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Clinton Presidential Records
Digital Records Marker
This is not a presidential record. This is used as an administrative
marker by the William J. Clinton Presidential Library Staff.
This marker identifies the place of a publication.
Publications have not been scanned in their entirety for the purpose
of digitization. To see the full publication please search online or
visit the Clinton Presidential Library's Research Room.
72
[BluePrint ] [Fall1999]
THE NEW DEMOC
T
$4.00
FALL 1999
R A NEW CENTURY
education issu
Schools are designed
ve the adul is who to state em not the children
who depend O
m We must change that. by Paul Hill
10 New Democratic refoi
The choice and accountability path by AI From
04
Teac
Grow you own by Paul Hutchinson
and L
e Sundin (AFT)
Clinton Presidential Records
Digital Records Marker
This is not a presidential record. This is used as an administrative
marker by the William J. Clinton Presidential Library Staff.
This marker identifies the place of a publication.
Publications have not been scanned in their entirety for the purpose
of digitization. To see the full publication please search online or
visit the Clinton Presidential Library's Research Room.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
AMERICAN
FALL 1998
Fixing
Low
Performing
11
Schools
Clinton Presidential Records
Digital Records Marker
This is not a presidential record. This is used as an administrative
marker by the William J. Clinton Presidential Library Staff.
This marker identifies the place of a publication.
Publications have not been scanned in their entirety for the purpose
of digitization. To see the full publication please search online or
visit the Clinton Presidential Library's Research Room.
ound
8
a
n.
1
the
Making
Creative
Connections
A Report of the
Task Force on Children's Learning
and the Arts:
/Birth to Age Eight
Building on the Best,
Learning from
What Works
Sherts
Seven Promising Reading and
English Language Arts Programs
American Federation of Teachers
Building on the Best:
Learning from
What Works
T
he AFT has gained many allies in the fight to educate all students to high academic standards.
President Clinton has made standards a top priority, and virtually every state has begun to take
action. Where standards-based reforms have been in place, progress is being made. Yet there
remains sharp debate over the future of public education.
Invoking the specter of failing schools, the advocates of vouchers and privatization are more strident
than ever. But their solutions are just the latest additions to the long list of unproven schemes that have
plagued our schools. The real hope for improving public education is by expanding the reach of those pro-
grams and strategies that have a track record of effectiveness-not by gambling on vouchers or privatiza-
tion.
We know that our students are as capable as any in the world. We know that, given the standards-based
reforms that we advocate-and the research-based strategies that can help students meet those standards-
our public schools can match or surpass the accomplishments of the highest-achieving nations.
This series, which grew out of the work of the AFT Task Force on Improving Low-Performing Schools,
is an attempt to help advance these reform efforts. It was designed to provide members with detailed back-
ground information about the research-based programs that, when properly implemented, show promise for
helping to raise academic achievement, especially for struggling students.
While each low-performing school has a somewhat different set of needs and priorities, the AFT
believes that no school-especially one that is already foundering-should be expected to find success by
reinventing the wheel. Instead, once the school's most pressing problems have been identified, the improve-
ment process should focus on enabling the faculty to choose among those programs and instructional prac-
tices that have a solid base of research showing positive results. This series, therefore, aims to help school
staff become educated consumers of educational programs and practices.
In recent months, educators, members of Congress, and the general public have devoted increased
attention to these issues. We hope that this focus will spur new program development efforts-together
with the careful field tests that can help demonstrate the effectiveness of fledgling programs-which should
mean that a broader range of good options will soon be available.
Here, we describe seven promising reading and English language arts programs.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
1
Seven Promising Programs for
Reading and English Language Arts
W
hy are some schools effective at educating most students, even those from disadvantaged, high-
poverty areas, while others struggle fruitlessly to fulfill their academic mission? How can schools
replicate the successes of their more effective counterparts?
Researchers, working for years to answer these questions, have described the characteristics of successful
schools-e.g., high expectations for all students; challenging curricula; clear standards and a coherent,
focused academic mission; high-quality professional development aligned to the standards; small class sizes,
especially in the early grades; an orderly and disciplined learning environment; a supportive and collegial
atmosphere; and an intervention system designed to ensure that struggling students can meet the standards.
But, while we now know a great deal about which reforms are effective, comparatively little is known about
how to achieve them.
As many schools have found out the hard way, systemic reform is extremely difficult-especially when it
must occur simultaneously on many fronts, and is begun without benefit of high-quality curriculum mate-
rials, appropriate professional development, or readily available technical assistance. In fact, a number of
schools-especially those that are already foundering-have found that lasting improvement is impossible
without concrete, step-by-step implementation support.
According to a recent study of efforts to raise academic achievement for at-risk students (Stringfield, et
al., 1996), the reform strategies that achieve the greatest academic gains are those chosen and supported by
faculty, as well as administrators. Success is also dependent on the existence of a challenging curriculum,
and on paying "a great deal of attention to issues of initial and long-term implementation, and to institu-
tionalizing the reforms." This and other studies have also found that schoolwide reforms tend to be more
effective than pull-out or patchwork programs, and that externally developed programs-particularly those
with support networks from which schools can draw strength and tangible assistance-tend to do better
than local designs.
Given these and similar research findings, we developed the criteria below to help identify promising
programs for raising student achievement, especially in low-performing schools. You will find descriptions
of seven reading and English language arts programs on the following pages. Although each particular pro-
gram has its own strengths and weaknesses, all show evidence of:
High Standards. The program helps all students acquire the skills and/or knowledge they need to suc-
cessfully perform to high academic standards.
Effectiveness. The program has proven to be effective in raising the academic achievement levels of "at-
risk" students in low-performing schools, based on independent evaluations.
Replicability. The program has been effectively implemented in multiple sites beyond the original pilot
school(s).
Support Structures. Professional development, materials, and ongoing implementation support are
available for the program, either through the program's developer, independent contractors, or dissemina-
tion networks established by schools already in the program.
2
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
Cooperative Integrated Reading and
Comprehension (CIRC)
Grades Covered
Grades 2-6.
Curriculum Materials
Teachers' manuals for reading and writing, lessons built around the most
widely used basals and anthologies ("Treasure Hunts"),¹ children's litera-
ture, and student practice and quiz activities are provided. Additional
reading comprehension and writing/language arts instructional materials
for basals/novels are also recommended.
Instructional Support/
Teachers' manuals explain how to introduce CIRC to students and
Professional Development
provide a sequenced description of CIRC's instructional cycle. Two days
of professional development are also provided, with formats that vary
according to participants' backgrounds. Follow-up support and technical
assistance are available.
School Reform/
None.
Restructuring Assistance
Role of Paraprofessionals
The deployment of classroom paraprofessionals is determined at the
school level, although CIRC recommends that support personnel be
included in professional development plans.
Cost of Implementation
For the first year of implementation, materials are approximately $240
per class, with costs dropping to about $100 per class for subsequent
years. Professional development costs are roughly $800 per day for each
trainer, plus expenses. Cost of follow-up training is negotiable.² These
estimates do not include the cost of basal readers/trade books, which the
school is presumed to possess. For a school with 500 students in grades
2-6, this translates into a first-year implementation cost of roughly $6,500.
Results*/Effect Size³
Reading comprehension (+.15 to +.99); writing (+.31 to +.47), with the
greatest gains shown for bilingual, special education, and the lowest-per-
forming regular education students.4
*To give a sense of scale, an effect size of +1.00 would be equivalent to an
increase of 100 points on the SAT scale or 15 points of IQ-enough to move
a student from the 20th percentile (the normal level of performance for chil-
dren in poverty) to above the 50th percentile (the norm for mainstream stu-
dents).
ooperative Integrated Reading and Compre-
early 1980s at Johns Hopkins University, CIRC was
C
hension (CIRC) is a thorough approach to
designed to improve student achievement in read-
reading comprehension and English lan-
ing, writing, and comprehension. It is available as a
guage arts instruction, with an emphasis on cooper-
stand-alone program, in a successful bilingual ver-
ative partner and group activities. Developed in the
sion (BCIRC), and as a component of the school-
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS 3
wide restructuring program, Success for All,5 cur-
during their shared reading to answer questions
rently in use nationally in more than 750 schools.
about setting, characters, problems, and problem
resolutions.
Main Features
3) Word Mastery List-Students are given a list of
new or difficult words used in the story. Words are
Most CIRC learning activities follow a sequenced
practiced out loud with partners to achieve accuracy
cycle of instruction: teacher-directed instruction,
and smoothness when reading. Partners also pretest
pair/team practice, individual practice, peer
one another in spelling exercises.
pre-assessment, individual assessment, and team
4) Word Meaning-Students learn new or diffi-
recognition. Although students spend a great deal of
cult words and phrases by looking them up in the
time working in cooperative heterogeneous groups,
dictionary, practicing them with partners, paraphras-
teams, or same-level pairs, activities are also struc-
ing their meaning, and then demonstrating under-
tured to give students clear learning goals for which
standing by creating meaningful sentences using the
they are assessed individually.
new vocabulary.
Grouping and Teaming-Teachers assign stu-
5) Story Retelling-After reading a story, partners
dents to reading groups based on their achievement
check comprehension by summarizing its main
levels. In general, the teacher provides direct instruc-
points for each other.
tion in reading-related activities to the whole class or
6) Story-related Writing-After finishing the read-
to each group separately. For cooperative learning
ing assignment, students complete an open-ended
activities, students are also assigned to pairs (or
writing assignment, responding in a few paragraphs
triads) within their reading groups, and then each
to the story they have just read.
pair is teamed with a pair from a different reading
7) Tests-Partners help prepare each other for
group. For example, a team might include two stu-
individual assessments through spelling, writing, and
dents from the top reading group and two students
other activities, and signing-off on forms indicating
from a lower reading group. Teams receive points
the satisfactory completion of each other's work.
based on members' individual performances on
Approximately every three classes, students are indi-
quizzes, tests, compositions, and book reports. Team
vidually tested on comprehension, vocabulary, and
members coach one another to prepare for assess-
oral reading, with scores used to determine individ-
ments. Based on the average performance scores of
ual grades and team rewards.
all members within a given week, teams are desig-
Direct Instruction in Reading
nated "super teams" (90-100 percent), "great teams"
Comprehension-One day per week the teacher
(80-89 percent), and "good teams" (70-79percent).
uses step-by-step CIRC materials to provide stu-
Basal-related Activities-CIRC learning activi-
dents with direct instruction in a specific compre-
ties revolve around three principal elements: direct
hension skill, such as identifying a main theme or
instruction in reading comprehension, story-related
comparing and contrasting ideas. Each lesson is fol-
activities, and integrated language arts/writing.
lowed by team activities and games to reinforce the
Reading groups meet each day for about 20 min-
new reading comprehension skills.
utes, during which the teacher introduces a story
Integrated Writing/Language Arts-CIRC stu-
from the basal reader, introduces new vocabulary,
dents learn to write through a process approach that
sets the context for the story, and engages students
consists of planning, writing, revising, and editing to
in teacher-directed discussion. Following this intro-
create a finished piece. The teacher and team mates
duction, students cooperate with partners and teams
provide feedback on written pieces, and peers edit
on a series of prescribed story-related activities.
each other's work using editing forms that reflect the
1) Partner Reading-Students first read the story
grammar, content, and mechanics learned to date.
silently, then orally with a partner, alternating para-
Teachers instruct on specific skills.
graphs and correcting each other's errors.
Other Elements of CIRC-In addition to class-
2) Treasure Hunts-Students are provided with
room activities, students are required to read a book
questions related to the story, called Treasure Hunts,
of their choice each evening for 20 minutes, verified
designed to increase comprehension. Students stop
by a parent's signature. Every two weeks, students
4
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
complete a book report on their independent read-
with two years of instruction showed an effect size
ing, with points for these reports reflected in their
advantage of +.87. This study also found that third
team score.
graders in BCIRC were three times more likely to
BCIRC Modifications-Several adaptations have
meet the district's criterion for leaving bilingual
been made to CIRC for use with Spanish-speaking
reading and language education than were control
students. BCIRC begins with Spanish language
group students.
reading assignments (novels and/or basals), then
moves to transitional reading materials in English.
BCIRC materials, such as Treasure Hunts, have been
Case Study
designed for both Spanish and transitional materials.
Ysleta Independent School District (El Paso,
Students learn BCIRC procedures in their native
Texas). The most recent study of bilingual CIRC6
language, then transfer this knowledge to an English
(BCIRC) was conducted in the Ysleta Independent
as a second language (ESL) context where they can
School District, a large district in the city of El Paso
focus on the English language activities, not the
adjoining the Mexican border. In the district as a
instructional process. While the main elements of
whole, 79.4 percent of students are Hispanic, 26.5
CIRC are preserved, a slightly different approach,
percent are limited English proficient (LEP), and
reflective of ESL practice, is taken. For example,
32.7 percent qualify for Title I services. The study
CIRC partner reading begins with silent reading fol-
compared students in bilingual programs in three
lowed by partners reading alternating paragraphs
experimental and four control schools, all of which
aloud. BCIRC students read aloud with their part-
were among the highest poverty schools in the dis-
ners before silent reading, alternating sentences and,
trict. All served almost entirely Hispanic student
later in the semester, alternating paragraphs.
bodies, and all had large percentages of LEP stu-
dents. Not only did BCIRC students outscore con-
Results
trol students in standardized tests of reading
achievement but also nine of the twelve BCIRC
Several studies have found that CIRC students
classes contained students who ranked first, second,
significantly outperform control group students on
or third in schoolwide writing contests, meaning
standardized tests of reading achievement, including
that these bilingual students were outperforming
measures of reading comprehension, vocabulary, lan-
their peers in regular English classes.
guage, spelling, and word analysis. One study found
that less than one year of CIRC resulted in signifi-
Considerations
cant gains for low-achieving students in vocabulary,
word analysis, and total reading, while another
According to the research, CIRC is an effective
showed large positive effects for high achievers. A
program for improving students' reading, compre-
third study found that special education and reme-
hension, and writing skills. It is important to note,
dial reading students who experienced CIRC
however, that this is not a beginning reading pro-
instruction with their regular education peers per-
gram. It is designed to begin in grade two, after stu-
formed better on standardized tests than similar stu-
dents are presumed to have acquired basic decoding
dents in pull-out programs. These CIRC students
skills. Schools that are weak in phonemic awareness
had a mean effect size advantage ranging from +.26
and phonics instruction might want to consider
to +.90 in reading vocabulary and from +.40 to +.99
Success for All, a schoolwide program that includes
in reading comprehension. (See footnote 3.)
CIRC in combination with early direct instruction
Studies also indicate that BCIRC is effective in
in basic reading skills, as well as several other com-
raising the reading achievement of ESL students
ponents.
who are moving from Spanish to English language
The successful implementation of CIRC may
reading and instruction. There is also evidence that
also require teachers to change not only their teach-
the positive effects are cumulative. One study found
ing methods but also their classroom management
that students with one year of BCIRC had an effect
and organizational practices to accommodate the
size advantage in reading of +.33; BCIRC students
group and pair work integral to CIRC. Teachers will
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
5
need practical and moral support in their efforts to
For more information, contact: Center for
use the CIRC approach. CIRC developers request
Research on the Education of Students Placed at
that at least two teachers per school undergo train-
Risk, Johns Hopkins University & Howard
ing to create a support network during implementa-
University, 3003 North Charles Street, Suite 200,
tion. Developers also strongly recommend that
Baltimore, Maryland 21218. Phone: 410/516-8896
school administrators attend training to develop an
or 800/548-4998. Fax: 410/516-0543. Internet:
understanding of the kind of support necessary for
www.csos.jhu.edu/sfa/overcirc.html.
successful implementation. In addition, students
will need time and guidance to effectively adjust to
working cooperatively with peers. Especially for stu-
1
Treasure Hunts are a structured series of cognitive activities
dents who have not experienced productive coopera-
designed by CIRC to correspond to novels or basal readers
tive peer work, a period of transition should be
used in the classroom.
anticipated.
2 Briggs and Clark, 1997.
Publications/Resources
3 An effect size is a standard means of expressing achievement
gains and losses across studies, showing differences between
experimental and control groups in terms of standard devia-
Bramlett, R.K. (1994). "Implementing Cooperative
tion. An effect size of +1.00 indicates that the experimental
Learning: A Field Study Evaluating Issues for
group outperformed the control group by one full standard
School-Based Consultants." Journal of School
deviation. To give a sense of scale, this would be equivalent to
an increase of 100 points on the SAT scale, two stanines, 21
Psychology: Vol. 32, No. 1.
NCEs (normal curve equivalent ranks) or 15 points of IQ
Calderón, M. et al. (1997). "Effects of Bilingual Co-
(Fashola and Slavin, 1996)-enough to move a student from
operative Integrated Reading and Composition
the 20th percentile (the normal level of performance for chil-
dren in poverty) to above the 50th percentile (in range with
on Students Transitioning from Spanish to Eng-
mainstream America). Because of differences among study
lish Reading," Report No. 10. Center for Res-
designs and assessments, this can only be considered a
earch on the Education of Students Placed at
"rough" measure of comparison. In general, an effect size of
Risk.
+.25 or more is considered to be educationally significant.
4
Robinson, A. (1991). "Cooperative Learning and
Madden et al., 1986; Stevens et al., 1987; Stevens et al.,
1989; Calderón, 1990; Calderón et al., 1997.
the Academically Talented Student." Little Rock:
University of Arkansas.
5
Success for All and an expansion program, Roots and Wings,
are schoolwide restructuring models developed by researchers
Stevens, R.J., Madden, N.A., Slavin, R.E. &
at Johns Hopkins University.
Farnish A.M. (1987). "Cooperative Integrated
6 Calderón et al., 1997.
Reading and Comprehension." Reading Research
Quarterly: Fall.
6
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
Direct Instruction (DI)
Grades Covered
Primarily an elementary school (pre-K-6) program, but also used success-
fully with secondary and adult special education and remedial students.
Curriculum Materials
Curricular materials, daily lessons, and teachers' guides are available for
grades K-6 in reading, language arts, spelling, and math; grades 4-6 in
expressive writing; grades 3-6 in science; grades 3-12 in corrective
reading; and grades 4-12 in corrective math.¹
Instructional Support/
This is a commercially published program; materials may be purchased by
Professional Development
individual grade and subject, as well as in a package suitable for school-
wide implementations. Professional development and implementation
support of differing levels of quality can be contracted from various
providers for both single-subject and schoolwide implementations. At
times, the program's scripted teachers' guides have been used in lieu of-
rather than in addition to-adequate professional development, giving
rise to criticism of the program for being "teacher proof."
School Reform/
Limited assistance can be contracted from some providers as
Restructuring Assistance
part of their implementation-support package.
Role of Paraprofessionals
Trained classroom paraprofessionals are fully integrated into the program,
working as instructional aides, one-on-one tutors, and small-group leaders
under the direction of certified teachers.
Cost of Implementation
For a schoolwide first-year implementation of the K-5 reading, writing,
language, and math curriculum, the estimated costs are $150-$200 per
student, including materials, training of staff, and a part-time school facil-
itator/curriculum coach. A first-year implementation of a stand-alone
reading/language arts program ("Reading Mastery") is estimated at $65-
$100 per student, professional development not included.
Results*/Effect Size³
Language (+.49 to +.84); reading comprehension (+.07 to +.69); math
(+.57 to +1.11).4
* To give a sense of scale, an effect size of +1.00 would be equivalent to an
increase of 100 points on the SAT scale or 15 points of IQ-enough to move a
student from the 20th percentile (the normal level of performance for children
in poverty) to above the 50th percentile (the norm for mainstream students).
D
irect Instruction (DI) is a highly-structured
cess in raising student achievement levels, Distar was
instructional approach, designed to acceler-
heavily criticized for being too rigid; concentrating
ate the learning of at-risk students.
too heavily on the basics; and for some vendors'
Curriculum materials and instructional sequences
poor implementation practices, such as selling it
attempt to move students to mastery at the fastest
without support as a "teacher-proof" program. As
possible pace. The oldest version of the program,
DI, the original Distar program has been expanded
Distar, was developed in the 1960s as part of Project
and enriched. Although the early mastery of basic
Follow Through, a massive educational initiative of
skills is still a key element, the program also address-
President Johnson's War on Poverty. Despite its suc-
es students' general comprehension and analytic
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
7
skills. While DI has been used successfully as a
of automaticity, cognitive studies show that it is
schoolwide program, the reading and language arts
transfered from short-term to long-term memory,
(and sometimes math) portions of the program are
thus freeing children to apply their learning, attend
frequently purchased for separate implementations.
to content, and move on to progressively more diffi-
Either way, adequate professional development,
cult and higher-order skills. Some have criticized the
ensuring that practitioners understand what the pro-
curriculum, particularly reading and language arts in
gram is and how it works, is essential for successful
the later grades, for not containing a broad or chal-
implementation.
lenging enough selection of children's literature. The
program is easily supplemented, however, especially
Main Features
after students have been helped to master basic
decoding skills.
Scripted Lesson Plans-Classroom scripts are a
Coaches/Facilitators-Another feature of the
hallmark of Direct Instruction; the scripts are writ-
program is the use of in-class coaches for implemen-
ten, tested, rewritten, retested-polished in a cycle
tation support. The coach periodically monitors
of classroom field-testing and revision that ends only
each classroom and is available to assist individual
when trials show that 90 percent of students grasp a
teachers with any problems, perhaps taking over a
lesson the first time around. Without proper orien-
part of the lesson to model pedagogical procedures.
tation, many teachers find this level of prescriptive-
In some cases, this role has been filled by an
ness off-putting. The idea, however, is to ensure that
employee of the contractor, retained to help with
even beginning teachers will be successful and to
implementation. In some multi-school implementa-
allow veteran educators to fill any holes in their
tions within a single district, teachers are released
teaching skills. With curricular and pedagogical
from regular classroom duty, given special training,
details presented in precise relationship to each
and assigned to assist one or two schools.
other, the program offers a template of how to teach
Rapid Pace-Because the goal of DI is to move
particular skills and content. It is a template that
students to mastery as quickly as possible, a large
can be applied to other curricula or modified to bet-
proportion of classroom time is spent on fast-paced
ter suit the needs of a particular group of students,
teacher-directed instruction, punctuated by rhyth-
but only after the teaching methods have been
mic choral-group and individual-student responses.
learned to precision.
For instructors, this means a very full work day. For
Research-tested Curriculum-In DI, skills are
example, the DI program requires teachers to ask
taught in sequence until students have fully internal-
300 or more questions in six small-group sessions
ized them (what cognitive researchers call "auto-
each day and to perform reading checks every five or
maticity") and are able to generalize their learning in
10 lessons to ensure that all students reach 100 per-
new, untaught situations. Each lesson sequence is
cent mastery. This level of interaction, which pro-
extensively field-tested to determine the most effec-
duces substantial achievement gains, is made possi-
tive and efficient way to lead students to mastery.
ble by the use of the heavily researched, highly
For example, the first reading and language arts
refined scripts.
lessons focus on phonemic awareness, which are fol-
Achievement Grouping-Common periods for
lowed by increasingly complex phonics and decod-
reading and math are established across grades dur-
ing lessons, which are followed by lessons that focus
ing which students are regrouped by performance
on comprehension and analysis of content, etc.
level, with the idea that all students will progress at
With each lesson building on previously mastered
the fastest possible pace and no students will be left
skills and understandings, teachers are able to dra-
behind. In several schools, these groups are reduced
matically accelerate the pace of learning, even for
in size by assigning half of the class to a paraprofes-
the most disadvantaged students. New material is
sional who leads the group through guided practice
usually introduced through teacher presentations to
for half of the period, while the teacher introduces
the whole class or small groups, followed by guided
new material to the rest of the class, and then
practice and frequent checks for individual student
changing places. If the program is implemented
mastery. Once the skill has been learned to the point
well, these should not be rigid "tracks," but flexible
8
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
achievement groups, with students who are progress-
years, however, this school has ranked in the top tier
ing quickly periodically reassigned to a faster group
of all schools in the state. Much of this success has
and immediate assistance given to students who are
been credited to the school's 1975 adoption of
struggling.
Direct Instruction. First piloted in a Title I reading
Frequent Assessments-Frequent assessments are
resource room, DI was soon in use throughout the
also built into the program as a means to ensure that
school. By 1980, Wesley students had average test
all students are reaching mastery, to detect any stu-
scores above the 80th percentile in both reading and
dent who might need extra help before falling too
vocabulary, outscoring students in comparison
far behind, and to identify students who need to be
schools by more than 40 percentile points. In many
regrouped.
of the succeeding years, Wesley's scores have been
even higher, with some classes testing up to three
Results
years above grade level.
Utah ASAP Project. As a part of Utah's
When this program is faithfully implemented,
Accelerated Student Achievement Project (ASAP) to
the results are stunning, with some high-poverty
improve poor-performing Title I schools, three ele-
schools reporting average test scores at or above
mentary schools adopted schoolwide DI programs
grade level-in a few cases, several grades above. In
during the 1994-95 school year. The preliminary
the 1977 evaluation of Project Follow Through, the
achievement data are impressive, with students in all
achievement results of high-poverty Direct
three DI schools outperforming more advantaged
Instruction students were compared to students in
control school students in two Woodcock-Johnson
nine other early education programs. DI students
subtests. After two years in the program, one school
outperformed control group students and students
moved from last to second place (out of 24 schools)
in the other experimental programs on every acade-
in the district's annual Math Olympics.
mic measure, moving from the 20th percentile (the
normal level of performance for children in poverty)
to about the 50th percentile (even with mainstream
Considerations
students). In contrast, the achievement results of
This is a highly interactive, teacher-intensive
students in some of the other programs actually
approach to education. Teachers and paraprofession-
declined as a result of the intervention. Follow-up
als must be informed about-and prepared for-its
studies of students taught by Direct Instruction in
fast pace and the structured, repetitive nature of the
the early grades also show enduring benefits. One
program.
New York comparison found that more than 63 per-
DI also has a history of problematic implementa-
cent of DI students graduated from college, as
tions. When the program's developer, former
opposed to 38 percent of the control group; mean
preschool teacher Siegfried Engelmann, started
ninth-grade test scores were higher (ES=+.41, read-
designing the curriculum more than 25 years ago,
ing; ES=+.29, math; see footnote 3); retention rates
he included fully scripted teachers' guides, believing
were lower (21 percent vs. 33 percent); and there
that they could serve as prototype demonstrations
were fewer dropouts (28 percent vs. 46 percent).
for specific teaching skills. In other words, one
design objective was to provide hands-on teacher
Case Studies
training during class-time, thus reducing start-up
costs and at the same time ensuring that all teachers
Wesley Elementary School (Houston, Texas).
would have the skills necessary to reach the maxi-
Wesley Elementary has one of the longest, continu-
mum achievement levels. Unfortunately, some mar-
ous Direct Instruction implementations in the coun-
keters and administrators interpreted this to mean
try. It is located in one of Houston's poorest, mostly
that no training was necessary, and that teaching
African-American, neighborhoods and has a student
skill was inconsequential to the success of the pro-
population that is over 99 percent minority and 90
gram. DI materials were sold as "teacher proof,"
percent eligible for school lunch subsidies-statistics
leaving administrators who didn't understand the
that usually signal low achievement levels. For many
program to impose it in a rigid, dictatorial manner.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
9
Educator horror stories and lower-than-expected
Gersten, R., et al. (1988). "Effectiveness of a Direct
achievement levels were the predictable results. In
Instruction Academic Kindergarten for Low-
some regions, this has left DI with a tarnished repu-
Income Students." The Elementary School
tation that will have to be clarified and overcome.
Journal: November 1988.
For any new implementation to be successful, prop-
er orientation and training are vital-not only for
For more information, contact: Direct Instruction
teachers and paraprofessionals but also for adminis-
Project, University of Oregon, College of Education,
trators.
170 Education, Eugene, Oregon 98195, or
Another frequent criticism is that DI provides so
Association for Direct Instruction, P.O. Box 10252,
much structure and regimentation that it stifles stu-
Eugene, Oregon 98195. Phone: 800/995-2464.
dent and teacher creativity. The student results—
E-mail: [email protected]. Internet:
both in higher academic achievement levels and ele-
http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/-adiep/.
vated measures of self-esteem-should speak for
themselves. Teacher focus groups, following DI
1 These materials are available from the SRA division of
implementation in Broward County, Florida, are
Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, 800/843-8855. In addition, several
also instructive. Some teachers felt that the
videodisc programs on math, geometry, chemistry, and earth
"standardized approach actually allowed more cre-
science are available from BFA Educational Media, 800/221-
1274.
ativity, because a framework was in place within
which to innovate," and said that they could do
"
These costs are based on the budget for the Alliance of
more with content once DI had helped students
Quality Schools in Broward County, Florida, an effort to
acquire the necessary skills. Other teachers reported
raise achievement levels of low-performing schools by imple-
that they had initially been resistant, feeling that
menting a DI reading and math curriculum. Estimated per-
school costs were as follows: Direct Instruction materials,
"even though the students thrived on it, the repeti-
$35,000; professional development (five days before school
tion was boring for the faculty," but, over time, had
and five days during school), $70,000; a trained teacher,
found ways "to innovate within the repetition, so
assigned to act as a part-time coach/curriculum consultant for
that they become drawn in as well."⁵
the school, $35,600.
The Broward implementation also incorporated
3 An effect size is a standard means of expressing achievement
another important feature: advanced training for
gains and losses across studies, showing differences between
and assignment of teaching staff to act as full-time
experimental and control groups in terms of standard devia-
"coaches" (facilitators) for the new DI schools. By
tion. An effect size of +1.00 indicates that the experimental
retaining their status within the bargaining unit, it
group outperformed the control group by one full standard
deviation. To give a sense of scale, this would be equivalent to
was made clear that these educators were a resource
an increase of 100 points on the SAT scale, two stanines, 21
for the benefit of the teaching staff, not administra-
NCEs (normal curve equivalent ranks) or 15 points of IQ
tors. There was always someone to turn to, on a
(Fashola and Slavin, 1996)-enough to move a student from
confidential basis, for advice and assistance. Given
the 20th percentile (the normal level of performance for chil-
the inevitable frustrations, glitches, and misunder-
dren in poverty) to above the 50th percentile (in range with
standings that arise when implementing any new
mainstream America). Because of differences among study
designs and assessments, this can only be considered a
curriculum, using new instructional methods, this
"rough" measure of comparison. In general, an effect size of
assistance has proven invaluable.
+.25 or more is considered to be educationally significant.
4 Data from Abt Associates' 1977 evaluation of Project Follow
Publications/Resources
Through and a 1996 meta-analysis of this and more recent
studies. See Research on Direct Instruction: 25 Years beyond
Adams, G.L. & Engelmann, S. (1996). Research on
Distar, by Gary L. Adams and Siegfried Engelmann.
Direct Instruction: 25 Years beyond Distar. Seattle:
5 "Alliance of Quality Schools Evaluation Report" (August
Educational Achievement Systems. 206/820-6111.
1996). School Board of Broward County, Florida.
Effective School Practices. Journal of the Association
for Direct Instruction.
10
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
Exemplary Center for Reading
Instruction (ECRI)
Grades Covered
Can be used in grades 1-12, with a primary focus on the elementary
grades.
Curriculum Materials
This program is designed to work with existing reading/language arts
materials. Participating teachers must have 21 required instructional texts
for training and subsequent reference,¹ student skills mastery tests, and a
folder with record forms for each student.
Instructional Support/
Teachers are provided with a five-day seminar on basic ECRI techniques
Professional Development
for reading and language arts instruction, effective scheduling of class
time, and methods for diagnosing and correcting reading problems.
During the seminar, participants observe demonstrations, teach sample
lessons, and pass proficiency tests on the use of new approaches.
Intermediate and advanced seminars may also be contracted. In addition,
ECRI staff are available to visit implementation sites to demonstrate
and/or monitor implementations.
School Reform/
None.
Restructuring Assistance
Role of Paraprofessionals
The deployment of classroom paraprofessionals is determined at the
school level.
Cost of Implementation
Many schools have funded the entire cost of ECRI implementations
through Title I. For a school of 500 students, start-up costs are estimated
at under $7,000, including a $600 per day honorarium for the ECRI
trainer and $228 per teacher for required teacher texts. Recurring costs
for subsequent years are negligible, except for follow-up professional
development, which is optional.
Results*/Effect Size
Reading Comprehension (+.48 to +.90); Vocabulary (+.31 to +1.40).³
* To give a sense of scale, an effect size of +1.00 would be equivalent to an
increase of 100 points on the SAT scale or 15 points of IQ-enough to move
a student from the 20th percentile (the normal level of performance for chil-
dren in poverty) to above the 50th percentile (the norm for mainstream stu-
dents).
T
he Exemplary Center for Reading Instruc-
development for teachers and is meant to strengthen
tion (ECRI) is a research-based, instructional
and supplement, not replace, existing curricula.
program designed to improve students' abili-
Teachers are trained in a highly structured, teacher-
ty to read, understand, and communicate in
directed approach to instruction, with a focus on
English. Developed in the 1960s by former Utah
establishing high levels of student mastery, main-
school district administrator Ethna Reid, the pro-
taining on-task behavior, and providing ample time
gram focuses on pre- and inservice professional
for hands-on work and practice.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
11
Although used primarily to enhance reading and
mastery through class participation, small-group dis-
English language arts instruction, the program can
cussions, written work, and regular curriculum-
also be used to bolster instruction across all subject
based assessments (oral or written), developed by
areas. ECRI is now in use in hundreds of schools
ECRI staff for use with most popular basals and
across the country.
anthologies. Student progress is measured individu-
ally, with each student allowed to proceed to the
Main Features
next skills sequence once they have demonstrated
mastery of previous material.
Instructional Approach-ECRI employs an
Student Responsibility-ECRI requires each
integrated approach to teaching reading and English
student to take active responsibility for and to help
language arts, with a focus on individualized
track his or her own learning; for example, students
instruction techniques and positive reinforcement.
schedule their own study time. Students also learn
ECRI teachers learn strategies for instruction in:
how to diagnose and correct for their own possible
word recognition; vocabulary; study skills; spelling;
errors, and to judge when they are ready to be
literature; penmanship; literal, critical, and interpre-
assessed.
tive comprehension; and creative and expository
writing. Teachers are trained in the use of "direc-
tives" (scripted lessons), designed to help increase
Results
student motivation, make a more efficient use of
There have been more than 20 years of field tests
class time, and introduce multisensory instructional
to demonstrate ECRI's effectiveness in helping raise
techniques. Skills are taught in a careful sequence
student achievement in reading and language arts,
that attempts to move students to mastery at the
with benefits for students from all socioeconomic,
fastest possible pace. Once teachers are comfortable
racial, and ethnic backgrounds. When the program
with the ECRI instructional approach, they are
is properly implemented, students' achievement
encouraged to use its techniques across subject areas.
gains can be stunning. One early study, for example,
Teaching Methods-Teachers group students by
found that the average achievement level of ECRI
reading level, and, for 80 to 120 minutes daily,
students in the second grade was in the 95th to 99th
teach the groups using a three-step process: (1) The
percentile range, with Title I students averaging 1.4
teacher demonstrates and models new skills for stu-
to 3.2 years' gain for each year of instruction.⁴ Data
dents. In a typical language arts lesson, teachers
from several other sites also indicate that ECRI is
review previously learned material and introduce
effective for regular education students, as well as for
new concepts using at least seven methods of
special needs (bilingual, Title I, remedial) and spe-
instruction, teaching new vocabulary words, one
cial education students. In a study that covered eight
new literature and comprehension skill, one new
national sites,⁵ at-risk students were found to have
study skill, and one new grammar/composition skill.
made effect size gains on standardized reading tests
(2) The teacher prompts students to check for
of roughly +.28 to +1.32 (see footnote 2). There are
understanding. Attaining high levels of rapid, accu-
also indications that ECRI instruction accelerates
rate responses from all students is a core ECRI strat-
the achievement of gifted and talented students.
egy, and teachers are taught to diagnose and correct
problems quickly when there are errors or no
Case Studies
responses. Teachers gradually reduce prompts as stu-
dents respond correctly without help. (3) During a
Fennell Elementary School (Yemassee, South
practice period, students work individually with
Carolina). Fennell Elementary, a small rural school,
supervision, and teachers hold individual confer-
has a high-poverty student body, with nearly 90 per-
ences, test for mastery, and conduct small-group
cent of its 300 students qualifying for free or
instruction for reteaching skills.
reduced-price lunches. For years, the school suffered
Student Mastery-High levels of student mas-
from low morale, low expectations, and low student
tery (correct responses of 83 to 100 percent) are
performance. In 1990, the school adopted ECRI as
expected from all students. Students demonstrate
an integral part of a turnaround effort. After only
12
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
one year, test scores had improved enough for the
reading and language arts curricula, the costs of
state to reward the school with a $12,000 incentive
ECRI implementation are remarkably low. In addi-
award. Over six years, from 1990-1996, the school's
tion to the required professional development,
average reading scores rose by 15 normal curve
schools must purchase 21 teacher texts at a cost of
equivalents (NCEs) from 29.96 to 35.5, and lan-
approximately $230 per teacher. In short, this is a
guage scores rose 18.7 NCEs from 34.6 to 53.3 (see
cost-effective mastery learning program that,
footnote 2).
through extensive field testing, has been shown to
Mission School (Oceanside, California).
help raise student achievement across all grade levels.
Oceanside is a primarily blue-collar urban district,
with a significant minority population-30 percent
Publications/Resources
Hispanic, 17 percent African-American. Mission
School, which draws students from the poorest
Brandt, R. (1990). "On Teaching Reading: A
neighborhoods in the district, gathered achievement
Conversation with Ethna Reid." Educational
data from regular education students in grades 1-7,
Leadership: March 1990.
bilingual remedial students in grades 4-6, and special
Briggs, K.L. & Clark C. (1997). Reading Programs
education students in grades 4-5 after its adoption of
for Students in the Lower Elementary Grades: What
ECRI. On average, regular education students' post-
Does the Research Say? Austin: Texas Center for
test scores on standardized reading assessments
Educational Research.
increased by 5.79 to 28.63 NCEs. Bilingual remedi-
al students showed average gains of 6.41 to 25.66
Fashola, O.S. & Slavin, R.E. (1996). Effective and
NCEs, and special education students gained an
Replicable Programs for Students Placed at Risk in
average of 8.55 NCEs (see footnote 2).
Elementary and Middle Schools. Washington,
D.C.: Office of Educational Research and
Considerations
Improvement, U.S. Department of Education.
At the heart of ECRI's remarkable record of suc-
The Reader. Newsletter of the Exemplary Center for
Reading Instruction.
cess is an effective and replicable professional devel-
opment program. Training in basic ECRI techniques
Reid, E.R. (1986). "Practicing Effective Instruction:
extends over a full five-day period, including lecture
The Exemplary Center for Reading Instruction
and practice sessions, preparation of material for
Approach." Exceptional Children: April 1986.
classroom use, and simulated teaching. Advanced
For more information, contact: The Reid
training is available, but not required. Training in
Foundation, 3310 South 2700 East, Salt Lake City,
ECRI techniques to teach subject areas other than
Utah 84109. Phone: 801/486-5083 or 801/278-
reading/language arts, such as history or science, is
2334. E-mail: [email protected]. Fax: 801/485-
also offered. In addition, for a $600 per day hono-
0561. Internet: www.xmission.com/-ereid/ecri.htm
rarium, ECRI staff are available for periodic site vis-
its to monitor implementations and model specific
I Texts contain teacher directives (scripts), research-based rationale for prac-
tices, and proficiency checklists.
teaching strategies.
2
An effect size is a standard means of expressing achievement gains and losses
The program's goal is to move each student indi-
across studies, showing differences between experimental and control groups
in terms of standard deviation. An effect size of +1.00 indicates that the
vidually to learning mastery as quickly as possible,
experimental group outperformed the control group by one full standard
utilizing a highly interactive and teacher-intensive
deviation. To give a sense of scale, this would be equivalent to an increase of
100 points on the SAT scale, two stanines, 21 NCEs (normal curve equiva-
approach to instruction. Teachers and paraprofes-
lent ranks) or 15 points of IQ (Fashola and Slavin, 1996)-enough to move a
sionals should be aware of-and prepared for-
student from the 20th percentile (the normal level of performance for chil-
dren in poverty) to above the 50th percentile (in range with mainstream
ECRI's fast pace, as well as its use of scripted "direc-
America). Because of differences among study designs and assessments, this
tives." It is important to stress, however, that it is
can only be considered a "rough" measure of comparison. In general, an effect
size of +.25 or more is considered to be educationally significant.
not the directives but the proper training in their use
,
Reid, 1989.
and the instructional techniques they embody that
From a 1971-74 study involving 700 Utah students; U.S. Department of
account for the program's success.
Education, undated.
Because schools can continue to use existing
1990 submission to the Program Effectiveness Panel of the U.S. Department
of Education's National Diffusion Network.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
13
Junior Great Books (JGB)
Grades Covered
K-12.
Curriculum Materials
"Read-Aloud" story books for grades K-1, literature anthologies for each
student (one volume in each semester for grades 2-6), student activity
books (one per semester for each student in grades 3-6), supplementary
literature anthologies for grades 7-12 and teachers'/leaders' guides for each
grade.
Instructional Support/
The Great Books Foundation requires that teachers in all participating
Professional Development
schools complete its two-day "Basic Leader Training." This course pro-
vides training in JGB's "Shared Inquiry" method of instruction, model-
ing, and practice discussions. At additional cost, the foundation also
offers two intermediate and three advanced-level workshops on integrat-
ing the program into existing curricula, refresher courses, peer coaching
and school-site consultations.
School Reform/
Upon request, limited assistance is available from the Foundation for
Restructuring Assistance
large-scale school- or district-wide implementations.
Role of Paraprofessionals
The deployment of classroom paraprofessionals is determined at the
school level.
Cost of Implementation
Start-up costs include tuition for the basic course at $99 per day for each
teacher (discounts are available) and a teachers' manual at $21.95 per
teacher per semester. Student anthologies are $10.95 each, and student
activity books, available for grades 3-6 only, are $5.95 each (bulk dis-
counts are available). For a first-year implementation at a school of 500,
this translates into a cost of less than $30 per student.²
Preliminary Results
While research on the achievement effects of this program-especially in
its current form-are still preliminary, initial results are encouraging.
Several studies indicate that JGB may improve students' comprehension,
critical thinking and story recall abilities. (See "Results" section, below, for
details on preliminary studies.)
unior Great Books (JGB), a supplementary lit-
the program has been designed to be read aloud to
J
erature program for grades K-12, was launched
students by adults.
in 1962 by the Chicago-based Great Books
The goal of the program is for students to devel-
Foundation, a nonprofit educational organization
op the skills, habits, and attitudes of successful read-
that promotes reading and discussion of the classics.
ers, allowing them to develop their analytic and
Originally developed as a home/afterschool activity,
interpretive skills and to read for understanding, as
JGB was adapted for use in grades 2-6 several years
well as pleasure. The JGB program is designed for
ago and has recently been expanded to cover all
use in up to five class periods per week for one or
grades. Since this is not a beginning reading pro-
two semesters (eight to twelve units per semester).
gram, the K-1 anthologies have not been modified
The program is shaped around discussion of literary
to contain decodable text; instead, this portion of
texts and can be used in conjunction with both reg-
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
15
ular and compensatory education programs.
introductory discussion about an issue that will
be encountered in the text.
Main Features
2) The class reads the literary selection for the first
Shared Inquiry-"Shared Inquiry" discussion is
time and, in discussion groups, shares questions
the cornerstone of the JGB model. Teachers engage
that arise from the reading.
students in formal interpretive discussions, encour-
3) Students read the text carefully a second time,
aging their search for answers to fundamental ques-
making notes in response to interpretive ques-
tions about literary selections. Discussions start with
tions posed in their discussion groups.
a question that challenges students to think critically
about the reading assignment, develop their own
4) The class discusses and interprets words/phrases,
interpretations, and support these with evidence
often with multiple meanings, that are important
from the text. Recall of factual information, as an
to the text.
end in and of itself, is not emphasized. Instead, the
5) The teacher leads students through a Shared
teacher guides pupils toward developing their own
Inquiry discussion, the culmination of this
text-based analyses and understandings by posing
process.
provocative, open-ended "how" and "why" questions
for which there may be several reasonable answers.
6) Students express their personal reactions to a text,
Because the answers are never stated explicitly in the
writing stories, poems, or essays related to the
text, students must grapple with the author's mean-
theme or literary form of the selection.
ing. Throughout the discussion, the teacher nurtures
thoughtful dialogue by building upon the students'
Results
responses.
JGB Selections-Junior Great Books anthologies
Although research on the achievement effects of
contain a culturally diverse mix of classic and mod-
Junior Great Books as a classroom program is still
ern literary and expository pieces. There are four
preliminary, several independent controlled studies
ungraded Read-Aloud collections for grades K-1,
indicate that English language arts students may
benefit from its use. On an assessment of students'
separate anthologies for both semesters in grades 2-
6, and one anthology for use in one semester for
critical-thinking abilities, one study found that high-
grades 7-12. All works are complex enough to sup-
achieving students using Junior Great Books as
either a mixed or full-time alternative to basals
port extended interpretive discussions. The pieces
(usually short stories or novellas) raise genuine ques-
scored significantly higher than their control group
tions for adults and children and are limited in
counterparts.³ Another study, involving Title I sum-
length, so as to allow students to read the text care-
mer school students, concluded that JGB had a sig-
fully at least twice. Age-appropriate selections have
nificant effect on the ability of low-achieving stu-
dents to recall textual details with accuracy, includ-
been made for each grade level, since none of the
pieces has been modified to contain a controlled
ing information about characters, events and major
vocabulary. Selection of texts is an ongoing process,
themes.4 And a small study involving 30 fifth-grade
with JGB staff conducting frequent scans of small-
students found that both high- and low-performing
press catalogs and national review periodicals, such
students improved their reading comprehension
as Horn Book, for possible additions. Works in trans-
scores, as measured by a standardized assessment.⁵
lation, as well as foreign-language works that need
Data gathered at individual school sites are also
original translations, are also considered.
encouraging. For example, one rural elementary
Basic Sequence for Working with a JGB
school in Texas began using JGB with all students in
Selection-Three components are present in each
early 1994. After two years, the percentage of stu-
JGB lesson sequence: reading, oral work, and writ-
dents achieving minimum mastery levels on state
ten work. The basic JGB process is as follows:
reading assessments had jumped by approximately
30 points.⁶
1) First, the instructor engages the class in a brief
16
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
Case Studies
ment levels with rich and challenging literature
selections. The program builds students' critical
W.E.B. DuBois Elementary School (Chicago,
reading and thinking skills through the use of open-
Illinois). A five-year reform initiative for urban
ended, interpretive questions that encourage stu-
schools, sponsored by the Ameritech Foundation, is
dents to explore literature from their own point of
helping 50 public schools in Chicago, Cleveland,
view. The program also helps ensure that adequate
Detroit, Indianapolis, and Milwaukee integrate JGB
professional development is provided, restricting
materials into their curricula. For years, Chicago's
bulk sales only to those who have successfully com-
W.E.B. DuBois Elementary School had used JGB
pleted JGB's Basic Leader Training course.
with only gifted and talented students. After being
It is important to note, however, that JGB has no
accepted into the Ameritech project, in the fall of
beginning reading component, and its literature
1994, the program was expanded to accommodate
selections for the primary grades do not use decod-
students at all ability levels. By spring 1996, the per-
able text, which can help very early readers build
centage of third graders achieving reading compe-
speed and automaticity. Instead, the program has
tency (a score at or above the 50th percentile), as
designed its K-1 Read-Aloud anthologies as a sup-
measured by standardized state assessments, had
plementary activity for use with beginning readers.
increased from 26 percent to 54 percent. At the
Through oral readings and the Shared Inquiry
same time, the percentage of fourth, fifth, and sixth
method of instruction, JGB can still help these stu-
graders meeting this standard increased by 16
dents to develop background knowledge, vocabulary,
points, 20 points, and 24 points, respectively.
and the ability to form and argue concepts-and all
Castleberry Independent School District (Fort
students should still be able to make meaningful
Worth, Texas). Castleberry ISD credits the JGB
contributions during class discussions.
program with a recent jump in the percentage of
As a program designed to supplement-not
students passing the state's reading assessment. The
replace-existing reading and language arts curricu-
district began to phase in its implementation of the
la, JGB makes no claim to teach students the funda-
program in the fall of 1994, with more teachers
mentals of writing. The program does, however,
becoming certified in JGB every year. Within three
provide ample opportunity for students to practice
years, all of the district's K-8 classes were participat-
the writing skills that they learn in the primary cur-
ing. The district has reported notable student
riculum, along with the comprehension and inter-
achievement gains, with the strongest results for stu-
pretive skills they learn through JGB.
dents who had used the program most consistently.
The Great Books Foundation advises schoolwide
In 1993, prior to implementation, 73 percent of
implementation of JGB. The resultant peer support
Castleberry's third graders met minimum mastery
and collaboration are valued by JGB teachers, and
levels on the Texas reading assessment. By 1997,
students benefit most from experiencing the pro-
after three years of JGB, 87 percent of this cohort
gram consistently from grade to grade. The program
(now 7th graders) met the minimum standard. In
also urges the participation of all teachers involved
1993, only 53 percent of the district's fourth graders
in reading instruction and recommends appointing
met the state's minimum mastery levels in reading;
one teacher in the school as a program coordinator,
as eighth graders in 1997, 87 percent met the
responsible for scheduling professional development
standard.
sessions, acting as a liaison with parents' groups,
keeping in touch with the foundation, etc. Another
Considerations
recommendation is for schools to provide teachers
with weekly instructional release time that they can
Despite the preliminary nature of the research on
the classroom effects of Junior Great Books, the pro-
use to prepare collaboratively for upcoming JGB
discussions.
gram has many obvious strengths. Once designed
solely for use with high-achieving students, JGB
now offers a means to augment reading and English
language arts curricula for students at all achieve-
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
17
Publications/Resources
I With early registration, the per-teacher daily costs are reduced
to $78. Discounts on curriculum materials are available for
Briggs, K.L. & Clark, C. (1997). Reading Programs
large-scale implementation with purchases of $5,000 or more.
for Students in the Lower Elementary Grades: What
2 Intermediate and advanced workshops are available at $50
Does the Research Say? Austin: Texas Center for
per day for each participant.
Educational Research.
3
Bird, Jan (1984). "Effects of Fifth Graders' Attitudes and
Criscuola, M.M. (n.d.). "Read, Discuss, Reread:
Critical Thinking/Reading Skills Resulting from a Junior
Great Books Program."
Insights from the Junior Great Books Program."
Educational Leadership.
4 Biskin, Hoskisson & Modlin, (1976). "Prediction, Reflection
and Comprehension."
"The Junior Great Books Curriculum of Interpretive
5 Anne Heinl (1988). "The Effects of the Junior Great Books
Reading, Writing, and Discussion" (1992).
Program on Literal and Inferential Comprehension" (1988).
Submission paper to the U.S. Department of
Please note: Since students' pre-implementation test scores
Education's National Diffusion Network.
were not noted in this study, it is difficult to gauge the educa-
tional significance of the reported achievement gains.
Pogrow, S. & Perrotta, B. (1993). Middle School
Exemplary Curricula: Language Arts. Issue #4 in
6 "Ingram Students Sustain Significant Improvement on
the Middle School Curriculum Review Series.
TAAS" (1996). Junior Great Books in Texas.
For more information, contact: Great Books
Foundation, 35 E. Wacker Drive, Suite 2300,
Chicago, IL 60601. Phone: 800/222-5870 (and ask
for regional coordinator), Fax: 312/407-0334.
Internet: http://www.greatbooks.org.
18
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
Multicultural Reading and Thinking
(McRAT)
Grades Covered
Grades 3-8.
Curriculum Materials
With the exception of teacher resource manuals, there are no special
materials. Teachers may use literature commonly found in school libraries
and classrooms. McRAT recommends fiction and nonfiction that reflects
diverse historical time periods, perspectives, and cultures.
Instructional Support/
McRAT teachers participate in a two-year training program that occurs
Professional Development
prior to and simultaneously with implementation. Trainers instruct teach-
ers in how to teach reasoning strategies, develop lessons, and assess stu-
dent writing. Due to funding constraints and the limited number of
trainers, training is limited to 150 new participants per year. Principals
and other administrators are encouraged to attend at least three days of
the training. Follow-up consultation is available, and teachers can take 6
additional days of training to qualify as trainers.
School Reform/
None.
Restructuring Assistance
Role of Paraprofessionals
The deployment of classroom paraprofessionals is determined at the
school level.
Cost of Implementation
The cost of a first-year implementation for a maximum of 25 teachers is
projected to be $100 per teacher for nine days of training, materials, and
supplies; $500 per day for honoraria for the McRAT trainers; plus travel
expenses for three to four trips.
Preliminary Results
While the research on this program is still preliminary, initial results are
encouraging. Several studies indicate that McRAT may help to improve
students' reading, comprehension, conceptual and writing abilities. (See
"Results" section, below, for more details.)
M
ulticultural Reading and Thinking
cal reading and thinking skills in students that can
(McRAT) was developed in the mid-
be used across subject areas and in daily life. As of
1980s by the Arkansas Department of Ed-
1997, the program had been implemented in 102
ucation, in conjunction with reading specialists and
Arkansas schools and several additional sites around
classroom teachers, for use with students at all
the country.
achievement levels. It is a supplementary program,
designed to improve students' reading, writing, and
Main Features
thinking skills by teaching them to read reflectively,
Reasoning/Critical Thinking-McRAT students
develop and supply evidence for their opinions, and
receive direct instruction in four critical reasoning
communicate ideas effectively in writing. Teachers
skills: analysis, comparison, inference/interpretation,
are trained to infuse culturally diverse themes and
and evaluation. Students learn to read for context
materials into existing curricula and to develop criti-
and subtext, as well as for literal understanding.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
19
Students learn, for instance, to analyze characters'
McRAT teachers use "authentic assessments," such
thoughts, feelings, and actions during careful read-
as portfolios of student work, and administer a
ings of a literary selection, and to form opinions
McRAT-developed writing test. Student portfolios,
about them that can be defended in writing with
collections of a student's writing over time, provide
support from the text.
organized evidence that teachers use to monitor stu-
Multicultural, Integrated Approach-McRAT
dent progress in reading, writing, and thinking skills
students learn explicit strategies in critical reasoning,
and to evaluate success in meeting instructional
with a focus on lessons or units of study related to
goals. Portfolios also serve as a solid basis for dis-
multicultural themes, as well as how to apply these
cussing student progress with parents. The writing
skills across the curriculum. By centering the teach-
assessment is administered to students pre- and
ing of thinking skills around a particular cultural
post-McRAT implementation. This test requires stu-
theme or piece of literature, McRAT instruction
dents to respond to a literary selection by writing
helps students make vital connections among litera-
essays, using the four McRAT thinking strategies to
ture, reading, writing, the arts, social studies, and
respond to a problem/question about the selection.
other content areas.
Essays are scored according to criteria based on the
Instructional Process-Teachers conduct a min-
thinking strategies.
imum of one McRAT lesson per week during which
students receive direct instruction in thinking strate-
Results
gies through teacher modeling, explanation, guid-
The largest study of McRAT's achievement
ance, and feedback. Each lesson involves a process of
effects was conducted in Arkansas using program-
inquiry, sustained discussion, and writing that nur-
developed writing assessments, which were scored by
tures the development of critical reasoning. Teachers
independent raters.¹ Essays of McRAT and control
use many strategies to facilitate discussion and
students who were instructed using the same cur-
thinking, such as story retelling (students relate a
riculum were evaluated for development in the cog-
story they have read in their own words) and
nitive areas taught through the program. McRAT
cooperative learning.
students showed significant gains in pre- and post-
Extensive Professional Development-Training
tests and significantly outperformed control students
in McRAT is provided upon written request from a
in the areas of analysis, inference, comparison, and
school official to the Arkansas Department of
evaluation. There have been similar findings from
Education. The program's extensive staff develop-
follow-up studies, as well as studies at individual
ment obliges schools to grant release time to teach-
program replication sites, including one in
ers who volunteer to participate. (Grants are avail-
Baltimore, Maryland² (see "Case Studies").
able to help defray the cost of teacher release time.)
Unfortunately, there are still little data on
Professional development, conducted by reading
McRAT's achievement effects, as measured using
specialists, includes a pre-implementation course of
independent non-program-developed assessments.
study, as well as follow-up sessions simultaneous
Some data are available from three of the pilot sites
with implementation, extending over a two-year
in Arkansas, where the progress of McRAT and non-
period. Year one training occurs for a minimum of
McRAT fourth-grade students was measured using
nine days, scheduled at intervals, plus extra half-days
MAT6 standardized assessments. In pre- and post-
(dispersed throughout the year) for collaborative les-
tests, the mean achievement levels of control stu-
son planning, assessment of student work, and peer
dents declined on all measures, whereas the mean
coaching. Training during the first year focuses on
achievement scores for McRAT students increased
learning direct instructional approaches for teaching
from approximately the 61st to the 78th percentile
reasoning processes, developing lessons, and evaluat-
in reading comprehension, from the 64th to the
ing student writing. During the second year, train-
80th percentile in total reading, and from the 68th
ing features more advanced techniques for curricu-
to the 80th percentile in social studies. Given the
lum development, assessment, and collaboration.
small sample size,³ however, these findings may not
Assessments-Evaluation of academic progress
be generalizable.
centered on student writing is two-pronged:
20
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
Case Studies
select a teacher for special training as a local coordi-
nator to monitor implementation quality and coor-
Monticello Intermediate School (Monticello,
dinate follow-up assistance and peer support.
Arkansas). A 1992 report by the Winthrop
Program developers also urge administrators and
Rockefeller Foundation4 featured McRAT as one of
principals to attend at least three to five days of
10 programs in Arkansas schools that had succeeded
training to get a solid understanding of McRAT and
in raising student achievement. The report profiled
the level of support necessary for program success.
Monticello Intermediate, one of the program's six
It should be noted that McRAT is a supplemen-
pilot sites. According to the report, "McRAT is a far
tary program designed to strengthen and enhance,
cry from the drill-and-practice for basic skills testing
not replace, the school's existing reading and English
that has become the norm in too many Arkansas
language arts program. As such, it neither requires,
school districts. Yet, interestingly enough,
nor provides, curriculum materials or literature
Monticello McRAT students, especially those who
selections for use in the classroom. This may present
start low, show remarkable gains on basic skills as
a problem for teachers working in schools and local-
well as other tests."
ities with inadequate library collections, where rich
Golden Ring Middle School (Baltimore,
and challenging multicultural literary works are hard
Maryland). Golden Ring, an urban middle school,
to find.
began implementation of McRAT in June 1995. A
It is also important to note that this program is
writing assessment, developed by the program, was
designed to begin after grade 3, when students are
administered to grade 6-8 students, both prior to
presumed to have acquired basic decoding skills.
and after nine months of implementation. Student
Students who have not mastered the technical side
scores rose significantly in all four thinking skills
of reading will not be able to devote their full atten-
(analysis, comparison, inference, and evaluation) in
tion to developing the comprehension and critical
all grades, with mean score gains ranging from
reading, writing, and thinking skills that McRAT
15.31 to 28.59 across the thinking skills. Student
aims to foster. Therefore, when working with strug-
scores generally increased significantly for the four
gling students, McRAT may need to be integrated
evaluated thinking skills, regardless of student classi-
into an instructional program designed to strength-
fication (regular education, gifted, or special educa-
en the development of basic reading skills.
tion/at-risk), and gains were also consistent regard-
less of gender or race.
Publications/Resources
Considerations
"Beyond the Barriers: Successful Educational
McRAT is an intensive staff development pro-
Intervention in Arkansas" (1992). Little Rock:
gram that provides teachers with explicit strategies
Winthrop Rockefeller Foundation.
for improving students' critical reading, writing, and
Fashola, O. & Slavin, R.E. (1997). "Promising
thinking abilities. The program is designed to reflect
Programs for Elementary and Middle Schools:
the research base on cognitive reasoning, effective
Evidence of Replicability." Johns Hopkins
professional development, literacy, and writing
University.
assessment. Although still preliminary, the research
Hoskyn, Cook, Quellmalz & Mundfrom (1993).
results on its achievement effects are also encourag-
"Multicultural Reading and Thinking Program."
ing.
American Educational Research Association.
At its core, McRAT represents a long-term strate-
gy to improve the professional development avail-
McRAT News. Newsletter of the Arkansas Depart-
ment of Education.
able to school staff. Program developers stress that
the extensive two-year training model requires a sus-
tained commitment from participating schools,
including teachers, administrators, and support staff.
In addition, McRAT strongly advises each school to
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
21
Whiteside-Mansell, L. (1996). McRAT Evaluation
I
Hoskyn, Cook, Quellmalz & Mundfrom (1993). "Multicultural
for Golden Ring Middle School 95-96. Little
Reading and Thinking Program," paper presented to the American
Rock: Center for Research on Teaching and
Educational Research Association.
Learning, University of Arkansas.
2 Whiteside-Mansell (1996). "McRAT Evaluation for Golden Ring
Middle School 95-96." Little Rock: Center for Research on
For more information, contact: Martha Shirrell,
Teaching and Learning, University of Arkansas.
Program Manager, Arkansas Department of
3 Only 39 McRAT and 19 non-McRAT students formed the compar-
Education, Room 401B, #4 Capitol Mall, Little
ison groups.
Rock, AR. Phone: (501) 682-4232. Fax: 501/682-
4 "Beyond the Barriers: Successful Educational Intervention in
4441. Internet: http://inet.ed.gov/pubs/EPTW/
Arkansas" (1992). Little Rock: Winthrop Rockefeller Foundation.
22
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
Open Court Collections
for Young Scholars (OC)
Grades Covered
Elementary/K-6.
Curriculum Materials
Basal anthologies, literature big books, teachers' guides, teacher toolboxes
and other curriculum support materials are available for grades K-6 in
reading, writing, and language arts. Open Court's phonics-based begin-
ning reading program may also be purchased separately to supplement
existing basal and language arts programs.
Instructional Support/
Teachers' manuals, lesson plans, and one and one-half days of professional
Professional Development
development are provided for each part of the curriculum. Upon request,
the publisher will also provide follow-up staff development and additional
implementation support as part of the terms of purchase.
School Reform/
None.
Restructuring Assistance
Role of Paraprofessionals
Although the deployment of classroom paraprofessionals is determined at
the school level, the publisher recommends that paraprofessionals be
included in professional development plans.
Cost of Implementation
Costs vary, depending on the size and needs of each school. For a school
with 500 students, it is estimated that the costs for a full first-year imple-
mentation, including professional development, would average slightly
under $5,000.
Results
Independent controlled studies of Open Court have only been conducted
for the early elementary grades. In three matched control studies of first
and second graders' reading abilities, OC students significantly outper-
formed peers who were taught using whole language methods or another
district-adopted basal series. The most recent study compared the achieve-
ment effects of various programs in Title I classrooms. OC Title I
students' mean score on word identification and comprehension tests was
found to be close to the national norm (46 percent), whereas the mean
score for students using a standard curriculum was in the lowest academic
quartile (23 percent).
O
pen Court Collections for Young Scholars
als. The OC phonics-based program for the pri-
(OC) is a commercially published elemen-
mary grades, which has been available for a number
tary school reading and writing program
of years, has been expanded to include interesting
that uses a balanced approach to the teaching of
K-6 literature collections that are notable for the
reading, including systematic direct instruction in
number of classic and award-winning contemporary
phonemic awareness and phonics, grade-appropriate
authors they contain.
decodable text, and a variety of language arts materi-
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
23
Main Features
specific phonemic awareness, phonics, and reading
comprehension instructional strategies. Follow-up
Early Reading Program-The Open Court pro-
visits six to eight weeks into the school year usually
gram for beginning readers uses explicit teacher-
include classroom observations, demonstration
directed instruction to teach alphabetic and phone-
lessons, and debriefing meetings with teachers.
mic awareness, phonics, comprehension, and writ-
Additional implementation support, training ses-
ing. Phonetic principles are reinforced through
sions, and summer institutes are available. The core
sound/spelling cards, alliterative stories, and practice
program also includes teachers' manuals, teacher and
reading materials that contain a large number of
student toolboxes, phonemic awareness and phonics
words and elements that have been taught through
instruction kits, and other materials to help guide
the program. Blending is regarded as the key decod-
instruction.3
ing strategy, with teachers writing the letters for all
sounds in a word and students saying the sounds,
Results
then blending the sounds together to read the word.
Dictation, spelling, and word-building games are
Not only is Open Court designed to reflect the
used to further connect phonics to writing. Litera-
research base on effective reading instruction, but it
ture is introduced to students through reading aloud
is also one of the only commercial reading and lan-
from big books, and by mid-year, children are inde-
guage arts programs with independent field tests
pendently reading literature from anthologies.
demonstrating its effectiveness. Note, however, that
Workbooks are introduced after all sound-symbol
student achievement data for this program is limited
relationships have been presented, usually in the be-
thus far to the K-2 curriculum, although prelimi-
ginning of first grade. Writing instruction is provid-
nary indications are good for the entire program.
ed in individual and small-group formats.
The most recent study, conducted by researchers
Language Arts-Open Court introduces the
at the University of Houston, looked at the effects
reading of authentic literature into the classroom
of three programs on the reading achievement of
through big books beginning in kindergarten. By
economically disadvantaged first and second graders.
the middle of first grade, students are able to read
The programs were Open Court, whole language
literature independently. Literature collections
(WL), and whole language plus a phonics program
throughout the grades are organized around issue
(WL/P). All participating teachers received 30 hours
and subject themes, such as bravery, friendship,
of inservice training. Open Court training was con-
astronomy, ancient civilizations, and the American
ducted by the publisher; WL/P training was con-
Civil War. Students engage in reading and writing
ducted by research staff; some WL teachers were
activities that focus on comprehension, vocabulary,
trained by research staff; and a control group of WL
and exploring ideas and concepts. The program
teachers were trained by regular district trainers. In
includes more than 100 full-length trade books, sci-
spelling tests, OC students significantly outper-
ence and social studies units in every grade, and
formed both whole language groups. As measured
selections from a large number of award-winning
by Woodcock-Johnson assessments, OC students
fiction and nonfiction writers. The literature selec-
significantly outscored students taught through the
tions also feature many classic works and authors
other instructional methods in reading and compre-
and have a strong multicultural emphasis. One
hension tests.⁴
grade 6 unit, for example, features works by William
A similar study, conducted in California,3 com-
Shakespeare, Hans Christian Andersen, William
pared the achievement of first-grade students taught
Wordsworth, Henry Crow Dog, and Langston
with OC's explicit phonics approach, students
Hughes, among other authors.
taught phonics implicitly in the context of the lan-
Instructional Support-Publisher-provided
guage arts program, and a control group taught
professional development usually consists of a half-
using just the standard curriculum. After one year,
day orientation and a minimum of one day of
students' reading achievement was measured using
grade-level training, including an introduction to
three different assessments, including the SAT and
materials, discussion of a lesson, and modeling of
three SAT subtests. OC students outscored students
24
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
in the other two groups on every measure. While
1997, however, Heights Elementary was named one
the difference in scores between the two phonics
of the state's 12 "spotlight schools," largely on the
approaches was not significant, OC students signifi-
strength of its reading scores-with over 85 percent
cantly outscored the control group on all SAT mea-
of third and fourth graders passing statewide reading
sures, with a total reading mean score slightly above
tests. Some of this success has been credited to the
the national average (52.2 percent).
school's implementation of the phonics portion of
A recent study on the reliability of standardized
Open Court, in combination with the use of anoth-
achievement measures⁶ compared the reading scores
er basal series and other literacy materials.
of two groups of second-grade students, one taught
with Open Court, the other with a popular com-
Considerations
mercial basal series. Both sets of students were tested
on nine subtests of four different standardized
Open Court Collections for Young Scholars
assessments. Although the study demonstrated an
strikes a workable, balanced approach to reading
alarming variability among the assessments, the
instruction reflecting the research base on the need
researchers also found that OC students outscored
for both direct instruction in basic skills and litera-
control group students on every single measure. On
ture-based instruction that can help build back-
six of the nine subtests, the mean score advantage of
ground knowledge and improve student comprehen-
the OC students was educationally significant.⁷
sion and vocabulary. The program is best known for
its primary grade curriculum, incorporating explicit
Case Studies
instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics,
which has been available for a number of years and
PS 161 (Brooklyn, New York). PS 161 is a K-5
for which convincing achievement data exists. This
school located in the heart of Brooklyn's Crown
program extends through grade 6 to encompass
Heights neighborhood. It has a student population
instruction in challenging and engaging children's
of 1,370, of whom over 90 percent are African-
literature, including many classics as well as a large
American and 97 percent qualify for free lunch.
number of multicultural selections. There is less
Once one of the district's bottom-tier schools, PS
research, however, on the efficacy of this part of the
161 started to turn around about 10 years ago, after
program.
the school decided to make reading instruction
As with any new instructional program, teachers
more consistent. The faculty began a schoolwide
and paraprofessionals need adequate professional
implementation of Open Court, supplemented by
development to implement the program well. In
other literacy-related materials and activities. By
particular, low-performing schools may find the
1996, 93 percent of the school's fifth graders were
publisher's standard one and one-half days of train-
scoring above the state's minimum level in writing
ing are not enough to meet their needs. This is espe-
tests, slightly above the state average and 17 points
cially the case since the teachers' manuals for the
above the average for schools with similar demo-
beginning reading program can be difficult to fol-
graphics. In reading assessments, 80 percent of third
low. All schools should therefore be aware that addi-
graders scored above the state's minimum level,
tional assistance is available upon request, at no
compared with 47 percent in similar schools and 79
additional charge. For example, when several Title I
percent in all state schools. In addition, 38 percent
schools in Houston recently implemented Open
of PS 161's third graders were found to be reading
Court as a part of a controlled study (see "Results"
at the "mastery" level, 10 points above the statewide
section above), a full 30 hours of professional devel-
average.
opment was provided.
Heights Elementary School (Laredo, Texas).
Students' achievement scores provide strong evi-
Heights Elementary is a small school. Of the 210
dence that this is a highly effective program when
students in grades 1-5, 98 percent are Latino, 55 are
implemented well. As such, it should be considered
percent limited English proficient, and 70 percent
by any elementary school, across the demographic
qualify for free or reduced price lunch-statistics
range, that needs to boost reading scores and stu-
that would usually signal low achievement levels. In
dent achievement levels.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
25
Publications/Resources
1 These figures have been extrapolated, based on SRA/
McGraw-Hill's published "Implementation Proposal" for
Foorman, et al. (1997). "Early Interventions for
California.
Children with Reading Problems: Study Designs
2 Foorman, Francis, Beeler, Winikates & Fletcher (1997).
and Preliminary Findings." Learning Disabilities:
"Early Interventions for Children with Reading Problems:
Vol. 8, No. 1.
Study Designs and Preliminary Findings." Learning
Disabilities.
"Learning without Limits," Open Court Collections
3
"Reading Programs for Students in the Lower Elementary
for Young Scholars information kit, SRA/
Grades: What Does the Research Say?" (1997). Austin: Texas
McGraw-Hill.
Center for Educational Research.
Siegel, J. (October 1997). "The Jewel in the
4 Reading mean scores (OC 44%, WL/P 32%, WL/experimen-
Crown." Teacher Magazine.
tal 27%, WL/control 17%), Comprehension mean scores
(OC 46%, WL/P 35%, WL/experimental 31%, WL/control
For more information, contact: Open Court,
21%); see footnote 2.
SRA/McGraw-Hill, 1221 Farmers Lane, Suite C,
5
Thomas J. Barrett (1995). "A Comparison of Two
Santa Rosa, CA 95405. Phone: 1-888/SRA-4KIDS
Approaches to First-Grade Phonics Instruction in the
(toll free). Internet: www.sra-4kids.com/home.html
Riverside Unified School District."
(search by "reading" and "Open Court").
6 Webster & Braswell (July 1991). "Curriculum Bias and
Reading Achievement Test Performance." Psychology in the
Schools.
7 In general, an effect size of +.25 or more is considered to be
educationally significant.
26
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
Success for All (SFA)
Grades Covered
Elementary/K-6.
Curriculum Materials
Curriculum guides, curriculum materials, children's literature, daily lesson
plans, and teacher manuals are provided for grades K-6 in reading,
writing, and language arts.
Instructional Support/
Through lesson plans and teachers' manuals, specific instructional
Professional Development
guidance is provided for each part of the curriculum. Professional devel-
opment is also provided as part of the basic cost of the program, with pre-
and post-implementation workshops for all instructional staff. In addi-
tion, advanced training is provided for the principal and a "program facil-
itator," who works as an on-site coach/coordinator in the school.
School Reform/
This is a schoolwide restructuring program that affects curricu-
Restructuring Assistance
lum, pedagogy, scheduling, resource allocation, professional development,
and family support services. To help ensure success, a clear commitment
on the part of administrators and a secret ballot endorsement by at least
80 percent of the school staff are required parts of the application process.
Once accepted, schools receive implementation assistance and training, as
well as continuing support through a "network" with researchers and
other SFA schools.
Role of Paraprofessionals
To some extent, the deployment of classroom paraprofessionals is deter-
mined at the school level. SFA recommends their use as classroom aides
in pre-K and K and as one-on-one tutors working under the direction of
certified teachers with students with mild reading difficulties.
Cost of Implementation
Most Success for All schools have funded the program as a Title I school-
wide project. For a school with 500 students, SFA estimates the first-year
implementation costs to be $90-$100 per student for training, materials,
and follow-up visits.¹ If the facilitator, tutor, and other SFA-related staff
positions cannot be filled by a redeployment of existing staff, the costs
related to the hiring of additional staff may range between $450 to
$1,100 per student.
Results*/Effect Size2
Reading (+.34 to +.82); Word Attack (+.51 to +4.22).³
* To give a sense of scale, an effect size of +1.00 would be equivalent to an
increase of 100 points on the SAT scale or 15 points of IQ-enough to move
a student from the 20th percentile (the normal level of performance for chil-
dren in poverty) to above the 50th percentile (the norm for mainstream stu-
dents).
uccess for All (SFA) is an elementary school
Johns Hopkins University, SFA will be in place in
S
restructuring program, designed to deliver
more than 750 (mostly high-poverty, Title I) schools
intensive academic assistance to student popu-
across the country, as of Fall 1997.4 Because learning
lations at risk of school failure. Developed in the
to read has been shown to be critical for academic
mid-1980s by Dr. Robert Slavin, a researcher at
success, the program was built around research into
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
27
the most effective ways to teach reading and strate-
identify students who are falling behind and need
gies to catch and correct problems early.
extra help and tutoring, as well as those who are
progressing quickly and should be placed in a higher
Main Features
performance group. At the same time, teachers
attempt to identify students who need other types of
Reading and Writing Program-The core of
assistance, such as family interventions or screening
Success for All is a reading curriculum that incorpo-
for hearing or vision problems.
rates research-based instructional practices, includ-
Tutors-Another important element in the pro-
ing cooperative learning. In kindergarten and grade
gram is the use of one-on-one tutoring, the most
1, the program emphasizes reading readiness and the
effective form of instruction for students with read-
development of oral language. Students work on
ing problems. Tutors are certified teachers who are
phonemic awareness activities to help develop audi-
reading specialists or have experience teaching Title I
tory discrimination; become familiar with books,
or special education students. Trained paraprofes-
letters and phonetically regular words; and listen to,
sionals may also be used for students with less severe
retell, and dramatize children's literature and the-
reading difficulties, under direction of the certified
matic units based in science and history. When stu-
tutor. Children with reading difficulties are tutored
dents reach the primer level, they use an adaptation
during a 20-minute period during the day when
of another Johns Hopkins University-developed pro-
neither reading nor math is being taught in class. To
gram: Cooperative Integrated Reading and
prevent problems from developing and to minimize
Composition (CIRC). In addition to receiving
the number of older students needing remediation,
direct instruction from teachers in reading compre-
first-grade students are given priority for tutoring.
hension and writing, SFA and CIRC students
Certified tutors also act as regular reading teachers
engage in cooperative learning activities built around
during the 90-minute reading periods.
oral reading in pairs, structured discussion, summa-
Program Facilitator-Another key element of
rization and retelling of stories, vocabulary building,
the program is the use of a program facilitator at
decoding practice, and story-related writing.
each school. A member of the school staff who is
Detailed teachers' manuals and support materials,
released from regular classroom responsibilities, the
through grade 6, are built around children's litera-
facilitator works (with the principal) to oversee the
ture and the most widely used basals and antholo-
details of implementation, including scheduling
gies. Classroom libraries of trade books at the stu-
changes and professional development arrange-
dents' reading level are provided to each teacher,
ments. The facilitator also monitors the implemen-
along with support materials.
tation of the curriculum in the classroom and is
Reading Groups-Although heterogeneous, age-
available to assist/coach individual teachers and
grouped classes are conducted most of the day, stu-
tutors through any problems. He or she also helps
dents in grades 1-3 (and sometimes 4-5 or 4-6) are
deal with student behavior problems and acts as a
regrouped for reading. A common 90-minute read-
liaison between the staff and the family support
ing period is established across grades, during which
team.
students are regrouped by reading performance level.
Training-The professional development pro-
By establishing a common period and using all cer-
vided by Success for All includes a brief orientation
tified staff (including tutors, librarians, art teachers,
and training period, in-class coaching and assistance,
etc.), class size for these groups is substantially below
and periodic inservice workshops and discussion
the size of homeroom classes. By eliminating the
groups. In the first year of implementation, three
need for multiple reading groups, direct instruction
days of inservice training are provided for all teach-
time is increased and student busywork is decreased,
ers, tutors, and classroom paraprofessionals at the
thus accelerating the pace of learning.
beginning of the school year. The initial training for
Frequent Assessments-Every eight weeks, read-
both the facilitator and the principal is more com-
ing teachers assess student progress using personal
prehensive, usually a week-long training session at
observations and curriculum-based and formal mea-
Johns Hopkins University. Throughout the year,
sures. Teachers use the results of these assessments to
researchers make frequent site visits during which
28
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
they make classroom observations, meet with staff,
trol schools in the city at every grade level. For
and conduct inservice training. Facilitators also
example, CTBS scores for SFA and control schools
arrange sessions for staff to share information, dis-
were collected during the 1992-93 school year. By
cuss problems and solutions, and collaborate on the
the fifth grade, SFA students were found to be 75
needs of individual children.
percent of a grade equivalent ahead of control stu-
Family Support Team-The family support
dents on the CTBS Total Reading assessment.
team consists of the facilitator, parent liaison (if
Evaluations have also found positive effects on
any), counselor (if any), principal or vice principal
attendance and retention rates.
(if any), and any other staff the school deems appro-
Houston, Texas. In Houston, a recent experi-
priate. The team promotes parental involvement in
ment in the large-scale replication of Success for All
the school-providing information, organizing
has also shown positive results. What began in 1993
school-related activities, and conducting workshops
as a special summer school program, offered by the
for parents. It also intervenes to help solve behavior
school district, was quickly expanded into a reform
and other problems, acts as a resource for teachers
option for all elementary schools. By the 1994-95
and parents, and helps coordinate services with
school year, more than 70 schools had chosen to
community-based health, social service, and juvenile
participate. Unfortunately, with the quick start-up,
justice agencies.
many schools did not receive the necessary training
and materials before the beginning of the school
Results
year. Despite these widespread implementation
problems, the Houston experiment appears to be
Not only is Success for All designed around
working. According to a preliminary study by the
research into effective teaching methods, but the
University of Memphis,5 SFA's median first-year
program itself has an extensive body of research
results varied from ES=+.15 to +.33 (see footnote 2)
demonstrating its effectiveness. Statistically signifi-
in Houston, largely depending on whether all of the
cant positive effects have been found on every mea-
program's features had been faithfully implemented.
sure from grades 1 to 5, with especially large gains
Although lower than the achievement gains reported
for students most at risk for failure. These effects
in previous studies of smaller-scale implementations,
have also been shown to be cumulative: While first-
these results still demonstrate a statistically signifi-
grade SFA students are about three months ahead of
cant improvement.
matched control students in reading, by the fifth
grade, they outscore control students by an average
of a full grade level. Bilingual students and students
Considerations
in the lowest quartile of their grades average even
Although the research on Success for All is over-
higher gains, with effect size changes of +1.00 or
whelming in proving its effectiveness, any successful
more (see footnote 2).
implementation will require a substantial commit-
The program has also been found to cut special
ment in funding, staff time, and school restructur-
education placements in half, on average, and one
ing work. Because this program was developed for,
study found that the program eliminated the black-
and is primarily used by, high-poverty Title I
white achievement gap.
schools, some have the idea that the program is pri-
marily remedial (interpreted to mean "dumbed
Case Studies
down"). The truth, however, is that SFA's developers
went out of their way to strike a workable balance
Baltimore, Maryland. The birthplace of Success
between challenging content and the acquisition of
for All, Baltimore has five of the longest-running
basic skills, incorporating everything from guided
SFA implementations in the country. The schools
skill instruction to basals to children's classics such
are located in inner-city, predominantly African-
as Charlotte's Web. As such, it should be considered
American neighborhoods, with between 75 percent
by any elementary school, across the demographic
to 96 percent of students eligible for school lunch
range, that needs to boost reading scores and stu-
subsidies. On average, SFA schools outperform con-
dent achievement levels.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
29
Although the costs of implementation are high,
I
Per-pupil costs may be lower in multischool implementations.
the reallocation of existing Title I funds and the
2 An effect size is a standard means of expressing achievement
redeployment of existing staff can make it afford-
gains and losses across studies, showing differences between
able, even in high-poverty schools and districts. For
experimental and control groups in terms of standard devia-
example, a school that already has four Title I teach-
tion. An effect size of +1.00 indicates that the experimental
ers could train one to be the SFA facilitator, while
group outperformed the control group by one full standard
the other three become reading teachers/tutors.
deviation. To give a sense of scale, this would be equivalent to
Another tradeoff arises from Success for All's
an increase of 100 points on the SAT scale, two stanines, 21
NCEs (normal curve equivalent ranks) or 15 points of IQ
intensive focus on reading in the primary grades.
(Fashola and Slavin, 1996)-enough to move a student from
This could result in less money for other programs
the 20th percentile (the normal level of performance for chil-
and activities, and more resources allocated for
dren in poverty) to above the 50th percentile (in range with
grades 1-3 versus grades 4-6. But while some of
mainstream America). Because of differences among study
these trade-offs may be difficult, research and com-
designs and assessments, this can only be considered a
mon sense tell us that the best, most cost-effective
"rough" measure of comparison. In general, an effect size of
+.25 or more is considered to be educationally significant.
academic intervention program is one that prevents
3
Slavin, Madden, Dolan, Wasik, Ross, and Smith, 1994;
students from falling behind in the first place. For
Slavin, Madden, Karweit, Liverman, and Dolan, 1990. Note:
long-term success, it is critical that young students
Reading results data are pooled scores from all interventions,
be provided with a firm academic foundation. The
1988-1993, with scores rising through each successive year of
ability to read with ease and comprehension is the
implementation.
bedrock upon which that foundation is built. This
4
Roots and Wings, a program to supplement the Success for
program has proven it can help schools accomplish
All reading and language arts curriculum with curricula in
this goal.
math, social studies, and science for grades K-6, has also been
developed through New American Schools Designs.
Preliminary results are promising.
Publications/Resources
5 Nunnery, Ross, and Smith, 1996.
Slavin, R.E., Madden, N. A., Dolan, L. J. & Wasik,
B. A. (1996). Every Child, Every School: Success
for All. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc.
805/499-9774.
Slavin, R.E., et al. (April 1994). "Whenever and
Wherever We Choose: The Replication of
Success for All." Phi Delta Kappan.
Slavin, R.E., et al. (December 1992/January 1993).
"Preventing Early School Failure: What Works."
Educational Leadership.
For more information, contact: Center for
Research on the Education of Students Placed at
Risk, Johns Hopkins University, 3505 North
Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218. Phone:
800/548-4998. Fax: 410/516-8890. Internet:
http://successforall.com.
30
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
Additional Reading
Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning To Read: Thinking and Learning About Print. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
American Educator, (1995) Vol. 19, No. 2: Summer.*
Adams, M.J. & Bruck, M. (1995). "Resolving the 'Great Debate."
Beck, I.L. & Juel, C. (1995). "The Role of Decoding in Learning To Read."
McPike, E. (1995). "Learning To Read: Schooling's First Mission."
Moats, L.C. (1994). "The Missing Foundation in Teacher Education."
American Educator, (1996) Vol. 20, No. 3: Fall.*
Delpit, L. (1986). "Skills and Other Dilemmas of a Progressive Black Educator."
Grossen, B. (1996). "Making Research Serve the Profession."
Hirsch, E.D., Jr. (1996). "Reality's Revenge: Research and Ideology."
Anderson, R.C., Osborn, J. & Tierney, R.C. [Eds.] (1984). Learning To Read in American Schools: Basal
Readers and Content Texts. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Blachman, B.A. (1991). "Getting Ready To Read: Learning How Print Maps to Speech." In J. Kavanagh
[Ed.], The Language Continuum: From Infancy to Literacy. Parkton, MD: York Press.
Chall, J.S. (1983). Stages of Reading Development. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Fashola, O. & Slavin, R.E. (1996). Effective and Replicable Programs for Students Placed at Risk in
Elementary and Middle Schools. Washington, D.C.: Office of Educational Research and Improvement,
U.S. Department of Education.
Herman, R. & Stringfield, S. (1997). Ten Promising Programs for Educating All Children: Evidence of Impact.
Arlington, Va.: Educational Research Service.
Learning To Read, Reading To Learn (1997). Washington, D.C.: American Federation of Teachers.**
Pearson, D.P., Roehler, L.R., Dole, J.A. & Duffy, G.G. (1992). "Developing Expertise in Reading
Comprehension." In Samuels, J.S. & Farstrup, A.E. [Eds.], What Research Has To Say about Reading
Instruction. Newark, Del.: International Reading Association.
Raising Student Achievement: A Resource Guide for Improving Low-Performing Schools (1997). Washington,
D.C.: American Federation of Teachers.
Slavin, R.E. (May 21,1997). "How Title I Can (Still) Save America's Children." Education Week, Vol. XVI,
No. 34.
Slavin, R.E., Karweit, N.L. & Wasik, B.A. [Eds.] (1994). Preventing Early School Failure: Research, Policy
and Practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Stanovich, K.E. (1994). "Romance and Reality." The Reading Teacher, 47.
Stringfield, S., et al. (1996). "The Three-Year Effects of 10 Promising Programs on the Academic
Achievement of Students Placed at Risk." New York: American Educational Research Association.
*
Requests for issues and/or copies of articles can be sent to: American Educator, AFT, 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20001,
or email: [email protected].
** Single copies of this publication, item no. 178, are available for $5 from: AFT, Order Department, 555 New Jersey Avenue, NW,
Washington, DC 20001.
Single copies of this publication, item no. 370, are available for $15 from: AFT Order Department (address above).
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS
31
Note on Program Selection Methods
The purpose of this series of program profiles is
standard deviation. To give a sense of scale, this
to provide background information about research-
would be equivalent to an increase of 100 points
based programs that, when properly implemented,
on the SAT scale, two stanines, 21 NCEs (normal
show promise for raising student achievement sig-
curve equivalent ranks) or 15 points of IQ
nificantly. For this effort, we solicited program rec-
(Fashola and Slavin, 1996)-enough to move a
ommendations from experts in the field and
student from the 20th percentile (the normal
reviewed the published records of the National
level of performance for children in poverty) to
Diffusion Network, materials found through the
above the 50th percentile (in range with main-
library of the Office of Educational Research and
stream America). Because of differences among
Improvement, and recent research reviews. We then
study designs and assessments, this can only be
attempted to obtain descriptive information and
considered a "rough" measure of comparison. In
copies of all published evaluations-including study
general, an effect size of +.25 or more is consid-
designs, field test data, and replication histories—
ered to be educationally significant.
from the developers of all programs, thus identified.
All available materials were then reviewed against
Ideally, evaluations include findings from
the following criteria:
matched comparison or large randomly assigned
control group studies-or, failing this, compare
When properly implemented, the program helps
the standardized test gains of program students to
students acquire the skills and/or knowledge they
appropriate state- or nationally normed samples.
need to successfully perform to high academic
standards.
Evaluations include data from third-party
researchers using independently developed assess-
The program has been effective in raising acade-
ments, not only from program developers using
mic achievement levels, especially for "at risk" stu-
program-designed tests.
dents, based on independent evaluations.
Evaluations include and/or compare data from
The program has been effectively implemented in
multiple replication sites.
multiple sites beyond the original pilot school(s).
For programs in each category-in this case,
Professional development, materials and ongoing
reading and English language arts programs-pro-
implementation support are available for the pro-
files were prepared only for those that came closest
gram, either through the program's developer,
to meeting the above criteria. It should be noted,
independent contractors, or dissemination net-
however, that there may be additional programs
works established by schools already in the pro-
that qualify for inclusion but for which we were
gram.
unable to locate adequate data; we hope to be able
The standards by which program effectiveness
to include additional profiles for any such programs
in future editions. It should be noted, as well, that
was gauged are as follow:
in an effort to present a broader selection of pro-
Evaluations demonstrate that the program can
grams, a few were included that did not quite meet
help produce educationally significant student
the above criteria. Where this is the case, the pre-
achievement gains, as measured in effect sizes. An
liminary nature of the data has been noted in the
effect size is a standard means of expressing
profile text.
achievement gains and losses across studies, show-
Finally, both as a courtesy and as a check for
ing differences between experimental and control
accuracy, a draft of each program profile was sent to
groups in terms of standard deviation. An effect
the appropriate publisher or developer for review.
size of +1.00 indicates that the experimental
Any new information provided to us during this
group outperformed the control group by one full
review process has been incorporated.
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF TEACHERS,
555 NEW JERSEY AVENUE NW / WASHINGTON, DC 20001-2079
JANUARY 1998
AFTSO
S
Best
High
Schools
1
b
R
Here's the way they do
members, parents, and students have formed dynamic
partnerships that have turned schools around.
it-and what every parent
Today there are more success stories to crow about than
M
can do to improve the
ever before. In the five years he's been principal of Benjamin
Banneker High School in College Park, Georgia, Hansell
su
quality of education in
Gunn has introduced tutorial programs and peer counseling.
fa
"Believe it or not, a competition to win a red pencil I always
19
their own town
seemed to have in my hand fired these kids up to get better
hu
grades," he says. Hansell Gunn isn't the only one succeed-
go
BY MICHAEL J. WEISS
ing. According to the College Board, 1995 SAT scores were
asi
up in public high schools across the country. The National
co
Center for Education Statistics reports dropout rates were
rec
YOU USUALLY KNOW YOU'RE IN A TOP-NOTCH HIGH SCHOOL
down, and more students became computer literate.
im
the minute you walk through the door. The place practically
Our winning schools come in all sizes and socioeconom-
sch
vibrates with energy and expectations about to be fulfilled.
ic settings, from small rural schools like Wyoming's Pine
pai
Walk the hallways of Indiana's Richmond High School and
Bluffs High School, which produces the state's top student
mc
see academic awards displayed everywhere. Peek into
newspaper, to sprawling urban campuses like Brooklyn's
its classrooms and see students working on state-of-the-art
Fort Hamilton High School, where students specialize in
COI
computers. Students at Kansas's Shawnee Mission West
finance, computer science, dramatic arts, or health.
Re
participate in any of 50 extracurricular clubs. At Wisconsin's
To better understand what makes a school excel, we
chi
Rufus King High, students take advanced anthropology
asked first lady Hillary Rodham Clinton to share her
Mr
courses and win state championships in chess and basket-
wisdom culled from years of reviewing school systems and
how
ball. And every single student at Illinois's Mathematics and
being an active parent. We asked some of the parents at
an
Science Academy plans to go to college this fall.
our winning schools to tell us how they helped improve
dau
In choosing the 155 winning public high schools for
their children's schools, and how you can do the same with
teac
Redbook's fifth annual America's Best Schools project,
yours. With women's basketball heating up as one of
all
our panel of education leaders discovered that a national
the Summer Olympics' most competitive events, we looked
C(
effort to address drugs, violence, and low achievement in
at the rising popularity of the sport in high schools and
in t]
our high schools paid off big. Many principals, faculty
the growth of girls' athletic programs.
sch
88 REDBOOK APRIL 1996
WHAT OUR
Kate White: In
learning more because they
were exposed to so much
SCHOOLS
It Takes a Village you say
more than we had been.
CHE STATE
that the biggest obstacle
NEED NOW
many students face in
KW:
In your book you also
a Talk
learning is overcoming
talk about some of the excel-
the low expectations we
lent programs that certain
schools
in
with Hillary
have of them and their
schools have started. How
school in each state
Rodhåm
schools. How did our expec-
do we challenge our own
schools in six
tations get to be so low?
children's schools? How do
Clinton
The following
we raise expectations?
high
schools
Hillary Rodham
HRC:
each state and the District
In her new book, It Takes a
I think there are
Clinton:
Columbia
are
known
Village: And Other Lessons
That is one of
several ways. There is no
their varied and
Children Teach Us (Simon &
the questions I've thought
substitute for parents being
curriculums and unflagging
Schuster), first lady Hillary
about most. I think it's due in
involved in school, and that
pursuit
of
Rodham Clinton tells the
part to the increasingly fran-
means parents have to make
story of how her father
tic nature of adult life-work
time again for volunteer-
helped her get through fourth
patterns changing, increased
ing, for joining PTAs, for
WEST
VALLEY,
grade arithmetic. She rose
mobility, divorce-a lot of
parent-teacher conferences.
at the crack of dawn and
things that have made it
That hands-on involvement
POINTE,
her father drilled her on
more difficult for parents to
is the first step.
Paragobid,
AR
multiplication tables and
really stop and think about
I also believe that busi-
Los ANGELES CENTER FOR
long division before he left
what they expect from their
nesses could play a major
STUDIES,
for work. Her parents contin-
kids' education. Parents have
role in prodding schools in
COLORADO'S
ued to be supportive and
delegated more and more
their communities to set goals
HIGH
SCHOOL,
involved in her education
responsibility to the schools.
and provide benchmarks
WILTON,
Wilton,
well into her years at Maine
I also think that with the
against which to measure the
VOCATIONAL
Township High School South
changing economy and influ-
kids' progress. Parents could
in Park Ridge, Illinois.
ence of mass communica-
play a role in this process.
Maine South, where
tions it became unclear what
And then, finally, I think
Hillary's classmates remem-
our expectations should be.
that understanding the role
ber her as brainy and popu-
I think many of us parents
that expectations play is
ar, was chosen as one of
assumed our kids were
something that both parents
Redbook's Best Schools
(continued on page 70)
this year. With nearly
JUNIOR
SENIOR,
Cascade
70 percent of its par-
ents actively involved,
Maine South's contin-
ued success is no
surprise to its most
famous alumnus. Since
1983, when her
husband, then the
governor of Arkansas,
asked her to chair a
committee that would
recommend ways to
improve Arkansas's
schools, she has urged
parents to become
more involved.
In the following
conversation with
Redbook editor-in-
chief Kate White,
Mrs. Clinton recalls
how she too became
an ally of her
daughter Chelsea's
teachers, and how
all parents can play
a constructive role
in their children's
schools.
allies with the teachers.
many Mormon families of
MANHATTAN CENTER FOR
Best America's Schools
And then I've known
making one night a week
AND MATHEMATICS, New York
other parents who have
family night. You can start
CHAPEL HILL, Chapel HIGH
made up lists of things
with something as simple as
BEULAN, Beulah, ND
they'd be willing to do. The
that-no TV, no computers,
COLUMBUS ALTERNATIVE
and teachers need educating
list might include things
you're going to do some-
Columbus,
about. I'm very impressed
like "I love to read to kids-
thing together as a family
OKLAHOMA SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND
by the work of the Efficacy
can I come in and read?"
and take turns selecting what
MATHEMATICS, Oldahdma
Institute [a teacher-training
that activity will be. That's a
KW:
GRESHAM, Greshant, OR
group in Lexington,
It's not simply that
way of building relationships
Massachusetts], because
we have low expectations of
among family members who
CENTRAL, Philadelphi
they really take it from
our schools. We may have
often live in the same house
PONAGANSET, North Soltuate
ground level in convincing
low expectations of our
but not in the same space.
SPRING VALLEY, Columbia,
teachers that all kids can
kids. How do we raise our
I also think you have to
ABERDEEN CENTRAL, Aberdeentr GD
learn, and teachers then help
expectations of our own
start early. If you take your
parents understand that.
children and be more
toddler to museums, to
CRAIGMONT OPTIONAL, Memphis;
TN
challenging as parents?
parks, if you take your
KW:
What areas have
HRC:
toddler out to the yard
PLANO EAST, Plano, EX
you found are the best
I think we have to
when you're raking leaves,
GRANGER, West Valley
for parents to get involved
make spending time with our
telling him that's his work,
PROCTOR JUNIOR SENIOR,
in-without stepping on
kids a real priority again. It
it builds a sense of work
VT
any toes?
doesn't have to be fancy or
associated with results.
E.C. GLASS, Lynchburg, VA
so-called quality time, but-it
HRC:
Then I think, when you
MOUNTLAKE TERRACE, Mountlake
I can give you some
does take some energy. You
get into school, it's important
Terrace, WA
examples from my own
can follow the example of
to
(continued on page 128)
WHEELING PARK, Wheeling, WV
experience. I have always
tried to be as active a parent
RUFUS KING, Milwaukee, WI
as I could be, and I have, at
BLUFFS, Pine Blaffs,
the parent meetings I've
attended, asked the princi-
pal or the teacher, "What's
your wish list? What would
CATEGORY
you like to have help with?"
I remember when Chelsea
WINNERS
was in first grade and a
Our judges named the Vollowkig
group of us mothers were at
104 schools as the best in
a meeting and we asked that
specific categories. They
question. The teachers said,
listed alphabetically by
"We just don't feel that
we've got the time or the
OVERALL
background to put together a
EXCELLENCE
science curriculum, but we
These 63 well-rounded
want our kids exposed to
offer students a strong mix.o
science." It just so happened
Intellectual challenges and
Future scientists at
that one of the mothers in
stimulating extracurricim
Connecticut's
activities. Dedicated teachers
one of those classes had been
Wilton High School.
and parents produce an atmo-
a high school science teacher.
sphere that ensures the high
So she said, would you like it
academic performance that
if we helped? And the teacher
7-Wavs You
distinguishes these winnert
said yes, that would be great.
MOUNTAIN BROOK, Mountain
So she recruited three of us,
Brook, AL
and I'm no science whiz by
Can Improve Your
MUSCLE SHOALS, Muscle Shoals,
any means. We met over at
AL
the mother's house. and we
Child School
PETERSBURG, Petersburs -
created a little curriculum.
IRONWOOD, Glendale, AZ
We would go into all the first
Susan Bramlette wanted to help. She was lucky enough to
LAGUNA HILLS, Laguna Hills, #
grade classrooms once a
have two teenagers who were both academically and athleti-
Rio AMERICANO, Sacramento, CA
week and do these little
cally gifted. But she knew that some of their classmates at
experiments. And you know,
SAN MARCOS, Santa Barbara, WA
Houston's Memorial Senior High School were grappling with
they were simple things
SANTA Ft, Santa Fe Springs,
BY BUCK
problems that could derail their education-pregnancy, truan-
like let's plant this lima
cy, and poverty. Busy as this working mom was, Bramlette
TORREY PINES, San Diego, CA
bean And the kids loved
was determined to become involved in her children's school.
JOEL BARLOW, West Redding, GT
that hands-on instruction. We
After joining other parents who were helping Memorial
WOODROW WILSON SENIOR HIGH
loved being in there. We
upgrade training and equipment for its varsity sports teams,
SCHOOL, Washington, D.C.
really became in a sense
she turned her attention to tutoring a (continued on page 72)
(continued on
70 REDBOOK APRIL 1996
Right Vs. Happy
And our sense of ourselves as morally
for ourselves or others or that we must
uncompromised spirits may soften
keep peace at all costs. In most cases,
slightly as time makes us acknowledge
however, we need to weigh the
(continued from page 126)
our own weaknesses and flaws.
benefits-and to be honest, the thrill-of
"When I saw my best friend con-
saying something righteous and high-
LIVING IN THE REAL WORLD
stantly bribing her toddler to make
minded against the possible pain we
No one is saying we should master the
him behave," says Judy, "I decided to
might cause. For the past few years, I've
art of giving in, chalking it up, or
speak up. I told her I thought she
had a friend who, much like my friend
looking the other way. Rather, we can
was harming her son by teaching him
of a decade ago, can't seem to be on
be more selective about what we're
to do things just for some food treat or
time. Still, it's a friendship that I cherish
willing to fight for, and find ways
toy. Luckily, my friend had the sense
and that means a great deal more to
of handling lesser frictions without
to say we should talk about this again
me than a few minutes of waiting. I'm
full-scale moral warfare. We can pre-
after I had children of my own. Now
glad that I've learned from my past
empt or avoid situations that put our
that I've stooped to bribery with my
mistake of defending, no matter what, a
less-than-crucial beliefs to the test. We
don't have to lend our favorite scarf to
the friend who never returns things.
We can avoid situations that test our beliefs:
We don't have to tell that secret to the
sister who can't keep it. (And we
We don't have to lend our favorite scarf to the
should know by now that even the
most trustworthy secret-keeper is
friend who never returns things. We don't have
going to be sorely tempted to tell her
husband.) Moreover, it often happens
to tell that secret to the sister who can't keep it.
that the wisdom of greater experience
makes us reevaluate principles better
own kids so many times, I'm glad my
principle of good behavior that I still
suited to an ideal universe than to the
friend didn't let me pick a fight about
believe in but that seems less important.
world as it actually is.
some idea that's very hard to live by
My friend and I joke about her
"For years after my parents got
when you have an actual child."
chronic inability to get in sync with
divorced, I was enraged at them," says
the clock. And we never arrange to
Anne, a real estate agent. "I thought:
YOU SAY POTATO; I SAY POTAHTO
meet on a street corner, in a café, or
You don't break up a marriage and a
By our thirties, we also should be able
for an event that begins at a particular
family no matter how unhappy you
to recognize a few more facts of life:
hour. She comes to visit on days when
are. We used to have terrible fights.
that we can't often expect to change
I'll be home anyway. We have a meal
It wasn't until after my husband and
someone else's behavior or point of
or go for a walk and enjoy the plea-
I separated that I began to understand
view, and that it's all too easy to turn a
sures of our friendship-pleasures
what my parents had gone through.
question of minor principle into a real
stronger than any principles about the
And I'm glad that I've been able
or perceived attack on a person's entire
virtues of punctuality.
to grow close to them again."
being. What's more, it's very tricky to
It's easier to insist we're right when
take something back after we've said it.
Francine Prose's new book, Guided
we haven't yet learned from experi-
There comes a time when we need to
Tours of Hell, will be published next
ence that things can seem simple at
reconsider what we're willing to risk.
fall by Metropolitan Books, a division
first and turn out to be very complex.
It's not as if we lose the will to stick up
of Holt.
Hillary Clinton
KW:
One thing that many parents
that you expect, certain ways that you
appear to struggle with is how to be
want your child to fill his time
good, effective parents without being
because you think they're better than
(continued from page 70)
as authoritarian as their own parents
some of the alternatives, and you just
set aside time, which is school time, and
may have been. They end up erring on
have to be firm. Again, the earlier you
to constantly read to your children,
the side of permissiveness. How do we
start, the easier it is. It's not easy at
which I can't stress too much, and to
find that balance between permissive-
any point because every child is going
talk with your children. When it comes
ness and the authoritarian approach?
to be rebellious and test you.
to schoolwork, provide a space, even if
Many parents are almost afraid to
it's just the corner of a table, it doesn't
HRC:
In the book I talk about this
exercise authority for fear of alienating
have to be anything elaborate, but that's
middle road that is called "authoritative,"
their children. Many parents who are
your child's "office." When you have
which I have tried to apply in my own
working very hard are really stressed
more than one kid, it's important to have
parenting. And it does require that par-
out-they may be single parents under
that space available so that each child
ents give up both the easy answer of "We
extraordinary pressures, who just don't
feels that this is his or her work area.
know what's best and you do everything
want to fight with their children. And so
And then finally, I think that parents
we say as long as you live under this roof"
they keep ceding ground. Every study
should not be afraid to ask for help. Lots
and the extreme permissiveness that
that I've looked at makes it as clear as it
of parents don't feel comfortable
cedes control and authority to children.
can be that being willing to set limits
helping with homework, but more and
In authoritative parenting you
and enforce those limits, being willing
more communities are doing things like
explain what you're going to do and
to say no and take the feedback you
setting up homework hot lines or having
why you're going to do it. You make
will inevitably get, will make your life
older kids tutor younger kids.
it clear that there are certain behaviors
easier, not harder, over the long run.
128 REDBOOK APRIL 1996