Applications of Superconductors, Defense Science Board (October 1988).
High-Temperature Superconductivity: Perseverance and Cooperation on the Road to Commercialization,
Committee to Advise the President on High-Temperature Superconductivity (January 1989). ["Wise
Men" Report]
Federal Research Programs in Superconductivity, Federal Coordinating Committee on Science, Engi-
neering, and Technology (March 1989).
High-Temperature Superconductivity in Japan, Japanese Technology Evaluation Center, Loyola College,
Baltimore, Maryland (November 1989).
The National Action Plan on Superconductivity Research and Development, Office of Science and
Technology Policy (December 1989).
Critical Technologies Plan, Department of Defense (March 1990).
Emerging Technologies, Technical Administration, Department of Commerce (spring 1990).
Superconductivity Research and Development Activities in U.S. Industry: 1989 and 1988, R.E. Morrison,
National Science Foundation (March 1990).
High-Temperature Superconductivity in Perspective, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment
(April 1990).
36
Appendix II
Relationships among Superconductivity Technologies
and Applications
The figure below presents the sequential rela-
be required to produce commercial high-Tc wire
tionships among the various enabling technologies
and electronic (discrete) devices. Magnets, motors,
and applications. It is clear that ceramic wire
generators, and integrated electronics will require
making and copper oxide device fabrication are
a decade or more for commercialization. It is
major milestones in the evolution of supercon-
important to note that once the enabling technolo-
ductivity technology. Bulk ceramic components
gies are in hand, applications development can
can be made today. It is possible that 5 years will
proceed in parallel.
Superconductivity Road Map
Structure/Property
Materials
Processing
Synthesis
Theory
Relationships
& Processing
Metals
Ceramics
Thin Films
Wire
Bulk
Devices
Magnets
Integration
Microwave
Digital
Motors
Cavities
Electronics
Magnetic
Generators
Computers
Sheilding
MRI
Signal
Processors
Medical
Power
Image
Magnetometers
Transmission
Processors
SMES
Cryptography
MAGLEV
Interconnects
MHD
SQUID
Propulsion
Enabling
Launchers
Sensors
Technology
Discrete
Applications
Fusion
Electronics
37
Appendix III
Proposal for an
International Committee on Superconductivity
Creation of an International Committee on
superconductivity, particularly as related to the
Superconductivity is proposed. All nations that are
development in one country or in several coun-
active in the field of superconductivity would be
tries. Such assistance would be given voluntarily
invited to join. Working membership would con-
(with expenses paid) on a part-time or full-time
sist of two scientists or engineers from each mem-
basis. In all cases, individuals should be thorough-
ber nation. The purpose would be to ensure the
ly versed in superconductivity, and specifically
effective exchange of information on research
qualified to follow developments in one country,
results and progress and to promote open discus-
such as Japan. Such an individual or individuals
sions of plans and emphasis. Each nation would
should go on fact-finding visits. They should be
present informal 1-year and 5-year plans. The
thoroughly conversant with the language and, as
group would serve to identify gaps in effort, re-
far as possible, with the important individuals
duce undesirable redundance, and give opportuni-
working on superconductivity in that country.
ty for mutual assistance in the programs.
Several European experts, several Japanese ex-
perts, and at least one Russian expert would be
The International Committee would be, of
associated with this committee.
course, cognizant of the international meetings on
superconductivity and might, when the occasion
These individuals would officially report to
arose, sponsor such meetings. In the near future,
the United States representatives on the Interna-
the meetings would continue to be primarily on
tional Committee and could, on individual invita-
research subjects, but meetings on industrial appli-
tions, participate in the meetings of the Interna-
cations and possibly on programs could be in-
tional Committee when needed. They might, of
creasingly included.
course, have meetings with the American repre-
sentatives of the Committee and appropriate
The representatives of the United States on
groups might arrange meetings with each other.
the International Committee would need ample
They might also advise other U.S. organizations.
assistance from individuals who are experts on
39
Appendix IV
Proposal for
Superconductivity Research in High Schools
There have been many reports of high school
have been prepared and handled. It is also depen-
students reproducing some results of superconduc-
dent on the presence of a number of impurities.
tivity. In view of the high desirability of involving
This is a situation where the broadest experimen-
our high schools in technical subjects, experimen-
tation might prove to be useful. Students and
tation on superconductivity for high school juniors
student groups should, therefore, be encouraged to
and seniors should be encouraged and supported.
publish the results of their experimentation. A
special paper might be started and circulated
To do this in a practical manner, at least one
among the high schools that participate or intend
teacher in the high school should show reasonable
to participate in the experiments.
familiarity with the subject. Relatively inexpensive
equipment, including liquid nitrogen, would be
A sum as little as $10,000 might suffice to get
made available.
one such program started, and with the participa-
tion of a few hundred high schools, the cost
The behavior of the new superconducting
would still be limited to a few million dollars.
materials is dependent on the way in which they
41
Appendix V
Research Needs for Refrigeration for
Superconductivity Microelectronics
New technologies for refrigeration at the
possible approaches to providing closed-cycle
microchip level could provide the single greatest
refrigeration with no moving mechanical parts.
competitive advantage in the whole realm of
The most obvious is to miniaturize the traditional
superconducting microelectronics. They would
means of refrigeration (gas compression and ex-
correct the misperception that the utility of super-
pansion), but this method carries serious draw-
conductors depends on the temperatures at which
backs. It still requires a means of compressing
they function. Moreover, until refrigeration tech-
gas, and though it is possible that some nonme-
nology appropriate to the microelectronics envi-
chanical method could be devised (such as ab-
ronment is developed, it is unlikely that any su-
sorption/desorption from an appropriate material),
perconductors, low-temperature or high-tempera-
the microelectronics package would carry the
ture, will become significant factors in the micro-
added demand of sealing in the gas indefinitely.
electronics industry.
There would also be a substantial chance over
time that the micro-machined gas tubing would
For these reasons, the following set of goals is
clog, especially if there were any contaminants in
targeted:
the gas that might freeze out.
Develop manufacturable devices to provide up
More promising as a concept are refrigerators
to 1 Watt of cooling power in the temperature
that are entirely solid-state and contain no work-
range of 10 to 100K.
ing fluid at all. One type would take advantage of
the cooling possible during the transition from
Focus on simplicity in systems, preferably
highly ordered to disordered atomic structures-as
solid-state refrigerators with no moving parts.
can happen in molecules when a strong field is
suddenly removed. A rapidly cycled field could
Integrate research on refrigeration with re-
continuously remove heat without moving parts or
search on superconductive microelectronic
gases. Approaches include magnetic and electric
devices and systems, because the goal is to
fields, as well as materials that produce cooling
integrate the refrigeration with the electronics.
effects when they undergo phase changes.
A small research team would probably be able
Another technology worth exploring is the
to develop a proof-of-concept for a solid-state
"thermo-acoustic-driven pulse tube" cryocooler.
refrigerator in 2 to 3 years, and it would take
This method uses sound to set up standing waves
another 3 to 4 years to develop a manufacturable
in a tube that create a temperature gradient. The
prototype. Such an effort might cost $50 million.
motion of gas particles in the tube provides the
Within the range of 10 to 100K, there are several
heat-transfer mechanism.
43
Appendix VI
Superconducting Wire
Conventional Low-temperature
these facts: one U.S. manufacturer of wire for
Superconducting Wire
Fermilab magnets recently processed four billets
to wire with resulting critical current densities of
Practical superconducting wire is usually a
313,100 to 321,400 A/cm² at 4.2K and 5 T. The
multifilamentary composite with substantial
best wire from Japan so far has a current density
amounts of high-conductivity normal metal such
of 309,700 A/cm². Production of SSC wire with Jc
as copper. Such a form allows adequate electrical,
greater than 300,000 A/cm² is now considered
thermal, and mechanical properties (ac loss, stabil-
routine in the United States, while in Japan the
ity, and strength) for practical applications.
norm is 280,000 to 310,000 A/cm². Japanese and
European Nb-Ti wire is considered generally to be
A typical strand of low-temperature supercon-
comparable to, but not better than, U.S.-made
ducting wire is 1 to 2 millimeters in diameter,
wire.
contains thousands of continuous superconducting
filaments, and is twisted about once every centi-
The United States is slightly behind our Japa-
meter of length. The most common method of
nese and European competitors in the develop-
manufacturing the wire is hot extrusion of a large
ment of improved higher performance low-tem-
hand-assembled composite billet followed by
perature superconducting materials such as Nb₃Sn,
conventional wire drawing with intermediate heat
niobium nitride (NbN), and the Chevrel phases.
treatments. After drawing, the wire is given a
These materials are of interest because they all
final heat treatment to form a fine distribution of
exhibit higher critical temperatures and higher
crystal defects within the superconductor to en-
upper critical fields (Hc2). The potential is for
hance the critical current. Fabrication is carried
magnets with stronger fields.
out so that the final diameter of the superconduc-
ting filaments is less than about 0.004 inch (100
Nb₃Sn technology is well developed, and
m). Larger conductors are formed by cabling or
commercial magnets containing composite Nb₃Sn
braiding together many strands or by attaching
conductors are available today from many U.S.,
strands to a solid block of metal. Stainless steel
Japanese, and European vendors. Nb₃Sn is attrac-
strips or wires are sometimes added for mechani-
tive because it has higher Tc, Hc2, and Jc values
cal reinforcement.
than Nb-Ti (see Table VI-1). The chief disadvan-
tage of the material is brittleness. The United
Today the United States has a slight lead over
States halted most research on Nb₃Sn in the late
Japan and Europe in the technology of fabricating
1980's when funding was cut severely. The fusion
high-performance Nb-Ti superconducting wire.
program has been responsible for keeping some
Two points are important in this regard: the larg-
research on Nb₃Sn going, although continued
est production capacity for Nb-Ti wire now re-
funding reductions are expected. It is possible that
sides in the United States, which supplies the MRI
in 12 to 18 months, U.S. Government-sponsored
industry, and the majority of the technical innova-
research on Nb₃Sn will have ended. This trend
tion for improved wire performance that has oc-
will cause our industry to fall further behind in
curred in the last 5 years has taken place in the
low-temperature superconducting technology.
United States, driven by the SSC project. Because
Nb-Ti is ductile, strong, and the focus of a highly
Japan and several European countries have
developed technology, it is the present-day work-
maintained R&D activities and are consequently
horse of the applied superconductivity field. Al-
ahead, especially in the very high field (greater
though we are ahead by perhaps 6 months, the
than 20 T) regime. Vacuumschmelze of West
Japanese and Germans are very near and have an
Germany is probably the overall leader in Nb₃Sn
excellent record of rapidly adapting U.S. innova-
wire technology.
tions, such as improved processing techniques for
higher Jc and finer filaments, to practical technolo-
NbN conductor research is nonexistent today
gy and products. To illustrate our lead consider
in the United States. A prime reason for this is
45
Table VI-1
Low-Tc Materials of Technical Interest Summary of Properties and Comments
Jc at 4.2K (A/cm²) in a magnetic fieldᵇ
Material
Tc (K)
Hc2 at 4.2K
oT
5T
10 T
20 T
Comments
(T)
Commercially Available
Nb-Ti°
9.5
11
1 X 10⁶
3 X 10⁵
2 X 10⁴
Nb₃Sn
18.3
26
6 X 10⁵
2 X 10⁵
1 X 10⁵
1 X 10⁴
V₃Ga
15.4
21
-
—
4 X 10⁵
1 X 10⁵
Japan only
Under Development
NbN
16
24
-
-
7 X 10⁵
1 X 10⁵
Film (short
lengths)
Nb₃Al
18.9
30
-
5 X 10⁵
1 X 10⁵
6 X 10³
Short wires (Ja-
pan)
PbMo(₆)S(₈)
13
47-51
-
-
5 X 10⁴
1 X 10⁴
Short wires
a Principal sources: ICMC and ASC Conference Proceedings and NIST-Boulder data (private communication).
Jc refers to the superconductor layer only. Additional necessary elements of the conductor reduce Jc values in V₃Ga, NbN, and
typically by 2 to 5 times.
c Tc and Hc2 are composition-dependent in the technical range. The nominal composition is Nb46.5Ti.
that there is no good source of basic science funds
There are reasonable programs in Europe and
for work in low-temperature superconducting
Japan on Chevrel-phase materials, whereas U.S.
materials. People coming into the field see the
efforts are minimal. Again our programs have
emphasis being placed on high-temperature super-
suffered because researchers here switched to
conducting materials and perceive that, in today's
investigations on the high-Tc materials. Chevrel-
very tough reviewing climate, proposals on low-Tc
phase materials are attractive because of extremely
materials will not be funded.
high measured values of Hc2 (greater than 50 T).
The Jc at 20 T is comparable to that for Nb₃Sn.
The Japanese probably lead in thin-film NbN
The problem with the material is its brittleness
technology, while the Germans have recently
and resultant difficulty of fabrication for long
come close to developing a viable wire manufac-
length wire. Small prototype magnet coils of lead
turing process. The longest good quality samples
molybdenum sulfide (PbMo₆S₈) wire have been
of NbN tape available are meters in length at best.
built by Seeber in Geneva.
Dietrich in Germany has prepared tens of meters
of fiber bundles of NbN on carbon fibers with a
To support superconductivity for the long
copper stabilizer added later. NbN is technologi-
term, it makes sense to encourage work on high-
cally attractive because it is insensitive to radia-
field low-temperature superconducting materials
tion and its Jc does not degrade with elastic strain
rather than concentrating exclusively on high-
(Jc in Nb₃Sn has degraded by 15 percent at the
temperature superconductor research. New money
elastic limit). The fusion community has been
for continued research on low-Tc materials will
very interested. Present-day NbN containing 0.05
help us to better understand high-temperature
percent carbon can be fabricated in thin films with
superconductivity and specifically how to improve
a noncopper current density of about 10 percent
Jc and develop better manufacturing processes.
of that for Nb₃Sn.
Continued work on NbN and the Chevrel-phase
46
materials may be especially fruitful because the
Some recent best claims for Jc at 4.2K and 5
problems with improving Jc at high fields and the
T in short lengths (3 to 10 cm) of bismuth-based
fabrication of long conductors are similar to those
high-Tc superconductors in silver-clad wire are:
we face with the oxide superconductors. The
technology of practical high-Tc conductors will
≈2 X 10⁵ A/cm²
Japan
benefit by investigations on low-Tc materials.
1-2 X 10⁴ A/cm²
Europe
1-2 X 10⁴ A/cm²
United States
The development of Nb-Ti technology pro-
vides an interesting lesson. Nb-Ti became the
The Japanese have just reported¹ encouraging
favored superconductor in the period between
results at high fields in centimeter-length tape
1965 and 1970. However, a true understanding of
samples of Pb-doped 2223 material
how best to process Nb-Ti for optimum current-
See Table VI-2. These
carrying capacity was not achieved until about
results indicate that high-Tc magnets of engineer-
1985. The cost savings from this understanding
ing interest may be feasible.
have reached tens of millions of dollars for MRI
magnets and potentially $200 million for the SSC.
For YBCO material in silver-clad wire, the
current status at 4.2 K and 5 T is:
A table of Tc, Hc2, and Jc values of the low-Tc
materials of greatest technical interest is included
3-4 X 10³ A/cm²
Japan
as a reference for the current status of low-Tc wire
1-2 X 10³ A/cm² United States
technology.
Specific records for Jc in the oxide supercon-
High-temperature
ductors tend to be broken regularly and are often
Superconducting Wire
unsubstantiated. It is relatively easy to make 50 to
100 feet of high-Tc oxide wire, but magnets of
There has been significant progress in im-
several kilogauss have not yet been fabricated.
provements to Jc in wires made from oxide super-
This underscores the difficulty of manufacturing a
conductors over the past 12 to 18 months. During
long length of practical wire.
this period, Jc has moved from about 50 A/cm² at
4.2K and 5 T and essentially zero A/cm² at 77K
The wire fabrication methods that look most
and 5 T to the 1,000 A/cm² attainable today at
practical include the following:
4.2K and 5 T in silver-clad YBCO wire. Many
researchers report a critical-current density of 10⁴
Oxide powder in a silver tube.
A/cm2 at 4.2K and 5 T in Bi containing tape
samples, while the Japanese claim values greater
Metallic alloy precursor method.
than 10⁵ A/cm² at 4.2K and 5 T. This extremely
high Jc requires good crystallographic orientation
Forming an oxide layer on a substrate tape.
within the polycrystalline oxide superconductor
layer.
Table VI-2
Critical Currents in BiPbSrCaCuO Tapes
Jc (A/cm²) in a magnetic field
Temperature (K)
oT
5 T
10 T
20 T
4.2
2.1 X 10⁵
1.1 X 10⁵
9.2 X 10⁴
8.5 X 10⁴
20
1.7 X 10⁵
8.6 X 10⁴
7.2 x 10⁴
5.5 x 10⁴
77
3 X 10⁴
-
-
-
47
Preparation of fibers by classic ceramic ap-
project is half government funded and half sup-
proaches.
ported internally. The team is committed to a
long-term program, involves a successful low-Tc
Melt texturing.
company with experienced superconductor re-
searchers, and is not overburdened with require-
Each of these methods, of course, has its own set
ments for reporting and meetings.
of advantages and disadvantages. It is clear,
though, that practical wire must be available in
How long will it take to make practical high-
long lengths, be mechanically strong, and have
Tc superconductive wire? No one can answer this
consistently good properties along the length.
question with certainty. However, if there is sta-
bility with present programs, in 3 to 5 years we
Many of the high-Jc values reported are not
will probably have a good idea of where the tech-
reliable or well represented, for the following
nology will go. During this period we must make
reasons:
headway in several scientific and technological
areas (some have said we will need break-
Many researchers have a short history in the
throughs). We need progress in our understanding
wire-development area and are overly optimis-
of the following subjects:
tic. We do not yet have measurement stan-
dards for Jc in the oxides, so one group's
Simply how the physics and materials science
methods for determining Jc could differ from
of these oxide superconductors work. We
another's. The question arises: Over what
need to know more about mechanisms, theory,
length is the measurement taken? It has been
and structure-property-processing relation-
suggested that the product JCL, where L is the
ships.
length over which the measurement is taken,
is a means of reporting progress during the
How to control the weak-link problem.
development stage of wire making.
The 2D/3D/flux creep problem and the influ-
The value of Jc at 0 T may be quoted. This Jc
ence this has on determining the properties of
is of only minor technical value.
yttrium compounds as compared to bismuth
and thallium compounds.
The Jc may not have been independently
checked.
How to make mechanically tough conductors
that are not plagued by weak-link problems.
The Japanese probably lead in the develop-
ment of high-Tc wire because they are very active
And there exist the economic issues. Can a substi-
"making things" and are committed to the long
tute for silver be found? One industry researcher
term. There are more groups in Japan that are
estimates that long lengths of practical wire for
making wire and are production oriented. Many
applications not requiring high fields will be
sophisticated labs with a long history in the com-
available in 2 to 3 years. Wire for use in fields
mercial low-Tg-superconductor field are involved
above several T at 20K might not be available
in high-T₆-development activities. These labs have
until after 1995.
experience on their side and excellent experimen-
tation facilities to assist with the understanding
Both Japan and Europe will do better in su-
and characterization of high-Tc material property-
perconductivity than the United States unless we
structure-processing relationships. Japanese indus-
modify our strategy. Their approach is to develop
try is spending large amounts of money on high-
strong groups, support them well, support them
Tc superconductivity, which is bound to produce
consistently, and support them for the long term.
fruit.
Our tendency is often to favor the home-run ap-
proach and place too small an emphasis on devel-
An example of European initiative is Vac-
oping a true interdisciplinary understanding of the
uumschmelze. They are supporting a 5-year pro-
materials themselves.
gram to study the bismuth-based materials. This
48
1. "Critical Currents of Superconducting BiPbSrCaCuO Tapes in the Magnetic Flux Density Range 0-19.75T at
4.2, 15 and 20 K," K. Sato, T. Hikata, and Y. Iwasa, submitted to Appl. Phys. Lett. (23 August 1990).
49
Appendix VII
Low-temperature Superconducting Magnets
Superconducting Magnets
Conventional electromagnets have copper
support for the magnet to operate safely and reli-
windings, operate at about 1,000 A/cm², and make
ably.
extensive use of iron yokes to concentrate the
field. These electromagnets are heavy, consume
Zero-loss conductors capable of high current
large amounts of power because of resistive loss-
densities in strong magnetic fields enable the
es, and are limited in field strength to about
practical operation of superconducting magnets
20,000 gauss (2 T), the saturation field for iron.
suitable for a host of electric power applications.
Higher fields and current densities are possible in
Examples include magnets for magnetic resonance
conventional electromagnetism, but only at the
imaging, motors and generators, advanced trans-
cost of enormous power consumption.
portation systems, energy storage, fusion power,
materials processing and fabrication, and scientific
Practical composite superconducting wire and
research. Examples of key applications are dis-
tape is an enabling technology for efficient high-
cussed below to acquaint the reader with typical
field magnets. The only power required by a
conductor specifications, device performance
superconducting magnet is that needed for refrig-
levels, critical supporting technologies, and obsta-
eration (to cool the magnet) and for a power
cles to the application of high-temperature super-
supply to initiate current flow around the super-
conducting oxides.
conducting circuit. Low-temperature superconduc-
ting magnets are cheaper to buy and run than
Competition among Low-Tc
conventional high-field electromagnets, are more
Magnet Builders
compact and lighter, and can produce higher
fields. Field strengths in the range of 5 to 15 T
Overview
are commonplace because of the high current
densities attainable (about 10⁶ A/cm² at 4.2K in
Five to 10 years ago, most of the competition
zero field) in available low-temperature supercon-
for building large superconducting magnets was in
ducting wire containing Nb-Ti or Nb₃Sn. The high
the United States. In recent years, however, more
performance of superconducting wire of compos-
and more foreign companies have been bidding
ite niobium-titanium in copper, the workhorse of
competitively on large-scale U.S. magnet projects.
the applied superconductivity industry today, is
The SSC is an example, in which the Japanese
the result of 30 years of persistent research and
might supply as many as 4,000 dipole magnets,
development activities supported primarily by
half the total needed for the project. If too much
government funding.
magnet business is given to foreign companies,
then we risk seriously damaging U.S. competitive-
Many of the techniques used to construct
ness in the wire and magnet area. We could prob-
superconducting magnets have been specially
ably recover if we were to fall 2 years behind, but
developed. The best method for a particular appli-
it would be very difficult to recover if we were to
cation will depend on the magnet's size, shape,
get 5 years or more behind in this technology.
field, conductor materials, operating current, and
method of conductor stabilization. Conductor
Any company that is doing more work than
stabilization implies operation at the rated current
other companies in a specific area of magnet
without a catastrophic excursion to the resistive
development and construction probably leads the
(normal) state. It is perhaps the single most im-
field in that specific area. If the area is highly
portant basis for design and includes heat transfer
competitive and several companies are involved,
and stress effect considerations. The conductor
then all may be within 6 months to a year behind
within a superconducting magnet must be suffi-
the leader. This has been the tradition with low-
ciently cooled and be given adequate mechanical
temperature magnet technology because of several
51
factors: the dissemination of information to the
these devices because of the financial risk and
community via open discussion among engineers,
lack of government assistance.
scientists, and project review teams; synergism
between different magnet projects; and the rapid
Superconductive Magnetic Energy
availability of technical information through the
Storage (SMES)
open literature.
As discussed in the next two sections of this
Comments on the current status of low-Tc
Appendix, companies in the United States such as
magnet technology in selected areas follows. This
General Dynamics and Westinghouse lead in
discussion is not meant to represent the field as a
large-scale military- and utility-scale units, where-
whole but to give specific examples of where we
as Japan leads in the small-scale area. Our lead is
and our competitors stand today in certain areas:
probably several years, whereas the Japanese lead
in small-scale SMES is perhaps 12 to 18 months.
Dipole Magnets (Niobium-Titanium)
The Europeans and Soviets are not strong compet-
itors yet.
We probably lead the Europeans and Japanese
by 6 to 12 months because of SSC work. Howev-
Magnets for National Security
er, our capabilities for mass production are behind
the Germans and Italians. Brown-Boveri and
Background
Ansaldo each built 240 dipole magnets 2 feet in
diameter and 9 meters long for HERA at the rate
Magnets are the central component of most
of 4 magnets per week. The Japanese and Italians
high-power applications of superconductivity.
could probably catch us in 6 to 12 months.
Examples include magnets for fusion energy,
Brown-Boveri may decide to get out of the mag-
superconducting motors and generators, supercon-
net business.
ductive magnetic energy storage, electromagnetic
thrust propulsion, MHD power generation, and
Quadrapole Magnets for Accelerators
magnetic separation of special materials. The
(Niobium-Titanium and Niobium Tin
major benefits from using superconducting mag-
(Nb₃Sn)
nets are very high field strength, specially uniform
and time-stable field, low power consumption, and
The Europeans probably lead this technology.
high reliability. Conventional copper-wound elec-
Alston of France, Noel and Elin of Austria, and
tromagnets with an iron core can produce fields
Siemens of Germany are key players. Some of
up to about 2 T, while low-temperature supercon-
these magnets are in the 10-T range. The Japanese
ducting magnets are readily available that produce
companies-Hitachi, Mitsubishi, and Furakawa-
fields greater than 14 T at 4.2K in small-diameter-
are not active now but could become major com-
bore (inches) solenoids. Superconducting magnets
petitors in perhaps 6 to 12 months. Japan is not as
consume very little power except for refrigeration,
open with information about its technology as are
while conventional electromagnets require both a
the United States and the Europeans.
large power supply and extensive water cooling.
Large Thin Solenoid Detector Magnets
Magnets made with high-Tc materials offer
for High-Energy Physics (HEP)
significant potential advantages over those made
with low-Tc materials. Because high-Tc materials
Japan leads in this area in part probably be-
have higher critical temperatures and fields, mag-
cause of government subsidies. U.S. Government
nets made with these materials have the potential
contracting arrangements for these devices and
of enormously high fields, less power consump-
most other large HEP magnets, such as the Con-
tion (due to smaller refrigeration requirements),
tinuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility
and a smaller size, which is economically attrac-
(CEBAF) Large Acceptance Spectrometer, usually
tive. High-field high-Tc magnets cannot be built
are for guaranteed performance specifications and
today chiefly because of two problems: It is diffi-
a fixed-price contract. Each magnet is a first-of-a-
cult to achieve high critical-current densities at
-kind unit and may involve R&D to build. Many
high fields in polycrystalline material, and long
U.S. companies are not interested in bidding for
lengths of flexible wire are unavailable.
52
SMES
SMES for Power Load Leveling
The Department of Defense is interested in
Large-scale SMES has been suggested as a
superconductive magnetic energy storage (SMES)
method for leveling the daily and weekly load
as a power supply candidate for high-powered
demand from utility generating plants. Energy
ground-based lasers (GBL's). GBL's might re-
storage allows for reductions in the operation of
quire as much as 1,000 MW per laser, available
less-efficient peak and intermediate generating
on very short notice and for a period of some
facilities. SMES offers the utilities a new plan for
minutes. Studies have shown that stored energy is
operation and growth: cost-effective power gener-
preferred over generation technologies such as
ation with coal and nuclear baseload powerplants
diesel engines or gas turbines because of cost and
plus efficient large-scale energy storage. The
quick startup time. To verify the projected cost
potential benefits include a savings of 10 percent
and performance characteristics of SMES, SDIO,
on total fuel costs and reduced air pollution due to
along with EPRI, initiated a program in Novem-
cleaner combustion in the base units.
ber 1987, to design, build, and test a small SMES
engineering test model (ETM). The stored energy
The SMES approach is an alternative to
and maximum power output of the ETM are 20
pumped hydro, compressed air, or battery meth-
MWh and 400 MW respectively. During Phase I
ods, and offers the distinct advantage of superior
of the program ($28 million), two different mag-
net storage efficiency. The major loss during
net designs were developed, and two different
SMES is operating a refrigerator to maintain
conductors as well as other magnet system com-
superconductivity in the coil. Another benefit of
ponents were tested. Phase II is planned for a 3-
SMES is its ability to respond within tens of
year period with experiments to begin in 1994 or
milliseconds to power demands. This capability
1995. The cost of Phase II is estimated to be $125
allows the magnet to provide "spinning reserve"
million to $150 million.
and improve network stability, which gives a
substantial cost credit to this technology. SMES
The United States has been active in SMES
efficiency may be as high as 95 percent, whereas
research since 1971. The rate of expenditure has
efficiencies for other forms of storage range from
been at an all-time high over the last 3 years
65 to 80 percent at best.
because of the SDIO/EPRI ETM program and will
accelerate if Phase II proceeds. We lead our inter-
The fraction of total U.S. electric utility gen-
national competitors in military and utility-scale
erating capacity that could be in the form of ener-
(stored energy above about 10 MWh) SMES
gy storage is 5 to 15 percent. The 5 percent value
technology.
might be a reasonable estimation and translates to
37,500 MW of the expected capacity available in
The Japanese have been active in SMES R&D
the 1990's. At present, about 2 percent of our
since the mid-1970's, have followed U.S. devel-
generating capacity is in the form of pumped
opments closely, and are in a serious startup mode
hydro storage plants, but additional sites for these
in this technology. They probably lead the tech-
units are scarce.
nology for small-scale units (about 1 MWh),
where they have concentrated their efforts in
SMES for the electric utility is a big-ticket
recent years. There is an active program in Japan
item with economic use predicted for sizes above
at present (the privately funded Chubu Project) to
1,000 MWh. Large plants are cheaper than small
develop storage units for eliminating the voltage
ones on the basis of cost per unit of stored energy
and power transients at substations associated with
and will cost roughly as much as new coal-fired
electric rail and maglev vehicle transit. Japan is
generating plants of comparable size, $1 billion to
also active through a MITI-sponsored program in
$2 billion. The future market for SMES after the
the conceptual design of an ETM-scale unit for
year 2010 is projected to be $2 billion per year in
utility applications.
the United States and $6 billion per year world-
wide.
The Soviets are very interested in SMES, and
conceptual studies are underway. Germany is in a
SMES devices will contain a number of un-
planning and proposal stage.
usual features but require no new enabling tech-
53
nologies to build. Current designs call for ex-
SMES application, the conductor may be designed
tremely large diameter (1,000 meters), short (19
to operate at about half the critical current value,
meters tall), thin (1 meter) coils buried under-
so that the conductor can absorb large amounts of
ground in shallow trenches and make use of soil
energy and increase its temperature appreciably
and rock as mechanical support. The superconduc-
without driving the superconductor into a resistive
ting cable will carry a very large dc current-
state.
50,000 to 200,000 A-and be cooled by super-
fluid helium at 1.8K. A massive fiberglass-epoxy
A unique feature of SMES is that the mass of
structure will support the conductor in a vacuum-
the magnet and cold support structure is very
insulated vessel and transmit large magnetic forc-
large relative to the available refrigeration. Cool-
es to the surrounding earth.
ing the magnet from ambient to its operating
temperature is expected to take at least 1 month.
The superconductor for low-temperature
Another unusual characteristic of the magnet is
SMES will likely be a composite of niobium-
that when fully charged it has an extremely large
titanium in copper stabilized by high-purity alumi-
value of stored energy per unit mass of conductor.
num. The estimated superconductor costs, which
If the magnet becomes resistive, it will warm up
are a large fraction of the total plant capital cost,
to above room temperature slowly as the stored
can be cut substantially (about 33 percent) by
energy is dissipated as heat in the coil. Because
operating the magnet at 1.8K and grading the
an accidental warmup (quench) would be expen-
amount of conductor needed in different parts of
sive and time consuming, conductor designs are
the magnet to the local magnetic field strength. A
conservative and operating points allow a large
typical conductor performance specification for
margin of safety.
SMES is operation at 1.8K in a 4-T field with a
current density in the superconducting material of
The substitution of high-Tc materials for Nb-
nearly 500,000 A/cm². Shown for comparison in
Ti in utility-scale SMES will affect magnet sys-
Table VII-1 are the critical current density specifi-
tem design and cost. The magnet design must be
cations for Fermilab and SSC conductors. For the
changed to accommodate the different electrical,
Table VII-1
Conductor Specifications
Current
Magnetic
density
Temperature
Field
Type of Magnet
Conductor Materials
(A/cm²)
(K)
(T)
Utility Scale SMES
Nb-Ti filaments in copper and sur-
4-500,000
1.8
4-5
rounded by pure aluminum
Fermilab Magnets
Nb-46.5 1.5Ti fine
180,000
4.2
5
filaments in copper
SSC Magnetsᵇ
Nb-47 1Ti ultra-fine
275,000
4.2
5
filaments in copper
"Present design thinking for one of the ETM designs.
ᵇCentral field is 6.6 T; peak field at conductor is 7 T. Actual conductor specification is different for inner coil and outer coil
wire as indicated in the following table:
Approx. Jc
Wire Diameter
Strands in Rutherford
Conductor
Ic (A)
B (T)
T (K)
(A/cm²)
(inches)
Cable
Inner Coil
339
7.0
4.2
173,000
0.0318
30
Outer Coil
286
5.6
4.2
258,000
0.0255
36
54
thermal, and mechanical properties of brittle oxide
Use of superconductors would provide several
superconductors. Costs could decrease slightly
other advantages, partly by eliminating the need
because of operation at 77K and simplifications to
for an iron core:
the dewar and refrigeration systems. These cost
savings may be offset, however, by a more com-
Reduced size-20-percent smaller diameter;
plicated conductor-support scheme. A significant
60-percent smaller length.
impact on refrigeration costs is possible if oxide
current leads are developed. If it is assumed that
Reduced weight-up to 60 percent.
high-Tc material can be substituted directly for
Nb-Ti at the same conductor cost and perfor-
Potential cost reduction in large sizes.
mance levels, then the decrease in plant cost is
estimated to be 8 percent. This decrease, coupled
Smaller variation of efficiency with load.
with substantial decreases expected in operating
expenses for a high-T₈-based system (refrigeration
Potential for more forgiving design space by
costs might be 10 times lower than those required
use of higher magnetic fields than are possible
by a liquid-helium system), could make smaller
with an iron-core system (limited to about
units economically competitive.
2 T).
A logical next step for this technology is to
Development Requirements
build the proposed 10 to 20 MWh, Nb-Ti-based
ETM. This device is needed to demonstrate basic
Conductors, presumably containing supercon-
design concepts, as well as efficient load follow-
ducting filaments, that can be fabricated and
ing, ramping, regulation, small energy sales and
wound into desired configurations and can
purchases, pulsed outputs, and operational flexibil-
withstand the operational mechanical stresses
ities. Construction procedures must be developed,
and thermal cycling. The material properties
the operational ranges and use must be deter-
of present high-temperature superconductors
mined, and extrapolations to economically com-
make this the most formidable challenge due
petitive larger units must be verified. If a suitable
to brittleness, current-carrying capacity, and
high-T₆-based conductor were available, the mag-
the effects of magnetic fields on conductor
net design could be altered and the newer conduc-
performance.
tor and magnet concept tested.
Mechanically simple cooling, to maintain the
Motors and Generators
conductor at the desired temperature and to
remove waste heat.
Motors consume over 60 percent of all elec-
tric power generated in the United States. Half of
System design to assure electromagnetic sta-
this consumption is in motors of 125 horsepower
bility in startup and load-variation conditions.
(hp) capacity or higher. Generators are highly
efficient, typically greater than 95 percent.
Minimum ac losses in the superconductor. If
these can be made sufficiently low, then ac
Value of Superconductivity
armatures might be fabricated from supercon-
ductors, with corresponding performance
About half the electrical losses in motors
improvements.
could be eliminated by using superconductors.
Based on present projections, the most likely ap-
Markets
plications for superconductors are in the dc rotors
of synchronous ac machines and in dc homopolar
The economics of motor and generator life-
machines. Widespread adoption of this approach
cycle costs dictate that superconducting devices
could increase average motor efficiency by 4 to 5
will be used for the new and replacement market,
percent. Because generators are quite efficient, the
the latter requiring about 20 years for optimal
improvement in using superconductors would be
only about 0.5 percent.
55
impact. These analyses do not, however, measure
power consumption considerations. Most high-
the value and impact of sales to the developing
resolution machines today operate at a magnetic
nations. One key economic factor is the cost
field strength of around 1.5 T. The field must be
premium, if any, of superconducting over conven-
very constant over a large central region of the
tional devices. Although there have been analyses
magnet bore. Typical field decay rates and homo-
indicating that, above 300 MW, a high-temper-
geneity specifications are 0.03 to 0.1 parts per
ature superconducting generator would be less
million per hour and 3 parts per million through-
expensive than a conventional one, significant
out a 25-centimeter diameter spherical volume,
motor market penetration is predicted even with a
respectively. Typical superconductor current den-
50-percent cost penalty over a conventional mo-
sities are 10⁵ A/cm² at 4.2K. Cryogen consump-
tor.
tion in passive units is typically 0.5 and 1.0 liter
per hour for helium and nitrogen respectively.
Target Specifications
These consumption rates can be reduced signifi-
cantly or eliminated by addition of refrigerators.
The target specification is a high-temperature
superconducting magnet that could be installed on
The FDA currently limits the maximum static
the rotor of a 1,000-hp motor. Its overall conduc-
magnetic field strength for human exposure to 2 T
tor current density would be 10,000 A/cm², capa-
and below. The FDA also requires that access be
ble of thermal and mechanical cycling typical of
controlled to all areas with static fields in excess
20 years operation of a motor of this size. A 5 T
of 5 gauss (0.0005 T). The reed switches in many
magnetic field capability would demonstrate sig-
pacemakers can be affected by fields above 10
nificant design improvement potential. It would
gauss; CRT displays and magnetic recording
operate at 30 to 60K with an attendant refrigera-
media are sensitive to magnetic fields in the 10 to
tion subsystem. The configuration of the rotor
100 gauss range. For reference, the Earth's field is
magnet and all associated subsystems would be
about 0.5 gauss. In addition, ferromagnetic (iron)
mechanically, electrically, and thermally compati-
objects must be kept away from the energized
ble with operation in an actual motor. It would
MRI coil because of field and image distortion
use fabrication and assembly technology such that
and safety concerns. A charged coil will attract
a confident prediction of mass-production cost can
any object normally attracted by a magnet. This
be made and that the net projected cost premium
attractive force can be very large and depends on
for the motor be no greater than 50 percent above
field strength and object size.
an equivalently rated conventional motor.
Value of Superconductivity to MRI
MRI
Strong magnetic fields and hence good image
Magnetic resonance imaging for medical
resolution capabilities.
evaluation has produced the first large-scale com-
mercial application of superconductivity. Over
Smaller and lighter weight magnets, as com-
2,000 magnets at an average price of about
pared to resistive versions, which allows
$300,000 each have been manufactured in the
mobile MRI to be practical.
United States, the United Kingdom, and Europe
since the field began in 1980. The devices operate
Low power consumption to operate the mag-
at relatively low fields (less than 2 T currently)
net.
and have been dependent on advances in basic
superconductor materials or magnet technology.
High reliability.
MRI has progressed in the areas of cryogen con-
sumption, field homogeneity, transportability,
Potential for High-Tc Conductors
shielding, reliability, and user interface.
Higher fields allowing better image resolution.
MRI is possible without superconductivity;
however, such nonsuperconducting systems cannot
Lower refrigeration costs.
compete technically and economically with super-
conductive systems because of image quality and
Smaller, lighter weight units.
56
Cost may be comparable to low-temperature
better image resolution and the ability to
devices because the conductor cost is not a
discriminate for higher atomic weight (P, Na)
major cost item.
elements.
Obstacles to High-Tc Use
The market is expected to drive this technolo-
gy as it has done since the field began. It is
Development of a strong and flexible wire or
noteworthy that private industry has paid for
tape with appreciable current-carrying capaci-
the vast majority of development progress in
ty in a strong magnetic field.
this field with the exception of the supercon-
ducting wire used. The high-performance wire
Market Issues
is largely the product of a decade of DOE-
sponsored research at universities and national
Current market is 500 machines per year and
laboratories.
growing. Typical costs: magnet-$350 thou-
sand, complete MRI system-$2 million,
U.S. companies have shown that they can
siting and installation including shielding-
capture and maintain a strong world market
about $2 million.
position over an extended period in a highly
competitive field.
Higher field magnets may broaden the field of
medical diagnostics tremendously because of
57
Appendix VIII
Legal and Regulatory Barriers
Superconductivity is an extraordinarily prom-
real returns were to be found. Unfortunately, in
ising technology. However, there is a general
leveling the tax treatment of various types of
perception that the level of investment in super-
plant, equipment, and structures, the Tax Reform
conductivity R&D in the United States is too low,
Act "leveled up," raising the overall cost of capi-
especially in view of the international competition
tal in the economy, particularly for assets with
in this area. To overcome the technical barriers
long lives.
necessary to commercialize superconductivity
rapidly enough to be competitive, barriers to
Furthermore, the Tax Reform Act was not
increased industry investment in superconductivity
neutral between capital goods and consumption.
R&D will also have to be surmounted.
The norm that was taken was the so-called broad-
based income tax, with a built-in bias against
Superconductivity has three attributes that are
saving and investment, rather than a truly neutral
relevant in assessing government policies that are
consumption-based approach. A tax structure was
barriers to increased industry investment in R&D:
created with a higher cost of capital than in 1980,
First, the technology will probably be very expen-
repealing the cuts in the cost of capital enacted in
sive to develop, requiring the investment of large
1981.
sums of money. Second, investment in the tech-
nology is extremely risky. That is, even if large
It is often claimed that U.S. managers and
sums are invested, there is no guarantee that all
investors are too shortsighted in the search for
the technical barriers to practical high-temperature
profits, and that this adversely affects R&D
superconductivity will be overcome. Third, even if
spending. Some propose tax changes to force U.S.
the technology does eventually prove practical, it
managers and investors to take a longer view,
could be many years before a firm recovers its
such as penalizing debt finance or modifying
investment in R&D and starts to make a profit.
capital gains rates to favor longer holding periods
These three attributes make investment in high-
for stock. The problem with this approach is that
temperature superconductivity R&D more sensi-
it is backwards. U.S. savers and investors have
tive to government tax, antitrust, and patent poli-
not driven the cost of capital higher because they
cies than many other kinds of R&D investment.
are myopic; if they have a short time horizon, it is
because the cost of capital has been driven to
Tax Policy Barriers
higher levels by the tax code.
Several features of the U.S. tax code tend to
A fundamental disincentive to industrial in-
reduce saving and investment and increase the
vestment in all long-range, high-risk R&D, includ-
cost of capital. This, in turn, interferes with the
ing superconductivity, is the high cost of capital.
development of new technology by reducing the
In addition, the high cost of capital limits the
rewards for basic and applied research. Removing
availability of venture capital for small entrepre-
these tax-policy barriers would be helpful in en-
neurial companies. One way to reduce the cost of
couraging increased industry investment in re-
capital is a general revision of the U.S. tax code,
search generally, and especially in high-tempera-
an issue beyond the scope of this report. Never-
ture superconductivity.
theless, the Commission obtained a better under-
standing of the problem as the result of written
One of the stated objectives of the Tax Re-
and oral testimony presented by external experts.
form Act of 1986 was a more neutral tax treat-
ment of capital assets. The intention was to "level
The Basic Tax Bias Against Saving
the playing field" by repealing special credits and
and Investment
allowances that favored one type of investment
over another. A tax code was sought that would
The income tax imposes a heavier burden on
reduce distortion of economic decisions and that
income that is saved and invested than on income
would permit investment to go where the greatest
that is used for consumption. Income is taxed
59
when earned. If used for consumption, there is
Additional Tax Burdens at the
little or no additional tax imposed. If the income
Corporate Level
is saved, the earnings of the saving are taxed
again and again. This reduces the value of capital,
The so-called "double" tax on dividends is
and lowers productivity and real wages.
merely one portion of additional layers of tax
created by the taxation of corporate income, all of
Saving transforms a lump of income into an
which are over and above the basic double taxa-
earnings stream of equal present value. Conse-
tion on saving and investment inherent in the
quently, the taxes paid on the earnings stream of a
income tax. These taxes are "triple" or worse.
bond, for example, just equal in present value the
tax paid on the income that went into the princi-
One solution to the corporate tax problem is
pal, hence a double tax.
"integration," in which the income of the firm
would be counted for tax purposes as income to
For saving by individuals, eliminating this
the shareholders in the year earned. The income
double tax requires one of two adjustments. Meth-
would be taxed at the shareholders' various tax
od 1: amounts saved should be deducted from
rates.
taxable income, and the savings and earnings
subject to tax on withdrawal, as with IRA's and
Ending only the "double" tax on dividends
401(k) plans. Method 2: amounts saved should
leaves the corporate tax in place on retained earn-
receive no deduction, but the earnings of the
ings. Retained earnings raise the net worth or
savings should be tax exempt, as with the "back-
future earning power of the firm and raise the
ended IRA" proposed last year by Senator Roth,
share prices. These earnings become "double-
the Bush Family Savings Account, and the Japa-
taxed" when the shareholder sells and records a
nese tax-exempt savings account prior to Japan's
capital gain on the share increase due to retained
recent tax reform. Ideally, all savings or earnings
earnings.
should be covered, not limited amounts.
Some have suggested that the tax code en-
In the case of individuals buying plant and
courages leveraged buy-outs because of its bias
equipment directly, as in partnerships and propri-
against equity finance; that is, dividend payments
etorships, the investment should be expensed
are non-deductible and double-taxed, while inter-
(deductible in the year purchased, as in method 1
est on debt is tax deductible. Whether LBO's,
above) rather than depreciated over time for tax
mergers, and acquisitions adversely affect R&D is
purposes. The capital cost recovery provisions,
not clear, although anecdotal evidence certainly
which require that write-offs be stretched over
exists. But it must be clearly understood that the
time, reduce the present value of the write-off
solution to the uneven tax treatment is not to end
below the full cost of the investment, leaving a
the tax deductibility of interest, which is treated
partial double tax in place. With expensing, the
properly in the tax code, but to end the double
value of the taxes saved will just equal the value
taxation of dividends. Any effort to "level the
of the future tax stream on the profits, thereby
playing field" by raising it to new heights would
eliminating the double tax on the capital.
further increase the cost of capital and reduce
investment.
The bias of the income tax against saving and
in favor of consumption has led to increased use
Reducing the Cost of Capital by
of consumption-based taxes around the world.
Reducing the Capital Gains Tax
Countries that use the Value Added Tax (VAT),
for example, permit the expensing of capital in-
The capital gains tax is, in fact, an additional
vestment in computing the value added which is
layer of tax whether related to corporate activity
subject to tax. This results in a "consumption-
or not. The value of any property or business,
type" VAT, in which the tax base is consumption
including unincorporated businesses, will rise if
(GNP minus investment). They do this in prefer-
earnings are expected to rise. The higher earnings,
ence to an "income-type" VAT based on deprecia-
if they materialize, will be taxed. If the rise in the
tion, so as not to introduce a bias against saving
value of the property or the business is also taxed,
in favor of consumption.
there is a double tax imposed.
60
Some have suggested that it would be a ser-
production frequently taking place in a continuum
vice to the economy if the capital gains tax rate
of activity.
were reduced in a way that would encourage
people to hold onto their shares of stock for lon-
Another factor limiting the tax impact of the
ger periods, with the intent to encourage a longer
R&E Tax Credit is the effect of apportionment of
time horizon in corporate management. The rate
domestic R&D expenses to foreign source income
would be reduced more the longer the holding
as required under current tax rules. The result, in
period of the stock. However, this is controversial.
effect, is the loss of a tax deduction for the
The corporate manager seeking to raise additional
amount so apportioned.
capital for research, expansion of capacity, or
other uses, cares only that a new stock issue
The final disincentive is the continuous threat
brings the highest possible price. It does not mat-
of repeal of the R&E Tax Credit, which has al-
ter how long a particular shareholder holds a
ways carried an expiration date despite its numer-
particular share before trading it for another. It
ous extensions. Research and development is by
matters that millions of people want to hold a
its nature long term. Accordingly, in order to be
large portion of their savings in the form of a
an effective incentive, the R&E Tax Credit should
stock portfolio, and that they put a high value on
be made permanent, as the Administration has
equity. For any given desired after-tax return on
proposed.
equity, share prices will be higher the lower the
tax rates are and the easier it is to trade stock
Adoption of any or all of these suggestions
freely without unnecessary tax penalties. A reduc-
would tend to encourage R&D investment, espe-
tion in the capital gains tax rates would reduce the
cially in long-range, high-risk R&D which charac-
cost of capital and thereby make investment pro-
terizes superconductivity research.
jects with deferred payout streams financially
more attractive.
Antitrust Policy Barriers
The Research and Experimentation
The same three attributes of high-temperature
(R&E) Tax Credit
superconductivity that entered into the analysis of
tax policy barriers to increased industrial invest-
Beginning this year, current law provides for
ment in R&D also are relevant in assessing the
a credit generally equal to 20 percent of a tax-
impact of antitrust laws. The technology will be
payer's qualified incremental research expendi-
expensive to develop, investments in the technolo-
tures in excess of a fixed amount. Start-up compa-
gy are extremely risky, and even if the technology
nies can also qualify for the credit. This is a sig-
does eventually prove practical, it could be many
nificant improvement over prior law, in which the
years before a firm recovers its investment in
base was a 3-year moving average. Under prior
R&D and starts to make a profit.
law, the R&E Tax Credit was not as effective as
it could be in encouraging R&D, inasmuch as it
As a result, relatively few firms are likely to
has only a minor impact on the cost of R&D, a
be willing to undertake such investments on their
few percent at best. Authorization for the credit
own. However, by pooling their efforts and shar-
will expire at the end of 1990 unless it is extend-
ing risk, firms can greatly reduce the risk borne
ed by law.
by each individual firm investing in high-tempera-
ture superconductivity R&D. Moreover, combin-
Other structural defects are that large increas-
ing knowledge, skills, expertise, and technology
es in R&D spending are not encouraged because
can greatly increase the likelihood that the R&D
no credit is available on expenses that exceed 50
efforts will be successful. Cooperation also makes
percent of current qualified expenses. In addition,
possible a larger scale of operation than any one
expenses for research carried on outside the Unit-
firm acting alone might be capable of, thereby
ed States are not allowed for credit purposes. Nor
making available economies of scale and scope
is the tax credit available after commercial pro-
and eliminating unnecessary duplication of effort.
duction is begun, which ignores the fact that
global competition requires accelerated commer-
For all these reasons, superconductivity is a
cialization, with research, development, and initial
natural candidate for the formation of joint R&D
61
ventures. Many firms that could not even consider
Department of Justice and the Federal Trade
investing in superconductivity on their own might
Commission disclosing the venture's nature, ob-
be willing to participate in a joint venture with
jectives, and participants has its potential mone-
other firms. However, firms will not be willing to
tary liability limited to actual damages. Current
form such ventures if they believe that such coop-
antitrust laws impose treble damages in most
erative efforts will expose them to liability under
instances not covered by the NCRA.
the antitrust laws.
However, the provisions of the NCRA as it
National Cooperative Research Act of
currently stands limit its usefulness.
1984 (NCRA).
Extension of the NCRA to Production
The antitrust laws originated in the last centu-
and Marketing
ry, when foreign competition was not a significant
factor. Now, however, many U.S. companies must
Production and marketing are not covered by
compete in worldwide markets against foreign
the NCRA. This feature limits the impact of the
companies whose operations are largely beyond
NCRA as a stimulus to coordinated R&D. The
U.S. antitrust regulation. One attempt to modern-
nature of competition in international high-tech-
ize U.S. antitrust laws relevant to commercializa-
nology markets is such that bringing a product to
tion of technology is the National Cooperative
market quickly is essential. Modern technology
Research Act of 1984 (NCRA). The NCRA cur-
transfer, however, is not based on a stepwise
rently provides limited protection from State and
transition from innovation to development to
Federal antitrust laws for coordinated R&D activi-
commercialization. Rather, the process often in-
ties, which should include joint ventures formed
volves an interactive process, with investment in
for the purpose of engaging in pre-competitive
research, development, production, and marketing
R&D related to superconductivity.
taking place simultaneously. These steps are inte-
grally linked and frequently can be conducted
Under the NCRA, if the cooperative activity
more efficiently through cooperative efforts. Such
of an R&D joint venture is challenged in court,
integrated cooperative efforts, however, are not
the conduct of each participant is evaluated under
currently protected under the provisions of the
a "rule of reason" standard rather than treated as
NCRA, which draw an artificial line between
illegal per se. Under a rule of reason standard, a
R&D on the one hand and production and market-
court must take account of all relevant factors
ing on the other.
affecting competition, including the extent to
which efficiencies achieved through cooperation
An extension of the NCRA to production or
produce pro-competitive effects large enough to
production and marketing would encourage indus-
offset any potential anti-competitive effects. Rule
try investment in superconductivity R&D, as well
of reason treatment is more hospitable to coopera-
as commercialization. Action on the several bills
tive R&D because a joint venture will avoid lia-
currently pending in Congress that would extend
bility if it is found not to pose a threat to compe-
the NCRA to cover production or production and
tition or if any threat to competition is outweighed
marketing would greatly assist U.S. competitive-
by potential pro-competitive efficiencies.
ness in developing and commercializing products
based on superconductivity. Some of the bills
In contrast, under a per se rule of antitrust
would extend the NCRA just to joint production
liability, a joint venture could be enjoined, dis-
and manufacturing. Others would extend it to
solved, or held liable for payment of treble dam-
joint marketing as well. It should be noted that
ages-without any consideration of such factors
legislation supported by the Administration, trans-
as the venture's actual degree of market power,
mitted to Congress by the Departments of Justice
the ease with which other firms can enter the
and Commerce, would extend the NCRA to cover
market, actual and potential foreign competition,
production but would exclude marketing.
or the venture's pro-competitive efficiencies.
There are, of course, serious concerns about
In addition, under the NCRA, any R&D joint
the possible abuse of extended provisions of the
venture that files a written notification with the
NCRA, but anticompetitive behavior would still
62
be illegal, and significant penalties for such be-
ing that make the results of their collaboration
havior would remain in place. However, the re-
publicly available, by patenting or otherwise,
sulting stimulus to industry investment in super-
will be shielded from per se antitrust liability
conductivity research, development, and commer-
and treble damages.
cialization would be an important outcome.¹
Market definition should be tailored to the
Advance Approval for Cooperative
context of innovation and should focus initial-
Efforts
ly on the market for knowhow; specific prod-
uct markets become relevant only when com-
Even under the best of circumstances, the
mercialization is included within the scope of
analysis of the "rule of reason" is uncertain and
the cooperative arrangement.
unpredictable. At the very least, the "rule of rea-
son" must be defined and clarified. Moreover,
The rule of reason should be clarified to take
when a cooperative venture would involve pro-
specific account of the pace and stage of
duction or marketing, even the prospect of single
technological change and the need for opera-
damages can be a substantial deterrent to coopera-
tional and strategic coordination of innovation
tion. Therefore, so far as possible, consistent with
and commercialization.
legitimate antitrust concerns, steps should be taken
to ensure that the prospect of single-damage judg-
Antitrust law enforcement should not bias the
ments under the rule of reason standard not undu-
selection of interfirm organizational forms;
ly deter firms from forming and participating in
integration by contract should be treated no
cooperative ventures for research, development,
less favorably than full merger.
and commercialization. Ideally, cooperative ar-
rangements involving less than some specified
A certification procedure should be created to
portion of the relevant market, perhaps 20 percent
permit the Department of Justice or the Feder-
or 25 percent, should automatically be shielded
al Trade Commission, perhaps in consultation
from antitrust liability, and some method should
with each other or with the Department of
be created whereby firms not eligible for this
Commerce, to "sign off" on a proposed ar-
market-power-based safe harbor may secure ad-
rangement as not violative of Federal or State
vance approval for cooperative efforts.
antitrust laws.
Summary of Possible NCRA Revisions
When a cooperative innovation arrangement
has been certified, private antitrust suits chal-
Specific structural and operational modifica-
lenging cooperative innovation arrangements
tions of the NCRA that were suggested by testi-
under Federal or State antitrust laws should be
mony presented to the Commission are summa-
limited to equitable relief; attorneys' fees
rized:
should be awarded to the prevailing party.
The NCRA should be amended to include
Many of these changes could be made by the
joint commercialization efforts (production
courts interpreting the rule of reason and the
and, if possible, marketing) to encourage
NCRA. However, Congressional action would be
innovation and accelerate commercialization.
needed to create a certification procedure, elimi-
nate treble damage actions, and make attorney
A market-power-based safe harbor should be
fees symmetrical. A generic approach to amending
expressly adopted that would shield from
the antitrust laws would be preferable to industry-
antitrust liability cooperative innovation ar-
or technology-specific approaches.
rangements or strategic alliances that involve
less than some specified portion, perhaps 20
Intellectual Property Law
or 25 percent, of the relevant market.
Barriers
An "openness safe harbor" should be made
Several steps have been taken to revise the
available, so that companies cooperating in
American patent system in ways that affect the
product development, production, or market-
field of applied superconductivity. One change
63
has been directed specifically at the science and
There are several disadvantages to adopting a
technology of superconductors. In July of 1987,
"first to file" system. With an internationally
President Reagan announced the High Tempera-
recognized and accepted "first to file" system, all
ture Superconductivity Initiative with the stated
inventors would probably be given a 1-year grace
objectives of improving cooperation among gov-
period for filing after a public disclosure. This
ernment, industry, and universities in research,
would put U.S. inventors at a cultural disadvan-
enabling U.S. firms to move quickly in turning
tage because many, from universities especially,
scientific advances into new or improved products
are used to publishing early and filing late. They
and processes. The President called for stronger
would initially continue this practice and probably
intellectual property protection and requested the
lose some patent rights to others. Most foreign
Patent Office to accelerate review of applications
inventors, on the other hand, were trained under
dealing with superconductivity.
their old "first to file" system and traditionally
have had to file before any public disclosure. In
However, in reviewing the impact of current
addition, there would be a need for more patent
intellectual property laws on U.S. industrial in-
examiners to handle the increased number of
vestment in innovation and commercialization of
applications and follow-up continuation-in-part
technology and the implementation of the Presi-
applications, which may increase overall patent
dent's High Temperature Superconductivity Initia-
costs.
tive, several changes for improvement of the
domestic patent situation become apparent. Writ-
From the university perspective, one of the
ten and oral testimony presented to the Commis-
major problems with adopting a "first to file"
sion by external experts included many sugges-
system is the requirement for absolute novelty.
tions for changing the U.S. patent system or im-
Under most foreign "first to file" systems, the
proving the administration of the process. The
inventor cannot obtain a patent if there has been
primary goal of the recommended changes is to
any publication or public disclosure of the inven-
improve the climate surrounding intellectual prop-
tion anywhere. Given that university researchers
erty issues so that U.S. inventors could receive
generally publish early and before filing for a
greater international protection for their ideas and
patent, this "first to file" system could limit their
thereby remain competitive.
ability to protect technology through the patent
process.
Harmonization of the
U.S. Patent System
A compromise position might be a "first to
file" system including "absolute novelty" with a
The U.S. patent system differs in several
1-year grace period limited to the actual inventor.
respects from those of our international competi-
Japan is already moving in this direction with a
tors, and there are ongoing discussions on the
"first to file" system that includes a 6-month
possibility of bringing the U.S. system into har-
grace period limited to open disclosures and pub-
mony with those in effect in Japan and Europe.
lications by the inventor.
The most significant difference is that in the Unit-
ed States, the system is based on the "first to
Freedom of Information Act
invent" concept, whereas elsewhere, the system is
Exemptions
based on the "first to file" concept.
Government contract reporting requirements
There are several strong arguments for and
often obligate researchers to disclose patentable
against the United States moving to a "first to
ideas early in the form of periodic reports and
file" system. Actually, many U.S. corporations
proposals. These may be viewed as open literature
already file application early under "first to file"
via the Freedom of Information Act. Researchers
guidelines to protect foreign markets, having
at universities are often unaware of the fact that
recognized that by accelerating internal patent
monthly reports or proposals can jeopardize the
processing the advantages of both systems can be
granting of a patent when the 1-year grace period
used with the only disadvantage being increased
is exceeded.
costs.
64
President Reagan proposed that within certain
cannot be obtained following the expiration of the
time limits, Federal agencies may reject requests
licensed patents even though valuable trade se-
made under the Freedom of Information Act for
crets and other know-how may have been includ-
scientific and technical information from Federal
ed in the license.
laboratories that could be "reasonably expected to
cause harm to the economic competitiveness of
Prior to the intrusion of the antitrust laws and
the United States." This has not been enacted but
the Doctrine of Patent Misuse, it was possible for
would be desirable. It would be further advanta-
a patentee to obtain license restrictions and suit-
geous if the legislation were extended to include
able compensation for the trade secrets and know-
the private industry and university sectors of the
how even after expiration of the underlying pat-
U.S. innovation community, especially in the field
ent. This provided the maximum return on the
of high-temperature superconductivity.
R&D investment. The inability to obtain similar
compensation and restrictions today substantially
Public Availability of Foreign Patent
reduces the benefits of licensing and can create
Applications
direct competitors for the licenser after a relative-
ly short time.
Pending U.S. patent applications are preserved
in secrecy so that if the patent is not granted, the
It is extremely likely that commercialization
applicant or inventor can rely on trade secret
of high-temperature superconductors will entail
rights. In most foreign countries, on the other
substantial know-how and that licensing will not
hand, pending patents are either published or are
be very useful as a way of ensuring reasonable
made available for public inspection. This practice
financial returns on the R&D investment. A sub-
eliminates trade secret rights. To improve U.S.
stantial liberalization of the antitrust laws as ap-
competitiveness, the patent law should be amend-
plied to patent and know-how licensing should be
ed so that when a foreign patent application has
adopted, and the Doctrine of Patent Misuse should
been submitted and is available for public inspec-
be severely restricted or eliminated. At the very
tion in that foreign country, the counterpart U.S.
least, a misuse should not be found except pursu-
application should be made available for public
ant to the rule of reason.
inspection to the United States.
Patent Flooding
Implementation of the recommendation would
mean that, for the first time, U.S. industry would
In Japan the low cost of filing patent applica-
have access, in English, to all U.S. counterpart
tions and the minimal requirements for disclosure
applications of those pending in Japan or Europe.
have resulted in what is called "patent flooding."
This technology is already available to the for-
Over 500,000 patent applications are currently
eigners in their native languages. This would
filed in Japan per year compared to about 130,000
increase the data base of conveniently accessible
patent applications filed in the United States. The
technology.
recent OTA report notes that in Japan, about
5,000 superconductivity applications were filed in
Patent and Know-How
a single year, while the total number of U.S.
Licensing Issues
superconductivity patent applications filed by U.S.
companies since 1985 is only about 500. The
Exclusive exploitation of patents may not be
problem with flood patenting is that major ad-
the best way to access global markets or maxi-
vances made by an inventor in the United States
mize the return on R&D. Licensing represents a
are often overwhelmed by a flood of patents in
viable alternative to exclusive exploitation. How-
Japan on bare ideas without any proof of princi-
ever, restrictions imposed by the antitrust laws
ple. The United States should encourage Japan to
and the Doctrine of Patent Misuse severely limit
change its system by substantially increasing its
the opportunity for patent holders to maximize
filing fees and its disclosure requirements for
their return by this route. For example, royalties
patent applications.
65
Full Implementation of the High Tem-
be obtained within a reasonable period of time.
perature Superconductivity Initiative
Infringement suits should be disposed of, finally,
within an 18-month period.
The Commission received suggestions for
strengthening the ability of the Patent Office and
The creation of the Court of Appeals for the
the Judicial System that would better protect
Federal Circuit (CAFC) has provided consistency
intellectual property rights related to commercial-
in patent decisions and increased public confi-
ization of high-temperature superconductors.
dence in the U.S. patent system. As of June 1990,
Many of these problem areas could be resolved by
however, the court, which hears all appeals of
full implementation of the President's High Tem-
patent cases, was understaffed with two vacancies;
perature Superconductivity Initiative.
12 judges are authorized. Suggestions presented to
the Commission for the improvement of this court
Patent Office Staffing and Procedures
system include the following:
It is of tremendous importance to the Nation
Appoint more judges with extensive patent-
that all patents be processed promptly. Obviously,
law background. The workload of this court
the commercialization cycle is accelerated when
includes 30 percent to 50 percent of cases
patent protection is assured. At the same time,
related to patents, with probably 60 percent to
others can learn from these patents and can com-
80 percent of the working time taken up by
mit to new products and plant facilities with the
patent cases. It makes sense to have at least
maximum practical knowledge of competing pat-
half of the judges on the court with patent
ents. This is in contrast to having to commit to a
experience. As of June 1990, there were four
specific product design and new plant facilities in
judges with patent law background, but two
ignorance of still-pending applications from the
are eligible to take senior status or retire.
competition.
Appoint more judges with trial experience.
As indicated above, some progress has been
Extensive trial experience is needed to evalu-
made on this issue in the area of superconductivi-
ate cases adequately and to speed the review
ty. The President's Initiative on Superconductivity
process.
directs the Patent and Trademark Office to, on the
applicant's request, accord "special" status to all
Appoint more judges or court support staff
applications for inventions involving superconduc-
with a technical background because of the
tive materials and their manufacture and use. This
large number of cases with significant techni-
special "fast track" status ought to place the appli-
cal content. This one court may have a greater
cation in a stream which assures timely examina-
impact on controlling technology than any
tion and processing. Specifically, the Patent Office
other court in the United States. It should
should be staffed and should adopt procedures to
reflect the highest standards.
assure that all superconductor-related applications
are examined and patents are issued within 18
In summary, by strengthening the protection
months of the filing date.
provided for intellectual property rights under the
patent laws and by strengthening the implementa-
Judicial Procedures and Staffing
tion of Patent Office and judicial processing of
those laws, the risk associated with long range
For the patent system to work efficiently,
R&D investment can be reduced. Any action
timely remedies must be provided in cases of
along those lines will increase the incentives for
conflict. Many patent infringement suits are not
investment in R&D by industry, and, to the extent
disposed of within 4 years of filing nor within 2
that such changes are specifically targeted toward
years after the close of evidence. The patent is a
commercialization of superconductivity, U.S.
wasting asset if effective judicial remedies cannot
competitiveness in the field will be enhanced.
66
1. A recent report by the Office of Technology Assessment, High-Temperature Superconductivity in Perspective,
states that "antitrust restrictions are not a serious inhibitor to U.S. competitiveness in HTS technology." (8, 118)
Our analysis of the impact of antitrust policy leads us to believe that the OTA report was referring only to pre-
competitive R&D, and did not take into account the continuum of research, development, production and marketing
which is required for effective commercialization in a worldwide competitive environment.
67
Appendix IX
1990 Federal Funding Details for Superconductivity
Department of Energy
Funding for High-temperature Superconductivity R&D
(thousand dollars)
FY 88
FY 89
FY 90
FY 91
Source
Office of Energy Research
Basic Energy Sciences
15,063
16,517
20,880
20,605
125
0
0
0
Fusion Energy
High Energy & Nuclear Physics
275
170
180
190
Defense Programs
5,800
6,661
6,651
6,651
Office of Conservation & Renewable Energy
Energy Utilization Research
525
1,400
1,400
1,400
Energy Storage & Distribution
3,855
12,872
12,472
21,300
Office of Fossil Energy
Advanced Research & Technical Development
294
75
0
0
Bonneville Power Administration
Electric Energy R&D
50
20
20
20
Small Business Innovation Research Program
743
650
a
a
Total High-temperature R&D
26,730
38,365
41,603
50,166
'SBIR estimates for FY 1990 and 1991 cannot be given because awards have not yet been made.
69
Department of Energy
Funding for Low-temperature Superconductivity R&D
(thousand dollars)
Source
FY 88
FY 89
FY 90
FY 91
Office of Energy Research
Basic Energy Sciences
1,000
600
600
650
Fusion Energy
9,115
7,500
5,675
5,200
Superconducting Super Collider
11,200
29,000
43,800
49,300
High Energy & Nuclear Physics
6,000
23,958
24,170
22,890
Office of Fossil Energy
Magnetohydrodynamics
275
188
99
0
Bonneville Power Administration
Electric Energy R&D
37
80
150
300
Small Business Innovation Research Program
3,108
1,297
a
a
Total Low-temperature R&D
30,735
62,623
74,494
78,340
'SBIR estimates for FY 1990 and 1991 cannot be given because awards have not yet been made.
Additional Details for the Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Materials Sciences
(thousand dollars)
Source
High Tc
Low Tc
University Grant Program
3,756
210
University-based programs operated in National Laboratory mode
3,771
390
Subtotal
7,527
600
Nonuniversity National Laboratories
13,353
0
Total
28,407
600
"Includes $2,465 for congressionally mandated Midwest Superconductivity Consortium at Purdue University.
70
Department of Defense
(thousand dollars)
Unit
Objective
Amount
Army
Development of mission-related devices (estimate 50
3,200
percent university, 50 percent industry)
Navy
Mission-related and fundamental research (40 percent
18,500
basic, 33 percent applied, 27 percent development) (17
percent universities, 27 percent industry, 56 percent
Navy laboratories)
Air Force
Mission related and fundamental research
9,500
DARPA
To synthesize, process, and fabricate materials in engi-
27,600
neering shapes and sizes for application to electronic,
microwave, and power devices. Manufacturing issues of
reproducibility, quality, and quantity for military prod-
ucts (100 percent applied research) (65 percent industry,
25 percent university, 10 percent other)
National Security Agency
Electronics, cross-bar switch (100 percent industry) (100
3,000
percent development)
Total
73,800
71
National Science Foundation, NASA, and the Department of Commerce
Agency
Objective
Amount
(thousand dollars)
National Science Foundation
To increase the knowledge base of superconductivity
28,800
and the behavior of superconducting materials and to
enhance the infrastructure by training students in the
field of superconductivity.
Fundamental research on superconductivity is sup-
ported primarily at universities through three differ-
ent funding modes: individual investigator grants,
support of groups and centers, and support of nation-
al user facilities."
National Aeronautics and Space
To investigate the potential of high-Tc superconduc-
8,000
Administration
tivity technology for the enhancement of NASA
missions. (67 percent basic, 17 percent applied, 16
percent development) (29 percent in-house, 7 percent
industry, 64 percent university)
Department of Commerce
To develop superconducting instrumentation, meth-
3,300
ods of measurement, national physical standards
required to support industrial efforts; to develop
practical superconductor products, and electronic
devices.
"Funds for the National Science Foundation were distributed as follows: Individual investigator grants-$11.9 million; Groups
and centers-$10.2 million; the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory-$6.7 million.
The Department of Commerce's Advanced Technology program has a 1990 funding level of $10 million, some fraction of
which may be for superconductivity.
72
Appendix X
Glossary of Technical Terms
ac
Alternating current: descriptive of a signal that varies periodically in ampli-
tude as a function of time.
A/D converter
Analog-to-digital converter: an electronic device that translates an analog
signal from a sensor, for example, to a set of corresponding discrete signals
intelligible to a computer.
Bi-stable electronic
An element capable of two distinct "switching" states through which a bina-
element
ry computer operates.
Bolometer
A sensitive detector operated in a transition region between superconducting
and normal states capable of sensing certain forms of radiation.
Bulk superconductor
Superconducting material that is synthesized and processed so that it can be
materials
shaped or molded to form bearings, magnets, wires, or tapes by techniques
such as chemical precipitation.
Cavity
An electromagnetic resonator useful for generating or amplifying very high
frequency signals, as in a gyrotron.
Cooper pairs
The paired electrons that are believed responsible for the phenomenon of
low-temperature superconductivity and may play a role in high-temperature
superconductivity.
dc
Direct current: an electric current that maintains constant amplitude over
time. Superconductivity involves zero resistance in a direct current.
Dielectric constant
A measure of the capacity of an insulating material to store electric energy.
Electron doping
The controlled addition of atoms in order to produce desired materials prop-
erties.
EM launcher
Electromagnetic launcher: a structure capable of accelerating large masses,
such as projectiles or vehicles, to high velocities (see rail gun).
flops
Floating point operations per second: a measure of computer speed.
Flux creep
Movement in lines of magnetic flux induced by electric current or magnetic
field that is sufficient to decrease the performance of superconductors.
Flux pinning
A superconducting phenomenon characterized by lines of magnetic flux be-
ing confined or localized in bulk material, which is potentially useful for en-
hancing current-carrying capacity.
Focal plane array
A dense set of detectors of, for example, infrared radiation, used in sensitive
image detection and analysis.
73
Free electron laser
A wavelength-selectable source of laser light using an accelerated electron
beam as its energy source. A technology under development for medical ap-
plications and for the Strategic Defense Initiative.
Giaever junction
A device similar to the Josephson junction but consisting of two supercon-
ductors with different energy gaps (incident radiation with energy exceeding
this "gap" level eliminates superconductivity).
Gyrotron
A cavity vacuum tube device capable of generating extremely high power
levels at millimeter wavelengths (MMW) and that requires magnetic fields
of several T, necessitating cryogenic magnets.
Hc
Symbol for critical magnetic fields, measured in tesla, above which material
is not superconducting.
High-temperature
Generally referring to ceramic materials that exhibit superconducting proper-
superconductivity
ties above 77K, the boiling point of nitrogen.
hp
Horsepower: a measure of power equivalent to 746 watts.
Hysteretic
Nonreversible behavior indicating energy dissipation or a change in state for
an electronic device, as in a binary switch.
IR
Infrared: a range of the electromagnetic spectrum between millimeter waves
and visible light.
Jc
Symbol for critical current density, above which the material is no longer
superconducting. A Jc from 1 X 10⁵ to 1 X 10⁶ A/cm² is required by integrat-
ed circuit interconnections.
Josephson junction
A device consisting of an extremely thin insulating barrier sandwiched be-
tween two superconductors that is capable of extremely fast switching
speeds.
K
Kelvin: a temperature scale for which OK corresponds to -459 Fahrenheit
and room temperature is approximately 300K.
Low-temperature
Implying conventional metallic materials that exhibit superconductivity at
superconductivity
temperatures near absolute zero (about 4 to 20K).
MAGLEV
Magnetically levitated (train): an evolving mode of transportation that uses
high-field magnets to suspend and propel a vehicle to speeds greater than
300 miles per hour.
Magnetometer
A device that exploits Josephson junction technology and is capable of de-
tecting extremely small magnetic fields, especially promising for anti-sub-
marine warfare and basic scientific research.
Magnetoplasma-
An engine principle that uses a magnetic field to direct plasma through a
dynamics
nozzle, capable of high efficiency and low thrust, which is useful for inter-
planetary travel, for example.
74
Melt texturing
A method of producing bulk materials and wire that improves the conduc-
tive characteristics.
Metallic super-
Alloys and compounds of metals such as Nb₃Sn and Nb-Ti that become
conductors
superconductors at around 4.2K (low-temperature superconductors).
MHD
Magnetohydrodynamics: the technology for converting the kinetic energy in
a moving fluid, such as plasma, into electrical energy by applying a magnet-
ic field. This process can be applied in reverse to use electric power to
move fluids in, for example, ship propulsion.
Microwave
A range in the electromagnetic spectrum above 200 megahertz and through
millimeter waves.
Mixer
An electronic device that combines two electromagnetic signals together and
produces a signal that is the difference of the original inputs, an essential
component in communications systems.
MMW
Millimeter wave: referring to a portion of the electromagnetic (frequency)
spectrum between 30 and 300 gigahertz.
MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging: a medical diagnostic technique that measures
weak radio frequency signals emitted by certain nuclei in soft body tissues
responding to applied magnetic fields.
Oscillator
An electronic device that generates an ac signal, required by communica-
tions transmitters and directed energy weapons.
Oxide material
A compound of oxygen with one other more positive element or radical. In
the context of superconductivity, these are compounds of oxygen and cop-
per-the so-called ceramic or high-temperature superconductors discovered
in 1986.
Particle accelerator
A device for accelerating particles, such as electrons, to high velocities.
Passive circuit elements
Electronic components that process and condition electromagnetic signals
without amplifying those signals.
Quantum tunneling
A physical phenomenon whereby electrons can cross a thin insulating barri-
er, enabling a number of novel device applications.
Quench gun
An electromagnetic launcher where, in theory, the energy stored in a series
of persistent-current superconducting magnets is transferred to the kinetic
energy of a projectile with only modest transient field losses.
Radar
Radio detection and ranging: a technique for observing and tracking targets
by processing a reflected electromagnetic signal.
Rail gun
A highly efficient electromagnetic structure capable of accelerating projec-
tiles to high velocities by directly converting electromagnetic to kinetic
energy.
75
RF
Radio frequency: referring to a portion of the electromagnetic (frequency)
spectrum from essentially dc to infrared.
SIS
A superconductor-insulator-superconductor tunnel junction with hysteretic
characteristics useful for digital and analog electronic devices.
SMES
Superconducting magnetic energy storage: a highly efficient technique for
storing power that requires fields of perhaps 2 to 5 T. A typical system
would consist of a large superconducting ring or coil that could maintain an
electrical current indefinitely and be tapped when necessary.
SNS
A non-hysteretic superconductor-normal metal-superconductor tunnel junc-
tion, similar to the SIS junction.
SQUID
Superconducting quantum interference device: the most sensitive sensor
known for measuring magnetic flux (less than 0.000001 T). Clinical, geolog-
ical, astrophysical, and military applications are prevalent.
SSC
Superconducting Super Collider: when constructed, will be the world's
largest accelerator for high-energy physics experiments.
Superconducting thin
A superconducting layer, less than 10 micrometers in thickness, deposited
film
on a substrate, useful for electronics applications.
T
Symbol for tesla, a unit of magnetic flux density. The most powerful mag-
nets available produce (pulsed) fields of approximately 50 T but require
excessive mass and cooling.
Tc
Symbol for critical temperature, above which the material is no longer
superconducting. Present technology limits are approximately 125K.
Tevatron
A high-energy particle accelerator and collider located in Fermilab in Illi-
nois; it uses 1,000 LTS magnets.
Three-terminal super-
A superconducting device having input/output and a modulation terminal,
conducting device
which can amplify a signal like a transistor.
Type II superconductors
Superconductors that can be penetrated by magnetic fields up to a critical
level and remain superconducting.
UHF
Ultra high frequency: referring to a portion of the electromagnetic (frequen-
cy) spectrum between approximately 470 and 890 megahertz.
X-ray lithography
A method for creating patterns for integrated circuits using radiation.
YBCO
Yttrium barium copper oxide: the first oxide material to show superconduc-
ting properties at near the boiling temperature of liquid nitrogen (77K). Also
known as 1-2-3 for the comparative ratios of elements, although more re-
cently other combinations have been used.
76