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SERVICE LEARNING:
MEETING THE NEEDS OF YOUTH AT RISK
MARTY DUCKENFIELD
LORILEI SWANSON
JUNE 1992
A Publication of the National Dropout Prevention Center
Table of Contents
About the Authors
4
Preface
5
Chapter One
Introduction
6
Definition of Service Learning
7
Rationale
7
Chapter Two
Integrating Service Learning into the Curriculum
11
Level One: Extracurricular
11
Level Two: Curricular Unit
11
Level Three: Mandatory or Elective Courses
11
Level Four: School-Wide Integration
12
Chapter Three
Essential Components of Service Learning
13
Preparation
13
Action
14
Reflection
15
Chapter Four
The Service Learning Continuum
17
Elementary Schools
17
Middle Schools
18
High Schools
19
Service Learning Activities for Grades K-12
20
Chapter Five
Service Learning Research
21
Conclusion
23
Appendices
Publications
24
Organizations
25
References
26
Service Learning
About the Authors
Marty Duckenfield received her undergraduate degree in History from Bates
College and her master's in Nutritional Science from Clemson University. A former
teacher, she now serves as the Information Resource Coordinator for the National
Dropout Prevention Center. In this capacity, she manages the FOCUS Database and
Resource Materials Library located on-site. Additionally, she has been involved in the
development and evaluation of a local cross-age tutoring project which gained
substantial national recognition.
Based upon these experiences and with her involvement with young people aged
10-18 in a youth-operated community theatre, Marty has witnessed firsthand how
regarding young people as resources rather than problems can have an extraordinary
impact on young people and their communities. She has become a proponent of
service learning through presentations and workshops at national conferences and
for local school districts.
Lorilei Swanson received a B.A. degree in Interdisciplinary Studies from the
University of South Florida and her M. Ed. from Clemson University. As a raft guide
and outdoor enthusiast, Lorilei is an advocate of experiential learning for youth. Based
upon her experience as primary researcher for this publication, she also conducted
a workshop on service learning at the National Dropout Prevention Conference.
4
Service Learning
Preface
In 1987, shortly after I had taken the job of creating the Governor's Office of Citizen
Service in Pennsylvania, I met Dr. Ernest Boyer at a convention. Boyer was and is
a strong and consistent advocate for community service, having urged its use in his
books High School and College. I approached him after his lecture and asked him how
service learning might best be spread. He paused, smiled and said, "Tell good
stories."
I began to collect stories-many of them about students at risk of dropping out.
Diane Scott, principal of Overbrook High School in Philadelphia, told me how she
assigned her 120 most at-risk 9th graders a three-hour-per-week community service
placement and how attendance rates subsequently jumped from 70 percent to 89
percent. Patty Goldstein, director of Project Success, a program for dropout-prone
youth in Reading, Pennsylvania, told me about a class whose grade point average
rose from 2.1 to 2.8 following the introduction of a community service component. Joel
Vanucci, dean of Students at Keystone Oaks School District near Pittsburgh, told me
how he had seen the number of dropouts decline from 28 per year to 7 and 6
respectively in the two years during which an ambitious, 120-hour community service
requirement was installed.
These "good stories" go on and on. They are the reason that many of us are now
convinced that service learning is, in the words of the June '91 Phi Delta Kappan's lead
story "The Sleeping Giant of School Reform."
At its heart, service learning is not a model or a program. It is a point of view and
an ethic. It turns the usual assumptions about kids upside down. Rather than focusing
on what kids need and lack, it starts from the assumption that kids are valuable,
contributing and useful members of society if we but have the imagination and wit to
ask them properly. It builds educational systems from an assumption of worth rather
than an assessment of needs. It contends that John Dewey was basically right, that
education is "reflection on experience" and that service learning provides a rich,
compelling and self-enhancing experiential base on which to build learning.
This story has to be told in many ways and to many audiences. That's why this
clearly written, concise and rich little volume is so important. It lays out the basics of
service learning in clear terms and places the work of widely scattered advocates and
teachers at the fingertips of those concerned with youth at risk. I am certain you will
find it a useful pocket guide to unleashing the power of service learning in your school
or program.
John Briscoe, Director
PennSERVE
March 27, 1992
5
Service Learning
Chapter One
"I like the program because / get to help little kids who are falling behind in
their work. There are two that are going to pass because / helped them."
Michael, a high school student who tutors elementary at-risk children
(Montemayor, 1990).
INTRODUCTION
Middle school students planting shrubs at a day care center. First graders
making centerpieces for a senior citizen's luncheon. A tenth grader helping a
second grader with math. Ninth graders proposing a carefully designed environ-
mental clean-up project at their city council meeting. What do these activities have
in common? Each incorporates service into the learning process.
A grassroots movement involving America's young people as active partici-
pants in their communities is gathering momentum. The success of local service
learning projects has gained dedicated advocates for youth service activities
across the country. Now, with the passage of the National and Community Service
Act of 1990 by Congress and the recommendations of the President's America
2000 initiative, this exemplary learning strategy is also being linked to school
reform.
Of even greater significance to those who work with at-risk students, service
learning is a potentially powerful dropout prevention tool. Analysis by the National
Dropout Prevention Center (Duckenfield, Hamby & Smink, 1990) revealed that
twelve strategies were seen to be most successful in dropout prevention. Several
of these practices-especially mentoring and tutoring, flexible schedules and
alternative programs, school-based management, community and business col-
laboration, and workforce readiness and career counseling-are strong compo-
nents of a well-designed school-based service learning program. Other researchers
(Peck, Law & Mills, 1989) have determined that successful programs for at-risk
youth should incorporate course work which emphasizes practical, real-world
problem solving; experiential, hands-on learning; and experiences with respon-
sible and mature adults. These same components are fundamental to service
learning programs. Thus, service learning combines the best dropout prevention
practices and provides practitioners with an innovative way to reach students at
risk.
6
Service Learning
DEFINITION
At this point, it is important to clearly define terminology. Service
learning
combines community service with learning activities. It allows:
"students [to] learn and develop through active participation in thoughtfully
organized service experiences that meet actual community needs and that are
coordinated in collaboration with the school and community. [Service learning] is
integrated into the students' academic curriculum or provides structured time for a
student to think, talk, or write about what the student did and saw during the actual
service activity. [lt] provides students with opportunities to use newly acquired skills
and knowledge in real-life situations in their own communities. [It also] enhances
what is taught in school by extending student learning beyond the classroom and into
the community and helps to foster the development of a sense of caring for others
(National and Community Service Act of 1990)."
Two points from this definition need to be emphasized. First, students must be
engaged in significant, well planned and genuine service. Second, they must reflect
on their experiences of serving others to ensure a complete learning experience.
These requirements are vital to a successful service learning program.
RATIONALE
Service learning enriches the lives of all students. This teaching methodology
provides developmental opportunities that promote personal, social and intellectual
growth, as well as civic responsibility and career exploration. Most young people
have critical needs in each of these areas that must be met if they are to make a
successful transition from childhood to adulthood. Many favorable outcomes occur
in each developmental area through participation in service learning activities, and
these are listed below.
Personal Growth applies to the development of characteristics related to self-
improvement and self-actualization.
self-confidence and self-esteem
self-understanding
a sense of Identity
independence and autonomy
openness to new experiences and roles
7
Service Learning
ability to take risks and accept challenges
a sense of usefulness and purpose
personal values and beliefs
responsibility for one's self and actions
self-respect
Social Growth includes the social skills which are necessary for relating to
others in society.
communication skills
interpersonal skills
leadership skills
ability to work cooperatively with others
a sense of caring for others
a sense of belonging
acceptance and awareness of others from diverse and multicultural backgrounds
peer group affiliation
Intellectual Growth encompasses the cognitive skills necessary to enhance
academic learning and acquire higher level thinking skills.
application of knowledge, relevance of curriculum
problem-solving and decision-making skills
critical thinking skills
skills in learning from experience
use of all learning styles
development of a positive attitude toward learning
8
Service Learning
Citizenship refers to the responsibilities of participation in a multicultural society
and of citizenship in a democracy.
a sense of responsibility to contribute to society
democratic participation (informed citizen, exercises voting privileges)
awareness of community needs
organizational skills
social action skills (persuasion, policy research, petitioning)
empowerment, belief in ability to make a difference
Preparation for the World of Work are the skills that help students gain work
experience and make choices about possible career directions.
human service skills
realistic ideas about the world of work
professionalism (dress, grooming, manners)
ability to follow directions
ability to function as a member of a team
reliable working skills (punctuality, consistency, regular attendance)
contacts and references for future job possibilities
In the past, many of these skills were acquired naturally. It was necessary for
young people to contribute economically to their families at a very early age.
Adolescents were prepared for adulthood through real work experiences and
responsibilities on the farm or in factories (National Crime Prevention Council
[NCPC], 1988). Over the past 100 years, dramatic changes have occurred in
American society in both the workforce and the family structure. Young people today
do not have the same opportunities to become valued members of the community,
and they are generally denied the experiences that could prepare them for respon-
sible adulthood. Lack of a meaningful role in society and the existing view of
adolescents as problems contribute to the sense of alienation so prevalent among
today's youth (Benard, 1990). These two factors set the stage for adolescent
participation in high risk behaviors such as dropping out, substance abuse, promiscuity,
and delinquency.
9
Service Learning
Twelve year old James comes home every day to an empty house,
usually feeling lonesome, with little interest in doing his homework. One
day, bored with TV, James went outside looking for something to do. The
other boys in the neighborhood were equally restless, and together they
began to roam the streets. They ran into Arthur who offered them some
beer he had found in his parents' refrigerator. Everyone had some, and
soon the group got rowdy. Somehow things developed into a rock throwing
fight, and James was hit over his left eye. He figured he'd have to come up
with a pretty good story to tell his mother.
Schools have the potential to create an environment that provides positive
alternatives to adolescent risk taking. Because it is accessible to the majority of
young people, school is the logical place where intervention programs such as
service learning can be implemented. Service learning allows all students to
actively participate in a community that truly needs their services. In return,
students develop qualities that fulfill many of their developmental needs and
prepare them for a successful transition to adulthood. Many at-risk students fail
to make this transition because they are more vulnerable to the adverse conditions
of our society. Typically, these students come from low income or single parent
households; have parents who practice high-risk behaviors; have a history of
academic failure; and exhibit low self-esteem (Dryfoos, 1990). The efforts of
society to meet the developmental needs of these at-risk students are often
insufficient. Schools can fill this void through a revitalized curriculum incorporating
service learning for all students with at-risk youth benefiting the most because they
have so much more to gain.
Twelve year old Joseph has been spending several of his afternoons
with a seven-year old child named Aubrey at the elementary school. Aubrey
is having trouble with math, and Joseph has been matched to help him in
the school cross-age tutoring program. Joseph has seen how Aubrey looks
up to him and values his assistance, and he knows that he is helping Aubrey
do well in school. This has made Joseph feel pretty good about himself.
When he does get home, his own homework seems more important than it
used to. Joseph is finding school a much more pleasant place to be be-
cause his own math skills have improved from his tutoring experience.
10
Service Learning
Chapter Two
INTEGRATING SERVICE LEARNING INTO THE CURRICULUM
Service learning can be integrated into the organizational structure of a school
with four progressively complex levels of implementation. Ideally, a school can
introduce service learning at the most basic level of implementation and gradually
advance to the highest level of implementation as the program experiences success.
Level One: Extracurricular
The first level of implementation incorporates extracurricular service programs. Activities in
these programs are voluntary, and students dò not receive academic credit or time off from
school. For this reason, this level is viewed by many as the purest form of service. Others argue
that this level only reaches a few motivated students, usually those who already possess a strong
service ethic (Conrad & Hedin, 1987). One type of extracurricular program is an after-school club
in which students manage most activities with the help of a faculty advisor. In many high schools,
students join the Key Club whose purpose is to serve the needy through various community
projects. Another type of extracurricular service program is a volunteer clearinghouse staffed by
students and faculty. This kind of program provides information on volunteer service and
community involvement opportunities to all interested students. (Conrad and Hedin, 1987).
Level Two: Curricular Unit
At the second level of implementation, teachers can introduce service learning to their students
without involving new courses or staff. A service learning unit offered through a regular semester
course is an example of implementation at this level. Such a curricular unit helps fulfill the
academic goals of a particular course, just as a unit on the American Indian would be an academic
goal for an elementary social studies class. Teachers can develop service learning projects that
complement their course content. A home economics class can sew clothing for a homeless
shelter, or an English class can publish a newsletter for the local neighborhood watch organiza-
tion. One final option at this level is an independent study model in which students serve outside
regular classroom hours but receive academic credit. Students must first develop a proposal and
set up a project for faculty approval before beginning volunteer hours. For example, a student
interested in helping disadvantaged preschool children might propose to teach readiness skills
at the local Head Start center.
Level Three: Mandatory or Elective Courses
At the third level of implementation, service learning is a regular class in the school's overall
academic program. Although service learning can be an integral part of any academic content
area, the most natural place to implement service learning is in a social studies class. The course
itself combines the service experience with an ongoing classroom experience. The classroom
provides information and skills to assist students in interpreting their service experiences and
operating more successfully in their placement (Conrad and Hedin, 1987). A typical example is
a one semester social studies course meeting two hours per day. Students spend two to four days
of the week at the field site and the remainder of the week in class. A two-hour block of time is
ideal for a service learning course. This allows enough time at the field site for students to make
a significant contribution, eliminates the need for extra staff, and avoids the problem of students
missing other classes during their time in the field (Conrad and Hedin, 1987).
11
Service Learning
At both the state and local level, there has been controversy about requiring either service
learning courses or hours of service prior to graduation. Service learning courses can be
voluntary or mandatory. Mandatory programs can motivate students who would never
normally volunteer, contribute more hours of work to the community, and expand the range of
a school's educational mission (NCPC, 1988). On the other hand, voluntary programs attract
students truly committed to serving others rather than those who do not care to get involved.
Voluntary programs are also more manageable because fewer students participate (NCPC,
1988).
Level Four: School-Wide Integration
The final and highest level of implementation is community service as a school-wide theme.
A variation of this level of implementation is a community service focus in an entire school
district. This approach to integrating service into the academic curriculum is rare but highly
desirable. In this type of school or district, service to others is woven into many courses and
serves as an organizing principle for the total academic program (Conrad and Hedin, 1987).
The school itself is organized to serve the community and the curriculum centers on addressing
the real issues of the community (Cairn & Kielsmeier, 1991). As an example, students from
several classes could serve the local nursing home in unique ways applicable to their course
content. Science students could teach nutrition to the elderly; English students could write
letters to an adopted grandparent; and industrial arts students could build ramps for the
handicapped. This level of implementation has the potential to reach all students rather than
a few motivated students who choose to become community service providers (Conrad and
Hedin, 1987).
12
Service Learning
Chapter Three
ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF SERVICE LEARNING
There are three essential components of a service learning program at all levels
of implementation. The curriculum content of a service learning program must
consist of preparation for service, the service activity itself and reflection on the
service experience.
PREPARATION
Preparation consists of the learning activities that take place prior to a student's volunteer work.
Positive outcomes of service learning are not automatic. Students need guidance and support
before they are sent out into the community to serve. Prior to the service experience, students
must understand what is expected of them as well as what they can expect from the service
project.
Identifying and Analyzing the Problem
The first step of preparation involves assessing the needs of the local community as well as the
interests of the student participants. It is critical that the students themselves are involved in the
process of identifying the problems and social issues in their community. They can do this by
researching the agencies in the community, conducting interviews with the experts in the
community, surveying teachers and students to identify problems in their school, and making site
visits to observe community problems and efforts to alleviate them (Maryland Student Service
Alliance [MSSA], 1989b). Examples of social issues in which students may choose to become
involved include serving the aging, disabled and disadvantaged; preventing crime, substance
abuse, and teenage pregnancy; and saving the environment.
Selecting and Planning the Project
After gathering the necessary background information, students select the project that they
would like to work on. The service experience becomes more meaningful if they have chosen
and developed the project themselves. Brainstorming is one method frequently used to generate
ideas to resolve the problem they have selected. Decisions to be made include the kind of service
students will provide, the location where students will serve, and the amount of time and
resources that students will contribute to the service project.
Training
An effective service earning program has a well-planned system for training students. Training
ensures that the students get the most from their service experience and contribute the most to
their community (NCPC, 1988). Training can occur in a number of settings for a varied amount
of time. An ongoing semester course, a weekend retreat, or a one-time meeting are a few of the
options. Role plays, initiative games, video presentations, guest speakers, and assigned
research topics are methods that make training more exciting and memorable. Training consists
of orientation to the agency being served, building of skills needed to perform the service, and
follow-up and closure procedures (Boyce & Cairn, 1991).
The initial orientation meeting serves as an icebreaker by introducing students to the people
with whom they will be working and the agency they will be serving. It is also an appropriate time
to familiarize students with the project procedures, expectations and responsibilities. Orientation
13
Service Learning
provides students with the opportunity to ask questions and explores potential experiences
and issues that they may encounter during their service (Boyce and Cairn, 1991)
Certain skills may need to be acquired before actual participation. General service skills
include cooperation, communication, organization, responsibility, problem solving, and
awareness of working with special populations. The service project may also require that
participants learn techniques that require hands-on experience. Technical skills include
learning how to take water samples, certification in CPR, or learning the correct way to push
a wheelchair.
Training is an ongoing process; it continues until the completion of the service project. Follow
up occurs every time there is contact between the supervisor and the student. It is a time to
address problems, raise important questions, enhance learning, and improve the performance
of students (Boyce and Cairn, 1991). At some point all service projects end, and closure
becomes important. Closure helps participants formally deal with the issues that surface when
a service relationship is over. It is also a time to recognize the accomplishments of each
student and celebrate a job well done.
ACTION
Action is the actual service of caring for others performed by the student participating in the
service project. The service itself must be engaging, challenging and meaningful (MSSA,
1989b). There must be a real need in the community for the service, and students must play
a significant role in designing the service experience (Cairn and Keilsmeier, 1991). It may also
be necessary to adjust the initial service plan as new information is gained and new
circumstances are encountered (MSSA, 1989b). Students can participate in service activities
through direct service, indirect service, and civic action.
Direct Service
Direct service requires personal contact with people in need. This type of service is generally
the most rewarding for students because they receive immediate positive feedback during the
process of helping others. Examples of direct service are a 12th grade student counseling an
incoming 9th grade student or a 5th grade student serving meals at a soup kitchen. "Whenever
possible, students should be encouraged to commit to direct service projects that last for
several weeks or months. This gives students time to feel they have made a contribution, to
develop friendships with the people they are serving and serving with, and to understand better
the problem they are working to solve" (MSSA, 1989b).
Indirect Service
Indirect service activities are commonly implemented in schools because they are easy to
organize. These activities involve channeling resources to the problem rather than working
directly with an individual who may need service. Examples of indirect service activities include
participating in a bike-a-thon to raise money for muscular dystrophy patients and collecting
cans of food for local disadvantaged families. This type of service may be of the least value
to students because they are so far removed from the need and do not directly experience the
benefit of their efforts (MSSA, 1989b).
14
Service Learning
Civic Action
Civic action is a third type of service activity. It is at the very heart of democratic citizenship.
Civic action involves working to eliminate the causes of a specific problem and to inform the public
about the issues surrounding that problem. Students may petition the local government to
provide safe bicycle routes on the city streets, or they may initiate a campaign to bring about public
awareness of the school's dropout rate. Young people are very effective in bringing about political
change, especially when they feel truly committed to the cause (MSSA, 1989b).
REFLECTION
Reflection is the component that enables students to critically think about their service
experience. When students reflect on their experiences, they think about them, write about them,
share them with others, and learn from them. Reflection provides a structured opportunity for
students to learn from their experiences. It is a skill involving observation and questioning and
putting new ideas together to add new meaning to the service experience (Conrad and Hedin.,
1987).
Many of the developmental outcomes attributed to service learning are significantly enhanced
by the reflection component. There is an overall sense of well-being that occurs when students
help others in their community. But without reflection, students simply go through the motions
of service, unaffected by the experience or with personal ignorances and biases reinforced (Cairn
et al., 1991). Unreflective action does not create responsible citizens able to make wise decisions
and understand enduring human concerns. The activities of reflection are necessary for such
personal growth to take place (Maryland Student Service Association [MSSA], 1989a).
There are several principles characteristic of quality reflection. For significant learning and
effective service to occur, reflection must be well structured and have clear objectives. Activities
can be well planned yet flexible enough to allow learning to happen spontaneously. Quality
reflection must be an interactive, interesting and ongoing process. Students are involved in
reflection throughout the service experience, from beginning to end.
A major purpose of school-based service learning is to connect real world experiences gained
through service to the classroom curriculum. Curriculum-based reflection must employ a variety
of methods to meet the unique needs of each student and his or her service experience. The tools
to facilitate classroom reflection include discussion, reading, writing, and various student
developed projects.
Discussion
Discussion involves small groups of students sharing their ideas with each other and talking
about the personal meaning of their service experience. Discussion is stimulated through the
presentation of a brief statement or reading appropriate for the service in which the student is
engaging. Readings chosen for discussion are designed to generate questions and, at times,
debate. This method allows students to focus on a particular issue and examine what thoughtful
individuals have said about the issues they are now confronting (MSSA, 1989a). To increase
awareness of social biases, students may read The Rights of Women by Mary Wollstonecraft or
an excerpt from The Autobiography of Malcolm X. To reflect on the idea of serving others,
students may read an excerpt from Philanthrophy by Henry David Thoreau or from Jane Addams'
Charitable Effort. These readings encourage students to discuss their reactions with each other
and also open the door to further inquiry and action.
15
Service Learning
Reading
A classroom reading assignment associated with the community service project greatly
enriches the students' learning experience. This method differs from discussion in that an
entire literary work is read rather than a brief excerpt. High school students can read Silent
Spring by Rachel Carson or elementary students can have The Lorax by Dr. Seuss read to
them to enhance service associated with an environmental project.
Writing
Writing is a natural outgrowth of discussion and assigned reading. Writing can include
letters, essays, stories, newspapers, and journals. Journal writing is an excellent way for
students to explore their service experience on a very personal level. Keeping a regular
journal enables students to think about what is happening as a result of their service
experience. It causes them to gain insight into understanding themselves and how they relate
to others. Questions are helpful in directing the students' work beyond the obvious
observations. The National Crime Prevention Council (1988) provides excellent examples of
guided journal questions.
What was the best thing that happened today at your site? How did
it make you feel?
What thing(s) did you like the least about today at your site? What
made you dislike it?
What compliments have you received today, and how did they make
you feel? What have you learned about yourself and the people you
are helping?
How have you changed or grown since you began to volunteer at this
site? What have you learned about yourself and the people you are
helping?
Projects
Projects developed by students raise their awareness about issues associated with service.
Many methods can be employed to accentuate the skills of each subject area. Projects may
vary from posters, plays, and multimedia presentations to political campaigns and research.
When students develop their own projects, their creativity is expressed and their learning
becomes more meaningful. Middle school students may interview older citizens in their
community and document a local oral history. Elementary school students may star in a video
on school safety created and directed by high school students.
16
Service Learning
Chapter Four
THE SERVICE LEARNING CONTINUUM
Service learning can be implemented at all grade levels. When designing a
service learning program, it is important to consider the age and the developmental
needs of the students involved. Properly organized, service learning activities
respond to the special needs of elementary, middle, and high school students.
Elementary School
Elementary school children are uniquely qualified to give love and kindness to individuals in
need. One of the most common services in which elementary school children engage is
intergenerational work with senior citizens. Elementary school is an excellent time to introduce
service learning into the curriculum. When service learning is introduced at an early age, the
foundation is laid for students to develop a lifetime ethic of serving the community (Cairn et al.,
1991). Service can begin at a very simple level appropriate to the developmental needs of the
elementary school age child. As the child matures and later enters middle school and high school,
the complexity of service increases accordingly.
Service learning fulfills the following needs of young children:
the need for belonging and approval by the group
the need for a sense of personal competence and self-worth
the need to be accepted for their own uniqueness
the need for affection and acceptance by peers and adults
the need for the opportunity to assume independence and
responsibilities
the need for the opportunity to assume different roles
the need for challenging experiences at the child's level of ability
the need to participate in creative, nonconforming activities
the need to intellectually successful and satisfying experiences
When second graders color pictures and play games with members of a nursing home, they
learn about getting along with older adults. They also begin to discover the special qualities about
themselves that make them unique. When third graders volunteer to read to students in the first
grade, they build confidence in themselves and learn about responsibility. Fifth graders in a
service learning class can take field trips in their community to identify areas of need and learn
more about their community. These students begin to learn about the responsibilities of
citizenship, and they become aware of opportunities in their community. They also learn to make
choices and decisions as they identify community problems they wish to resolve.
17
Service Learning
Middle School
The developmental changes that occur during early adolescence make middle school an
especially effective time to implement service into the curriculum. It is a time of great change
in which youth are vulnerable to many influences, especially those of their peers. Early
adolescence can be a turning point for many youth, a time when they make choices that set
them up for a lifetime of success or failure. Service learning provides positive experiences that
significantly affect the attitudes, decisions, and subsequent behavior of middle school students
at this critical time in their lives. These students learn about their responsibility to contribute to
others and begin to feel valued and accepted for their meaningful participation in their
community. This involvement has the potential to prevent many of the problems characteristic
of the low achieving student and the high school dropout. Service learning also helps
adolescents develop the strength of character or resiliency necessary to withstand negative
peer pressures (Rolzinski, 1990).
Service learning activities uniquely meet the following developmental needs of early
adolescents.
to feel accepted by peers and others
to see concrete outcomes from their efforts
to have opportunities for creative expression
to have opportunities for self-definition
to participate and be part of a group
to learn decision-making through experience
to explore adult roles and career opportunities
to interact with people of diverse backgrounds
to engage in physical activity
to take risks within a structured environment
to gain competence and achievement
to make a difference in the community
Sixth graders who petition to prevent a free flowing river from being dammed learn that they
can make a difference and achieve positive results from their efforts. A "teach an adult to read"
program organized by seventh graders teaches students lifelong attitudes toward working and
sharing with others. A variety of roles are explored when eighth graders volunteer to answer
phones at a fund-raiser for the local public television station or coach a co-ed soccer team for
disadvantaged youth.
18
Service Learning
High School
High school students are on their way to entering the adult world and need the challenge of
service learning activities to prepare them for this transition. There are numerous opportunities
available in local communities that help students prepare for adulthood. Unfortunately many
students are not aware of these opportunities. They are often isolated from the active adult
community and have unrealistic views about their roles as adults (NCPC, 1988). Service learning
allows all students, not just the honor roll student, to play a constructive role in the community
and begin to learn the responsibilities of adulthood.
The following developmental needs of high school students center around the preparation for
adulthood, citizenship, and the world of work (Herr, 1991).
to become self-reliant and achieve psychological independence
from their parents
to expand peer relationships and achieve the capacity for
responsible intimate relationships
to learn how to manage time and personal health
to formulate a personal value system
to assume responsibility for career planning and its
consequences
to develop skills important to life as a consumer and for
effective use of leisure time
to develop citizenship skills important to responsible
participation in a democratic society
High school students who participate in homebuilding through the local Habitat for Humanity
organization learn how communities can work together to help its members. These same
students learn about political participation when they petition to save a historic mill and have the
local government develop it into low cost housing. Students involved in a peer tutoring program
with low achieving students learn important social and academic skills. When these student
volunteers recognized that many of their peers did poorly in school because of personal
problems, they initiated a student hotline. Hotline volunteers helped fellow students cope with
problems and at the same time learned effective communication skills. These examples
demonstrate how students involved in service learning activities can make a real difference in
their communities and continually seek personal growth through a lifetime of serving others.
SERVICE LEARNING ACTIVITIES FOR GRADES K-12
The previous section outlined the importance of matching the service expe-
rience to the appropriate developmental level of each student participant. The
chart on the next page illustrates how students at all levels can participate in
service activities for a community beautification project.
19
Service Learning
SERVICE LEARNING ACTIVITIES CHART FOR GRADES K-12
PRIMARY (K-2)
Make signs announcing a school recycling center.
Help third graders sort and weigh recycled material.
Pick up trash around the school grounds.
UPPER ELEMENTARY (3RD-5TH)
Organize the school recycling center and arrange for collection.
Assist primary students in making recycling signs and collecting recycled products.
Write textbook companies and ask them to use recycled paper.
MIDDLE SCHOOL (6TH-8TH)
Adopt a two mile section of highway in front of the school to keep free of litter.
Rake leaves and shovel snow for local disabled and elderly population.
Petition to ban styrofoam from the school district's lunchroom.
HIGH SCHOOL (9TH-12TH)
Initiate a Community Beautification Committee with monthly meetings for
new ideas and projects.
Persuade local government to set up regular recycling collection sites.
Organize community-wide Adopt-A-Highway project.
20
Service Learning
Chapter Five
SERVICE LEARNING RESEARCH
Advocates view service learning as an important and necessary component in
the education of American youth today. What interests those of us involved in
dropout prevention is its obvious potential to make a significant difference in the lives
of at-risk youth. Quantitative studies documenting the effectiveness of service
learning in preventing dropouts per se have not yet been made. There is, however,
a sound base of research on several measurable variables which support our claim
that service learning is good dropout prevention.
Conrad and Hedin's (1991) extensive review of the qualitative research on youth
service programs indicates that participation in service learning fosters social,
personal, and academic development. In the area of social development, researchers
report that participants gain a heightened sense of personal and social responsibility
and have more positive attitudes toward adults and others. Personal developmental
outcomes show more active exploration of careers, enhanced self-esteem, and
growth in moral and ego development by participants. Intellectual outcomes include
greater mastery of skills and content directly related to the experiences of the
participants and more complex patterns of thought. In summary, academic learning,
problem-solving skills, self-esteem, attitudes toward others, and social responsibil-
ity are positively affected by a service learning experience, especially when the
service experience is followed by reflection.
Qualitative evidence is abundant, with both practitioners and participants con-
sistently praising the worth of service learning. In addition to anecdotal accounts by
practitioners, the dimensions of learning taking place are revealed in student
journals. Here is where the obvious developmental gains are vividly documented
by the students themselves as they give testimony to their service learning
experiences.
This commentary from a 5th grader who planted flowers at a home for the elderly
illustrates that beginning service learning in elementary school develops self-
esteem as it lays a solid foundation for future service.
It was really fun. / really got into my work. / talked with a lady. She was
really nice. The lady was really glad that we helped her. / think our class did a
great job. / want to keep helping people that are old (Generator 10(2), 1990).
A middle school student spent part of each school day at a local retirement
community in educational and recreational activities with the senior citizens in
residence. Her journal entry eloquently expressed the impact of the service activity
on her life.
21
Service Learning
This program has really made a difference in my life. It is something really
different, / mean it's not like getting 100% on a test or having someone tell
you that you look nice today. It's a deeper, more important feeling that I've
gained. Maybe it has to do with inspiration and knowing what / can make of
my life if / just keep trying like these people have (National Center for
Service Learning in Early Adolescence [NCSLEA], 1991).
A high school girl experienced substantial growth from her service project,
Adopt-a-Cub, a cross-age tutoring program with disadvantaged elementary
children. After listening to the little girl who was her "cub" tell about her mother
being shot by a boyfriend, she wrote in her journal:
What was / supposed to say? But then / realized / didn't need to say
anything and needed simply to listen. So that's what we did. We talked and
listened, sharing stories and secrets, and slowly but surely formed a bond
between us that now would be unbreakable (W. Wilson, personal communi-
cation, February 1992).
The journal writer acknowledges their common humanity as she continues:
In many ways, we're a lot alike-writing comes much easier than talking. So
together we work things out on paper. And by doing that, we create a
written record of our very special friendship (W. Wilson, personal communi-
cation, February 1992).
Participating in an 8th grade project which works on community service
projects, an at-risk student noted:
/ like it because you can make things and be with other people and go to
other schools and meet people.
We made a nature trail for classes
outside for elementary students.
Some kids have other programs, but
this is all / have. / missed a lot of school last year. / have better attendance
this year, and / like working here (Rolzinski, 1990).
This student exhibits a growth in personal and social development. In addition,
her attitude towards school has improved.
Think of the responsibility that has been instilled in a high school student
volunteer in an ambulance crew who states:
22
Service Learning
In school you learn chemistry and biology and stuff and then forget it as
soon as the test is over. Here you've got to remember because somebody's
life depends on it. (Generator 11(3), 1991)
Viewed from either perspective, quantitative or qualitative, the integration of
service learning into the school curriculum has been shown to be an extremely
effective strategy in meeting the many developmental needs of all students.
CONCLUSION
It is time to embrace the concept of service learning in order to incorporate it
with comprehensive efforts in dropout prevention. Research indicates that a
positive outcome for participants in this multifaceted learning experience is likely.
Service learning is a teaching methodology that revitalizes the classroom and
provides the kind of learning and experiences students need to lead a successful
life.
23
Service Learning
PUBLICATIONS
Although not cited as references in this report, the following publications are
excellent resources on the topic of service learning.
Cairn, R. W. & Cairn, S. (1991). Collaborators: Schools and communities working
together for youth service. Roseville, MN: National Youth Leadership Council.
Erickson, J.B. (1991). Directory of american youth organizations 1992-1993.
Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing.
Florida Department of Education. (1992). Learning by serving. Tallahassee, FL:
Author.
Kinsley, C. (Ed). (1991). Whole learning through service: A guide for integrating
service into the curriculum kindergarten through eighth grade Springfield, MA:
Community Service Learning Center.
Lewis, A.C. (1988). Facts and faith: A status report on youth service. Washington,
DC: William T. Grant Foundation Commission on Work, Family and Citizen
ship.
Lewis, B.A. (1991). The kid's guide to social action. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit
Publishing.
Lewis, B. A. (1992). Kids with courage. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing.
Maryland Student Service Alliance. (1990). The courage to care, the strength to
serve. [Video]. Baltimore, MD: Author.
Parsons, C. (1991). Service learning from A to Z. Chester, VT: Vermont
Schoolhouse Press.
Nathan J. & Kielsmeier, J. (Eds.). (1991) Youth service [Special issue]. Phi Delta
Kappan, 72(10).
Schine, J. (1989). Young adolescents and community service. Washington, DC:
The Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development.
24
Service Learning
ORGANIZATIONS
The organizations listed are excellent resources for developing service learning programs.
The Association for Experiential Education
National Crime Prevention Council
University of Colorado
733 15th Street, NW
Box 249
Suite 540
Boulder, CO 80309
Washington, DC 20005
303-492-1547
202-393-7141
Commission on National and
National Service Secretariat
Community Service
5140 Sherier Place, N. W.
The National Press Building
Washington, DC 20016
529 14th Street NW, 4th Floor
202-244-5828
Washington, DC 20033-0119
202-724-0600
National Society for Internships and
Experiential Education
Community Service Learning Center
3509 Haworth Drive, Suite 207
258 Washington Blvd.
Raleigh, NC 27609-7229
Springfield, MA 01108
919-787-3262
413-734-6857
National Youth Leadership Council
Constitutional Rights Foundation
1910 West County Road B
601 South Kingsley Drive
Roseville, MN 55113
Los Angeles, CA 90005
612-631-3672
213 487-5590
PennSERVE
Maryland Student Service Alliance
The Governor's Office of Citizen Service
The Maryland State Department of Education
333 Market Street, 10th Floor
200 West Baltimore Street
Harrisburg, PA 17126
Baltimore, MD 21201-2595
717-787-1971
301-333-2427
Youth Service America
National Center for Service Learning in
1319 F St. NW, Suite 900
Early Adolescence
Washington, DC 20004
25 West 43rd Street, Room 620
202-783-8855
New York, NY 10036-8099
212-642-2947
25
Service Learning
REFERENCES
Benard, B. (1990, January). Youth service: from youth as problems to youth as
resources. Prevention Forum, pp. 6-14.
Boyce, K., & Cairn, R. W. (1991). Orientation and training. The Generator, 11(3),
6.
Cairn, R. W., & Kielsmeier, J. C. (Eds.). (1991). Growing hope: A sourcebook on
integrating youth service into the school curriculum. Roseville, MN: National
Youth Leadership Council.
Conrad, D., & Hedin, D. (1991). School-based community service: What we know
from research and theory. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(10), 743-749.
Conrad, D., & Hedin, D. (1987). Youth service: A guidebook for developing and
operating effective programs. Washington, DC: Independent Sector.
Dryfoos, J.G. (1990). Adolescents at risk: Prevalence and prevention. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Duckenfield, M., Hamby, J. V., & Smink, J. (1990). Effective strategies for dropout
prevention. Clemson, SC: The National Dropout Prevention Center.
Herr, E. (1991). Guidance and counseling: A shared responsibility. Alexandria,
VA: National Association of College Admission Counselors.
Humphrey, J. N., & Humphrey, J. H. (1989). Child development during the
elementary school years. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Maryland Student Service Alliance. (1989a). Courage to care, the strength to
serve: Reflections on CO mmunity service. Annapolis, MD: CZM Press.
Maryland Student Service Alliance. (1989b). Draft instructional framework in
community service. Baltimore: Maryland State Department of Education.
Montemayor, A. M. (1990). Valued youth partnerships: programs in caring. San
Antonio, TX: Intercultural Development Research Association.
National and Community Service Act of 1990.
26
Service Learning
National Crime Prevention Council. (1988). Reaching out: School-based com-
munity service programs. Washington, DC: Author.
National Center for Service Learning in Early Adolescence. (1991). Connections:
Service learning in the middle grades. New York: Author.
Olson, D. (Ed.). (1990). Summer walkabout 1990. The Generator, 10(2), 4.
Peck, N., Law, A., & Mills, R.C. (1989). Dropout prevention: what we have learned.
Ann Arbor, MI: ERIC Counseling and Personnel Services Clearinghouse.
Rolzinski, C.A. (1990). The adventure of adolescence: Middle school students
and community service. Washington, DC: Youth Service America.
Scales, P.C. (1991). A portrait of young adolescents in the 1990s. Carrboro, NC:
Center for Early Adolescence.
27
Service Learning: Meeting the Needs of Youth at-Risk© is part of a series of dropout prevention research reports
published by the National Dropout Prevention Center. Additional copies may be ordered. The Center has
produced a variety of other products which can be helpful to those who work with at-risk youth.
To obtain a complete list of publications and prices call or write:
Publications Department
The National Dropout Prevention Center
205 Martin Street
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina 29634-5111
(803) 656-2599
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*
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*
Carnegie units
*
Kellogg Foundation's National Service-Learning Initiative
*
Outreach to education organizations (NEA, AFT, National School
Boards Association, Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, Education Commission of the
States, Coalition for Essential Schools, etc.) and
youth organizations (CDF, USSA, Close Up, Jr.
Statesmen, etc.)
*
Mandatory community service issue (DC, MD, PA)
MEMORANDUM
TO:
Senator Wofford
FROM:
Shirley Sagawa
RE:
Political Pitfalls in the Passage of the National and Community Service Act
DATE:
August 10, 1992
As we explore ways to expand national service, I thought it might be useful to outline
the major arguments made by opponents during consideration of the National and Community
Service Act. I am including concerns raised by both left and right, including those raised by
members and organizations that ultimately supported the bill. I would be happy to discuss ways
in which we worked to counter these arguments. Here are the top ten criticisms:
1.
It will replace or undermine funding for student financial aid
This was a major political obstacle that emerged with the DLC proposal but carried over
to other service programs as well. It was the number one concern of Bill Ford and other House
Education and Labor Democrats and higher education groups.
2.
Only low-income youth are required to serve
If service is required in order to receive financial aid, only low-income youth would be
forced to serve; students not needing financial aid would be exempt. This inequity seemed to
many to parallel a military draft of only the poor.
3.
It is a "noblesse oblige" program for the rich
This is the opposite problem to number 2, and was a primary criticism levied at the
Points of Light effort. Why spend money on a program to help the rich feel good about
themselves? Or, if the program is more substantive and involves job training or education
benefits, shouldn't it be limited to low-income individuals who need it?
4.
Spending billions on national service is spending money we don't have
It is absolutely true that a large-scale full-time program costs billions. This concerned
both left and right. The left argued that money could be better spent on other programs
particularly those for the poor. The right opposes any new federal expenditure for domestic
programs, particularly anything that looks like an entitlement (as the DLC proposal did).
5.
Paid workers will be displaced by volunteers
Labor has serious concerns that any service program, but particularly a full-time program
involving young adults (rather than school children) has significant potential to displace paid
workers. What is stopping a state from firing all its parks workers and using a corps instead?
Or a hospital from firing nurses aids and replacing them with volunteers? Or a local government
from dropping its contract with a meals service and hiring a service corps to provide the same
service? In fact, some evaluations of existing programs are based on the fact that services can
be provide more cheaply by corps than by regular workers. The Act has strong anti-
displacement provisions that were negotiated with Labor, but concerns could easily resurface
with a large-scale program or if problems arise under existing programs.
6.
Military recruitment will be hurt
With a large-scale program (like the DLC proposal), young men who might otherwise
sign up with the military might choose the safer and easier civilian service option if benefits are
the same.
7.
It is an oxymoron to pay volunteers
Right wing groups and volunteer administrators argued that "paying volunteers" as in the
corps programs will diminish the willingness of others to be "unpaid volunteers" and that "paid"
service is not valuable because it is not altruistic.
8.
National service would replace government services with volunteers
Democrats and anti-poverty groups were worried that national service would be used to
eliminate government social programs for the poor and replace these services with the volunteer
efforts of untrained, unprofessional youth; this concern harkens back to Reagan's efforts to cut
domestic programs and position that the voluntary sector would make up for the cuts.
9.
It is make-work job creation by another name
Opponents of the old CETA Public Service Employment program saw national
service as an effort to revive federal job creation; others were unconvinced that the service
provided, particularly by youth, would have any real value to society.
10.
National service requires a large new bureaucracy
The DLC proposal, like any large-scale national service program, would need a relatively
large new bureaucracy to administer it.
As we understand the Clinton proposal, it involves creation of a newly established Trust
Fund to enable students to borrow money for education that can be paid back through payroll
deducations or through public service and that is open to middle- and low-income students.
Several existing federal programs provide the foundation for the implementation of the
Clinton plan. On the service side, the National and Community Service Act, VISTA and the
Peace Corps provide a framework for expanding service opportunities. On the student financial
aid side, we strongly suggest that the Trust Fund be built out of the existing Guaranteed Student
Loan Program.
Although the loan program has been plagued by high default rates, Congress recently
revised the program and we can expect the cost of defaults to decline signficantly over the next
few years. Using an existing program will enable a quicker start-up, minimize opposition from
supporters of the existing program, and utilize the technical expertise within the Department of
Education to the maximum extent. Several features of the loan programs lend themselves to the
Clinton proposal:
The Stafford program is now open to any student regardless of income. Students
whose incomes place them above a certain eligibility level do not receive any interest subsidy,
but their loans are nonetheless guaranteed by the federal government. Therefore, it would be
easy to ensure that middle-income students have the opportunity to participate.
Payroll deduction as a method of loan payback is authorized under the law.
Income contingent payback is also authorized, thus allowing students to make
payments based on their annual income.
Loan foregiveness is authorized under the Stafford Loan program for the first time
for certain teachers, Peace Corps, VISTA and other volunteers, and certain nurses.
A Direct Loan demonstration program was authorized to bypass the banks and
allow schools to make guaranteed loans directly to students.
Under the Clinton plan, loans could be administered through a Trust Fund set up within
the Department of Education. Payroll deduction and income contingent payback could be
offered immediately. Expanding the Direct Loan demonstration would be an option at any time.
Service payback is the most costly aspect of the Trust Fund proposal, and the part most
subject to fraud and abuse. In addition, given the relatively small number of full-time service
slots currently in existance (under 8,000), the placements simply won't be available immediately.
Therefore, the service payback option should be phased in over time with a designated number
of slots opened each year. These slots should be a combination of:
1.
Full-time National and Community Service Act slots (under subtitles C or D of
the Act)
2.
VISTA
3.
Peace Corps
4.
Other full-time service programs not funded by the National and Community
Service Act, but certified by the Commission on National and Community Service as comparable
programs
5.
Jobs in teaching, nursing, policing, etc. if certain qualifications are met (salary
limits, jobs in high-poverty areas where there are shortages, etc.)
Numbers 1-4 above would be easy to control -- and should be significantly expanded under the
Clinton proposal, as quickly as the programs are able to absorb funds while maintaining high
quality. Number 5 presents the most difficultly. There us longstanding but limited precedent
for this type of slot to receive loan forgiveness under federal loan programs. Jobs under number
5 could be certified from the federal level or by the Governors, who could be given a certain
number of slots to allocate (based on population or poverty level) each year. Individuals seeking
service slots would contact a participating program, the Governor's office, or the Commission
which would refer them to programs in their area that match their interests.
Precollegiate full-time service that would also involve young people who are not college
bound should also be expanded. These programs are currently funded under subtitles C and D
of the National and Community Service Act. They provide education, job training, leadership
skills, and scholarships for further education or job training. The scholarships under these
programs should be standardized with those under the Trust Fund loan forgiveness.
Finally, an important foundation of the overall service system are the elementary and
secondary school and college service programs that teach young people the service ethic. For
the full-time service option to be fruitful and appealing, young people should be educated in the
value of serving others and come to accept it as part of their responsibilities as good citizens.
This will not happen if we wait until a young person graduates from college before the idea is
introduced. These school- and campus-based programs are far cheaper than full-time programs,
but nonetheless cost money -- for program coordinators, teacher training, transportation,
supervision, etc. Such programs, currently authorized under the National and Community
Service Act, should be expanded proportionately with the full-time programs.
-DRAFT-
August 3, 1992
The Washington Post
1150 15th Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C.
To the Editor:
I write to take issue with your recent editorial "Voluntary,
Not Mandatory Service" (July 31) and Jonathan Yardley's column,
"When Public Service Becomes a Disservice to Public Schools
(August 3). The passing on of democratic values and civic virtue
needs to be rekindled as a basic mission of public education.
Maryland schools will be able to do their job better by teaching
students about their responsibilities as citizens through
community service.
A recent study, entitled "Democracy's Next Generation,"
conducted by Peter Hart Research Associates and commissioned by
People For the American Way, surveyed 1,006 young people ages 15-
24 about their attitudes and values concerning citizenship and
participation. The study constitutes the most extensive national
poll on youth civic attitudes in recent history and demonstrated
that young people have learned only half of America's story.
Young people revealed notions on America's unique character that
emphasize freedom and rights almost to the complete exclusion of
service or responsibility. Although they clearly appreciate the
freedom that, in their view, make theirs the "best country in the
world to live in," they fail to appreciate the obligations of
citizenship.
Over the last decade, many school districts around the
country have developed and instituted community service programs.
Research indicates that community service programs facilitate
both the intellectual development of students and prepare
students for participation in their communities as active
citizens. Civic responsibilities and duties are not the mere
abstractions which they may appear to be in the student in a
classroom. Instead community service allows students to take on
civic responsibilities. for themselves, and thereby come to
understand through experience the importance of participating in
and contributing to the life of their communities.
The underlying principle of school-based community service
rightly assumes that young people will embrace community service
if the opportunities are presented to them. Involvement in
service activities enables young people -- whether poor or
affluent, residents of the inner cities or suburbs, achievers or
at-risk children -- to realize that they have much to give to
their community. Young people involved in community service are
more likely to avoid drugs and other negative pastimes which
breed on apathy and boredom.
The best school-based community service programs integrate
community service into the curriculum. Service is educationally
more meaningful when students learn in class how to research the
cause and possible solutions to community problems, how to take
action themselves, and then engage in class discussion and
writing about what they learned and achieved through their
community service projects.
The debate over community service does not focus on the
educational merits of community service. Regrettably it centers
on whether community service participation in schools should be
mandatory or voluntary. Let's consider why any educational
course is mandatory -- because the success of our society
requires its application. If math, science, English and social
studies are mandatory for economic success, then citizenship-
enhancing community service can be required to ensure an active
citizenry. The educational approach to all these subjects is the
same: if you want students to know it, teach it.
Sincerely,
???
PennSERVE / PA Corps
TEL: 717-787-9458
Aug 12,92 15:51 No.004 P.02
PennSERVE
The Governor's Office of Citizen Service
1804 Labor & Industry Building
PA 17120
717-787-1971 or 7290
FAX 787-9458
July 24, 1992
TO: Harris Wofford
FROM: John A. Briscoe
RE:
"National Service and Vision"
Here are some thoughts about moving the national service issue forward
in a Clinton campaign and presidency.
"Without a vision the people perish"
The vision of national service has changed and brightened in the past
five years. A Clinton presidential national service initiative could build
on a foundation of diverse albeit small, program models, incorporate his
college student proposal, capture his concern for responsibility and
community and add people power to his proposals for welfare reform; 10b
training and educational improvement. He could make national service the
hallmark of his administration as the Peace Corps remains for John Kennedy
-a program that symbolizes an era.
The most important insight of the past five years 18 that "National
Service" need not mean a single federal governmental program. Rather it
can mcan a network of local, state, national public and private programs
which seck to combine the dynamics, flexibility and responsiveness of
community and private initiatives with the scope, commonality and broad
identity of a federal program.
In the past five years we have seen private Initiatives (City Year and
Youth Build), local efforts (City Volunteer Corps, West Philadelphia
Improvement Corps and dozens of school and college programs), statewide
efforts (PennSERVE, California's Human Corps and some 30 State Offices of
Volunteerism), and a variety of federal programs (Literacy Corps,
Commission on National and Community Service, VISTA, Peace Corps, National
Guard Corps). There is now a small, but vigorous and enthusiastic network
of programs and persons broadly spread across the country. At a time when
there are few who ofter answers to the problems of alienated youth, the
service movement stands out. It seeks to redetine the youth problem as the
youth resource.
A still vestigial, but growing support network is also emerging,
PennSERVE / PA Corps
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Aug 12,92 15:51 No .004 P.03
creating a network of newsletters, conferences, electronic mail links and
journals to supplement formal training programs, "for-credit" courses and
workshops. Slowly the service-movement is building links to job training,
educational and youth development organizations. This network is still
partial and weak, but it exists. Strengthening it would be a crucial goal
of a Clinton National Service initiative.
What we have not seen - until perhaps now - is anyone capable of
articulating the national vision that makec this congeries of programs a
movement. The raw material for such a vision are present in the Clinton
program and rhetoric. His stress on perconal responsibility, the
discussion of the value of community and the limitations of bureaucracy,
hic references to national service as a means of opening college
opportunity and his calls for entrepreneurial government - it's all there,
but 1t hasn't been pulled together rhetorically in the campaign or
programatically in a Clinton Administration.
There are Lwo federal institutions to serve as modelintegrating
organizations:
n The Commission on National and Community Service, although
overwhelmed with the task of "getting grants out the door" has the
legislated mandate to promote a vision and serve as the catalyst and
advocate to make a movement out of the mix of programs.
* The White House Office of National Service is similarly a potential
McClelland's Army that could be borrowed for a real attack, however, much
of it has served as a dim bulb in the points of light panoply.
A Clinton National Service plan should:
1. Pull together existing federal efforts including:
o Commission on National and Community Service
o ACTION VISTA, Service-Learning, RSVP
o Peace Corps
o Older Americans Employment - Green Thumb. etc. (DOL)
0 Education - Federal Literacy Corps and FIPSE's service grants -
Work Study
0 Young Adult Conservation Corps - (authorized but not funded since
1980)
0 National Guard Corps
o Health Corps
2. Create a position. I would favor a revitalized Office of National
Service in the White House to:
0 Serve as advocate, agitstor and gad fly to keep national service
on the President's agenda, and in the public eye. And to fight
the internal administrative wars that relegate service to a "nice
extra" rather than ao a part of the mainstream initiative to
remake the American Community.
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Aug 12,92 15:51 No.004 P.04
o Create an interagency task force which pulls together existing
and potential federal programs.
o Stimulates, shapes and promotes selected new initiatives such as
the Clinton G.I. Bill, a Nunn-Clinton National Guard Corps, etc.
ACTION: How do we make this happen?
1. Keep the issue alive during the campaign. Work with Clinton staff
to:
- visit Clinton County to see youth corps in action
- get youth corps/youth cervice representatives to public meetings
- get the "national service" segment from one convention Into the
speech. Hillary Clinton has been an active member of the P/PV
board and involved with several other Jub training/educational
& youth initiatives. Could/should she take a leading role in
the development and promotion of this effort?
- Ilold a "conference" and Invite Clinton/Gore to speak
- Organize petition drives to respond to the issue when he mentions
IL
- Prepare a "white paper" for public use and an organizational paper
for internal use
2. Post Campaigns
- More rapidly to establish an institutional base in the transition
team
- Redo the "white paper" to create/sustain the White House Office
- Prepare the appropriate "executive order"
3. Prepare a legislative package which would include:
- The Clinton C-I Bill
- An appropriation for the YACC
- Legislation that gives youth service a much larger role in
housing, environmental regulation. urhan hlight, etc.
4. Organize a "White House Conference" on youth service.
(July14 Disk HLW.doc)
PennSERVE / PA Corps
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EDITORIAL
Baker Speaks!
BY DAVID GERGEN
EDITOR AT LARGE
DON'T COUNT BUSH OUT
S
omething bizarre has happened on the way to
The president's advisers want him to go on the at-
the Republican convention: A growing number
tack against Clinton's economic plan and Arkansas
of observers have written off the Dush ticket be-
record. That's fair enough. But standing alone, an anti-
fore the race really starts. It's true that Bill Clinton and
Clinton theme will lose and deservedly so. Given his
Al Gore enjoy such a commanding lead that if the
uneven record of the past four years and a deepening
election were held today, polls show they might win
public perception that he neither understands the
every state but Utah. It's also true that the GOP car-
country's problems nor knows how to fix them, Bush
ries enormous handicaps, including the most anemic
must meet a much higher standard than in 1988: He
record of economic growth suice Herbert Hoover.
must provide clear, convincing evidence that his next
Still, it's for too carly to call the results, By the ad-
term will be better than his first.
mission of his own team, Clinton's lead is built more of
His advisers say that over the past six months, Bush
soufflé than poundcake. Much of his support is light
has finally recognized that the nation's domestic ills are
and fluffy and may collapse as quickly
more decp-seated than he thought and
as it rose. A Times Mirror survey re-
must be addressed as tenaciously as the
vealed last Friday that In the previous
cold war struggle against communism.
six weeks, half of the electorate had
'But voters want
He must now convey both that convic-
shifted allegiances. With more than 12
weeks left before November, Repub-
change. If he won't
tion and a hold strategy for solving the
problems. something he has conspic-
licans can still make this a contest.
supply it, they have
uously failed to do. To kick off his ef-
Just as important, Bush has a long
every reason to
forts, he should immediately sign exce-
history of lifting himself off the mat
utive orders creating a Civilian Conser-
late in the count and decking his op-
bring in the new
vation Corps, indexing capital gains
ponent. Remember his loss in the
team of Clinton
against inflation and exercising a line
Iowa primary in 1988? While his staff
panicked, Bush remained icily calm,
and Gore.
item veto against the big spenders. He
should then assemble a dramatic ac-
pulled his team together and blew
tion plan, drawing upon new ideas
away his opposition in New Hamp-
pushed by conservative leaders (Page
shire. Or remember Michael Dukakis.
17), and take it to the country.
riding out of his convention 17 points
A plan to create jobs, overhaut the
ahead and destined for the White House? By now, we
schools and reform health care will be credible, howev-
should stop underestimating Bush as a campaigner.
er, only if Bush also shows he will have a team good
Does it matter if the race grows tighter? Yes; it cer-
enough to carry it out. He does not have that team.
tainly does. Months ago, when Bush seemed invincible,
now. Long ago he should have made Jack Kemp his
this column argued that he necded a stiff electoral
domestic honcho, as conservatives wanted; William
challenge in order to shake him out of complacency.
Bonnett would also have been splendid. But Bush obvi-
Now, with fortunes reversed, it is Clinton who should
ously feels more comfortable with James Baker, so
be keenly tested before taking charge. We have
bring in Baker now and anoint him as the domestic
learned that Clinton was an innovative governor and
cza: for the second term. Baker has enormous standing
that he has an admirable capacity to come bouncing
as a man who gets things done, and his appointment
back from hard knocks, but we don't yet know enough
would show that Bush is finally serious about domestic
about his capacity to lead a vast, troubled nation.
reforms. Dick Cheney would make an excellent re-
There are a wealth of questions still to be pursued
placement at State; Rep. Vin Weber could be slotted
about Clinton -his courage in asking for sacrifice, his
for the Office of Management and Budget: Treasury
backbone in standing up to Congress, the kinds of peo-
and the Pentagon could be divided up between Kemp
plc who will surround him - and a good campaign will
and Richard Darman. Voters want change and they are
provide much clearer answers. So, the country will be
right; if Bush won't supply it, they have every reason to
well served if Bush puts up a better fight.
bring in the new team of Clinton and Gore.
01
USNRWS & WORLD REPORT, AUGUST 17, 1992
YOUTH AND AMERICA'S FUTURE:
THE WILLIAM T. GRANT FOUNDATION
COMMISSION ON WORK, FAMILY AND CITIZENSHIP
Chairperson
Harold Howe "
Harvard Graduate School of Education
August 3, 1992
Melanne Verveer
People for the American Way
2000 M Street, NW
Washington, DC 20036
Dear Melanne:
We are writing to enlist your participation in a project with significant potential for
advancing youth community service in the United States.
As you may know, the National and Community Service Act of 1990 will expire at the
end of 1993 and Congress will soon consider extending and modifying it. (A summary of the
Act is attached.) For this important occasion, we would like to focus thoughtful opinion on
desirable changes in the Act and, more especially, on future directions which the community
service movement might take in American society.
Briefly, our request to you is similar to the one which initiated Voices from the Field:
30 Expert Opinions on America 2000, The Bush Administration Strategy to "Reinvent"
America's Schools (enclosed, as an approximation of the kind of document we hope to produce).
We ask you to contribute an essay, of no more than 4 to 5 double-spaced pages, setting forth your
personal vision of community service in this country. Specifically, views on any or all the
following questions would be of interest to the policy makers who will read this compendium
of essays:
What contribution can the federal government make in promoting community service? What
is the appropriate role of states? Of non-profit agencies?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the existing legislation? When Congress revises it,
what provisions ought it to keep and what changes should be made?
Where is the nation headed with the Act as currently framed? How would the changes you
suggest in the legislation change the direction of service in this country?
The Act currently supports four major types of programs -- what is missing?
1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Suite 301, Washington, D.C. 20036-5541
(202) 775-9731
What are your views on the proposals for national service now being advocated by political
leaders such as Governor Bill Clinton and Senator Harris Wofford?
These questions are merely suggestive. We want your essay whether you wish to
concentrate on only one aspect of the Act or suggest bold new departures from the present Act.
Guidelines for the essays are simple:
1. BE BRIEF - Four to five double-spaced pages.
2. BE LIVELY - The best ideas are lost if they bore the readers.
3. BE FRANK - Take a position and make your point without equivocation.
4. BE QUICK - We need final copy by September 1, 1992, sent c/o William T.
Grant Foundation Commission.
Please send a hard copy of your essay along with the diskette (either 3 1/2 or 5 1/4
inch), in WordPerfect 5.1 if possible. Finally, please send 4-5 biographical sentences about
yourself current title, previous positions, publications, involvement with community service,
etc.
We look forward to your contribution to this important public policy issue. Please
telephone the Grant Foundation of fice (202-775-9731) or fax us (202-872-4050) to confirm that
you will participate in this project.
Many thanks for your participation. We believe your contribution, when joined with
others in the projected compendium of essays, can help shape and strengthen public policy
regarding youth service.
Sincerely,
Sam
Samuel Halperin
Shirley Sagawa
Study Director
Senior Counsel/Families & Youth
William T. Grant Foundation
National Women's Law Center
Hope you can participate!
Background and Mission
Commission on National and Community Service
The National and Community Service Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-610, as amended) created the Commission on
National and Community Service to provide funds, training, and technical assistance to States and communities to
develop and expand service opportunities. The Act is intended to:
Renew the ethic of civic responsibility in the United States
Encourage citizens, regardless of age, income, or ability, to engage in full- or part-time service
Involve youth in programs that benefit the Nation and improve their own lives
Enable young adults to make a sustained commitment to service by removing barriers created by high
education costs, loan indebtedness, and the cost of housing
Build on the network of existing Federal, State, and local programs and agencies
Involve participants in activities that would not otherwise be performed by paid workers
Generate additional volunteer service hours to help meet human, educational, environmental, and public
safety needs, particularly those related to poverty
Encourage institutions to volunteer their resources and energies and to encourage service among their
members, employees, and their affiliates
Identify successful and promising community service initiatives and disseminate information about them
Discover and encourage new leaders
The Commission is governed by a 27-member Board of Directors, including 21 members appointed by the
President and confirmed by the Senate and six ex-officio members. The Commission's Chairperson is Paul N.
McCloskey, Jr., and its Executive Director is Catherine Milton.
The Commission seeks to promote the development of a major national community service movement, focused initially
on youth but welcoming all. We believe that this effort to integrate service into the fabric of American life, involving
thousands of institutions both public and private, can engage millions of Americans in dealing with critical social
problems. In the process, the community service movement can revitalize the spirit of citizenship and community in
our society, and enhance the self-esteem of our young people and their belief that they can make a difference.
In pursuing this vision, the Commission will work closely with states and leaders of grassroots community service
organizations to carry out three principal strategies:
Encourage promising programs of community service, recognize proven models, and encourage
widespread replication;
Support coalition-building leadership in promoting effective community service; and
Encourage and support talented community service leaders, and stimulate and guide the development
of a community service infrastructure, in part by transferring good ideas and practices rapidly to
organizations that can use them and bringing together diverse organizations in fruitful collaboration.
These strategies will be applied through programs focused on school-age children and their families, college and
university students, out-of-school youth, national service models, other targeted experiments and overall community
service coalition-building. The Commission will stimulate initiatives in these program areas by providing grants,
evaluation and encouragement to draw others together.
529 14th Street, NW, Suite 452 Washington, DC 20045 (202) 724-0600 FAX (202) 724-0608
1992 Grants
Commission on National and Community Service
On June 8, the Commission announced 153 grants totaling $63 million to test new and expanded
community service projects in nearly every state. The types of service activities are broadly defined:
participants may perform any educational, human, environmental, or public safety service project
that will benefit the community.
Subtitle B, Part 1 - Serve-America: $16.3 million
Forty-seven states, the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico will implement service-learning
innovations in elementary and secondary schools. Serve-America grants support programs sponsored
by schools or community-based agencies to involve school-aged youth in service to the community.
Serve-America also supports programs that involve adult volunteers in the schools. Funding was
allocated to States submitting successful applications according to a formula, and on a competitive
basis to Indian Tribes and to local applicants in States that did not apply.
Subtitle B, Part 2 - Higher Education Innovative Projects: $5.2 million
Fifty-eight grants will help at least 175 institutions of higher education undertake innovative
community service efforts. Projects will explore new ways to integrate service into the curriculum,
support model community service programs on campus, develop teacher and volunteer training
programs, and involve students in community service - often in ways that complement their course
of study.
Subtitle C - American Conservation and Youth Service Corps Programs: $21.5 million
Youth corps in 25 states, five operated by Indian tribes, will become laboratories for involving young
people from widely different backgrounds in innovative projects that directly meet community
needs. These programs must involve teenagers and young adults, who receive job and skill training,
living allowances, and scholarships. They may also include special corps members, such as senior
citizens, who provide special skills to the program.
Subtitle D - National and Community Service Programs: $20.1 million
The Commission approved seven operating and one planning grant to test national service programs
that will engage individuals ages 17 and older in full-time or part-time service. Participants will
receive education or housing benefits upon completion of their term of service.
Future Grantmaking
Barring significantly increased appropriations, most of the funds for fiscal year 1993 for the above
grant categories will be committed to renewal of current projects. A competition is planned for
additional National and Community Service model programs. In addition, by future notice in the
Federal Register, the Commission will provide training and technical assistance and may fund some
specific projects including clearinghouses, technical assistance, youth voice projects, and five other
programs: demonstration projects for rural youth, employer-based retiree volunteer programs,
governors' innovative service programs, a Peace Corps/VISTA training program, and a program
that places Foster Grandparent programs in Head Start centers.
529 14th Street, NW, Suite 452 Washington, DC 20045 (202) 724-0600 FAX (202) 724-0608
citignship
STATE OF THE STATES
NEAL R. PEIRCE
FOR THE YOUNG, SERVICE WITH A SMILE
ugged and demanding youth service programs, says
widely divergent backgrounds. They not only get to meet, but
R
Sen. Harris Wofford, D-Pa., could be one of Amer-
also learn to work cooperatively together.
ica's best antidotes to ominous social dissolution and
City Year's enrollees work in teams of 10-12, building play-
Los Angeles-style riots during the 1990s.
grounds and soup kitchens, rehabilitating homeless shelters, dis-
The chances for social tranquillity in the years ahead are slim,
tributing food to the hungry, tutoring and mentoring younger
as Wofford sees it, unless the nation moves with determination
kids, assisting the sick. The program builds self-confidence, lead-
and speed to reengage its poor, its jobless and its disillusioned
ership skills and "a community of idealism," says co-founder
and turned-off young people.
Brown.
"We know why angry, jobless and hopeless young people burn
Hundreds of thousands of youths nationwide could be
and loot their own community," Wofford recently told students
enrolled in similar programs. And it could happen. The Com-
at Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Govern-
mission on National and Community Service, which was created
ment. "We don't need another
by Congress in 1990, is just getting
commission, another study, anoth-
ready to make about $60 million in
er pilot program. We need action."
The concept of youth
grants to some of the nation's best
The concept of youth service has
youth service programs,
come a long way since 1933, when
service has come a long
Wofford believes that Congress
President Franklin D. Roosevelt
should, in the wake of the violence
conceived the idea of the Civilian
Conservation Corps (CCC). FDR
way since 1933, when
in Los Angeles, at least double
that amount and then "scrounge
asked Congress to act in March;
FDR conceived the idea
and redirect money" from lots of
the response was almost instanta-
sources, including, for instance,
neous. By July, more than 300,000
of the Civilian
about $700 million a year in ques-
of the nation's jobless young
tionably useful Job Training Part-
men-from the slums of New
York City to the dust bowl of
Conservation Corps.
nership Act money. And why not
use defense dollars to let several
Oklahoma-were out in the
thousand competent people who
woods, working on conservation
are now leaving the military serve
projects and receiving special-edu-
as leaders of youth service pro-
cation courses.
grams? Military bases slated for
Many of the 2.5 million young people who went through the
shutdowns could also serve as youth service camps.
CCC would later describe it as an immense skill and confidence
Wofford favors a national voucher system to provide kids who
builder, a turning point in their lives akin to direct military ser
sign up for youth service programs with living allowances and,
vice.
on successful completion, bonuses for their education
There was, in fact, military discipline in the camps. One of the
Arkansas Gov. Bill Clinton, the likely Democratic presidential
most prominent CCC organizers was the redoubtable Gen.
nominee, has a parallel idea: a universal educational loan pro-
George C. Marshall. Many reserve military officers were hired
gram in which young people could pay off college loans with two
to run CCC operations. Young men were handed leftover uni-
or three years of public service or as future add-ons to their
forms and boots from World War I and housed in barracks or
income taxes.
"We need these kids on the front lines-to serve, and not be
tents.
Few politicians these days dare to push for a single, massive
served," Wofford said. "I'm sick and tired of the patronizing
federal service corps-a reincarnation of the CCC. But since the
social service approach-treating young people as problems,
formation of the California Conservation Corps in the 1970s,
dangers, menaces. We need to turn them around and let them
inventive youth service and conservation corps programs have
discover themselves as resources.
spread to 27 states Altogether, according to Youth Service
Critics can argue, of course, that myriad state and local youth
America, a Washington-based organization that develops and
service programs will be of uneven quality and that their long-
promotes the idea, there are 75 such programs, operating on
term dividends are uncertain.
combined budgets of $180 million. They enroll about 25,000
But there is a competent national youth service commission to
young people.
guide the movement. And there have been enough pilot pro-
The vast majority of programs involve tough calisthenics, uni-
grams to prove that youth service is a powerful way to divert
forms and other real demands-often the first constructive dis-
poor kids from a life of the streets, joblessness, drugs and, all too
cipline that many of the young enrollees have ever experienced.
often, crime and prison.
Consider, for example, City Year in Boston, which was
Youth service is also one of the few tools society has to
launched by Michael Brown and Alan Khazei, two young Har-
reclaim college-bound kids, as Wofford puts it, from "a self-cen-
vard Law School graduates, expressly to create a youth service
tered life of civic indifference."
prototype for communities from coast to coast.
Can a nation that's plagued by a $400 billion deficit rationally
City Year offers its 17-22-year-old recruits a $100-a-week
contemplate spending billions on a universal youth service pro-
stipend (the CCC paid $1 a day) and a $5,000 scholarship on
gram? The fiscal answer is no. The human, commonsense
graduation. The recruits are poor, rich, black, white, Asian, His-
answer is yes. Without such a commitment, America's social fab-
panic, inner-city gang, suburban preppy. It's one of the few pro-
ric will keep on unraveling, rendering incalculable damage not
grams, in fact, that doesn't draw just poor youth, but kids from
just to budgets, but also to the nation's security.
1590 NATIONAL JOURNAL 7/4/92
COMMUNITY SERVICE: A SINGULAR SOLUTION
Presented by William J. Byron, S.J.,
President, The Catholic University of America,
at the 3rd National Conference on Service and Society,
University of Notre Dame,
Notre Dame, Indiana,
January 31, 1992
The Congress of the United States is now on record as
wanting to change the way Americans view community service.
Without intending it, judges across this land have for many
years been giving community service a bad name. White collar
criminals and errant public officials have, in exchange for
their venality or violations of the public trust, been sentenced
to large or small punitive doses of "community service" in lieu
of spending time in jail. That kind of judicial sentence will,
of course, not disappear; regrettably, it will retain the name
"community service." But by enacting the National and Community
Service Act of 1990, the Congress said it wants to "enhance"
community service and "renew the ethic of civic responsibility
in the United States."
Service is to be encouraged now as a matter of public
policy. Service is a responsibility to be met, not a punishment
to be avoided. Service, we may soon discover, is a singular
solution for much of our national and personal discontent and
may well assist significantly in the reduction of many of our
vexing and persistent social problems. In any case, government
at local, state, and federal levels is expected now to foster
service--voluntary and, if not altogether uncompensated, just
modestly stipended service--to local communities and the nation
as a whole.
2
As is often the case when a bill clears both houses of
Congress, the final product represents an amalgam of legislative
ideas carved up and compacted into a single law, in this case
Public Law 101-610--Nov. 16, 1990. The legislation has two
major title-headings and four minor ones. The first major
title, the "National and Community Service State Grant Program,"
has seven subtitles authorizing funding of a broad range of new
service initiatives. The second major title, "Modifications of
Existing Programs," has three associated subtitles that amend
the Higher Education Act of 1965 for purposes congenial to this
new legislation; and amend as well the Domestic Volunteer
Service Act of 1973 by adding a new title called "Youthbuild
Projects," intended to connect economically disadvantaged young
adults "with opportunities for meaningful service to their
communities in helping to meet the housing needs of homeless
individuals and low-income families." In the process, the young
builders will, it is hoped, acquire "employment skills necessary
to achieve economic self-sufficiency."
The four remaining titles provide for:
> the authorization of the "Points of Light
Foundation" as a mandated recipient of
federal funds;
> the presentation of a model "Good Samaritan
Food Donation Act;"
> appropriation of funds, most of which are
designated for Title I programs;
and a final title covers "Miscellaneous Provisions" unrelated to
the national and community service theme.
3
It has taken a long time to get a national service bill
through both houses of the Congress. Over the years, the Senate
has shown much more interest than the House of Representatives in
the notion of national service; and the acoustics have been
better among Democrats than Republicans for discussion and debate
of this idea. Consequently, the bill produced by a Democratic
Congress, passed with bi-partisan support, and signed by
President George Bush, has identifiable Democratic parentage and
Democratic pride of authorship. Hence, influential Democrats
will have an understandable interest in seeing how "their"
program is doing, especially that portion of "their" program that
was "his" (Senators Kennedy, Nunn, and Dodd, for example) or
"her" (Senator Mikulski) idea. These senators and others
(notably Democrats Pell, Robb, Graham, and Bumpers, and Republi-
cans Hatch, Durenberger, and Jeffords) will be watching as money
moves out ($73 million in FY'92) from the entity established by
the 1990 Act and known as the Commission on National and
Community Service, a brand new and quite small independent agency
within the Executive Branch of the federal government. Funds
will be awarded to the states, Indian tribes (included at the
insistence of Senator Kent Conrad, Democrat of North Dakota), and
institutions of higher education (whose interests were promoted
by Senators Kennedy and Pell) for:
> "Serve-America" ($16.9 million in FY'92 for
statewide, school-aged service-learning
programs);
> "Higher Education Innovative Projects" ($5.6
million in FY'92 to encourage students to
participate in community service activities
while attending college);
4
> "Conservation and Youth Service Corps" ($22.5
million for youths age 16 to 25 willing to
commit themselves to up to 24 months of full-
time service, for environmental or human
needs); and
> "National and Community Service" ($22.5
million for persons 17 years of age or older
who would work for not less than three years
om a part-time basis, or one year on a
full-time basis, "to meet unmet educational,
human, environmental, and public safety needs,
especially those needs relating to poverty").
This last program, which has the symbolic advantage of
bearing a name identical with that attached to the entire 1990
bill, can fairly be described as the portion of the program
"belonging" to Senators Barbara Mikulski and Sam Nunn.
Senator Edward M. Kennedy contributed "Serve-America" to this
legislative amalgam. The "Higher Education Innovative Projects"
section bears the fingerprints of Kennedy and Senator Claiborne
Pell. And the "Conservation and Youth Service Corps" ideas come
chiefly from the legislative imagination of Senator Christopher
Dodd.
Elsewhere in this awkwardly constructed mosaic of statutory
strategies aimed at enlisting Americans for volunteer service to
their nation and communities, are provisions for:
> "Governors' Innovative Service Programs" (a
limited number of "models" easily replicated
in other states; an idea promoted by
Senator Orrin Hatch, R-UT);
> Grants to the Director of the Peace Corps or
the Director of ACTION "to carry out training
and educational benefits demonstration
programs" that will attract to their volun-
teer ranks members of groups now under-
represented there (Senate sponsorship for
this provision came from Kennedy and Pell
with House support from Rep. Connie Morella,
R-MD)
5
>
Special demonstration projects in rural areas
to involve the elderly and to engage young
people in "assisted-living services" to needy
others, both young and old (credit for this
provision goes to Rep. Dale E. Kildee, D-MI);
> Grants to increase the number of low-income
"foster grandparents" who would work in Head
Start programs (a good idea with wide
support) ;
> Grants to bring together retirees, their
former employers, and community agencies "to
develop employer-based, retiree volunteer
programs" (a contribution to the Act by Sen.
Bob Graham, D-FL).
Grants made under Title I (the State Grant Program) directly
to public and private higher education institutions, to educa-
tional consortia, or to public agencies and non-profit organiza-
tions working in partnership with higher education institutions,
are to meet the following purposes specified in the authorizing
legislation:
(1) to enable the institution to create or
expand community service activities for
students attending that institution;
(2) to encourage student-initiated and student-
designed community service projects;
(3) to facilitate the integration of community
service into academic curricula, so that
students can obtain credit for their
community service activities;
(4) to encourage students to participate in
community service activities that will
engender a sense of social responsibility
and commitment to the community;
(5) to encourage students to assist in the
teaching of individuals with limited basic
skills or an inability to read and write;
and
6
(6) to provide for the training of teachers,
prospective teachers, related education
personnel, and community leaders in the
skills necessary to develop, supervise, and
organize community service activities,
taking into consideration the particular
needs of a community and the ability of the
grantee to actively involve [the split
infinitive is a federal offense, not mine;
I'm simply quoting!] a major part of the
community in, and substantially benefit the
community by, the proposed community service
activities.
As funds move out from Washington and programs start up
across the nation, legislators will want to have reliable
measures of results. This, of course, goes by the name of
"evaluation." Some results can be quantified with relative ease.
How many programs? How many volunteers? How many poor people
were involved? What are the cost-benefit ratios? Did the
programs attract middle-class volunteers? Did school-age parti-
cipants stay in school? Did participants gain genuine job
skills? Were paid workers displaced by volunteers? Were volun-
teers simply rearranged--i.e., was there a net increase in volun-
teer activity or did these new programs simply attract
participants from pre-existing volunteer programs? What effect
did these programs have on military recruiting? (There is fear
in the House of Representatives that they will compete with
military recruitment.) How about the effect on student loan
obligations? Do post-service benefits like mortgage subsidies
and education grants attract participants?
On the qualitative side, some sponsors of this legislation,
notably Senators Mikulski and Kennedy, will want to know whether
the programs do, in fact, foster a community service ethic. If
7
they do, the nation can expect to see a continuum of service over
the course of the lifetime of persons attracted into service
programs in their formative years. Similarly, the legislators
will want to know whether service experiences can really change a
poor youth's life. A large legislative bet has been placed on
the potential of this act to have precisely that effect.
In thinking about evaluation, it occurred to me that one
might look upon this as a horse race. As various programs are
funded, one might visualize the Kennedy horse, Mikulski horse,
Dodd horse, and other entries with identifiable legislative
"colors," breaking away from the starting gate and running for
the results their sponsors envisioned. Even if the programs were
sufficiently pure-bred to display distinctive legislative
origins, it would not be possible to attribute success or failure
on the basis of one short race, and probably not fair to run them
head-to-head against each other.
Perhaps a horse show would be a more useful analogy: admire
the distinctive features, estimate their potential for realizing
program objectives, and think about measuring results. One way
or another, results will have to be measured.
It would be a mistake, in my opinion, to attempt to measure
the success of these initiatives in reduced rates of teen-age
pregnancy, a decline in drug abuse, a drop in youth unemployment,
and other positive social indicators. Families, schools, reli-
gious and other institutions, not least among them the private
job market, cannot look to this modest program and expect it to
carry the freight of social recovery for troubled youth in a
8
troubled nation. True, community service could become part of a
national job-training strategy. True, service might be
successful in attracting non-traditional volunteers--i.e. ,
low-income people--into organized volunteer activity. But the
basic institutions have to do the foundational work required to
produce enduring social change.
Washington lawyer Richard Danzig, co-author of National
Service: What Is It? (Lexington Books, 1986) advised the evalu-
ation committee of the Commission during a December 17, 1991
White House meeting, that the evaluative emphasis should be on
the "first order" questions, not on the larger issues of societal
change. There are three central criteria for measuring the
success of these programs, in Danzig's view: recruiting,
rewards, results. Do the programs recruit a range of people?
Are improved self-esteem and a sense of altruism among the
rewards a participant gains from the service experience? What
are the results of the program in terms of services rendered;
what are the results for the persons being served?
Another consultant to the Commission's committee on
evaluation Jerome Kolker, Director of the Philadelphia-based
Urban Corps Expansion Project of an organization called
Public/Private Ventures--emphasized the importance of engaging
young people in activities that meet genuine community needs
while lifting their own self-esteem. These two problems
community needs and widespread deficits in self-esteem among the
young--have one solution, he said, and that solution is service.
9
I agree that service is a singular solution in this and in
at least two other important ways. It looks to the individual.
One person can make a difference. Many persons freely choosing
to unite their efforts in service to others can make an enormous
difference. Moreover, the fact that the service envisioned in
this act is voluntary, or only modestly stipended, makes it all
the more singular in the culture of greed that appears to be
tightening its grip on the nation.
An unresolved pedagogical debate focuses on the question of
whether persons are better off thinking their way into new ways
of acting or acting their way into new ways of thinking. The
bias in this bill (with which I have no serious disagreement)
favors the action-as-avenue-to-thought side of the argument. The
legislation employs the phrase "service learning" in the "Serve
America" section, where it proposes to offer grants and contracts
for school-based community-service projects involving children as
providers of the service. The trick, of course, is to get them
to reflect on the experience and tie it in with what they are
picking up in the classroom. Funding for programs that will
train persons who would guide this reflection are provided for in
the legislation. A substantial challenge awaits those who hope
to document attitudinal and behavioral change as a consequence of
service-learning. I think it happens. I don't know how to
measure it. But I'm sure there are evaluators somewhere who can.
The "Higher Education Innovative Projects" portion of this
bill carries great expectations signaled by the legislative
language I quoted above. New and expanded community service
10
activities for college students will, it is hoped, "engender a
sense of social responsibility and commitment to the community."
This can indeed happen. I surely hope it will. But I would not
want to be the evaluator charged with the responsibility of
documenting the fact that it has happened.
The anticipated programs are also expected "to facilitate
the integration of community service into academic curricula, so
that students can obtain credit for their community service
activities." The incentive system now moves closer to campus!
Payment in academic credits coupled (for those who serve full- or
part-time in Subtitle D--National and Community Service--
programs) with post-service benefits, complicates and possibly
compromises the civic-mindedness the legislation (and the social
movement it will help to launch) hopes to cultivate. That is an
issue to be dealt with on the campuses once the larger issue--
approving the programs for academic credit--makes it through the
various committees, councils, and senates that process academic
policy.
1
The possibility of a social revolution is latent in these
complicated provisions. They could open the way for us to become
a nation that cares about service. Much depends on what happens
in the state houses. There is an impressive array of community
service advocates around the country who will be sure to keep
their governors informed. Applications will be filed in four
major categories: (1) Serve America, (2) Higher Education, (3)
Conservation and Youth Service Corps, and (4) the National and
Community Service programs for full- or part-timers in up to
eight states. The relatively few states that will be represented
11
in this fourth category are likely to blaze the trail for
whatever national movement might eventually emerge.
Grants from the Commission on National and Community Service
will be made by early June, 1992. It will be many moons and
Junes, however, until we will have anything resembling a good
idea of whether or not the worthy objectives of this welcome
public policy initiative are being realized.
The writer is president of The Catholic University of
America and a member of the Board of Directors of the Commission
on National and Community Service.
THE WALL STREET JOURNAL TUESDAY, AUGUST 4. 1992
Unpaid Child Labor, Compliments of Maryland
By DAVID N. LARAND
have little or no political power. In SO
which is the compensatory wage rate being
Under requirements passed recently by
doing. the state not only violates the child
paid 111. the state. suffers a loss.
the state Board of Education, Maryland
labor laws it SO vigorously applies to the
Those students for whom 75 hours
public high school students will be the first
private sector; il de facto violates federal
of study would spell the difference between
in the nation forced to perform community
minimum wage statutes.
passing and failing or between an ^ or a B
service to fulfill graduation requirements.
In terms of the costs imposed on stu-
might have strung views about the impact
The new standards call for students to
dents, the analogy lu il peacetime military
of the community service requirement on
complete either 75 hours of community
draft is appropriate. Under a draft. the
their lives.
service or a program designed by their
government could procure its required
or additional concern is the problem of
school systems and approved by the state
military personnel by fial, at il lower cust
who, for example, bears responsibility for
school superintendent.
than a volunteer army. Since the political
the student who accidentally gets pricked
Maryland, like so many other state
clout of taxpayers who vole against lilx
by il tainted needle while helping out in a
governments, is facing yel another fiscal
increases exceeds that of draftees, a mili-
hospital Or cleaning up a vacant. immer-city
deficit. However, the clamor for public
tary draft can be terribty attractive 10
lot. If, as is only proper. the state assumes
provision of social services does not ebb
politicians.
responsibility. then the inevitable wave of
and flow in concord with the budgetary
llowever, the aggregate cost borne by
liability lawsuits arising from compulsory
tide. The demand for services for the
the draftees invariably exceeds the differ.
community service will almost certainly
elderly, the poor, the homeless, and by
ence between the lax cost of il volunteer
increase the state taxpayers' burden sig.
environmental activists (to name but a
army and the lilx cost of il compulsory
nificantly.
(ew) only escalates over time. Forced
service army, because the opportunity cust
The really sad part is that, as with so
community service must be an attractive
of military service is SO high for il number
many government-mandaled social ex-
political solution to the legislature's bind.
of the draftees. Some of the draftees would
perments. the actual result will likely be
There were 186.084 students enrolled in
grades 9-12 in Maryland during the school
otherwise be employed in the private sec.
the opposite of 1/1.71 envisioned hy a
tor. inventing new products or processes.
school board seeking 10 recruit an army of
year just completed. The supply of free la.
social activists. Teen-agers tend lo rebel
Their forgone vahie of time spent in mili-
bur implied by each of these students per.
lary service is much greater than the
against anything they are forced 10 do.
forming 75 hours of community service
Granted. certain individuals' "sensitiv-
nominal compensation paid by the state.
equals 13.956.300 hours. Using a standard
Those individuals whose opportunity cust
ily" 10 certain social problems may be
40-hour work week and a 50-week work
enhanced by forced exposure to the school
of time is lower than the nominal compen-
year, this is equivalent to the state picking
sation offered by the state would presuma-
board's definition of il social "problem." It
up6.978 full-time social services employees
is more likely. however. that close associa-
bly have enlisted vohintarily anyway.
for free. At 1992 entry-level wages ($17,952.
non willi public-Sector social workers will
not including benefits) for someone who
So it is with compulsory community
produce eynicism about public-sector solu-
assists il social worker (the current term is
service. Students who work after school or
Hons. Actually. a little cynicism about the
"sucial work associate"). the state would
in the evenings 11) finance their hoped-for
benefits 111 public-sector activism isn't
otherwise have to pony up about $125
college education 16'ill Ind their time avail-
such il bad idea - provided. of course, that
million to acquire equivalent services.
able for paid employment cut by 75 hours.
it is obtained voluntarily.
Under the guise of enhancing the citi-
Others will have 75 lewer hours 11) devote to
zenry's awareness of and sensitivity to so-
such personally relevant and stimulating
AII. Laburnel IS professor and chairman of
cial issues, the state is shifting the cost of
concerns ils studies in science, history, or
1/11' department of economics 111 the Franklin
procuring social services from taxpayers
music. Indeed, any student who values
P. Perduc School of Business. Sulisbury
(who vote) to high school students who
his time at a price greater Chan zero,
State Corrersity. Salisbury. 1111.
6A.
The News & Observer. Raleigh. N.C., Monday. August 3. 1992
ECEIVED
AUG 6 1992
The News & Observer
MD STUDENT SERVICES ALLINCE
I advise and enjoin those who direct the paper in the tomorrows never to advocate any cause
for personal profit or preferment 1 would wish It always to be "the coccun" and to devote
ksell to the policies of equality and justice to the underprivileged. If the paper should at any
time be the voice of self-interest or become the spokesman of privilege or selfishness It would
be untrue to is history. - JOSEPHUS DANIELS. Editor and Publisher 1894-1948.
A curriculum on citizenship
There's more to education than
dents could transport cancer Da-
science and math and the latest
tients to treatment, register blood
computer technology. At least in
donors, visit the autistic, tutor
the state of Maryland.
younger students, repair small ap-
pliances and man telephone crisis
The Maryland Board of Educa-
lines.
tion has voted to add community
service to the requirements for a
Opponents of the Maryland plan
high school diploma. The idea is to
say it's only "fluffy, feel-good
instill a sense of civic obligation in
stuff' that will take away from the
students, who will have to complete
schools' mission, which ultimately
75 hours of "volunteer" service
is academic. Surely they acknowl-
between the eighth grade and grad-
edge, though, that community ser-
uation.
vice is as worthwhile as football
Providing it does not cut harmful-
games and pep rallies, meetings of
ly into their academic day, students
the yearbook staff and field trips.
everywhere, including in North
Carolina, could benefit from more
Plenty of students in North Caro-
di
val-
lina already are volunteers and
ues and helping to take responsibili-
others would happily join them if
ty for others.
given a nudge. But obviously the
schools have not been successful at
Imagine what a little self-
helping all graduates discover the
sacrifice would do for the high
connection between themselves
school student whose primary out-
and the community.
side interests are shining his car
and cruising fast-food parking lots.
Certainly there are mechanical
Think of the value of using those
problems to be ironed out. When
wheels to deliver hot meals to
the Chapel-Hill Carrboro school
shut-ins. Maybe it wouldn't be
board adopted a similar plan, The
measured in SAT scores, but it
News & Observer, for one, had
would be of more lasting worth
qua!ms about its workability. But
than some of what passes for
"NEi doesn't mean the concept itself
learning today.
is a bad one.
Imagine, too, what it would mean
Other school systems in this state
for the community to have a
should watch the progress of the
youthful cor os lending its energy to
programs in Chapel Hill and now,
government and non-profit agen
in Maryland. A system of mandato-
cies. Look at the -list of organiza-
Γy community service has as its
tions seeking volunteers in The
ultimate goal the growth of better
N&O's Triangle Observer or North
citizens. Who could be opposed to
Raleigh Observer. High school stu-
that?
TUESDAY, AUGUST 11, 1992
THE SUN
OPINION
COMMENTARY
Concord, Massachusetts.
lke most teen-agers. I hate to
Forced Service Is His Favorite Subject
Museum In Boston, a group of stu-
be told what to do. I chafe at
dents In my eighth-grade class were
involved In an altercation with an-
curfews, refuse to patronize
staurants that tell me what to
other group of students from a
ear and complain daily about the
By JOE GOODWIN
largely black school In Roxbury. a
aces that my parents and dentist
neighborhood near downtown.
Taunts were exchanged, a fight
ant me to have.
library assistants or tutors. Outside
can a student take than one that
disintegration of the American fami-
broke out. It was unsettling.
Yet I look forward to the "forced
school, the requirement may be met
teaches values and responsibility? Is
ly. Yet, when those who find plea-
The following week, teachers
portunity" for community service
y high school requires. While criti-
by working at hospitals, nursing
It better to require students to listen
sure In lecturing about this decline
from both schools arranged a day-
homes, senior-citizen's centers,
to long lectures about the plight of
are faced with a solution that would
m mounts against Maryland's ac-
long meeting of a representative
on In becoming the first state to
soup kitchens or for the town's park
the elderly and homeless, or to have
help strengthen society, they fall
sampling of students at each school.
service or recreational department.
them provide hours of warmth
back on the past. It Is this negative
The discussion that resulted was an
andate students to perform 75
To be sure, It would be wonderful
merely by reading the newspaper to
attitude toward change that has
extraordinary experience. As I lis-
urs of community service over
if students volunteered such serv-
a senior citizen.
caused the country to reach the
tened to black students describe
ven years, It Is well to look at the
Ice. But the great benefit of the
Some say that schools should not
point of such neglect.
perience of local school districts
their stereotypes of whites In the
mandated program Is the responsi-
be In the business of fostering civic
Today, the passion and commit-
suburbs, as I heard one black girl
at have Instituted similar pro-
bility It places on the school to work
concerns among Its youth. But what
ment that marked my parents' gen-
say she cried herself to sleep the
ams.
with community leaders to locate
more Important role can a school
eration - the 1960s - Is gone,
For five years, every student at
night of the schools' fight In fear
the places where students can best
play than in shaping values
2
replaced by an ominous silence. I
and frustration that racial relations
Concord-Carlisle Regional High
make a solid contribution. It Is unre-
spect for the elderly. patience for
listen to my parents talk of their
hool In Massachusetts has been
would never Improve, I realized how
alistic to expect students to roam
those younger, compassion for those
experiences with the civil-rights
far America was from the Ideals of
quired to perform 40 hours of
from place to place In search of
less fortunate - among Its young.
movement, the sit-ins, the war on
equality and justice. If community
munity service In order to grad-
te. Conventional wisdom would
service opportunities. Once the ar-
These and related values used to be
poverty, and I am Impatient for the
service could help to bridge the gap
rangements for those opportunities
taught In the home. Now, they must
time when my own generation Is
ve us believe that this would be
between these Ideals and reality. I
are made, the student needs only to
be learned elsewhere, since we live
similarly Involved In the great pub-
especially burdensome task, per-
will feel happy Indeed.
decide which kind of service best
In a world in which many families
lic events of our day. Though 40
ps an Impossible one, for stu-
fits his or her personality.
have two parents working long
hours of community service is not
Joe Goodwin is a freshman at Con-
its who hold outside paying jobs.
Those who oppose the communi-
hours every day and many more
very much, It is a beginning.
cord-Carlisle High School in Con-
the graduation requirement
ty-service mandate fear It will Inter-
have Just a single parent.
My abstract desire to participate
cord, Massachusetts. He wrote
y be satisfied within the school
fere with the regular school curricu-
There has been much talk about
became tangible this past spring.
this commentary for the Los An-
securing jobs as teacher's aides
n. But what more Important class
the decline of American society. the
While on a class trip to the Science
geles Times.
Teachers learn
how kids can
Tonson Times
July
aid community
Charles Herndon
T
They spent a moming muck-
A
seminar brought
ing about in a Jones Falls
together 75 area
tributary. They ladled soup
teachers to learn how
to the homeless. They helped
Alzheimer's patients to sing.
they could encourage
And. being teachers. they did
students to become
one thing more than any other dur-
involved in school and
ing a weeklong seminar on student
service training last week at Luy
community service
oia College.
projects.
They learned.
This son of made me sec that
service to your community isn't a
tough thing to do." said Maryann
Hughes. an English teacher at
Catonsville Middle School. "My
experience SO they can teach it to
eyes have just been opened."
their children." Brill said.
The seminar. sponsored by the
The seminar comes at a crucial
Maryland Student Service
time for volunteer service projects
Alliance and the Governor's
statewide. Maryland's state board
Scholarship Fund for Citizenship
of education was scheduled to vole
ucation. brought together 75
Wednesday on whether 10 make
chers from the Baltimore area
student community service a
- including 13 from Baltimore
requirement for graduation.
County.
Under the state proposal. stu-
Their task: 10 learn how they
dents would be required 10 perform
could encourage students 10
75 hours of volunteer service
become involved in school and
between the sixth and 12th grades.
community service projects.
School districts also have the
1
During the four-day seminad.
option to devise their own com-
teachers performed a variety of
munity service plans.
service projects themselves, in part
Several Baltimore County teach-
10 meet local contacts in environ-
ers said their experiences in the
mental protection. care for the
seminar taught them the value of
elderly and help for the poor.
such service.
Such summertime teacher train-
**II depends on the student. but
ing isn unusual but the service
many students really respond to
project drew attention from nation-
this." said. Towson High math
al media because of its leacher
leacher Grace Patton. "live seen
involvement and. in part, because
some students whose self-confi-
01 the reputation of Alliance Direc-
dence has really blossomed."
tor Kathicen Kennedy Townsend.
Teachers said they would imple-
a vocal proponent of student com-
ment ideas from the seminar in
munity service.
classes this fall. With many of the
The projects. which ranged
things they learned. including com-
from painting storm drains to fill-
munity contacts. strategies 10
ing food bags for the hungry. also
involve students and methods of
helped teachers understand what it
assessing a project's effectiveness
means 10 help.
they said they should be able R
"We've found the best way to
motivate students.
get the word out is to train the
"We have to make kids aware
hers. It's not something you
that this is out there and that they
lecture about." said Cathy
can do it," said Carol Lancaster. an
Brill. the Alliance's project direc-
environmental science teacher at
for for special education.
Dulaney High.
Teachers participating in the
"You can tell them. 'You can
lifth annual seminar last week also
really make a difference in some-
learned how to "reflect on their
one's life.````
Service
local
A4 - The Sentinel, Carlisle, Pa., Saturday, August 1, 1992
decision
Service
Continued from A1
By Richard Reitz
Sentinel Reporter
Pennsylvania students will have
Pennsylvania is not likely to get a state-
the option to use volunteer work
mandated volunteer service program in its
towards a graduation project under
public school system, a state official says.
chapter five of the new state learn-
But volunteer work could be a project stu-
ing outcomes guidelines, he says.
dents use to graduate under the new state
learning outcomes guidelines, according to
According to chapter 5.222 of the
John. Briscoe, director of PennSERVE, the
regulations for the State Board of
governor's office of citizen service.
Education: "Students may demon-
A handful of school districts in Pennsylva-
strate achievement of student learn-
nia have already implemented their own
ing outcomes through community
community service requirements.
service...
Briscoe says state officials are not consid-
The key difference between the
ering a volunteer program similar to the one.
Maryland requirement and Pennsyl-
adopted Wednesday by the Maryland
vania's outcomes is that Maryland
Department of Education.
will require a minimum of 75 hours
"We share their enthusiasm for the pro-
of service, while the graduation pro-
ject," he says. However, "we think that is a
ject in Pennsylvania may not
decision that should be made at the district
involve any volunteer work, he says.
level - not the state."
Overall, that way will take longer to incor-
Community service is just one of
porate. But Briscoe says "when you finally
several possible directions the stu-
get it, you get it better."
dent may take on that project.
PennSERVE, which provides technical
Briscoe says one aspect of the
assistance to anyone wishing to start volun-
learning outcomes system is to
teer community service programs, encour-
develop citizenship skills. Volunteer
ages school districts to participate in pro-
programs are "a promising way to
grams as part of the curriculum.
get those skills," he says.
Briscoe says eight school districts have
"We think it does fascinating
done just that.
things for students."
One of those schools is Elizabethtown
Area School District in Lancaster County.
Ms. Baker is not opposed to the
Marilyn Baker, assistant superintendent of
Maryland system, but says there are
the Elizabethtown schools, says the district
significant differences in the educa-
was one of the first in the state to start a
tional system set-up that suggest the
community service program in the class-
way state educational svstem.
rooms. The program was first presented in
the spring of 1988 and has been in place
Elizabethtown Area High School.
since the 1989-90 school year.
has a community services facilitator,
Beginning in kindergarten; each class par-
responsible for handling the paper-.
ticipates in a number of different projects
work and coordinating students with'
tied in with an overall theme, she says. The
different projects, she says.
kindergarten theme, for example, is commu-
nity beautification, where children plant
The "tremendous amount of paper-
bulbs.
work" generated by community ser-
Students at Elizabethtown must complete a
vice projects would be her biggest.
50-hour commitment beginning in 9th grade
concern with a state-mandate.
to earn one-half credit towards graduation.
"I don't know how Maryland is
Projects are incorporated into the classroom
going to do it" if they are recording.
as part of the regular curriculum.
work hours and coordinating the
The community service program also
projects.
includes a mandatory half-credit civics
course for seniors.
"The bottom line is community
Ms. Baker says the response from the
service is very important," Ms. Bak-
community has been tremendous. "We have
er says.
received lots of calls from businesses and
from different organizations," Ms. Baker
says. "There's no lack of service community
projects."
She says the students have also been
enthusiastic about the program. About 30
classmates spent a day this spring sprucing
up downtown Elizabethtown. She says the
students were not only very willing to help,
"they were willing to do more."
Although a few more states could follow
in Maryland's footsteps, Briscoe feels the
trend in education nationwide "is to get
away from state mandates" and develop an
outcomes-based system of learning.
See Service, A4
COMMUNITY SERVICE:
THE TROJAN HORSE OF SCHOOL REFORM
The Critique of Schools by
Potential Contribution of
the restructuring advocates:
School-Based Community
Service:
1. Students are too passive,
1. Community Service
too alienated, too bored.
learning is active &
student centered.
2. Teachers are talkers, fact
2. Teachers are coaches,
givers and information
leaders & expediters.
sources.
3. The curriculum is disjointed,
3. C/S is integrated,
fact oriented and abstract.
problem oriented,
action-centered &
concrete.
4. Schools are little connected
4. C/S provides career
to careers; school to work
exploration, mentoring
transition is not school's
opportunities.
responsibility.
5. Schools are increasingly
5. C/S creates new com-
isolated from communities;
munity relationships.
only 18% of PA's taxpayers
Schools as community
have children in the public
problem solvers they
schools.
qualify for additional
community support.
(Disk D Trojan. HO)
PennSERVE
February 1992
Service Learning: Student Outcomes
*At Overbrook High School in Philadelphia, the 120 most at-risk 9th
graders, when placed in a community service assignment for 3 hours per
week, improved their attendance from 70% to 89% and their passing grades
proportion from 70% to 85%.
*At Lincoln High School in Philadelphia, a low-achieving senior
English class which had one student expressing any interest in going to
college, placed 18 of 28 in college when they were made tutors of small
children three days a week.
*At Chestnut Ridge High School in rural Bedford County, the
"post-secondary education rate" went from 30% of all graduates to 80% of
all graduates in the 4 years during which community service has become
almost universal.
*At Keystone Oaks High School in suburban Pittsburgh, the drop-out
rate which had averaged 28 students per year for 10 years has dropped to
8 and 7 students in the past two years as a 120 hour community service
requirement has been implemented.
*At Reading High School's Project Success program for at-risk
students the Grade Point Average of the entire class went from 2.1 to
2.8 when community service was added to their program.
*At Steel Valley college going rates have improved from 65% to 85%
in the three years that community service has been made a graduation
requirement.
(Disc Feb 92 A:examples)
DRAFT
In The
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE THIRD CIRCUIT
No. 92-1359
BARBARA STEIRER, et al.,
Appellants,
vs.
THE BETHLEHEM AREA SCHOOL DISTRICT, et al.,
Appellees.
On Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania
(Daniel H. Huyett, 3rd, Judge)
BRIEF OF AMICUS CURIAE
PEOPLE FOR THE AMERICAN WAY
Barry E. Cohen
William D. Wallace
Stuart Woolman
CROWELL & MORING
1001 Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20004
(202) 624-2500
Attorneys for People for
the American Way,
Amicus Curiae
July 15, 1992
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
STATEMENT OF JURISDICTION
STATEMENT OF ISSUES
STATEMENT OF THE CASE
STATEMENT OF THE FACTS
STATEMENT OF RELATED CASES AND PROCEEDINGS
STANDARD OF REVIEW
SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT
ARGUMENT
I.
Community Service Contributes to Valid
Educational Objectives
II. The School Board Properly Exercised Its
Discretion To Incorporate Community Service
As a Component of its High School Curriculum
III. Conclusion
In The
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE THIRD CIRCUIT
No. 92-1359
BARBARA STEIRER, et al.,
Appellants,
vs.
THE BETHLEHEM AREA SCHOOL DISTRICT, et al.,
Appellees.
On Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania
(Daniel H. Huyett, 3rd, Judge)
BRIEF OF AMICUS CURIAE
PEOPLE FOR THE AMERICAN WAY
The People for the American Way, Amicus Curiae, by its
attorneys, files this brief in support of the Appellees, Bethlehem
Area School District, et al.
STATEMENT OF JURISDICTION
Amicus curiae People for the American Way adopts the
Statement of Jurisdiction in the Brief of Appellees.
- 2 -
STATEMENT OF ISSUES
1.
Whether a community service curriculum adopted by a
Pennsylvania school board, requiring students to spend
40 hours of the time on community service projects of
their own choosing, abridges the First Amendment rights
of certain students.
2. Whether a Pennsylvania school board community service
curriculum, requiring students to volunteer 60 hours of
service time to community service activities,
constitutes involuntary servitude in violation of the
Thirteen Amendment.
STATEMENT OF THE CASE
Amicus curiae People for the American Way adopts the
Statement of the Case in the Brief of Appellees.
STATEMENT OF THE FACTS
On April 30, 1990, the Bethlehem Area School District Board
of School Directors ("the Board") adopted a "Community Service
Program" as part of its high school curriculum. (App. 255-77.) 1/
The adoption of the Program was preceded by a year-long study
commissioned by the Board and conducted by professional educators
regarding the integration of community service programs into the
secondary school curriculum and the development of a specific
1/
References to the Appendix are designated by "App." and page
numbers.
- 3 -
program designed for use in the Bethlehem Area School District
("the District").
The Program requires each student to complete 60 hours of
community service over four years, allowing each student and his
or her parents to select the type of activity used to complete
this requirement. Students may thus perform the service within
existing community organizations and activities or design a
service to comport with their own goals and philosophy.
In adopting the Program, the Board members recognized that it
was consistent with the educational policies and goals and
community values which they are charged with promoting. (App.
255-65.) However, in genesis, development and implementation, the
objective of the program was primarily educational, as recognized
by Bethlehem Area School District Superintendent Thomas Dolusio:
"[T]he community service component of the high school
program of studies is a proper and beneficial
educational activity that is consistent with the overall
aims and objectives of public school education as those
aims are generally accepted in the educational
community." (App. 35.)
A.
The Community Service Program Was the Result of a Deliberate
and Well-Informed Curriculum Development Project
The idea for a community service program in the District
surfaced in June 1988, when Director McCarthy requested at school
budget hearings that grants be made available for community
service programs developed by individual teachers. (App. 263.)
At that time, the Board had learned through professional journals
about public schools which were developing community service
programs. (Id.) Also, a 1983 Carnegie Commission report by
- 4 -
Ernest Boyer, entitled "High School: Secondary Education in
America," brought community service to the attention of at least
some members of the Board. (App. 61-63, 256.) Moreover, in March
1989, school administrators had learned of a similar curriculum
instituted by the Atlanta, Georgia, School District. (App. 32.)
In the spring of 1989, the District commenced a year-long
study of the educational purpose and value of community service.
The issue of implementing community service was referred to the
High School Coordinating Council, 2/ which evaluates present and
proposed programs for the curriculum used in the District's two
high schools, and it was discussed during meetings of the Council
in each month from May 19, 1989 through February 16, 1990. (App.
31.)
Implementation of a community service program was also
considered by the Board's Standing Committee on Curriculum and
Programs during its Fall 1989 and Winter 1990 meetings. 3/
(App.
32.) The purpose of the Committee was to review curriculum,
review new programs, and propose policy and programs to the Board.
(Id.)
2/
The High School Coordinating Council is composed of the
District's Director of Secondary Education, the principals
and assistant principals of the two District high schools,
and representatives from the departmental supervisors at the
two high schools. (App. 31.)
3/
At this time, the Committee was composed of defendant/
appellees Huth, Pagano and Thompson, and the District's
Directors of Elementary, Secondary and Special Education,
Messrs. William Nelson, William Burkhardt and Basil Bly,
respectively. (App. 31-32.)
- 5 -
To refine a community service proposal, on January 24, 1990,
the Board created a "Community Service Task Force. 4/ (App. 33.)
The Task Force met four times between January and April 1990 to
assimilate the information which had been gathered by the Council
and Committee and to plan a course outline to be considered as
part of an overall revision of the high school curriculum at the
5/
April 30, 1990 meeting of the Board.
(App. 22.)
Information from various sources was considered by the
Council, Committee, Task Force and Board in developing the
District's Community Service Program ("the Program"). For
example, the Board sent the principal of Freedom High, Richard
Jay, and the assistant principal of Liberty High, Sandra Seidel,
to visit the Atlanta School District in December 1989. (Id.) Mr.
Jay and Ms. Seidel reviewed the Atlanta community service program,
and reported to Mr. Burkhardt, Director of Secondary Education,
and to the Task Force. (App. 32.)
The Task Force and Board also reviewed various published
materials pertaining to community service in the educational
4/
The task force was composed of Huth, Thompson, Pagano,
Burkhardt, and the following: Frances Bentkowski, assistant
principal, Freedom High; Judy Becker, parent; Robert Frey,
counselor, Liberty High; Julio Guridy, executive director,
Council of Spanish Speaking Organizations; Richard Jay,
principal, Freedom High; Joan Katz, counselor, Freedom High;
Dr. Eugene Mateff, Intermediate Unit #20; Donald Miles,
parent; Gary Olson, parent; Anthony Ruggiero, principal,
Liberty High; Priscilla Schueck, United Way Voluntary Action
Center; Sandra Seidel, assistant principal, Liberty High;
Anthony Villani, assistant principal, Freedom High; Phyllis
Walsh, teacher, Freedom High.
5/
Other curriculum changes in math, language and additional
credits for graduation were included in the curriculum
proposals considered by the Board at its April 30, 1990
meeting. (App. 255-56.)
- 6 -
process, including, for example, Conrad & Hedin, Youth Service: A
Guide Book for Developing and Operating Effective Programs, Conrad
& Hedin, High School Community Service: A Review of Research and
Programs, Shapiro, Assignment: Make a Difference, and Council of
Chief State School Officers, Community Service, Learning By Doing.
(App. 34-35.)
Development of the Program included discussions with
community service organizations and Commonwealth education
offices. For example, representatives of the United Way Voluntary
Action Center and Council of Spanish Speaking Organizations of
Lehigh Valley were consulted by Mr. Burkhardt. Mr. Burkhardt also
discussed the proposal with Dr. Eugene Mateff, Director of
Curriculum and Instructional Services for Intermediate Unit #20
and with Dr. Irvin Edgar of the Bureau of Curriculum and
Instruction of the Pennsylvania Department of Education. (App.
33.) At its April 9, 1990 meeting, the Board met with Dr. Joseph
Bard, Acting Commissioner for Basic Education, Pennsylvania
Department of Education, who informed the Board that it was within
the Board's jurisdiction to institute a community service program.
(App. 34.) These discussions, along with the opinion of the
district solicitor, were considered in adopting the program.
(App. 255.)
Public comment was also received on the Program. The Task
Force conducted two public meetings of students in April 1990 to
outline the proposal and receive their input. Three meetings to
explain the program and take comments were also held for the
general public on April 11, April 24, and April 25. (Id.) At
- 7 -
these meetings, the public expressed both positive and negative
comments on the proposal. 6/ The Board also received letters from
constituents of the District. (App. 255.) These public comments
were duly considered by the Board in its decision to institute the
proposal. (App. 255-56, 258, 260-61.)
The culmination of the Task Force's work was the presentation
of the Program to the Board at its April 30, 1990 meeting, with a
recommendation that it be adopted. In considering the proposal at
that time, the Board members were fully aware of the background
work of the Task Force and specifically recognized that the
proposal had been designed by educators with educational purposes.
(App. 255.) In addition, the Board recognized that institution of
the Program was consistent with the District's educational
policies. (App. 255-56, 258, 260-61.)
B. The Community Service Program Was Designed
to Promote Valid Educational Objectives
The Board is charged by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania with
the responsibility of directing the educational policy of the
District. [cite] In order to fulfill that responsibility, the
Board develops curriculum based upon input from its members, the
public, the superintendent, school administration, teachers and
parents. Ultimately, however, the Board must make policy
decisions on such matters as curriculum. (App. 260.)
6/
The record reflects no objection concerning the program from
either minor appellant or the adult appellants during the
public comment period.
- 8 -
On April 30, 1990, the individual Board members and the Board
as a whole recognized that one of the educational policies of the
District is to promote students' understanding of their place in
the communities in which they live and how their actions can
influence these communities. (App. 256-57, 259-60, 262.) The
Board members expressly recognized that the program was a learning
method -- a component of the educational curriculum -- which was
intended to improve the District's schools and reduce the number
of students not completing high school. (App. 260.)
The expressed educational objectives of the Program are
consistent with the policy of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to
promote public service. (App. 66.) This policy is reflected in
regulations recently adopted by the Pennsylvania Department of
Education which recognize that the curriculum of a quality school
helps students achieve the following goals in the area of
"citizenship":
Each student shall understand local, State and
United States history, geography, systems of
government and economics and their relationship to
the history, geography, systems of government and
economics of other countries in the world and
shall acquire and have opportunities to practice,
in the school and in the community, the skills and
attitudes necessary for active participation in
civic life.
Regulations of the State Board of Education of Pennsylvania, Annex
- 9 -
B, ch. 5 "Curriculum," § 5.201(d) (5) (May 2, 1992). 7/ (App. 45-
46.)
The Program and its objectives were also designed to be
consistent with recognized educational policy and theory. The
Program incorporates a number of educational objectives, including
not only teaching students about the communities in which they
live and the organizations and activities which make up those
communities but also improving students' maturity, self-esteem and
confidence, allowing students to explore new roles, identities and
interests, and assuming responsibility and the consequences of
their own action. (App. 23-24, 40.) Participation in the Program
was designed to develop the intellect of students by requiring
them to reflect on their experiences, communicate their opinions
in writing, and learn service-related skills. (App. 23-24.)
Experiential education, such as the Program, is recognized as
an important teaching method, in which students learn by acting,
observing the results of that action, and then formulating
conclusions. (App. 36). In the experience of District
administrators, education is best achieved through a combination
of experiential and classroom (i.e., information assimilation)
techniques in the curriculum. (Id.)
The Program encompasses both types of learning. Students
receive orientation to the Program and its objectives in a
7/
These regulations also provide that "[c]urriculum and
instruction in the high school program shall provide all
students opportunities to develop adult life roles, the
skills of analysis, synthesis, evaluation and problem-
solving, information literacy and significant knowledge in
one or more areas of concentrated study." Ibid., § 5.212(b).
- 10 -
classroom setting. Small groups of students discuss with
counselors the details of setting up community service activities.
Once on site, the student must experience the activity, and then
report on what he or she has learned as a result on the
"Experience Summary Form." (App. 38-39.)
C.
The Community Service Program in Operation Furthers
Legitimate Educational Objectives
The Program is designed "to help students acquire life skills
and learn about the significance of rendering service to their
communities.' (App. 182.) Under the program, high school
students in the District must perform 60 hours of approved
"community service" over the course of their four high school
years. Upon completion of the 60 hours, a student is awarded 0.5
credits for community service, which is required for graduation.
Students receive orientation to the program in both the
eighth and ninth grades. (App. 37, 184.) They are given a
comprehensive booklet and instruction sheet describing the program
and various activities which can be used to fulfill the community
service requirement. (App. 38.) Students are required to select
the activities in consultation with their parents and school
guidance counselors. Once the student has decided on an activity,
he or she must "apply" to the school and any organization involved
for acceptance of the proposal. (Id.) The student's guidance
counselor remains in contact with the student during the activity,
and may visit the student on-site to observe the activity and
speak with students in situ. (App. 39.)
- 11 -
The program incorporates a wide array of choices for
completing community service and provides "a great deal of freedom
in terms of developing programs that meet individual student
needs." (App. 259.) Students may propose to perform service with
recognized community organizations, a list of which is provided to
students. On the other hand, students have the option "to develop
their own individual community service experience" within
identified categories: arts, community special events, elderly,
emergency services, environment, handicapped, homeless, library/
historical research activities, recreation activities, and
tutoring. (App. 192.) These activities must meet the course
objectives outlined in the curriculum course guide, and be
approved by the student's parent, recommended by the school
counselor, and verified by a responsible adult. (Id.)
The only required features for approved activities, whether
through organizations or experiential, are that the student not
receive payment for the service and that the activity be completed
outside regular school hours. (App. 182-84.)
After the student has completed the proposed activity, he or
she fills out an "Experience Summary Form," which is reviewed by
the student's guidance counselor. (App. 39.) To complete this
form, the student must identify the place and time period for the
activity and his or her duties. Two open-ended questions are
asked: "What did you gain from this experience?" and "What did you
contribute?" (App. 187.) There are no "correct" answers, and the
student is free to respond to these questions in whatever manner
he or she feels is appropriate. (App. 3, 43.)
- 12 -
The requirements for completing the Program are primarily
procedural in nature. As recognized by Phyllis Walsh, Community
Service Coordinator for the District, students "are free to reach
whatever conclusions they wish, can express any opinion they
desire, and can even object to the aims and purposes of the
program and still pass the Community Service Program as long as
the perform the service required and follow the established
guidelines." (App. 24-25, 43.)
STATEMENT OF RELATED CASES AND PROCEEDINGS
Amicus curiae People for the American Way adopts the
Statement of Related Cases and Proceedings in the Brief of
Appellees.
STANDARD OF REVIEW
Amicus curiae People for the American Way adopts the Standard
of Review in the Brief of Appellees.
ARGUMENT
I.
Community Service Contributes to Valid Educational Objective
Plaintiffs contend that Bethlehem's community service
requirement is merely a thinly veiled means of indoctrinating the
student body with the philosophy of altruism. Furthermore,
according to plaintiffs, this process of indoctrination is not
benign, for the obligatory nature of the community service program
- 13 -
coerces them into participating in a "way of life" or a "civic
religion" to which they are deeply, philosophically opposed.
Whatever merit plaintiffs' philosophical opposition to
altruism may have, the criticism of Bethlehem's community service
program on that basis completely misses the mark. The community
service program has two primary goals: (1) the intellectual
development of the students, and (2) the preparation of students
for participation as citizens. Altruism is neither a stated goal,
nor a necessary consequence of the community service program.
A.
Community Service Facilitates the
Intellectual Development of Students
At first blush, the thesis that community service fosters the
cognitive growth of students seems controversial. It is difficult
to discern a direct connection between, let us say, a job working
in a local center for retired persons and the development of a
student's capacity to think abstractly and creatively. Yet the
critical literature is replete with statistical evidence and
examples which support just such a cause and effect relationship.
The thesis seems far less controversial when we remember that
learning is often most effective where a person is called on to
actually perform a task. Indeed, a recent set of studies show
that optimal learning occurs when the student is directly engaged
in and by an activity. Csikszentmihali, Mihaly and
Csikszentmihali, Isabella S., eds., Optimal Experience:
Psychological Studies of Flow in Consciousness, New York:
- 14 -
Cambridge University Press (1990). This is said to be especially
true of those activities in which reflection about the experience
informs the student's practice, those activities which require
active thinking, and those activities where the student is self-
motivated. Id. Such reflective, engaged and self-directed
learning helps to realize the natural goal of education: the
production of critical, curious thinkers who are intrinsically
interested in their work. The challenge to educators, therefore,
is to produce environments which promote this kind of learning.
The community service program provides just that kind of
environment. See Berliner and Benard, Community Service: Research
Support for the Development of Youth Power Programs, Far West
Laboratory for Educational Research and Development (1991);
Nathan and Kielsmeier, The Sleeping Giant of School Reform, Phi
Delta Kappan, June 1991 at 741. Unlike a class, where a student
is often the passive receiver of information which she may or may
not really understand, a job demands the student's active
engagement with a task. To do her job, the student must learn a
set of skills. To do her job, the student must think out the
means by which she is to accomplish her responsibilities. To do
her job, and to do it well, the student must learn to respond
creatively to novel situations. But richness of her educational
experience on the job may extend well beyond the concrete set of
job skills mastered, the powers of instrumental reasoning
developed, and the creative problem-solving abilities enhanced.
- 15 -
Studies show that students participating in community service
programs generally become more open-minded. See Conrad and Hedin,
High School Community Service: A Review of Research and Programs,
(December 1989) (Unpublished manuscript); Wilson, An Alternative
Community Based Secondary School Education Program and Student
Political Development (1974) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Southern California). The increased open-mindedness
is the result of jobs which often place the students in
environments where they are obligated to deal with individuals of
different ages and backgrounds. The exposure to adults who
possess a greater depth and breadth of experience will almost
invariably require the student to confront a range of issues far
broader than those with which she is concerned and confronted with
in school. Even a high school student with the broadest of vision
tends to benefit from such contact and engagement.
Studies also show that jobs effectively teach students how to
work cooperatively with others. See Harrison, Student Service:
The New Carnegie Unit, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement
of Teaching (1987). Whereas in school, a student will primarily
study individually and be tested individually -- and thus need
never learn how to cooperate with others -- almost all jobs
require a person to work with and for others in order to fulfill
her responsibilities.
The cooperative nature of community service jobs also tends to
result in a greater sense of personal competence. Id. On the
- 16 -
job, students must learn how to directly engage others. While in
the classroom, a student might not care enough about the subject
matter to ask a question or affirmatively state a position, the
responsibility of a job often compels a student to ask a colleague
how a certain aspect of the job can best be accomplished or to
tell a colleague that she thinks she has found a better way to
accomplish a task. In sum, the studies have shown that students
who have participated in community service programs demonstrate a
greater ability in "communicating effectively to groups, starting
conversations with strangers, persuading adults to take their
views seriously, making plans and organizing group activity." Id.
at 27.
Even after the assignment is completed, community service can
help nourish cognitive development in ways that traditional
academic curricula ignore. As the Csikszentmihali study
concluded, the most effective learning takes place when the
community service is followed by a period of disciplined
reflection on the experience. See Csikszentmihali and
Csikszentmihali, Optimal Experience: Psychological Studies of Flow
in Consciousness, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990; see
also Conrad and Hedin, "The Impact of Experiential Education on
Adolescent Development," Child and Youth Services, 4(3/4) 57-76
(1982); Rutter and Newmann, The Potential of Community Service to
Enhance Civic Responsibility, Social Education, 53(6), 371-374
(October 1989). Thus, many community service programs also
require discussion of or a written record of the student's
- 17 -
experience. This academic follow-up -- this time for students to
talk, write and think about their jobs and accomplishments --
"allows the servers to assimilate and synthesize the experience,
and later to test what they have learned in new situations."
Citizenship through Service, at 81. In addition, a structured
critical discussion and the concomitant "[r]eflection amplifies
not only the service experience, but also the education and work
experiences in the server's life." Id.
Finally, there is even evidence that some kinds of community
service actually improve math and verbal skills. See Conrad and
Hedin, High School Community Service: A Review of Research and
Programs, (December 1989) (unpublished manuscript). Researchers
have found this to be particularly true for peer tutoring and for
teaching younger students. Indeed, "using the technique of meta-
analysis, researchers have combined the findings of many tutoring
studies and have consistently found increases in reading and math
achievement scores, both on the part of the tutor and tutee." Id.
citing Hedin, "Students as Teachers: A Tool for Improving School
Climate and Productivity," Social Policy, at 42-47 (1987).
Admittedly, the improvement in reading and math scores tend to be
modest. However, curriculum and instruction changes rarely
produce dramatic results. That the gains attributed to tutoring
are consistently positive is sufficient to establish the value of
such community service programs.
- 18 -
B.
Community Service Prepares the Students
For Participation as Citizens
Public schools are clearly and legitimately charged with the
responsibility are creating future citizens. 8/ However, if
public
schools are to be the crucible within which citizens are forged,
they must possess means and programs adequate to the task.
At present, the public schools appear to be failing their
charges in this respect. Students are almost completely alienated
from the public institutions which mediate their lives. See
8/
The primary purpose for establishing universal, public school
education was the belief that it would provide students with the
knowledge, skills and desire necessary for active participation in
the civic affairs of our society. That raison d'etre remains.
In Pennsylvania -- as in states throughout the Union --
schools are charged with the responsibility of making certain
their students "acquire and have the opportunities to practice in
the school and in the community, the skill and attitudes necessary
for active participation in civic life." Regulations of the State
Board of Education of Pennsylvania, Annex B, ch. 5 "Curriculum, §
5.201 (d) (5) (May 2, 1992). The National Governors' Association
education panel has called on schools to provide "activities that
promote and demonstrate good citizenship." President Bush, in his
white paper entitled America 2000: An Education Strategy, says
that a principle aim of every school must be to "ensure that all
students learn to use their minds well, so that they may be
prepared for responsible citizenship."
This principle aim is also one long recognized by the Supreme
Court. See Ambach V. Norwick, 441 U.S. 68, 76 (1978) ; See also
Wisconsin V. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205, 213 (1972) Brown V. Board of
Education, 347 U.S. 483, 493 (1954). Indeed, the Court, in
recognizing the primacy of place which a public school education
has in preparing students for the duties of citizenship, has gone
so far as to say that
a State properly may regard all teachers as
having an obligation to promote civic virtues
and understanding in their classes, regardless
of the subject taught.
Ambach V. Norwick, 441 U.S. at 80.
- 19 -
Harrison, Student Service: The New Carnegie Unit, The Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (1987). Their
alienation from our collective political life manifests itself in
at least two ways: inwardness and ignorance.
According to a recent survey, this inwardness is reflected in
the fact that only 24% of high school age youth believe it is
important to be involved in their community's affairs.
Democracy's Next Generation: A Survey of Youth Values in America
Conducted for People For The American Way, (1989). This
politically inclined percentage compares rather unfavorably with
the 72% who believe that a successful career is important, the 57%
who believe that enjoying oneself and having a good time is
important, or the 51% who believe that making a lot of money is
important. A republic where 75% of the community shows little
interest in governing itself comes very close to being a republic
in name only.
Similarly, there seems little reason to think our schools are
anywhere near making good on their stated mandate of preparing
students to become informed citizens capable of self-government,
when 60% of surveyed youth say they know very little about how
government works. Id. This conclusion is reinforced when we read
that 57% of these same youth say they follow politics in the media
to a very limited extent and that 70% agree with the statement
that "politics and government seem so complicated that a person
like me can't really understand what's going on." Id.
- 20 -
Many educators believe that there are ways of combating this
mass apathy. According to the critical literature, one of the
most effective means of combating this apathy -- while at the same
time developing in students the virtues, sentiments, knowledge and
skills of good citizenship -- is community service.
Studies show that students participating in community service
programs showed measurable gains in social responsibility. See
Conrad and Hedin, "The Impact of Experiential Education on
Adolescent Development," Child and Youth Services, at 57-76
(1982); Hamilton and Fenzel, "The Impact of Volunteer Experience
on Adolescent Social Development," Journal of Adolescent Research,
at 65-80 (1988). According to this literature, the reasons
community service results in these gains in civic responsibility
are largely the same reasons that community service results in
intellectual development.
With community service, the student is directly and actively
engaged in and by her job. "Civic" responsibilities and duties
are not the mere abstractions which are rather passively fed in
the classroom. Instead, through her community service job, she
takes on these "civic" responsibilities for herself, and comes to
understand through felt experience the importance of participating
in and contributing to the life of her community.
- 21 -
Community service provides no guarantee that this generation
will ask what they can do for this country. However, it does
provide an opportunity for future citizens both to understand the
problems which face their communities and to experience the
rewards of contributing, in some way, to their solution.
II. The District's Community Service Program
Serves Bona Fide Educational Objective
The Court surely must begin its analysis of this case by
noting that it raises a challenge to a curriculum decision by a
local school board, charged by law with the responsibility for the
education of the children within its jurisdiction. Such matters
are "primarily the responsibility of parents, teachers and state
and local officials, and not federal judges." Hazelwood School
Dist. V. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 270, 273 (1988).
The appellee school board's decision is a legitimate exercise
of its educational authority.
The record establishes that the community service program was
adopted only after careful deliberation by the professional staff
of the school board. [Discuss further]
It is also quite apparent that community service furthers
legitimate educational objectives. As discussed above, noted
educators and educational organizations have concluded that
community service improves students' abilities to reason, to solve
problems to work with others, and to teach them about the
responsibilities of citizens in a free society.
Appellants seem to be of the view that school curricula must
be limited to the teaching of "objective" material, such as
- 22 -
mathematics, the physical sciences, and historical fact, and that
any attempt to include instruction on values is unconstitutional.
That proposition could not be more wrong. The Supreme Court has
acknowledged that "local school boards must be permitted 'to
establish and apply their curriculum in such a way as to transmit
community values,' and that "there is a legitimate and substantial
community interest in promoting respect for authority and
traditional values be they social, moral or political. Board of
Educ. V. Pico, 457 U.S. 862, 864 (1982). The role of schools in
providing instruction on "values" was recognized in Brown V. Board
of Education, 347 U.S. 483, 493 (1954) ("[Education] is a
principal instrument in awakening the child to cultural values
and in helping him to adjust normally to his environment.") and
Amback V. Norwick, 441 U.S. 75, 76 (1979) ("The importance of
public schools in the preparation of individuals for participation
as citizens, and in the preservation of the values on which our
society rests, long has been recognized by our decisions. ...").
Thus, the Court should conclude that the District's community
service program is a legitimate exercise of its authority to
determine educational curriculum.
II. APPELLEE'S COMMUNITY SERVICE PROGRAM
IMPLICATES NO FIRST AMENDMENT RIGHTS
It is impossible to locate any First Amendment implications
of the School Board's community service program. First, in no way
does the program prevent students from expressing their views on
community service or on any other subject. Students are free, for
example, to express their disagreement with the principle of
- 23 -
assisting others in the community, and they need not even express
an affirmative view of the District's community service program in
order to receive credit for their community service work.
(elaborate) In this respect, this case is unlike Tinker V. Des
Moines Independent Community School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969),
in which a school's prohibition on students' wearing of symbolic
black armbands was found to be unconstitutional. The Bethlehem
School District has taken no action restricting students'
expression, direct or symbolic.
Nor is the students' access to books or other forms of
expression being restricted, or are school publications, student
organizations, or other extra-curricular activities being
regulated in any way. No form of censorship whatever is imposed by
the community service program. Thus, the issues raised in
Hazelwood School District V. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 270 (1988) (some
censorship of school publication permitted so long as related to
legitimate educational concerns), and Board of Education V. Pico,
457 U.S. 853 (1982) (school board may not ban certain books from
school library), are not present here.
Finally, students are not being asked to accept (even
passively) or adopt the views of the school board on any
impermissible subject. Appellants rely heavily on West Virginia
V. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624 (1943), in arguing that such is not the
case. Barnette concerned a requirement of West Virginia schools
that students participate in
as part of a
civics program. The Supreme Court held that requiring the
- 24 -
symbolism-laden flag salute of students was an unconstitutional
infringement of their First Amendment rights.
No such activity is occurring in the Bethlehem area schools.
First, there is nothing symbolically expressive about the
activities the students are required to perform. Under the
school's community service program, students are required to
perform such tasks as assisting at the local animal shelter or Red
Cross office, working on a neighborhood clean-up project, [any
examples from the record?]. There is nothing expressive about the
activity.
In this respect, the analysis of the District Court is
correct, and should be adopted by this Court. [discuss further]
Second, the activity has no connection to religion, politics
or any other subject that government (including schools) may not
adopt or disseminate. Appellants characterize the community
service program as advocating "altruism", a moral concept which
students should not have forced upon then by the schools. Whether
or not the program advocates altruism, the appellants are squarely
wrong in contending that the teaching of such subjects as morals,
ethics, character and social values are not proper and lawful.
Brown V. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), the landmark
case declaring unconstitutional racially segregated school
systems, noted the importance of public education in "awakening a
child to cultural values." Id. at . [discuss other cases]
- 25 -
D.
The Community Service Program Does Not Violate the
Thirteenth Amendment's Prohibition of Involuntary Servitude
[We will likely adopt the School Board's arguments, and not
present a separate legal analysis.]
CONCLUSION
Since the adoption of a community service program by the
Bethlehem Area School District was a legitimate exercise of its
educational responsibilities, and since that program runs afoul of
no Constitutional prohibitions, this Court should affirm the
District Court's dismissal of this matter.
Respectfully submitted,
Barry E. Cohen
William D. Wallace
Stuart Woolman
09/04/96
16:40 FAX 617 623 4359
YOUTHBUILD USA
0
001
YOUTHBUILD COALITION
58 Day Street, P.O. Box 440322
Somerville, MA 02144
Tel: (617) 623-9900
Fax: (617) 623-4331
FAX COVER SHEET
To:
First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton
Fax No.:
202-456-6244
Tel. No.:
202-456-6266
From:
Dorothy Stoneman, Chairperson
Date:
September 3, 1996
Re:
copy of letter to President Clinton
No. of Pages, Including This Page:
Thank 400, Hillary, for your role
in This! It was critical and we're very a
M
Young People Want Real Jobs Rebuilding Our Communities
g:\dox\misc\fax.frm
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YOUTHBUILD USA
002
YOUTHBUILD COALITION
58 Day Street, P. O. Box 440322
Somerville, MA 02144
Tel: (617) 623-9900
Fax: (617) 623-4331
September 3, 1996
President William J. Clinton
The White House
1600 Pennsylvania Avenue
Washington, D.C. 20500
Dear President Clinton:
We are relieved and happy that your administration has responded to my letter of May
14th with a budget modification to Congress requesting a $40 million appropriation for
YouthBuild programs in FY'97 instead of the $20 million originally requested.
That your administration has shown the ability to make a minor, inconvenient, yet
important adjustment based on the merits of the case is profoundly reassuring.
As you know, the Senate appropriations subcommittee for HUD has now approved $40
million for YouthBuild in 97; the House has passed $20 million. It will be resolved in
conference in September. If the final outcome is $40 million, which is more likely to occur now
that you have taken a strong position in favor of it, the result should enable HUD to build a
solid foundation of effective YouthBuild programs across the nation.
In expressing my deepest appreciation, I am also speaking for the 519 member
organizations of the Coalition and the thousands of young adults who will directly benefit from
your action. We are all immensely encouraged. Thank you.
Sincerely yours,
Dorothy Stoneman
Chairperson
CC:
First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton
Senator John F. Kerry (D-MA)
Secretary Heary Cisncros (HUD)
Congressman Major Owens (D-NY)
Secretary Donna E. Shalala (DHHS)
Senator Carol Moselcy-Braun (D-IL)
Secretary Robert Reich (DOL)
Senator Paul Wellsrone (D-MN)
ASSC Secretary Tim Barnicle (DOL)
Mayor Ed Rendell, Philadelphia
ASSL Secretary Andrew Cuomo (HUD)
Mayor Kurt Schmoke. Baltimore
Asst. Secretary Peter Edelman (DHHS)
Susan Berresford (The Ford Foundation)
Bruce Katz (HUD)
Willis Bright (Lilly Endowment Inc.)
Roy Priest (HUD)
Young People Want Real Jobs Rebuilding Our Communities
PRINTED ON REGYCLED PAPER
09/04/96
16:40
FAX 617 623 4359
YOUTHBUILD USA
003
Eli Segal
M. Christine DeVita (DeWitt Wallace-Reader's Digest Fund)
Ray Uhalde (DOL)
Peter Golinark (The Rockefeller Foundation)
Harris Wofford (CNCS)
Jack Calhoun (National Crime Prevention Council)
Bart Harvey (The Enterprise Foundation)
Marian Wright Edclman (Children's Defense Fund)
Craig Howard (The James Irvine Foundation)
Pablo Eisenberg (Center for Community Change)
Ira Jackson (Bank of Boston)
Robert Greenstein (Center for Budget & Domestic Policy)
Shawn La France (The Commonwealth Fund)
Sam Halperin (American Youth Policy Forum)
Mary McCormick (The Fund for the City of NY)
Bud Kanitz (National Neighborhood Coalition)
Douglas Nelson (The Annie E. Casey Foundation)
George Knight (Neighborhood Reinvestment Corp.)
Laura Scher (Working Assets Foundation)
Roger Landrum (Youth Service America)
Adele Simmons (The John D. & Catherine T.
Kweise Mfume (NAACP)
MacArthur Foundation)
Marion Pines (Sar Levitan Employment Policy Group)
Ed Skloot (Surdan Foundation)
Jim Pitofsky (National Service Coalition)
William S. White (Charles Stewart Mott Foundation)
Hugh Price (Urban League)
Judith Gueron (Manpower Demonstration Research
Kathleen Selz (National Association of Service & Conservation
Corporation)
Corps.)
Andrew Hahn (Brandeis University)
Allen Zuckerman (National Youth Employment Coalition)
Raul Yzaguirre (National Council of La Raza)
YouthBuild Coalition member organizations
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