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Draper Engineering Award 2/20/90 [OA 6894]
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Draper Engineering Award 2/20/90 [OA 6894]
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Records of the White House Office of Speechwriting (George H. W. Bush Administration)
Speech Backup Chronological Files
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Originally Processed With FOIA(s):
FOIA Number:
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S
FOIA
MARKER
This is not a textual record. This is used as an
administrative marker by the George Bush Presidential
Library Staff.
Record Group/Collection:
George H.W. Bush Presidential Records
Collection/Office of Origin:
Speechwriting, White House Office of
Series:
Speech File Backup Files
Subseries:
Chron File, 1989-1993
OA/ID Number:
13705
Folder ID Number:
13705-009
Folder Title:
Draper Engineering Award 2/20/90 [OA 6894]
Stack:
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G
26
19
6
4
OF
U.S. Department of Energy
STATES
Assistant Secretary for
Congressional, Intergovernmental
BIOGRAPHY
and Public Affairs
Office of Public Liaison
Washington, D.C. 20585
JAMES D. WATKINS
202/586-4292
ADMIRAL, U.S. NAVY (RETIRED)
SECRETARY DESIGNATE
James David Watkins was born in California on March 7, 1927, and
claims the city of Pasadena as his home. A 1949 graduate of the U.S.
Naval Academy, he served on destroyers, cruisers and submarines, as
well as in various shore assignments, including three in personnel
management. Admiral Watkins' tours as a flag officer include Commander
of the Sixth Fleet; Vice Chief of Naval Operations; and Commander-in-
Chief of the Pacific Fleet. Admiral Watkins was selected by President
Reagan to become the 22nd Chief of Naval Operations on June 30, 1982.
He retired from that post June 30, 1986, and entered civilian life.
Admiral Watkins received his master's degree in mechanical engineering
in 1958, and is a graduate of the reactor engineering course at the
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. He was selected by Admiral Hyman G.
Rickover to enter the Navv nuclear-powered submarine program in-
1959 and subsequently completed his qualification as an Engineering
Officer of the Watch at the Navy's land-based reactor plant near
Schenectady, New York. Thereafter, he had many years of experience in
nuclear propulsion, including all aspects of bringing a new reactor
plant on line as commissioning Executive Officer of a nuclear-powered
submarine; Commanding Officer of a nuclear-powered submarine; and
Executive Officer of the world's first nuclear-powered cruiser, the
USS Long Beach.
In addition to assignments at sea aboard nuclear-powered vessels,
Admiral Watkins served ashore in a variety of assignments associated
directly with the selection, education and training of personnel as
well as the maintenance and operations of naval nuclear propulsion
plants.
The first of these was as assistant to Admiral Rickover for these same
matters for three and one-half years at his headquarters in Washington,
D.C., in the early 1960's. The second was as Director, Nuclear Power
Distribution Branch of the Office of the Chief of Naval Personnel. In
this capacity, Admiral Watkins was responsible to both the Navv and
the then Atomic Energy Commission for proper execution of the
stringent Navy personnel standards for maintenance of their
qualifications. Later, as Chief of Naval Personnel and Vice Chief of
Naval Operations, Admiral Watkins continued his leadership role as
principal advisor to the Chief of Naval Operations and Secretarv of
the Navy on safe and efficient operations of the Navy's nuclearpowered
fleet.
Finally, just prior to his assuming duties as Chief of Naval
Operations, Admiral Watkins developed and effected implementation of
the leadership transitional strategy from Admiral Rickover to his
successor. This included documentation of all proven policies and
- 2 -
procedures employed so successfully over the years and conversion of
them into Presidential Executive Order, and later into law. Extensive
coordination with selected House, Senate and Department of Energy
leaders was required.
While Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Watkins spoke out about
various national issues including the growth of international
terrorism, technology transfer, and the evolution of nuclear
deterrence from an offensive to a defensive strategy. For his
leadership efforts in these and other areas, Admiral Watkins was
awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Marymount College in
Arlington, Virginia, in August 1982; an honorarv Doctor of Science
degree in June 1983 from Dowling College, Long Island, New York; an
honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Catholic University, Washington,
D.C., in Mav 1985; and, in recognition of his technical expertise and
for fostering technological growth while Chief of Naval Operations,
Admiral Watkins received the Award for Creative Technology from
Polvtechnic Institute of New York in May 1985.
Admiral Watkins' military decorations include several Distinguished
Service and Legion of Merit medals, the Bronze Star with combat "V"
and other medals, and campaign and service ribbons. He has been
decorated by many foreign nations, including Brazil, Korea, Italy,
France, Spain, Japan, Pakistan and Sweden. He also was inducted as a
Knight of Malta, an international order of leading Catholic laymen
dedicated to humanitarian service, in June 1983.
Since retiring from naval service, Admiral Watkins has remained
actively involved in issues regarding America's youth, working for the
establishment of a national program for personal excellence. He has
served as a member of the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development,
the Math/Science Advisory Council of the National Executive Service
Corps, the Board of Directors of the National Center for Health
Education, the Board of Visitors of the New York Medical College, and
as consultant to both the Exxon Education Foundation and the Education
Commission of the States.
Admiral Watkins' energy-related board service has included membership
on the Board of Directors or Advisors of several firms: the
Philadelphia Electric Company; a biopharmaceutical company, VESTAR,
Inc.; SYNTEK Engineering & Computer Systems, Inc.; and the Ford
Aerospace Corporation. He has also served as a Trustee on the
Committee for Economic Development.
In October 1987, Admiral Watkins was appointed Chairman of the
Presidential Commission on the Human Immunodeficiencv Virus (AIDS)
Epidemic, and submitted the Commission's final report to the President
on June 24, 1988. For his work on this commission, he was awarded an
honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from the New York Medical College in
June 1988.
Admiral Watkins married Sheila Jo McKinney of San Diego, California,
in 1950. They have six children: Katherine Watkins Coopersmith,
Laura Jo Watkins Kauffman, Susan, Charles, James Jr and Edward.
Admiral and Mrs. Watkins have eight grandchildren.
February 1989
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
7
FACSIMILE TRANSMITTAL SHEET
NUMBER OF PAGES INCLUDING COVER
$2
DATE
TO Corrie Levondowski
FAX NUMBER 334-1563
OFFICE NUMBER
COMMENTS
FROM
Stephenie Blessey
FAX NUMBER
OFFICE NUMBER
NEWS
National Academy of Engineering
The National Academy of Engineering is a private organization
established in 1964. It shares in the responsibility given the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences under a congressional charter
granted in 1863 to advise the federal government on questions
of science and technology. This collaboration is implemented
primarily through the National Research Council. The National
Academy of Engineering also recognizes distinguished engi-
Date: September 28, 1988
neers, sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting na-
tional needs, and encourages education and research.
Contact: Gail Porter, (202) 334-2138
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20418
MAJOR NEW INTERNATIONAL PRIZE
ANNOUNCED BY ENGINEERING ACADEMY
EMBARGOED FOR RELEASE at 11 a.m. EDT Wednesday, September 28
WASHINGTON - - The establishment of a major new international award for
achievement in engineering and technology, consisting of a gold medal and $350,000
in prize money, was announced here today by Robert M. White, president of the
National Academy of Engineering (NAE).
Endowed by the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory of Cambridge, Mass., the
prize recognizes engineering and technology achievements "contributing to the
advancement of human welfare and freedom." According to White, the recipient of the
first Charles Stark Draper Prize will be announced in October 1989. The award will
subsequently be given biennially.
The award recipient will be selected by a committee appointed by the NAE
and chaired by Robert C. Seamans Jr., senior lecturer, department of aeronautics and
astronautics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Seamans is also former U.S.
Secretary of the Air Force, and former president of the NAE.
"This award is designed to focus worldwide attention on the critical role
that engineering and technology play in improving the quality of everyday life. Our
society tends to reward the discoverer of basic scientific principles but overlook
the engineer who puts that principle into practice in products and services that
yield societal and economic benefits," said White at a news conference.
(OVER)
-2-
"We hope that in years to come the Charles Stark Draper Prize will be just as well-
known and respected an award in engineering as the Nobel Prizes are today for
chemistry, physics, and medicine."
White also praised the Charles Stark Laboratory for endowing the award.
"It is fitting that this award has been established in honor of 'Doc' Draper," he
said. "Draper's life's work epitomized the kind of far-reaching innovation the new
award will recognize."
Charles Stark Draper developed the theory and invented and developed the
the technology of inertial guidance systems now universally used in aircraft,
submarines, missiles, and space vehicles. For example, the space shuttle Discovery
carries a computerized inertial guidance system that will automatically guide it to
the correct orbit above the Earth's surface after launch, and will direct the craft
safely back to Edwards Air Force Base when the mission is completed. Inertial
guidance systems use gyroscopes and accelerometers to determine a craft's position
in space without any outside reference points such as stars, landmarks, or radio
contacts.
Dr. Joseph V. Charyk, chairman of the board of Draper Laboratory said, "I
can only surmise, but believe Doc would take great pride in knowing an international
prize, recognizing engineering and technological achievements that contribute to the
advancement of human welfare and freedom, has been established in his name. It is
most fitting that he be so honored, and I'm sure that the people of Draper
Laboratory share a sense of pride in the creation of the Charles Stark Draper
Prize."
(MORE)
-3-
Nominations of candidates for the prize will be solicited from "members and
foreign associates of the NAE, National Academy of Sciences, Institute 00 Medicine;
members and foreign associates of academies of engineering worldwide; members of
recognized U.S. and international engineering societies; and other individuals
deemed eligible by the NAE."
Nomination materials describing the prize state that it may be given to any
living individual or group of individuals from any country for either a specific
engineering/technology achievement or for a body of work extending over a period of
years. Work within all engineering disciplines will be eligible.
A listing of the Draper Prize committee is attached.
#
#
#
EDITOR'S NOTE: A photographic print of the Draper Prize logo as shown on the front
cover of the press kit folder is available from the Office of News and Public
Information.
gp: A,C,G,S
CHARLES STARK DRAPER PRIZE COMMITTEE
Robert C. Seamans, Jr. (Chairman)
John W. Fisher
Senior Lecturer
Professor of Civil Engineering
Department of Aeronautics
and Director, ATLSS Engineering
and Astronautics
Research Center
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Fritz Engineering Laboratory
Lehigh University
Lew Allen, Jr.
Director
Allen E. Puckett
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Chairman Emeritus
California Institute of Technology
Hughes Aircraft Company
Erich Bloch
Simon Ramo
Director
Director Emeritus
National Science Foundation
TRW Inc.
Harvey Brooks
Daniel I. C. Wang
Professor of Technology
Professor of Biochemical Engineering
and Public Policy, Emeritus
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
John F. Kennedy School of Government
Harvard University
Alvin M. Weinberg
Distinguished Fellow
Solomon J. Buchsbaum
Institute for Energy Analysis
Executive Vice President
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Customer Systems
AT&T Bell Laboratories
Sheila E. Widnall
Abby Rockefeller Mauze Professor
Robert A. Charpie
of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Chairman
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cabot Corporation
Thomas E. Everhart
President
California Institute of Technology
ADVANCE COPY
Not For Public Release
Before
SEP 28 88 11 00 AM
OPENING STATEMENT
Robert M. White, President,
National Academy of Engineering
News Conference
Establishment of the Charles Stark Draper Prize
September 28, 1988
Good morning. I am pleased to announce this morning the establishment
of a major new award to recognize outstanding achievement in engineering and
technology development. The Charles Stark Draper Prize will be given on
alternate years and will include a gold medal and $350,000 in prize money,
making it the largest award in monetary terms of its kind exclusively for
engineering and technology achievement. The first award recipient will be
announced in October 1989, at the National Academy of Engineering's 25th
anniversary annual meeting.
The award is made possible by a generous endowment from the Charles
Stark Draper Laboratory in Cambridge, Mass. It is fitting that this award has
been established in honor of 'Doc' Draper. Draper's life's work epitomized the
kind of far-reaching innovation the new award will recognize. As a professor
of aeronautical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
director of the university's Instrumentation Laboratory, and later as head of
his own independent laboratory bearing his name, Draper pioneered
-2-
advanced technology for navigational guidance of aircraft, submarines,
missiles, and space vehicles. Derivatives of Draper's "inertial guidance
systems" are used in all modern sea, air, and space vehicles to determine a
craft's position in space without any outside reference points such as stars,
landmarks, or radio contacts. Draper was also responsible for development of
the guidance system that safely took the Apollo astronauts to the moon and
back.
The National Academy of Engineering has established the Charles Stark
Draper Prize as part of a larger program to increase public awareness of the
importance of engineering and technology. This award is designed to focus
worldwide attention on the critical role that engineering and technology play
in improving the quality of everyday life. Our society tends to reward the
discoverer of basic scientific principles, but overlook the engineer who puts
that principle into practice in products and services that yield societal and
economic benefits. We hope that in years to come the Charles Stark Draper
Prize will be just as well-known and respected an award in engineering as the
Nobel Prizes are today for chemistry, physics, and medicine.
We have asked our selection committee of NAE members to search the
world over for the individual or group of individuals from any nation who has
made the greatest engineering or technology achievements "contributing to the
advancement of human welfare and freedom." The committee will be chaired by
Robert C. Seamans, currently a senior lecturer with the department of
aeronautics and astronautics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
-3-
formerly U.S. Secretary of the Air Force, deputy administrator of NASA,
president of the NAE, and last but not least a student of 'Doc' Draper's.
Their task will be a difficult one, but, I suspect, quite rewarding,
for in the process of selecting an award recipient they will undoubtedly trace
the course of the greatest technological advances of modern times.
At this point my colleagues and I will be happy to answer any
questions you may have.
ACADEMY
OF
NATIONAL
ENGINEERING
Charles Stark Draper Prize
CHARLES S
THE
STARK
DRAPER
ORGANIZATIONS SOLICITED FOR NOMINATIONS
CHARLES STARK DRAPER
PRIZE COMMITTEE
ROBERT C. SEAMANS, JR.
(Chairman), Senior Lecturer,
Department of Aeronautics and
Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology
LEW ALLEN, JR.
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Director, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology
American Institute of Chemical Engineers
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers
ERICH BLOCH
Director, National Science
American Society of Civil Engineers
Foundation
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
HARVEY BROOKS
Argentinean National Academy of Engineering
Professor of Technology and Public
Policy, Emeritus, John F. Kennedy
Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering
School of Government, Harvard
Belgium Royal Academy of Sciences
University
Berlin Academy of Sciences
SOLOMON J. BUCHSBAUM
Canadian Academy of Engineering
Executive Vice President, Customer
Systems, AT&T Bell Laboratories
Danish Academy of Technical Sciences
Finnish Academies of Technology
ROBERT A. CHARPIE
Chairman, Cabot Corporation
French Academy of Sciences
THOMAS E. EVERHART
Hungarian Academy of Sciences
President, California Institute of
Indian Academy of Engineering
Technology
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
JOHN W. FISHER
Israel Institute of Technology
Professor of Civil Engineering and
Director, ATLSS Engineering
Japanese Academy of Engineering
Research Center, Fritz Engineering
Mexican Academy of Engineering
Laboratory, Lehigh University
Netherlands Forum of Engineers
ALLEN E. PUCKETT
Chairman Emeritus, Hughes Aircraft
Norwegian Academy of Technical Sciences
Company
People's Republic of China Academy of Sciences
SIMON RAMO
Polish Federation of Engineering
Director Emeritus, TRW Inc.
Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences
DANIEL I.C. WANG
Soviet Academy of Sciences
Professor of Biochemical
Engineering, Massachusetts Institute
Spanish Center for Technological Industrial Development
of Technology
Swiss Academy of Technical Sciences
ALVIN M. WEINBERG
United Kingdom Fellowship of Engineering
Distinguished Fellow, Institute for
U.S. National Academy of Engineering
Energy Analysis, Oak Ridge
Associated Universities
U.S. National Academy of Sciences
SHEILA E. WIDNALL
U.S. Institute of Medicine
Abby Rockefeller Mauze Professor
of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418 USA
Bush
Quayle
EXCERPTS OF REMARKS FOR
VICE PRESIDENT GEORGE BUSH
OHIO ASSOCIATION OF BROADCASTERS
COLUMBUS, OHIO
TUESDAY, OCTOBER 25, 1988
We have grown accustomec. in the political arena to speaking
in the language of economics. We talk of Gross National Product,
the consumer price index and the leading economic indicators.
The economists sift and tally their numbers and present us with
the facts of our economic existence.
But I want to talk today about another kind of economic
fact, one that is often over ooked by those numbers, but one that
is, in many ways, more fundarental.
Imagine a computer the ize of a room, shrunk down to a size
that will fit comfortably on your lap. Imagine today's
super-ccmputer shrunk down S1) that it fits on a single silicon
chip -- this is the kind of Gramatic improvment the experts now
predict This is the computer revolution -- the positive
explosion of productivity at the heart of our economy.
It is accelerating the rocess of discovery, of innovation
and charge and has helped give America, in these last eight
years, one of the most remar able periods of creativity our
economy has ever known.
But the fundamental poi it I want to make today is this --
these dramatic breakthroughs don't only effect silicon valley or
other high-tech centers, its effects are spreading throughout our
economy.
It is a mistake to segregate in one's mind "high tech" from
the rest: of our industrial base. In fact, one of the most
profounc: effects of this technological revolution is the
revitalization of our traditional industries -- not replacement,
but revitalization -- making cur products more competitive in
global markets. Technology is America's economic fountain of
youth.
We are in a new era of American industry, where the "service
sector" melds with the industrial sector to create modern
manufacturing. Americans are taking America's high-tech
advantage and putting it to work reshaping our factories to be
more competitive in the new information age. Some of the most
dramatic examples are right here in Ohio.
-more-
733 15th Street, N.W. Suite 800 Washington, D.C. 20005 202/842-1988
Paid for by Bush-Ousyle 88
INfoRmation only - do Not
E-1
Cite or quote
DRAFT
PRELIMINARY
1/31/90
National Academy of Engineering
18-Month Program Plan
January 1990-June 1991
Technology and the Environment Program
It is already clear that humankind's damage to the environment has become a critical
issue for all of us. The coming years will see a burgeoning of activities aimed at arresting
and reversing environmental degradation at the local, regional, national, and international
levels. The decisions that will be made and the actions that will be taken by governments,
industries, and individuals are likely to involve significant economic impact and sweeping
changes of our life-styles. A long-standing "paradox of technology" is that it can be both a
source of environmental damage and our best hope for repairing such damage today and
avoiding it in the future.
Following two years of examination of linked technological, environmental, and
economic issues, the Academy has made a new three-year program, "Technology and the
Environment," its top priority, reflecting the Academy's conviction that this issue is of the
utmost importance to society. The program focuses on three themes that underlie the
solutions to any of the widespread environmental problems we now face: technological
innovation, institutional and economic implications, and international incentives and
cooperation. The steering committee list appears as an item at the end of this preliminary
program plan.
The program recently received a grant of $450,000 from the Andrew W. Mellon
Foundation, and the staff is actively seeking additional private foundation funding. On
January 8, 1990, the new NAE Technology and the Environment (T&E) Steering
Committee, chaired by NAE President Robert M. White, met for the first time to plan an
integrated program that would draw on the particular strengths of the Academy and could
contribute substantially to public and private environmental strategic planning and
policymaking. From among a wide variety of potential first activities, the committee
selected five that could reasonably be initiated with the resources in hand during the first
12 to 18 months of the program.
1. A Technological Perspective on Urban Waste: A Systems Approach. The T&E Steering
Committee advocated a systems approach to environmental issues in general. Urban waste
was chosen as a case study to which such a systems approach could be applied. The waste
explosion in all its manifestations is a universal problem. In the United States the evidence
for declining environmental quality correlates with trends in production of solid waste (1/2
ton/capita/year in 1960 to an estimated 1 ton/capita/year in 1990). The purpose of the
proposed project is to examine urban waste systems in a way that links production activities
with the dispersive material flows to the environment from consumption activities. The
NAE project would focus on the following questions:
1
E-2
What consumption activities contribute most to waste, and which activities and
products mobilize and release the most toxic substances?
Are there alternative product and process technologies that can reduce both the
volume and the toxicity of waste?
What are the flows of materials through the production and consumption systems in
urbanized areas, and how can we better monitor or predict them?
How can the industrial metabolism (products and processes) and financial analysis
be harmonized to provide appropriate economic incentives associated with materials
flows and linked to environmental goals?
What kind of evidence would it take to compare production, product, and disposal
technologies and to analyze their environmental impact, paying special attention to
the systems effects (unintended and often unanticipated impacts) of technological
environmental solutions?
What is the potential of materials accounting as a way of measuring environmental
progress?
Assessing the urban waste problem in a broad social, economic, and technological
context, it is hoped, may lead to an appreciation of the complexity and possible strategies
for ameliorating the problem.
2. A Technology Assessment Study of Alternative Automotive Fuels. Despite two decades
of effort on the part of the federal government and the automobile industry to reduce
emissions from automobiles, air pollution in American cites has grown steadily worse.
About half of the U.S. population lives in areas that do not meet federal clean air
standards. Local problems in developed areas include carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen,
various hydrocarbons, and ozone. There is also growing awareness of the global effects of
automotive emissions. Transportation fuels yield about one-third of the air pollutants
responsible for the greenhouse effect.
Several alternative automotive fuels have been studied as possible substitutes for
gasoline (as it is now formulated), so that a large body of knowledge now exists on each of
the major proposed alternative fuels. Notwithstanding the extent of our knowledge, there
has been little progress toward implementing alternative fuel technology beyond small
demonstration projects. The topic remains both controversial and wrapped in uncertainty.
The consensus of the T&E Steering Committee was that the strength of the NAE as a
credible, impartial institution could be bought to bear to give policymakers an appropriately
comprehensive perspective on the issue as well as a solid technical basis for deliberations.
The proposed study would be a systematic assessment and comparison of leading alternative
automotive fuel technology. The goals are (1) to compare the advantages and
disadvantages of leading alternative fuels with respect to a common set of
criteria-including various key emissions, related environmental effects, energy efficiency,
infrastructure requirements, economic costs, and regulatory considerations-and (2) to
recommend a strategy for research, development, and implementation, taking into account
the total system needed to make use of alternative fuels.
3. Global Warming Policy Prescriptions and the World Energy System. Just as
technological decisions lead to environmental effects (frequently unanticipated), upcoming
environmental policy decisions will lead to possibly vast technological, social, and economic
impacts. What effects would different strategies for environmental amelioration have on
other national concerns such as industrial productivity, efficiency in the use of energy and
materials, and international competitiveness, and on international trade and relations? As
2
E-3
seen in the example of the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone
Layers, international agreements are being proposed and ratified ahead of the development
of the technologies and institutions which the success of such agreements depends.
Limiting emissions of carbon dioxide is the principal strategy now advocated to
ameliorate global warming. Various individual investigations have studied the implications
of this strategy for the nation's energy system. It is time for a technically qualified and
interdisciplinary body to address the issue. With this in mind, the NAE will undertake a
project to resolve some the confusion about the likely impacts of policies to reduce global
warming on the world energy system in relation to the time phasing of the implementation
of policies. The project will emphasize interdisciplinary examination of the topic in a broad
system context, bringing together economists, energy technology experts, and social scientists
as well as environmental science and policy experts. The goal is to provide decisionmakers
an accurate picture of current understanding of the far-reaching and subtle linkages
between their strategic planning on global warming and the changes that would be induced
in different nations' energy extraction, production, distribution, and consumption sectors.
4. The Economics, Politics, and Environmental Challenges in Technology Transfer to the
Third World. Perhaps the most striking new aspect of environmental issues is the
widespread recognition of their international nature. Global environmental awareness grows
apace with the already significant globalization of production, markets, technology, and
finance. The management of these concurrent changes poses complex and serious
economic, social, and political problems for many nations. The NAE, working with the
national academies of engineering of other nations through the international Council of
Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences, will investigate promising policy
options. Through involvement of industrial and academic leadership of many countries, the
NAE will seek to facilitate progress on environmental issues with global implications.
The NAE will conduct an international project to examine what industrialized nations
can do through aid, technology transfer, or trade negotiation to shift the technological
aspects of the economic development paths of third world countries to development paths
that are less environmentally damaging than those followed by the world's current
industrialized nations. The approach could be to examine the question broadly or to pick a
particular technological question. In this regard, the United Nations Environment Program
has offered to sponsor an activity aimed at encouraging and facilitating transfer of
chlorofluorocarbon-substitution technology to developing nations. An NAE workshop on
this topic could be an international forum for industry and government representatives to
develop ideas for exploiting appropriate and practical technology transfer opportunities and
other means of advancing the global elimination of environmentally harmful
chlorofluorocarbons.
5. Economic Incentives for Environmentally Compatible Innovation. A primary challenge
for the next decades in the United States is to integrate environmental considerations into
industrial design and production planning in a manner compatible with economic and
regulatory imperatives. Recently, the challenge to innovation for environmental quality has
been increased by the legitimate concerns of nations about maintaining or improving their
international competitive positions. How does engineering for environmentally sound
production and consumption affect the economics and competitiveness of an industry?
What is the ability of a system of market forces and institutions to provide incentives
internationally and to promote practices that lead to environmentally desirable outcomes?
As a first phase in its approach to these issues, the NAE will initiate a study of
barriers and incentives to environmentally sound innovation with a particular focus on
commercializing more environmentally compatible technologies. The purpose of this activity
3
E-4
will be to develop an agenda for industrial leaders and government policymakers to provide
economic incentives for adoption of process and product technologies that are more
environmentally benign?
Prospering in a Global Economy
Over the last two or three decades, advances in communications and transportation
technologies have changed the nature of the global economy. The degree of
interdependence allowed by inexpensive and effective transportation and communications is
unprecedented. U.S. businesses now have more than $1.2 trillion in assets abroad, and
about one-third of earnings by U.S. multinationals comes from overseas operations. A
recent complement to the expansion of U.S. direct investment abroad has been a virtual
flood of foreign investment into the United States since the mid-1970s. Today more than 3
million Americans work for foreign multinational corporations with affiliates in the United
States; in 1988 direct foreign investment in the U.S. totaled $328 billion, $2 billion more
than American direct investment abroad.
The ability to produce advanced goods in many nations, the trend toward globally
operated engineering and production, and the homogenization of many previously national
product markets have changed the nature of economic activity among industrialized nations.
This change has occurred in such a way that volumes of capital, goods, services,
components, people, data, and technological know-how flow across national boundaries as
part of everyday commerce. Just as technological advance is allowing increased
international economic interdependence, so international economic activity is driving
changes in the character of the global technological enterprise. In particular, economic
interdependence among industrialized nations has brought the technological activities of
corporations and governments into closer relationship than ever before, and sometimes into
conflict.
The rapid transfer of technology across national boundaries has aided this trend, as
have the research and scholarly exchanges among U.S. universities and foreign companies
and institutions. Indeed, major U.S. research universities have become a model of truly
international institutions-they are international educators, information exchange nodes, and
global research facilities. With campuses abroad, student exchange programs, and
philanthropic and research funding from both U.S.- and foreign-based multinationals, U.S.
universities play an important and growing role in the international flow of technological
know-how.
The emerging international integration of industries and research and educational
institutions poses new questions and issues for all nations. Although international
technology questions are somewhat familiar in Europe and in isolated trading nations such
as Japan, this is a new global reality for the United States. The U.S. policy structure is
not experienced in dealing with the issues raised by these new relationships among national
governments, universities, and multinational companies, especially as they affect the U.S.
engineering enterprise. To address these issues, the NAE has launched a major new three-
year program, "The Interdependence of Nations: Technology and Economics in Global
Relations," aimed at understanding how the United States might prosper in this new global
economy. The program recently received a three-year $600,000 grant from the Alfred P.
Sloan Foundation-to be matched by NAEF or other funds-for a minimum program size
of $1.2 million over three years; the Academy is actively seeking additional funding for the
program.
The initial project opportunities presented by this program were discussed by the
International Affairs Advisory Committee, the Technology and Society Advisory Committee,
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the Academic Advisory Board, members of the NAE committee on working on the
precursor project to this program "Engineering as an International Enterprise," and with
the on-site officers of the Academy. The three projects described below represent the
projects proposed to be initiated or completed in the first 12 to 14 months of the
program's operation.
6. Technology Policy Options in a Global Economy. The NAE will convene a committee
to consider the history, current practice, and future prospects for national policies to
encourage economic development through both direct and indirect government support of
technological advance. This study would be carried out by a committee of the National
Academy of Engineering, augmented when necessary by experts from other fields. The
study addresses a topic about which volumes have been written-some by previous NAE
committees-but the changing nature of the global economy raises new issues and calls for
new approaches.
Although the interests of companies (serving shareholders) and nations (serving citizens)
have never been perfectly coincident, there were, in the post World War II period in the
United States, few obvious breaks between the interests of U.S.-based multinationals and
U.S. citizens. They continue to share closely linked futures, but the increasingly
transnational nature of effectively competing U.S.-based multinational companies raises new
questions. As the technological capacity of a firm or industry becomes increasingly
transnational, it follows that the dependence of that particular firm or industry on any
single national engineering enterprise may diminish. With the gradual dissolution of the
long-standing special bond between the U.S. engineering enterprise and U.S. companies,
decisionmakers are recasting their views of the link between corporate and national
interests in, and responsibilities for, U.S. technological enterprise. Conversely the increasing
role of foreign-based multinational corporations in the U.S. economy, while generally
representing a positive contribution, also raises new questions for the U.S. technological
enterprise.
Corporations will do what they need to do to prosper, but can U.S. citizens (and their
agent, the U.S. government) continue to rely on large U.S. (and foreign) multinational
companies as the source of technological advance that will drive national as well as
corporate economic growth? Has the burden of developing a sufficient technological
infrastructure-a burden that used to be more evenly shared by firms and the public
sector-shifted subtly to governments (local, state, and federal)?
This is not an exclusively American dilemma. Corporate and national interests are
significantly changing in the economies of Western Europe, and even the intimate
partnership between Japanese government and industry i,s beginning to experience the
strains of globalization. Because globalization has intensified competition among nations
for increasingly mobile corporate resources, an important aspect of the challenge for
technology policy for the next millennium may be to make the United States an attractive
place for global corporations to do engineering and technology-intensive industrial activities.
Although it is unclear how the distribution of engineering activities will develop or be
affected by the actions of different governments, America's trading partners appear to be
better prepared to cope with these developments and to compete more effectively for the
increasingly mobile technological, managerial, and financial resources of transnational firms.
These are obviously sensitive political questions, and the study itself is not intended to
imply that corporate and national interests are now significantly at odds or mutually
exclusive. The question that should be asked, however, is whether this diversity of interests
requires new mechanisms to ensure that national concerns are recognized while
multinational economic enterprises prosper.
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7. The Role of Universities in Economic Development. Universities face a unique
challenge in the emerging global economy. Unlike companies that are established to
advance shareholder interests, or democratic governments established to represent citizens,
universities are established to serve both an ideal-the pursuit and dissemination of
knowledge-and an array of self-interested constituencies. U.S. land-grant colleges had
explicit charters for economic development, but during the post World War II period, U.S.
universities have become global intellectual utilities driving development and education not
just in the United States but worldwide. It is an approach wholly consistent both with
post-war U.S. government approaches to other nations and with the ideal of knowledge as
the common heritage of mankind.
As U.S. economic dominance has faded, however, the pressure has steadily increased
for universities, especially scientific and technical research universities, to contribute to
local, regional, national, and international economic development. At a regional level, every
state wants a "Silicon Valley," a "Route 128," or a Research Triangle Park supported in
part by local university-based technical talent. At a national level, government agencies
increasingly expect research grants to contribute to national competitiveness, and there are
congressional concerns about foreign firms' increasingly active use of U.S. university
research as a means of gaining free access to emerging technologies. In the next 10 years,
U.S. universities are likely to face increasingly searching examinations of purpose as more
and more members of their immediate constituencies ask who pays for, and who benefits
from, university research and education.
A major study on this topic is proposed as part of the total program but is not yet
funded. The topic was extensively discussed by the Academic Advisory Board of the NAE
during its January meeting, and, because of the timeliness of this topic, the NAE Program
Office will carry out an exploratory symposium in 1990 on the role of university research
and education in national economic development. The symposium and subsequent
publication will include industrial, academic, and federal and state government perspectives
on the topic with a special focus on ways and means for U.S. universities to chart a course
and continue to make an important economic contribution through the next 20 years of
global economic change.
8. Linking Technology Policy, Industrial Policy, and Trade Policy: A Comparative Study of
the Policies of Industrialized Nations. Governments encourage, aid, monitor, oversee,
regulate, and control the workings of private industry in the international economy through
trade policy, industrial policy, and technology policy in various ways and to differing
degrees. One foreign view of the U.S. government position toward industry notes that,
"America is the only nation among the advanced industrial countries that does not have a
Department of Industry which is responsible for industrial policy. Instead, the Department
of Commerce and USTR [U.S. Trade Representative] preside and their only real concern is
trade related matters and they criticize others for the failure of American industry" (from
The Japan That Can Say "No"-portion attributed to Akio Morita of Sony Corporation).
No transnational company is free of the limitations of its history, the legitimate laws
and regulations of countries in which it operates, and, in a grander sense, its place in the
development of the world economy. The U.S. economy, like the economies of other
industrialized nations is a product of both private decisions and government preferences,
regulations, and controls. In contrast to their Asian or most European competitors, U.S.
firms appear to be driven more by short-term profit maximization than by considerations of
market share or longer-term, know-how- based proprietary advantages. The reasons for
these apparent national variations in corporate behavior-and the performance of companies
in world markets attributed to these variations-are part management practice and
accounting procedures, part financial market regulations and shareholder preferences, and
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part government tax and fiscal policy, all combined with a host of other legal cultural,
institutional, and political influences. These influences, in combination with a nation's trade
policy-ad hoc or planned-and both implicit and explicit technology policy, significantly
influence competitive outcomes in world marketplaces.
The historical approach of U.S. policy is one that (a) largely downplays attention to the
structural composition of U.S. industry, (b) asserts that any (or most) government
technology targeting for commercial purposes is doomed to fail because of incompetence
and politics, and (c) holds that the only reason the United States deviates from the pure
principles of free international trade is because we are forced to by other nations less
enlightened than ourselves. It has become increasingly clear that this traditional U.S.
stance and the approach it engenders are virtually unique among the world's industrialized
countries. Unlike Japan, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, or Sweden, the United
States elects to eschew a coordinated national economic development effort centered on
technology development and diffusion, trade managed actively to promote the comparative
strengths of U.S.-based production, and government-sponsored mechanisms for developing
an industrial structure that can yield high value-added jobs for its citizens.
Right or wrong, the United States has taken a different path than its major trading
partners, and the NAE proposes to explore this difference in approaches with a special
focus on the degree to which U.S. technology policy (implicit and explicit) differs from the
technology policies of other countries in its linkages to national development and trade
strategies. The primary activity will be a small symposium involving experts-many from
outside the United States-to explain and explore how such linkages are made, both
informally and formally, in other industrialized nations. Although no comprehensive
attempt will be made to assess the effectiveness of such efforts, a successful symposium and
subsequent publication could serve as a benchmark for those interested in understanding
"how the Japanese organize to penetrate new high-technology markets" or "what limits the
ability of small U.S. high-tech companies to find other than British financing for their
expansion."
The Continuing Technology Agenda Program (major projects in FY 1991
budget)
9. Time Horizons and Technology Investments. An activity is under way to gather
evidence and sort out claims about the investment and planning time horizons of U.S.
businesses. The project has a special focus on the interaction of managerial decision
making and the overall financial and economic environment-cost of capital, financial
markets, mergers and acquisitions, changing company capital structures, and increasing debt
levels. Of particular concern are the allegations that the time horizons of U.S. businesses
are shortening relative to those of foreign-based competitors and that these shortened
horizons are creating a reluctance to invest in activities with slow payoff profiles, which are
necessary for firms to build advantage on the basis of advanced technology.
The project will focus on three questions. Do U.S. firms have inappropriately short
investment and decision-making horizons? If so, what are the primary contributing factors
and consequences? What, if any, private and public-sector actions can be taken to alleviate
the problem?The project will first examine methods to measure time horizons and their
variations in different industries and countries. The second portion of the research will be
to examine financial markets and managerial practices to determine the causes and
consequences of the differences in time horizons among firms.
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10. Foundations of Manufacturing Systems. The 1987 NAE-sponsored conference
"Design and Analysis of Integrated Manufacturing Systems: Status, Issues, and
Opportunities" pointed to a growing need to explore whether a manufacturing system
discipline can be created. A committee has been formed to identify likely elements of such
a discipline and will seek to interest experts, both educators and practitioners, in developing
position papers on this topic. The results of this project will be a report describing and
discussing the major intellectual elements of manufacturing system design, analysis, and
operation. If it does prove possible to create such a discipline, or elements of it, both the
practitioner and the educator should benefit-the practitioner by the development of generic
tools that would assist in analyzing, designing, and controlling systems, and the educator
because the teaching of generic tools and the representation of a systematic body of
knowledge would be of great value to the student. Elements of a discipline might include
agreement on definition of terms and the "basic laws" of manufacturing systems; a
taxonomy of manufacturing, including reference languages, data structure, and a
classification of functions; primitive descriptors for timing, control, scheduling, etc.; metrics
for common descriptors, such as flexibility, adaptability, and economies of scale; and the
design of processes. In addition, the discipline could explore basic theories for product
design, process design, and system optimization.
11. NRC Support (Projects executed outside the NAE Program Office but supported
wholly or in part by NAE funds)
Manufacturing Forum. It has been recognized that in the United States there is no means
for policymakers to communicate on such key issues as technology development and
utilization, incentives and disincentives for investment, strategic national plans as they relate
to U.S. manufacturing industries, current and future trends in the labor force, and long-
term educational needs and opportunities for the manufacturing sector. In March 1988 the
Academies held a workshop under the chairmanship of Morris Tanenbaum (NAE) of
AT&T to explore means by which policymakers from government, industry, and universities
can meet to discuss these issues that influence the competitiveness of manufacturing
industries. As a result, a Manufacturing Forum is being formed under the chairmanship of
Dr. Ruben Mettler, former chairman and CEO of TRW, Inc. The Forum, a joint project
of the National Academy of Engineering and the National Academy of Sciences, is
supported by the National Science Foundation and the Office of Science and Technology
Policy. The Forum will operate for at least two years.
New Directions in Catalysis Science and Technology. Catalysts are the engines of U.S.
industries that manufacture chemicals, refine petroleum, produce polymers and fibers, and
use precisely controlled chemical reactions for environmental control of pollutants.
Although the United States has led the development of catalysis science and technology
since the late 1940s, in recent years this leadership has come under an increasingly
aggressive challenge from researchers in Western Europe and Japan. The NAE, in its
continuing examination of competitiveness of U.S. industries and in support of its
Technology and Environment program, is providing the NRC's Board on Chemical Sciences
and Technology with partial support for its project "New Directions in Catalysis Science
and Technology." A committee of the Board will prepare a substantive examination of
catalysis research frontiers to focus attention on new directions in the field and serve as a
brief guide to promising research opportunities for an audience of researchers in formative
stages of their careers, scientists and engineers in related research areas, and research
managers in industry and government. A high-visibility short report is planned for
publication within one year of the project's full funding.
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Committee on Women in Science and Engineering. It is widely agreed that, to a greater
extent than for men, women with the potential to be excellent scientists and engineers have
not been recruited and educated for this purpose. This, along with a new concern about
the possibility of serious skill shortages in the future, led the National Research Council to
organize a Planning Group to Assess Initiatives for Increasing the Participation of Women
in Scientific and Engineering Careers. In 1988 this group recommended the establishment
of a Committee on Women in Science and Engineering with the goal of increasing
representation of women in scientific and engineering careers. The NAE will provide the
NRC's Office of Scientific and Engineering Personnel (OSEP) with partial support for this
committee's three-year effort contingent on OSEP obtaining an additional commitment of
funds from other sources. The committee is composed of individuals representing the
diversity among the scientific and engineering disciplines and includes educators, employers
of scientists and engineers, and researchers of the status of women in science and
engineering. The committee will act as a resource, information clearinghouse, and catalytic
agent to encourage better understanding of the issues and to promote unified, structured
interventions, research, and data-sharing. It is expected that these activities will result in
the publication of information based on the committee's data-collection activities, workshop
and symposia proceedings, and analytical studies. This information would be disseminated
to sponsors and members of the scientific community, decisionmakers, and program
managers in government, industry, and academe; researchers; employers; and others
interested in the issues.
Other NRC Projects for Potential NAE Funding (capstone money or total funding only).
Engineering and the Law (CETS project initiated with a workshop held at the
behest of the NAE; submitted for approval by NRC Governing Board Executive
Committee on November 15, 1989)
Bioprocess, Engineering: Research Priorities and Policy Options (Commission on
Life Sciences project; approval by NRC Governing Board Executive Committee on
July 11, 1989)
Competitive Status of Electrical Apparatus Equipment Industry (CETS project
initiated at the behest of several NAE members; approved by NRC Governing
Board Executive Committee on April 7, 1989)
International Intellectual Property Protection (OIA project, exploratory funding
provided by NAE; full study project approved by NRC Governing Board Executive
Committee on September 14, 1988)
12. Engineering as a Social Enterprise (1990 Annual meeting technical session). The
1990 Annual Meeting Technical Session symposium concluding the 25th anniversary year of
the Academy explores the ways in which technology and society form inseparable elements
in a complex sociotechnical system. Each influences and constrains the other in both
obvious and subtle ways. In the short term, technology often appears to be in the driver's
seat-engineers and nonengineers alike tend unthinkingly to see technology as the main
determinant of social change. For the longer term, the influence of society on technology
is, in fact, at least equally crucial. In the end, social judgment, as much as technical
performance, determines what counts as successful engineering. If this is true engineers, as
well as nonengineers, need to gain a better understanding of engineering as a sociotechnical
enterprise. Symposium participants should come away with an increased appreciation of
how society influences technological choice and how the engineering community can be
more aware of the society it serves.
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The Continuing Technology Agenda Program (projects to be completed in
FY 1990)
1. Engineering as an International Enterprise. The project focuses on international
technological interdependence and its implications for sustaining national technological
competence. The 18-month project culminated in a symposium at the Beckman Center on
4-5 December 1989; a report will be published in early 1990. The study addresses three
basic types of questions. The first of these relates to scope, rate of change, and composition
of global sourcing of engineering activities. The second set of questions focuses on causes
of global sourcing, how they differ from one industry to the next, and how they have
changed over time. Finally, there are questions that address implications of global sourcing
for U.S. engineering capabilities as well as for U.S. economic growth. This work involves
documenting and analyzing trends toward global sourcing of engineering talent, with the
goal of providing U.S. policymakers and the U.S. engineering community with insight into
them. possible alternative futures for the U.S. engineering enterprise and strategies for achieving
2. Profiting from Innovation: Commercialization of New Technologies. Commercial
application of technological advance is fraught with challenges and problems, both inside a
company working to bring a new product to market and in the interactions the company
has with its suppliers, product users, and competitors. With the intent of enhancing the
commercialization process, the NAE will examine these challenges in order to assist U.S.
companies establish market positions and achieve an adequate return on investment. The
activity will conclude with a report offered for comment and discussion among the U.S.
business leaders, with the ultimate aim of dissemination to business leaders, decisionmakers,
the business press, and students of technology management. More specifically, this study
addresses the following questions, among others: (1) Why are many inventive contributions
not brought to commercial success by the inventor, or within the inventor's own company,
and sometimes not within the inventor's own country? (2) How can the needs, values, and
preferences of the ultimate users of new products be perceived and incorporated in the
process of product development? (3) Once the need for a product has been identified,
how are the decisions made about the technology that will be included in the product that
is considered to meet the need? (4) How can product adaptation to meet the requirement
of different categories of buyers with varied performance and price criteria be planned and
managed?
3. Human Resources and Adoption of Workplace Technologies. One of the major
strategies used by manufacturing and service firms to increase productivity and improve
quality has been the implementation of new workplace technologies. Frequently, however,
the results have been less than satisfactory, and as a result, managers, policymakers, and
scholars are now paying increasing attention to the organizational and human factors that
facilitate or constrain the adoption and implementation of new technologies. Organizations
faced with new technological frontiers must balance factors such as hiring decisions,
training, and incentives in an attempt to establish a basis for operation in a changed, more
competitive environment.
This interdisciplinary project is being conducted jointly with the Commission on
Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education (CBASSE) of the National Research Council.
Reports will be published based on a symposiumentitled "Designing for Technological
Change: People in the Process," held 13-14 March 1989 at the Beckman Center. The
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symposium and related activities have explored three specific technology areas-automated
manufacturing technologies, office automation, and medical technologies. The objective of
the activity ts to provide insights on how social science findings can be converted into
prescriptive guidelines for technologists and managers. Another outcome may be the
development of an agenda of issues requiring further research.
4. Fostering Flexibility in the Engineering Work Force. Early in 1989, the Education
Advisory Board of the NAE identified the adaptability of the engineering work force-i.e.,
the ability to transfer a given set of engineering skills among engineering fields and
activities, between engineering and nonengineering fields and activities, and among sectors
of the economy-as an issue with important implications for the United States' ability to
exercise technological leadership and to compete effectively in international markets. The
NAE asked the National Research Council's Office of Scientific and Engineering Personnel
to conduct a study of what is known, and what needs to be known, about adaptability
among the engineering work force in the United States, as a prerequisite to understanding
what policy mechanisms may be needed, and what action might be taken to enhance the
adaptability of the U.S. engineering work force. OSEP convened a steering committee of
engineers and scientists from industry, academe, and the professional engineering societies
and conducted a workshop on 29 September 1989 to explore the issue. The committee's
principal conclusions will appear in the final report (currently in press) to the NAE.
5. Engineering, Engineers, and Engineering Education in 21st Century. Early in 1989, the
Directorate for Science and Engineering Education (DSEE) of the National Science
Foundation (NSF) requested the NAE to provide guidance to the NSF on the evolving
character of engineering work, its effect on the characteristics of engineers who do the
work, and its effect on engineering education.
In response to the request, the NAE convened a workshop (supported by a grant from
the NSF) on 19-20 December 1989 to elicit the ideas of 18 experts from a variety of
fields--engineering, industry, education, government, etc.--on what engineering and engineers
might be like as they evolve in the next century. Bold new insights were sought, without
presumptive assessments of the ideas and without an expectation of consensus. The
resulting collection of views will be submitted to the NSF in the form of a letter report, to
be used to obtain reactions and stimulate discussions in the wider professional community.
11
TRANSFER SHEET
BUSH PRESIDENTIAL MATERIALS PROJECT
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JAck S. Kilby - DRAPeR ENgiNeeRiNg AWARD
Photograph
Robert N. Noyce - DRAPeR ENgiNeeRiNg AWARD
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many A. Fruch
NEWS From National Academy of Engineering
The National Academy of Engineering is a private organization es-
tablished in 1964. It shares in the responsibility given the National
Academy of Sciences under a congressional charter granted in 1863
to advise the federal government on questions of science and tech-
nology. This collaboration is implemented primarily through the Na-
tional Research Council. The National Academy of Engineering also
Date: Oct. 3, 1989
recognizes distinguished engineers, sponsors engineering programs
aimed at meeting national needs, and encourages education and
Contact: Stephen Kay, (202) 835-8843
research.
or Gail Porter (202) 334-2138
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20418
CREATORS OF INTEGRATED CIRCUIT RECEIVE
WORLD'S TOP ENGINEERING AWARD
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
WASHINGTON The National Academy of Engineering (NAE) has awarded the
first international Charles Stark Draper Prize to Jack S. Kilby and Robert N.
Noyce. Each will receive a gold medal and the two will share the $350,000
cash award the largest prize in the world given exclusively for engineering
achievement. The two will receive their award at a ceremony in Washington,
D.C., in February.
Kilby and Noyce are recognized by the scientific and engineering
community as independent co-inventors of the monolithic (meaning formed from a
single crystal) integrated circuit, better known as the semiconductor
microchip. The NAE is honoring them as well for their separate work in
bringing the integrated circuit into successful commercial production and
application in commercial products.
Kilby is an independent consultant in Dallas and chief technical officer
for the Houston Area Research Center. He is also a former assistant vice
president for Texas Instruments. Noyce is the current president and chief
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NAE
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executive officer of Sematech in Austin, Texas, as well as co-founder of
Fairchild Semiconductor and the Intel Corp.
"Very few things have changed the world as dramatically as the
integrated circuit," said Robert M. White, president of the National Academy
of Engineering. "The development of the integrated circuit was the single
most important event that helped usher in the Information Age. Like the
invention of the telephone, the light bulb, or the automobile, the creation
and widespread practical application of the integrated circuit has
fundamentally changed our lives -- transforming computation, communications,
manufacturing, and transportation and giving birth to a host of entirely new
industries and services. The Academy is honored to present Jack Kilby and Bob
Noyce with the first Charles Stark Draper Prize."
The Draper Prize was established by the NAE in 1988 and is endowed by
the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory Inc. of Cambridge, Mass. Charles Draper
- - "Doc" to his friends and associates -- was the father of modern inertial
navigation systems. He conceived the basic idea of combining gyroscopes with
an accelerometer to provide precise course corrections for long-distance
navigation. He then converted this idea into practical systems now
universally used in aircraft, space vehicles, strategic missiles, and
submarines. Draper also developed the sophisticated navigational system that
landed the Apollo astronauts on the moon and returned them safely to earth.
The Draper Prize, to be awarded every two years, honors individuals who
have contributed significantly to the advancement of engineering and whose
achievements have produced important benefits to the "well-being and freedom
of all humanity." This year's recipients were chosen by a 13-member committee
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of prominent engineers from industry, government, and academe. Robert C.
Seamans Jr., senior lecturer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
chaired the committee. A complete list of members is attached.
"We believe," said White, "that the Draper Prize will focus world
attention on the important contributions of engineers in the same way that the
Nobel Prize now focuses attention on the accomplishments of scientists."
Despite his many previous awards, Noyce said that receiving the Draper
Prize is particularly special for him because "it is given by a prestigious
body in the name of a man for whom I had a great deal of respect."
Thirty years after the integrated circuit was developed by Kilby and
Noyce, the ubiquitous integrated circuit is an essential component in items
ranging from consumer goods to manufacturing equipment to medical imaging
devices (such as the CAT scan) to automated bank tellers. Hand-held
calculators, digital watches, automatic cameras, videocassette recorders,
compact discs, and facsimile machines are among the multitude of everyday
products that depend on integrated circuits.
The invention of the integrated circuit in the late 1950s represented an
enormous improvement in capability for storing and manipulating information in
a very small space. Prior to the advent of the integrated circuit, electronic
products such as computers were made with miniaturized, discrete components
such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors. Depending on the electronic
function being performed, the manufacture of these products required that
thousands of electrical components be individually interconnected with wire
and solder.
Integrated circuits, by contrast, are constructed on a solid piece of
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silicon crystal. Through techniques that incorporate photographic processes
and principles similar to those used in silk screening or lithography,
hundreds of thousands of electronic components may be constructed and
interconnected simultaneously in a space the size of a newborn's fingernail.
The variety of electronic functions previously achieved through individual
components is accomplished instead by creating a kind of bumpy silicon
"sandwich," in which different layers and regions of the material have
different electrical properties.
The small size, low cost, high reliability, and vastly increased speed
of integrated circuits allowed engineers to create an array of new products.
Production of personal computers, for example, would be impossible with the
old technology. Since Kilby's and Noyce's pioneering work, the information-
processing capacity of a single integrated circuit "chip" has doubled about
every three years -- a rate of improvement in performance that is
unprecedented for any other type of technology.
"When I started in electronics," commented Kilby, "all equipment was
built with vacuum tubes. The transistor had not yet been invented. I don't
think anyone would have thought at that time in terms of the revolution that's
come about."
Kilby and Noyce were also responsible for the commercial success and
expansion of the integrated circuit within the electronics industry. Jack
Kilby led the development of the first computer that used integrated circuits
and that of a family of integrated circuits for the improved Minuteman
missile, the first military system to use integrated circuits. He also co-
invented the hand-held, solid-state calculator and invented the semiconductor
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gate array. His efforts helped to establish Texas Instruments as one of the
world's largest manufacturers of integrated circuits.
Noyce co-founded Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957, which provided
integrated circuits to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration for
the on-board computer of the Gemini space capsule, one of the company's first
sales of the new technology. In 1968, he co-founded Intel Corp., the first
company to produce high-density memory components and microprocessors. These
developments led to the present far-reaching applications and accessibility of
the personal computer.
Both Kilby and Noyce have received additional honors for their
inventions. They were named as joint recipients of the Franklin Institute's
Ballantine Medal in 1967 and the Cledo Brunetti Award of the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers in 1978. Kilby received the National
Medal of Science in 1969, and in 1982 was inducted into the National Inventors
Hall of Fame of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. A year later, Noyce was
also inducted into the Patent Office's Hall of Fame. Noyce also received the
National Medal of Science in 1979 and the National Medal of Technology in
1987. Both are members of the National Academy of Engineering.
Kilby became an independent consultant in 1970 following a 12-year
career at Texas Instruments. He currently lives in Dallas, Texas.
In 1988 Noyce was named president and chief executive officer of
Sematech in Austin, Texas, where he currently resides. He served Intel as
president from 1968 to 1975, as chairman of the board from 1975 to 1979, and
as vice chairman from 1979 to the present.
The NAE is a nonprofit organization comprising approximately 1,500
(OVER)
- 6 -
members representing all engineering disciplines. Founded in 1964, it advises
the federal government on issues in engineering and technology, sponsors
engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, and promotes the public
understanding of the important role engineering and technology play in
everyday life.
#
#
#
jt/gp: 1,3,7,8,12,S
CHARLES STARK DRAPER PRIZE COMMITTEE
ROBERT C. SEAMANS, JR. (Chair)
Senior Lecturer, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
LEW ALLEN, JR.
Director, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
California Institute of Technology
ERICH BLOCH
Director
National Science Foundation
HARVEY BROOKS
Professor of Technology and Public Policy, Emeritus
John F. Kennedy School of Government
Harvard University
SOLOMON J. BUCHSBAUM
Executive Vice President, Customer Systems
AT&T Bell Laboratories
ROBERT A. CHARPIE
Retired Chairman
Cabot Corporation
THOMAS E. EVERHART
President
California Institute of Technology
JOHN W. FISHER
Professor of Civil Engineering and
Director, ATLSS Engineering Research Center
Fritz Engineering Laboratory
Lehigh University
ALLEN E. PUCKETT
Chairman Emeritus
Hughes Aircraft Company
SIMON RAMO
Retired Director Emeritus
TRW Inc.
DANIEL I. C. WANG
The Chevron Professor of Chemical Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
ALVIN M. WEINBERG
Distinguished Fellow, Institute for Energy Analysis
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
SHEILA E. WIDNALL
Abby Rockefeller Mauze Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
JACK S. KILBY
BIOGRAPHY
Jack S. Kilby, co-inventor of the integrated circuit, was born in Jefferson City,
Mo., in 1923. He is currently an independent consultant in Dallas and chief technical
officer for the Houston Area Research Center.
Kilby graduated from the University of Illinois in 1947 with a bachelor's degree
in electrical engineering, and in 1950 received a master of science degree in electrical
engineering from the University of Wisconsin.
After designing small electronic parts for Centralab in Milwaukee, Wis., Kilby
joined Texas Instruments Incorporated in 1958, where he set out to devise a solid-
state instrument that could make electronics simpler, faster, and more reliable.
His work culminated in the successful operation of the integrated circuit.
Kilby retired from Texas Instruments in 1970. Since then, he has served as a
consultant on integrated circuits and semiconductors for a variety of firms. In 1982
he was elected chairman of the Department of Defense Advisory Group on Electron
Devices (AGED). Affiliated with AGED since 1966, Kilby has given counsel to
several U.S. defense organizations.
In addition to his nearly 60 U.S. patents, Kilby has received numerous awards,
including the Ballantine Medal from the Franklin Institute and the Cledo Brunetti
Award of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), both of which
he shared with Robert Noyce. He received the National Medal of Science in 1969,
and in 1982 was inducted into the U.S. Patent Office's National Inventors Hall of
Fame. Other honors include the IEEE's Sarnoff Medal; the Zworykin Medal from
the National Academy of Engineering; the Medal of Honor from the IEEE, and the
Holley Medal of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Further recognition
of his accomplishments in engineering, technology, and the sciences include the
Alumni Honor Award from the University of Illinois's College of Engineering, the
Alumni Achievement Award from the same institution, and membership in the
National Academy of Engineering.
ROBERT N. NOYCE
BIOGRAPHY
Robert N. Noyce, co-inventor of the integrated circuit, was born in Burlington,
Iowa, in 1927. President and chief executive officer of Sematech in Austin, Texas,
since 1988, he is also vice chairman of Intel Corporation, a firm he co-founded.
Noyce graduated from Grinnell College in 1949 with a bachelor's degree in
physics and mathematics and a membership in Phi Beta Kappa. He earned his
doctorate in physical electronics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1953.
Following college, Dr. Noyce engaged in research at Philco Corporation and
Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory. He co-founded Fairchild Semiconductor
Corporation in 1957. In 1968, Noyce co-founded Intel with long-time associate
Gordon E. Moore with the objective of making large-scale integration a practical
reality. Today the company is the nation's third-largest semiconductor producer.
Noyce was a founding member and the first president of the Semiconductor
Industry Association. He also was a member of the President's Committee on
Industrial Competitiveness and the Defense Science Board.
Noyce holds 16 patents for semiconductor devices, methods, and structures. He
and Jack Kilby have jointly received the Ballantine Medal of the Franklin Institute
and the Cledo Brunetti Award of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE). He and Gordon Moore have received the Harry Goode Award for
leadership in computer science from the American Federation of Information
Processing Societies, Inc. Dr. Noyce was awarded the National Medal of Science in
1979 and and the National Medal of Technology in 1987. He has also received the
Medal of Honor from the IEEE and the Faraday Award from the Institute of
Electrical Engineers (Great Britain). He is a member of the National Academy of
Engineering, the National Academy of Sciences, the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, and is an IEEE Fellow. Dr. Noyce has been inducted into both the U.S.
Patent and Trademark Office's and Fortune magazine's National Inventors Hall of
Fame. He also is a member of Grinnell College's Board of Trustees.
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20418
THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING
History and Objectives
"The genie will not go back in the bottle, the rush of technology will not slow down,
and we cannot stop the world and get off to take a breather. Our challenge is to
learn not only to live in a global marketplace, but thrive in it so America can
maintain its leadership position."
Walter B. Wriston
Retired Chairman, Citicorp/Citibank
The United States has long stood in the front ranks of technology. Over the past twenty-five
years, however, the staggering expansion and acceleration in the creation of new technologies
around the globe has made it increasingly difficult for nations -- including our own -- to adapt.
Governments require ever greater technical expertise in order to make enlightened policy decisions
in an age of technology.
The National Academy of Engineering of the United States (NAE), a private, nonprofit institution,
has dedicated itself to the wise use of technology in this country and around the world. In the
United States, the Academy serves as an adviser to the federal government, helping to apply the
nation's best engineering talent to the field of public policy. Domestically and abroad, the NAE
provides a focal point for engineering excellence by recognizing outstanding engineering
achievement and encouraging the study and practice of the engineering disciplines.
The NAE: Its Organization and Purposes
The NAE was established in 1964 under the congressional charter of the National Academy of
Sciences, which was granted in 1863 during the Lincoln administration. It is an autonomous
Academy in its management and membership. Purposes of the NAE are to:
Promote public education and discussion of technology, trade,
engineering, innovation, education, and the impact that technology has
on our society;
Advise the federal government, when called upon, on matters of national
importance pertaining to engineering and technology;
Assist the changing technological and engineering needs of America,
and encourage engineering activities that are in the national interest;
NAE
25
THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING - 2
Recognize outstanding contributions to the nation by leading engineers ;
and
Promote public awareness of the role of engineering and technology.
Selected NAE Activities
The NAE conducts and oversees a large number of programs whose common goal is to maintain
and enhance the technological health of the country.
The NAE believes that the economic well-being of the United States is indissolubly linked to the
advancement of technology. Recently, in response to the deep concern over the deterioration of the
competitive position of many sectors of U.S. industry, the NAE prepared reports on the role of
technology in economic growth, the state of engineering education in the United States, ways to
improve manufacturing productivity, and the competitive status of various industries. These
examinations have led the NAE to recommend new courses of action for government, industry,
and academia in order to strengthen the technology base of the nation in an age of global
competition. The Academy also has focused on national space and environmental policies, as well
as on engineering research priorities.
The NAE's many programs, along with those carried out within the National Research Council
(described below), require the efforts of more than 400 NAE members every year, who give their.
time voluntarily and without compensation.
National Research Council
Most NAE activities are implemented by the National Research Council, which also serves the
National Academy of Sciences. With more than 900 study committees, the Research Council
conducts studies of national importance involving science and technology, whenever called upon
by Congress or agencies of the federal government. More than 9,500 men and women serve on a
volunteer basis on Research Council committees.
Membership
Many of the nation's engineering and technology leaders in industry, government, and universities
are members of the NAE. Members are elected to the Academy on the basis of pioneering
achievements in the development of new technologies, for important contributions in engineering
practice and theory, and for demonstrated leadership in the technology community. All
engineering disciplines are represented by the NAE membership, which totals approximately 1,500
persons, including more than 100 foreign associates. More than half of the NAE's members are
from industry and around 40 percent are from academia. Each year, the Academy elects about 70
new members.
THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING - 3
Governing Council
NAE members elect six officers and twelve additional members to the NAE Council; this body
governs and directs the activities of the Academy. Officers for 1989-90 are:
Robert M. White, President
Edward R. Kane, Treasurer
President
Former President
National Academy of Engineering
E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co.
John F. Welch Jr., Chairman
Alexander H. Flax, Home Secretary
Chairman and Chief Executive Officer
President Emeritus
General Electric Co.
Institute for Defense Analyses
Ralph Landau, Vice President
Gerald P. Dinneen, Foreign Secretary
Consulting Professor of Economics
Vice President, Science and Technology
Stanford University
(Retired)
Honeywell Inc.
NEW YORK TIMES
NEW YORK, MONDAY, JULY 27, 1987
Charles S. Draper, Engineer;
Guided Astronauts to Moon
By JOHN NOBLE WILFORD
Charles Stark Draper, a pioneer in
terrifying airplane rides to prove some
In 1973, the laboratory became inde-
advanced guidance technology for air-
point of aerodynamics. As a professor
pendent of M.I.T. and was renamed the
craft and missiles and developer of the
himself, he was a compulsive and crea-
Charles Stark Draper Laboratory.
navigation system that steered Amer-
tive tinkerer.
Dr. Draper was awarded the Na-
icans to the moon and back, died Satur-
He was born Oct. 2, 1901, in the small
tional Medal of Science in 1965. He was
day at Mount Auburn Hospital in Cam-
town of Windsor, Mo. After two years
an honorary fellow of the American In-
bridge, Mass. He was 85 years old.
-at the University of Missouri, he trans-
stitute of Aeronautics and Astronau-
Described by his peers as one of the
ferred to Stanford University and
tics. He was also inducted into the Na-
foremost engineers of our time, Dr.
earned a bachelor's degree in psychol-
tional Inventors Hall of Fame and the
Draper was a longtime professor of
ogy in 1922, intending to become a phy-
International Space Hall of Fame.
aeronautics and astronautics at. the
sician. But on a trip East he visited the
Survivors include his wife, the for-
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
M.I.T. campus in Cambridge, became
mer Ivy Hurd Willard; three sons,
He founded M.I.T.'s Instrumentation
fascinated with work in aeronautical
James and Michael of Newton, Mass.,
Laboratory to develop his inventions
engineering and decided to enroll. He
and John of Hampton Falls, N.H.; a
applying gyroscopic principles for
learned to fly an open-cockpit biplane,
daughter, Martha Draper Ditmeyer of
World War II gunsights and for the
earned another bachelor's degree and
Fairway, Kan., and six grandchildren.
guidance systems that made possible
then a doctorate in physics in 1938.
Funeral services will be private.
intercontinental ballistic missiles.
The following year, Dr. Draper be-
Howard W. Johnson, a former chair-
came a full professor at M.I.T. and
man of the M.I.T. Corporation, said,
founded the Instrumentation Laborato-
"His research created a whole new in-
ry. The group's first major achieve-
dustry in intertial instruments and sys-
ment was the Mark 14 gvroscopic gun-
tems for airplanes, ships, submarines,
missiles, satellites and space vehi-
sight for the Navy, which made it possi-
ble for antiaircraft guns to take deadly
cles."
accurate aim on attacking aircraft
'In the Category of Genius'
even while a ship was rolling and toss-
Inertial guidance is based on the
ing.
familiar principle that keeps a child's
Out of this research came the guid-
gyroscopic top from falling: a rapidly
ance systems for jet fighter planes and
sp/nning wheel will resist forces work-
the Paiaris, Poseidon and Trident sub-
ing to twist it from the plane in which it
marines and missiles as well as key
is revolving. For his guidance systems
components for the Atlas and Titan
Dr. Draper used three spínning gyros,
rockets. pr Draper's laboratory was
each responsive to only one direction of
chosen in 1961 to develop the Apollo
motion - up and down, right and left
guidance and navigation system.
and rolling. These gyros formed a basis
As Dr. Draper recalled in an inter-
view several months before the first
for a self-contained system that re-
members an object's course of flight
moon landing in 1969, James E. Webb,
and can measure changes in that
the space agency administrator, told
him: 'Stark, this is going to be a hell
course.-
The system devised by Dr. Draper
of a job. Can it be done?' I said yes. We
for the moonbound Apollo spacecraft
used to give lunar navigation problems
as thesis work for our students, and. I
included telescopes, a sextant and a
knew it could be done. 'It'll be ready be-
computerized inertial guidance device
that told the astronauts where they
fore you need it,' I told Webb - and, I
were in space, where they were headed
might add, it is."
and how fast. Such data were used to
A few months after the moon land-
direct all the spacecraft's propulsion
ing, Dr. Draper was forced to step
systems.
down as director of the Instrumenta-
James Killian Jr., a former M.I.T.
tion Laboratory. He was caught in the
president, described Dr. Draper as a
middle of widespread protests against.
"great teacher as well as an engineer
military work being done on university
whose technological achievements
campuses. He insisted that any organi-
clearly placed him in the category of
zation has an obligation to society to
genius."
provide "services which fall within its
Doc Draper, as he was usually called,
special competence," adding: "That
became a legend on the M.I.T. campus
includes defense work. If defense is ne-
almost from the day he arrived there
glected, all is lost."
as a student in 1922. A stocky man with
a fighter's broken nose and a scrappy
temperament to match, he was the
kind of student who took professors on
Office of Public & Employee Communication
The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.
555 Technology Square, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Telephone (617) 258-2605
DR. CHARLES STARK DRAPER (1901 - 1987)
Founder and Senior Scientist
The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory
The "father of inertial navigation," Dr. Charles Stark Draper evolved the theory, invented and
developed the technology, and led the effort that brought inertial navigation to operational usage in
aircraft, submarines, missiles, and space vehicles.
Inertial guidance systems use gyroscopes (rotating devices that react to changes in direction) and
accelerometers (instruments that detect changes in velocity over time) to keep a steady course. The
information obtained from the gyroscopes and the accelerometers is fed into a computer, which
calculates the degree of drift from the intended course and recommends appropriate corrections.
Completely automatic inertial navigational systems can sense tiny deviations from the intended
course and quickly correct them, resulting in very precise navigation anywhere in the world.
Before Draper developed his inertial guidance systems, navigators depended upon more laborious
methods, such as celestial navigation and radio navigation.
Founder of Draper Laboratory in Cambridge, Mass., and Institute Professor Emeritus at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, "Doc" Draper advanced from the position of assistant
professor in the department of aeronautics and astronautics at MIT in 1935 to the post of Institute
Professor in 1966. During his tenure at MIT, he also held posts as associate professor and
department head.
Dr. Draper stood among the pioneer members of the first group of aircraft engineers. Such
monumental efforts as the Apollo landing on the moon and the guidance systems for all strategic
missiles in the U.S. inventory, both land- and sea-based, bear the stamp of his genius. Nationally,
Dr. Draper's work has created a multibillion-dollar industry.
First sponsored by the Sperry Gyroscope Co., Dr. Draper's engineering work led to the
development of the Mark 14 gunsight during World War II. He continued work with gun pointing
and firing control developments until the late 1950's, which earned him the title "Mr. Gyro"
because of the persistence and effectiveness with which he applied the gyroscope to guidance and
control instruments and to gun, bomb, and rocket pointing and firing control instruments and
systems.
His later research resulted in the development of a complete inertial navigation system for manned
and unmanned vehicles, which perform successfully in unfavorable weather and do not rely on
information from external sources.
DR. CHARLES STARK DRAPER -- 2
In 1942 the USS South Dakota using Dr. Draper's gunsights shot down 32 Japanese kamikazes,
an unprecedented anti-aircraft score. Under Dr. Draper's supervision, the MIT FEBE system in
1949 was the first to employ inertial properties of gyroscopic instruments for purposes of aircraft
navigation. The Space Inertial Reference Equipment -- SPIRE -- followed in 1953. As the first
fully inertial system, SPIRE is considered a milestone in the development of the inertial art.
SPIRE Jr., an improved version of the system, was ready for flight in 1957.
Dr. Draper's work on inertial navigation systems for marine vessels proved successful in the 1954
sea tests of MAST (Marine Stable Element). This led to the SINS (Submarine Inertial Navigation
System) later that year.
The Air Force applied Dr. Draper's work on inertial guidance for intercontinental ballistic missiles
to the THOR guidance system. Since 1957, Draper Laboratory has developed the guidance
systems for the family of Fleet Ballistic Missiles for the U.S. Navy: Polaris, Poseidon, Trident I,
and is currently working on the Trident II system.
Dr. Draper's work on the guidance and navigation system for NASA's historic Apollo moon
landing was the largest single program at Draper Laboratory until the Trident II program.
Born in Windsor, Mo., on Oct. 2, 1901, Dr. Draper began his college work in arts and sciences at
the University of Missouri in 1917. In 1919 he entered Stanford University, Calif., and graduated
in 1922 with a B.A. in psychology. He entered MIT the same year, earning a B.S. in
electrochemical engineering in 1926, S.M. in 1928 without specification of department, and Sc.D.
in physics in 1938.
Dr. Draper extended the curriculum of courses in the fields of instrument engineering and fire
control while he was head of the department of aeronautics and astronautics at MIT. He wrote
extensively in the fields of instrumentation and control, and served as consulting engineer to many
aeronautical companies and instrument manufacturers. He held a number of patents for measuring
and control equipment.
Dr. Draper's small team of students and technicians at MIT expanded to become the
Instrumentation Laboratory (a part of MIT). The laboratory later divested from MIT in 1973, and
formed a separate, nonprofit research and development laboratory -- The Charles Stark Draper
Laboratory, Inc.
Dr. Draper was a member of several government science advisory groups and served as chairman
of the National Inventors Council. He was a past president of the International Academy of
Astronautics; an Honorary Fellow of the American Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences and the
British Institution of Mechanical Engineers; and an honorary lifetime member of the Instrument
Society of America. He held an honorary fellowship with the British Interplanetary Society and
the Royal Astronautical Society, and was an honorary member of the German Society for
Guidance and Navigation and the British Institute of Navigation.
He was also a fellow of the American Physical Society, the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the American
DR. CHARLES STARK DRAPER -- 3
Astronautical Society; and a member of the National Academy of Engineering, the National
Academy of Sciences, the American Institute of Consulting Engineers, the Society of Automotive
Engineers, the American Ordnance Association, the American Society for Engineering Education,
the Massachusetts Society of Professional Engineers, the New York Academy of Sciences, and the
French National Academy. He was a past president of the MIT Soaring Society, and a member of
Sigma XI, Tau Beta Pi, and Sigma Alpha Epsilon.
Among his more than 70 honors and awards, five have come from foreign countries, including the
U.S.S.R. and Czechoslovakia. He was inducted in the National Inventors Hall of Fame and into
the International Space Hall of Fame.
He received the prestigious Langley Medal of the Smithsonian Institution, the NASA Public
Service Award, the Dr. Robert H. Goddard Trophy of the National Space Club, and the National
Medal of Science from President Lyndon Johnson.
Dr. Draper was named the New England Inventor of the Year in 1981. In 1978, MIT established
the Charles Stark Draper Professorship of Aeronautics and Astronautics in his honor. Dr. Draper
received the "Engineering for Gold Award" from the National Society of Professional Engineers in
1984. The society cited his work in inertial guidance systems as one of the 10 outstanding
engineering achievements of the past 50 years.
Among the honorary degrees he received are doctoral degrees from Eidgenossische Technische
Hochschule, Zurich, Switzerland, in 1966; the University of Portland, Portland, Oregon, in 1970;
the University of Missouri, Rolla, in 1975; and Boston University in 1984.
Many of Dr. Draper's former students are leaders in government, industry, the military, and
academia.
Dr. Draper was married to Ivy Hurd Willard, with whom he had three sons, one daughter, and six
grandchildren. His children are James Draper and Michael Draper of Newton, Mass.; John Draper
of North Andover, Mass.; and Martha Draper Ditmeyer of Fairway, Kansas.
OPENING STATEMENT -- DRAPER PRIZE NEWS CONFERENCE
Robert M. White, President
National Academy of Engineering
October 3, 1989
Good morning. It is a pleasure to be here today to announce
the recipients of the first international Charles Stark Draper
Prize. Following extensive deliberations conducted over the past
year, the National Academy of Engineering's Charles Stark Draper
Prize Committee has selected Jack S. Kilby and Robert N. Noyce as
the first recipients of the Draper Prize, the largest prize in
the world given exclusively for engineering achievement.
We are fortunate to have Jack Kilby with us here today, as
well as Robert Seamans Jr., chairman of the Draper Prize
Committee, and Joseph Charyk, head of the Draper Laboratory Inc.
of Cambridge, Mass., which endowed the prize. Robert Noyce had
hoped to attend but was unable to because of prior commitments.
Kilby and Noyce are being honored here today for their
separate co-invention of the single-crystal integrated circuit,
better known as the semiconductor microchip. The award is also
based on their skill in bringing the integrated circuit to
successful production and application in commercial products.
- 2 -
Very few things have changed the world as dramatically as
the integrated circuit has. Its development was the single most
important event that helped usher in the Information Age. Like
the invention of the telephone, the light bulb, or the
automobile, the creation and widespread practical application of
the integrated circuit has fundamentally changed our lives --
transforming computation, communications, manufacturing, and
transportation, and giving birth to a host of entirely new
industries and services.
In just a moment, Dr. Seamans will describe the Draper Prize
Committee's selection process, followed by some remarks by Mr.
Kilby. But first, I'd like to tell you something about Charles
Stark Draper, for whom this prize is named.
Draper is often referred to as the "father of inertial
navigation," and is best known for creating and developing the
navigation guidance system that landed the Apollo astronauts on
the moon. Similar versions of this system today continue to
provide aircraft, submarines, missiles, and space vehicles with
pinpoint navigational accuracy. Draper's work in this important
area strengthened our nation's space and defense programs and
evolved into an industry that generates billions of dollars in
sales each year.
We are grateful to the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory Inc.
for providing the endowment necessary to establish this prize in
"Doc" Draper's name. It is fitting that the prize should be
- 3 -
named after Draper because he epitomizes the kind of engineering
excellence -- especially the successful commercial application of
new technologies -- that we want to highlight with this prize.
The Draper Prize, with its accompanying $350,000 cash award and
gold medal, will be given every two years to an individual or
individuals who have made outstanding contributions to the
advancement of human welfare and freedom through their
engineering achievements.
We believe that the Draper Prize will focus world attention
on the important contributions of engineers to society in the
same way that the Nobel Prize now focuses attention on the
accomplishments of scientists.
At this point, Dr. Seamans will describe the committee's
selection process and tell you why we believe that Jack Kilby and
Robert Noyce aptly meet the Draper Prize criteria described
above. Currently a senior lecturer at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Dr. Seamans is uniquely qualified to
chair the Draper Prize Committee as a former Secretary of the Air
Force, former president of the National Academy of Engineering,
and as one of "Doc" Draper's former students. Thank you.
OPENING STATEMENT -- DRAPER PRIZE NEWS CONFERENCE
Robert C. Seamans, chairman, Charles Stark Draper Prize
Committee, National Academy of Engineering, and senior
lecturer, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
October 3, 1989
Thank you, Bob. During my 48-year career in numerous
government, industry, and academic posts, I have held many
difficult jobs, but serving as chairman of the Draper Prize
Committee has to rank among the most challenging. Choosing just
one engineering achievement that has had the greatest impact in
advancing human well-being and freedom is a very tall order.
We are literally surrounded by the products of engineering
from the moment we wake up to an automatically prepared cup of
coffee, put on our no-iron, wash and wear clothing, make a
telephone call from our cars while driving to work, and sit down
at a personal computer to write a letter, balance the books, read
the mail, or draw a picture.
Our 13-member committee of prominent engineering leaders
from industry, academia, and government began the job of
selecting the Draper Prize recipients in November of 1988. We
invited more than six thousand individuals, institutions, and
professional societies from around the world to submit
nominations. We also welcomed any unsolicited nominations.
After several long and detailed discussions about the many
high quality submissions we received, we unanimously settled on
Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce for a number of what we believe to be
persuasive reasons.
First, their separate co-invention of the monolithic
integrated circuit has been credited by many as the initial step
of the microelectronics revolution and the advent of the
Information Age. This one invention has affected virtually all
industries from banking, to transportation, to communications,
while at the same time having a profound effect on everyday
living through such consumer products as the pocket calculator,
digital watches, automatic cameras, videocassette recorders, and
compact discs.
Second, the men who created this invention were instrumental
in designing cost-effective manufacturing processes to produce
actual commercial products. Kilby's work with colleagues at
Texas Instruments led to development of the first computer made
with integrated circuits and later to production of the first
hand-held calculator. As co-founder of Fairchild Semiconductor,
Noyce helped produce the computerized navigation system used for
the Apollo missions. Later as co-founder of Intel Corp., his
company produced the first high-density memory components and
microprocessors, the critical element that made production of
personal computers practical.
Finally, our committee was convinced that no other invention
in modern times has had as pervasive an effect in meeting the
true spirit of the Draper Prize by advancing human welfare and
freedom.
It has often been said that just as the first Industrial
Revolution, based on motors and improved machinery, freed humans
from back-breaking labor, the second industrial revolution, based
on the semiconductor microchip, has freed us from mind-numbing
intellectual chores.
For these reasons, the National Academy of Engineering is
very pleased to honor Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce as the first
recipients of the international Charles Stark Draper Prize. We
are planning a special event in February during National
Engineers Week, when they will formally receive a gold medal and
$175,000 each.
It is a fitting reward for two men whose work has done so
much to improve all of our lives.
At this point, perhaps Jack Kilby would like to make a few
comments and then we will be happy to answer your questions.
Office of Public & Employee Communication
The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc.
555 Technology Square, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Telephone (617) 258-2605
THE CHARLES STARK DRAPER
LABORATORY, INC.
A Brief Overview
The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., is a private, nonprofit corporation dedicated to
scientific research, development, and education. It is engaged primarily in research and
development of guidance, navigation, and control systems (inertial, satellite, and radio-aided); fault
-tolerant system design; precision pointing and tracking system design; flexible and automated
manufacturing methods; undersea-vehicle systems design; advanced spacecraft, both manned and
unmanned; and specialized scientific instrumentation.
Located adjacent to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Mass., the
Draper Laboratory was originally established as the Instrumentation Laboratory of MIT in 1938. It
was renamed in 1973 to honor Charles Stark Draper, the technological pioneer whom, in the
words of James Killian, Jr., a former MIT president, was, "...a great teacher as well as an
engineer whose technological achievements placed him in the category of genius." Presently, the
Draper facility contains more than 100 laboratories.
In its early years, the laboratory pioneered the development of gyroscopically based gun pointing
and firing systems for shipboard and fighter-aircraft use. These systems are driven by three
spinning gyros, each of which responds to only one direction -- up and down, right and left, and
rolling. This enabled the development of a system that remembers an object's course in flight and
can measure changes in that course.
Over the past 50 years, the Draper Laboratory has:
continually improved the performance levels of new inertial components and
systems;
been a leader in the development of highly reliable digital computers and their
applications to fly-by-wire vehicle controls for vehicles ranging from spacecraft to
hydrofoils; and
developed fault-tolerant computing systems for a number of diverse applications.
Constantly searching for the brightest minds in engineering, the Draper Laboratory actively recruits
engineers from academic fields such as aeronautical, electrical, and mechanical engineering;
computer sciences; and physics. With more than 2,000 employees, the Draper Laboratory is a
major source of seasoned personnel for government agencies and private industry. Its employees
are trained to plan, manage, technically direct, design, fabricate, and test complete avionics and
advanced digital control systems.
CHARLES STARK DRAPER LABORATORY - 2
The Draper Laboratory provides services to the U.S. Air Force, the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), and the U.S. Navy as an engineering design agent. Beginning as
early as 1957, the laboratory designed the U.S. Fleet's ballistic missile guidance system for the
Polaris and continues in the same manner for the Navy's new Trident series missiles.
Current projects at the Draper Laboratory include:
Guidance, Navigation, and Control: continuing design and development of
guidance, navigation, and control systems for spacecraft, missiles, and ships. This
work supports programs of the U.S. Navy and NASA;
Fault Tolerant Computing: developing fault-tolerant computing to ensure
reliability among on-board navigational systems for NASA;
Strategic Defense Initiative: designing the inertial and interceptor guidance
systems for ballistic missile defense;
Applications of Artificial Intelligence: progressing toward higher levels of
automation and artificial intelligence for computer and guidance systems. Use of
this technology can be applied to a variety of systems;
Industrial Automation: contributing to improvement of the nation's industrial
sector to keep it competitive by improving industrial productivity and robotics.
One area of concentration lies within the textile/clothing industry by designing
automated robotics systems to assemble clothing.
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
MEMORANDUM
TO:
Sig Rogich
FROM:
JOSEPH W. HAGIN
SUBJECT:
APPROVED PRESIDENTIAL ACTIVITY
EVENT:
Present the Draper Engineering Award
DATE:
February 20, 1990
Tuesday
TIME:
8:30 p.m.
DURATION:
30 minutes
LOCATION:
The State Department, 8th Floor
ATTIRE:
Black Tie
REMARKS REQUIRED:
Yes
MEDIA COVERAGE:
TBD
FIRST LADY
No
PARTICIPATION:
ADDITIONAL
POTUS will arrive after dinner as program begins
INFORMATION:
CONTACT: Phil Peter (General Electric) 637-4455
TELEPHONE: OFFICE
HOME
NOTE: PROJECT OFFICER, SEE ATTACHED CHECKLIST
Ed Rogers
Marlin Fitzwater
David Bates
James Cicconi
David Demarest
David Valdez
Fred McClure
Jean Lamb
USSS- PPD
Susan Porter Rose
Sig Rogich
Gary Walters
Patty Presock
John Keller
WHCA Audio/Visual
Chriss Winston
Tim McBride
WHCA Operations
Laurie Firestone
J. Bonnie Newman
C. Boyden Gray
William Kristol
Paul Bateman
John Herrick
Jackie Kennedy
1/6/90
Droper
Phil Peter (Gen. Electric) 637-4455
(Kothleen)
Chris Schroeder 647-8745
Judith Bostock X 3840
Dr.Bob Notl Acodemy White of Engineering
334-3200
Chrorhes Stork
(BCholstok- Draper
MIT
then lob. in Clambr.
fisther inertial navigation
colled upon for pridence system
for the moon
non - profit research lob.
submirine
pre eminent
contributing to human welfare affreedon
Nobel never had Award for engin.
nuver received "pthertion "other
sciences
$350, 000 of sold medel
largest ward for angineering
bring home the impor tonce of engineering
prestigious substion comm.
requirement for award potunts for microctory frait
2 people
J
reduction to practice — then on
idea into something practical
telephone washing mochine
T.V.
the
Annonnement mode in Oct.
This is presentation
Chrmn of G.E. will introduce POTO
POWS hong awards
Steve Becktull visibud POLUS this wk
Highlight
Transformed st society
Engineer's week
Internoth prize
- one did it @ II
1 founders of Intel
pgus 55 of 60
Sprrix
Leviondows
N.E.A.
334-1657 334 - 16377
CARTIE Jack Kilby TI
Robert Noycle - founders of Intel
harnessing theck
(13 essential to
protecting (preventing the environmental defradation
greater strangth
you people - - Jort. , members, of spouses
Droper Ded the world by (inventing) the
guidence system that brought 35 to the moon
Appropriate that the 15 honorees
here Ded the world
that crubled (detained) hear by advancing
determent systems
Press kit
Competitiveness - lost how yrs.
Lounching environmental program
how technology can product the
environment 18 months
inspire kids to gar involved in engineershy
Dong Watford
Phil Reter
Nodl. Engineer's Week started
1951
Discover E
Teaching D class
engineers going to schools
Stephene Bechtel - former Hon. Chrirmon
of Notl. Eng. Week
500 engineers teaching in h.s.
Society of Prof. Engineers
They Deek highlight of Notl. Engineer's ]
sibtellite communication
= Bob White
Choirman of Droper Lob.
shy endowed - Joe Choryk
- -Bob Sepmons -chrmn of selection
process
Jack
Pal
In the space of one transistor
took you con fit / million
Retridgerator pen cokulator
GE- - Pronl Ostersord 203 373-2250
Draper Prize Presentation Dinner
Department of State
February 20, 1990
6:30 p.m.
Reception - Jefferson and Adams rooms
7:30 p.m.
Dinner - Benjamin Franklin Room
Welcome and Opening Remarks
8:30 p.m.
Robert M. White, President, National Academy of Engineering
Goes to podium
Welcomes guests
Recognizes host - Ivan Selin, Under Secretary of Management,
Department of State
Presents overview of prize including that recipients each
receive $175,000
Introduces Joe Charyk
Returns to table
8:34 p.m.
Joseph V. Charyk, Chairman, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. ;
Retired Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Communications
Satellite Corporation
Goes to podium
Presents brief remarks about why Draper Laboratory endowed the
prize and Charles Stark Draper
Introduces Bob Seamans
Returns to table
8:37 p.m.
Robert C. Seamans, Jr., Chairman, Draper Prize Committee; Senior
Lecturer, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Goes to podium
Discusses selection process
Introduces Jack Welch
Returns to table
Presentation
8:40 p.m.
John F. Welch, Jr., Chairman, National Academy of Engineering;
Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, GE
Goes to podium
Brief remarks about Kilby and Noyce and that Academy is pleased
to recognize them with the first Charles Stark Draper Prize
Introduces President Bush to present awards
Stays at podium with Bush
8:44 p.m.
President Bush goes to podium - speaks for five minutes
Calls Kilby and Noyce to podium
Welch hands Kilby's medal to President Bush
President Bush congratulates and puts medal on Kilby
Welch hands Noyce's medal to President Bush
President Bush congratulates and puts medal on Noyce
Welch acknowledges that Kilby and Noyce will each make brief
remarks, Kilby going first
President Bush, Welch, and Noyce return to their seats
[If Bush leaves at this point, appropriate thanks and
recognition should be given before Welch acknowledges Kilby for
his remarks.)
Acceptance Remarks
8:48 p.m.
Kilby presents brief remarks
Returns to table
8:58 p.m.
Noyce returns to podium
Presents brief remarks
Returns to table
Conclusion
9:08 p.m.
White goes to podium
Gives appropriate congratulations and thanks and closes program.
9:10 p.m.
Program ends.
they
OFFICE OF PRESIDENTIAL ADVANCE
IN-TOWN EVENT CONTACT SHEET
Office
Phone Number
Name
456-7565
Presidential Advance
Glades B D 99s
Press OfficerState Dest)
456-2820
647-2492
Presidential Advance Office Fax Number
Kay Brice
Protocol
647-2299
Lucy Muckerman
Pres. Advance
456-7565
Bill DAVIS
STATE MG2 8th (WOR.
647-3742
Lee Henderson
General Services
647-2275
KElviN ARRINgtoN
TEchNICAL SERVICES (AUDIO) 647-1630
Cynthin BIENVENUE
Besit Ellenes
national Academent Engn 979-9462 334-2345
Design Cuisine Catering
Kaz Nielsen
Design Wisine Catering
979-9400
334-3200
BARBARA HUFF
NAT'L ACADEMY of ENGINEERING
CARRie Levandork.
NAE
334-1657
Dept sport
Marilyn Knowt
Undai Sect Walin (Knet
1322
Suphonix Bussey
L.).H. Speechwriting
456-7750
DOUGLAS WOLFORD
NAT'L ACADEMY 7 ENGINEERING
334-1657
Susan Jurner-Lewis Nat I Acad. of Engineering 334-2138 334-2138
Gail Porter
Nar Acad of Engineering
Steven Ross
W.H. Press Advance
633-2415
JOHN GIBBONS
WH LEAD ADV.
0-377-5001 H.25C-1987
Milie Pose
usss. EAD
395-4011
BRUCE CAUGHMAN
WH MILITARY OFFICE
456-2150
DAVID PISTILLI
WH COMMUNICATIONS
345-4012/2000
Daniel Petrol
PPD
395-4011
Steve Sctt
DOUG Hollowd
USSS/WRO U<S,S LIA
634-8700
535-5838
Chits
DS/PRD
6631363
L38 Wood
DAUL MCLAIN
DS/PRD DS/UPB
663-1885
647-0249
E300
6
w5
Wilson, Wood wow, PREE U.S., 1856-1924
",
v.35
t:
WH
THE PAPERS OF
WOODROW
WILSON
ARTHUR S. LINK, EDITOR
DAVID W. HIRST, SENIOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR
JOHN E. LITTLE, ASSOCIATE EDITOR
ANN DEXTER GORDON, ASSISTANT EDITOR
PHYLLIS MARCHAND AND MARGARET D. LINK,
OODROW WILSON
EDITORIAL ASSISTANTS
ION
UNIVERSITY
Volume 35
October I, 1915-January 27, 1916
PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS
1980
1915
OCTOBER 11, 1915
47
or ten years and whom I
burden upon you will now be lightened by the exhilarating love
nd integrity.
of a charming and lovely woman.
W. A. Candler
Most heartily do I congratulate you and remain, as ever,
Faithfully & affectionately yours, R. H. Dabney.
ALS (WP, DLC).
October 9, 1915.
An Address to the Daughters of the American Revolution1
few minutes conversation
[Oct. II, 1915]
eral and a few minor mat-
Madam President and ladies and gentlemen: Again it is my
: to the St Regis to take the
very great privilege to welcome you to the City of Washington
ring to get at some of my
and to the hospitalities of the capital. May I admit a point of ig-
Tuxedo for the week-end.
norance? I was surprised to learn that this association is so
ion and bade the President
young, and that an association so young should devote itself
wholly to memory I cannot believe. For, to me, the duties to
it the Attorney General and
which you are consecrated are more than the duties and the
e Loulie and the Mezes met
pride of memory.
Minnie K. Young.2
There is a very great thrill to be had from the memories of
e President would be glad
the American Revolution, but the American Revolution was a
sday or Thursday and ad-
beginning, not a consummation, and the duty laid upon us by
t through the British Am-
that beginning is the duty of bringing the things then begun to
a noble triumph of completion. For it seems to me that the pe-
culiarity of patriotism in America is that it is not a mere senti-
'oung.
ment. It is an active principle of conduct. It is something that
was born into the world, not to please it, but to regenerate it.
It is something that was born into the world to replace systems
that had preceded it and to bring men out upon a new plane
igton, D. C. IO Oct., 1915.
of privilege. The glory of the men whose memories you honor
ry avalanche of congratula-
and perpetuate is that they saw this vision, and it was a vision
of the future. It was a vision of great days to come, when a little
cending upon you since the
handful of three million people upon the borders of a single sea
nd I am not certain whether
should have become a great multitude of free men and women
rt of nuisance to you. Yet
do not feel that I can, in
spreading across a great continent, dominating the shores of two
oceans, and sending West, as well as East, the influences of in-
g you how I rejoice in the
dividual freedom. These things were consciously in their minds
boms so auspiciously before
nderly you loved your wife,
as they framed the great government which was born out of the
American Revolution. And every time we gather to perpetuate
nce that, the more happily
their memories, it is incumbent upon us that we should be worthy
ly he craves feminine love
une to lose his wife, I can
of recalling them, and that we should endeavor by every means
ness of your situation since
in our power to emulate their example.
The American Revolution was the birth of a nation. It was
at has come into your heart
.te weighing upon you have
1 At Memorial Continental Hall, on the occasion of the twenty-fifth anniver-
ountry must rejoice that the
sary convocation of the Daughters of the American Revolution. Daisy Allen
(Mrs. William Cumming) Story, president-general, presided at the meeting.
To
SB
Date
Time 1:35
WHILE YOU WERE OUT
M Poul Ostergard
of G.E.
Phone 718-248-7296
Area Code
Number
Extension
TELEPHONED
PLEASE CALL
CALLED TO SEE YOU
WILL CALL AGAIN
WANTS TO SEE YOU
URGENT
RETURNED YOUR CALL
Message
Call him to
go over speech.
THE WHITE HOUSE
washington
328 -
3225
Yuri Dubinin
Bush
Quayle
10/25/88
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION
FACT SHEET
Today, America stands as the freest, the fairest, the most
productive nation on the face of the earth. That's how George Bush
wants America to enter the 21st Century -- on the leading edge. To
maintain our technological edge, we must make a national commitment
to the best education and the strongest competitive spirit in the
world. Technology is the key to the future, but people are the key
to technology.
As we move into the 1990s and the 21st century, George Bush
believes that America's economic success and national security
depend to an ever greater extent on our scientific and
technological progress. Technology is America's economic fountain
of youth.
Technology has created productivity growth in both the service
sector and the industrial sector. Flexible manufacturing systems
and numerically controlled machining depend on sophisticated
computer software and skilled people. Never before has such a
symbiotic relationship existed between the service sector and the
industrial sector to produce technological breakthroughs in
manüfacturing.
Scientific and technological advancement has always been at the
very heart of our nation's pioneer spirit, pushing the boundaries
of our knowledge, creating economic opportunity and increasing our
standard of living. It is the spirit that drove Henry Ford, that
soared with the Wright brothers, and it is the spirit that enabled
Americans to walk on the moon.
A hero of the 19th century, Thomas Edison, inventor, technician
and entreprenuer, embodied the pioneer spirit. The pioneer spirit
pushed George Washington Carver, scientist and educator, to make
advances of world renown in agricultural research. The pioneer
spirit carried Sally Ride, physicist, astronaut and explorer, into
space in the 20th century. The 21st century will demand even more
of America's pioneer spirit. We must be prepared to step up to the
challenge.
THE REAGAN-BUSH RECORD
Growth in research and development. The percentage of our
gross national product dedicated to research and development is now
at its highest level since the late 1960s. Since 1981, the
Reagan-Bush Administration has increased funding for basic research
- 1
733 15th Street, N.W. Suite 800 Washington. D.C. 20005 202/842-1988
by over 50 percent, after adjusting for inflation. Industry and
government will spend $132 billion on research and development
(R&D) in 1988, an increase of 131 percent since 1980.
Establishment of new research centers. The Reagan-Bush
Administration has started creating university-based,
interdisciplinary research centers in engineering, science, and
technology. These centers bring the federal government, industry
and university labs together to promote the long-term
competitiveness of the American economy. Advances have been made in
manufacturing and biotechnology; others will follow.
THE BUSH PHILOSOPHY
The following principles would guide science and technology
policy in a Bush Administration:
Federal government investment in R&D should focus on basic
research. The private sector has the best incentives for
deciding which technologies will have the most potential in the
marketplace.
The federal government should ensure that the rules of the game
are fair in the global market. It is up to the federal
government to ensure that American intellectual property is
protected in world markets and that American companies have as
much access to foreign research projects as foreign companies
have to American research projects.
There are many active players in R&D in the United States --
federal government, state governments, national laboratories,
university laboratories, and business. The federal government
should not attempt any kind of central planning of American
research activity. However, the federal government should
promote greater cooperation among these different groups.
CHALLENGES OF THE FUTURE
George Bush believes science and technology forms the
foundation of economic power -- the power to create value.
George Bush believes that the combination of dedicated, skilled
people and technological advancement can improve our standard of
living and our competitive position in the global marketplace.
- 2 -
George Bush will focus on four priorities critical to America's
technological advancement and economic growth:
Strengthening Federal Science and Technology Policy
Improving Math and Science Education
Encouraging Private Sector Investment
Promoting Commercialization of Technological Breakthroughs
THE BUSH PLAN -- THE ROAD TO INNOVATION AND WORLD LEADERSHIP
Strengthening Federal Science and Technology Policy
o
George Bush will upgrade the President's Science Advisor to
Assistant to the President for Science and Technology and
reinvigorate the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP).
George Bush will also seek advice on science and technological
matters from the private sector. George Bush will create a
President's Council of Science and Technology Advisors, composed of
leading scientists, engineers and distinguished executives from the
private sector.
The Assistant to the President for Science and Technology will
report directly to the President and be an active member of
interagency policy groups such as the Economic Policy Council and
will also be involved with the national security planning process.
The Assistant to the President for Science and Technology will head
the Office of Science and Technology Policy and be responsible for
developing, and coordinating a federal science and technology
strategy. George Bush believes an integrated approach is needed to
better manage the federal science and technology process. George
Bush will seek the active involvement of a diverse group of
American scientists and engineers in this process.
George Bush believes we need an overview of the entire federal
R&D picture. He also believes a stronger OSTP is needed, one that
can coordinate the President's federal science and technology
policy among agencies. OSTP should be able to perform analyses and
help prepare budgets on an across-the-board basis.
o George Bush proposes to double the National Science
Foundation's budget over the next five years. George Bush
supports both large and small science projects. He will consider
a key priority of the National Science Foundation's increased
funding the retooling of science and engineering labs at colleges
and universities.
- 3 -
o
George Bush supports making all federal R&D authorizations for
5 years and all federal R&D appropriations for 2 years to provide
greater certainty to laboratories. Currently, the federal
government typically provides R&D authorizations for only 1-3 years
and appropriates funds for only 1 year. However, R&D projects have
long time horizons -- 5, 10, or even 15 years long. Universities,
businesses, and government labs need more assurance of federal R&D
funding in future years to plan projects better.
Improving Math and Science Education
We must redouble our efforts in science and technology by
focusing on developing the core of people needed to continue
pushing the nation forward.
Too many elementary schools graduate children who have not
learned basic skills, especially in math and science. Today's and
tomorrow's production workers need the right mathematics and
science background to operate computers and sophisticated
machinery. By 1995 the United States will need an estimated
300, additional secondary-school math and science teachers.
Fifty years ago a production worker could get by having only
arithmetic. But the operator of a sophisticated robot needs to
know algebra and basic physics.
In our colleges and universities we need improvement and
expansion in science and engineering. We need better trained
college graduates to satisfy our economy's expanding needs for
engineers, physicists, chemists, and computer professionals.
Foreign students represent about 40 percent of enrollments in U.S.
graduate schools of engineering.
George Bush knows that better science education is needed for
our young people in order to prepare them for jobs which are
increasingly technical. Science education is an integral part of
George Bush's education policy:
o
George Bush believes study of the sciences should be part of
every child's basic education; he believes all students -- whether
in academic or vocational-technical programs -- should graduate
with an understanding of scientific principles and their
application.
o
George Bush supports increased funding for magnet schools,
recognizing that many of them emphasize science education.
o
George Bush believes that support for science education must
continue to be a key priority for the National Science Foundation.
O
George Bush knows that in many states, teachers who are trained
in the sciences and in mathematics are hard to find. He supports
efforts of states to enhance math and science education by
developing alternative certification programs which can bring
distinguished professionals with strong backgrounds in the sciences
to the classroom.
- 4 -
o
George Bush will convene a White House Conference on Education
placing special emphasis on math and science education. George
Bush and the governors from the 50 states will discuss and define
the goals of our Math and Science curricula.
Encouraging Private Sector Investment
We must ensure the economy provides a climate which encourages
businesses to take economic risks and invest in new, bold
technologies. George Bush understands how important a strong
economy is to technological advancement. During the late 1970's,
industry did not find it profitable to invest in new technology.
High interest rates and high inflation squelched investment and
modernization. The Reagan-Bush Administration cut interest rates
in half and slashed inflation by two-thirds. George Bush will work
hard to keep interest rates low and to ensure incentives are in
place for the private sector to fund a high level of advanced
research.
o
George Bush will make the R&D tax credit permanent. Instead of
just extending the 20 percent R&D tax credit for short periods of
time as Congress has done over the past several years, George Bush
supports making the tax credit permanent to provide a stable
economic environment for American business.
o George Bush supports cutting the capital gains tax rate from 28
percent to 15 percent on all assets held more than one year. We
have seen countless examples like Silicon Valley in California and
Route 128 around Boston of what cutting the capital gains tax rate
can do to stimulate entrepreneurship. Many of our most important
technological developments have taken place in small, start-up
firms. There is no more powerful incentive for individuals to
start up a business than a low capital gains tax rate.
Promoting Commercialization of Technological Breakthroughs
George Bush will enhance the ability of American business to
commercialize new ideas and new technologies. The
commercialization of technology requires consistent economic
incentives, regulatory reform and a coordinated approach to federal
science and technology policy making.
O George Bush supports and encourages Partnerships for Progress
-- partnerships between business, universities, and government to
advance base-building technologies and the rapid transfer of new
knowledge from laboratory to marketplace.
o
George Bush is committed to working vigorously in international
negotiations, especially the new round of multilateral trade
negotiations, to ensure that American intellectual property rights
are protected.
- 5 -
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
January 23, 1990
Dear Mr. Welch:
On behalf of the President, I wish to acknowledge and thank you
for your letter inviting him to present the first Draper Award in
commemoration of Engineers Week this February.
The President is pleased to accept. This has been entered on his
schedule for February 20, and nearer the date, Mr. John G.
Keller, Jr., Deputy Assistant to the President and Director of
Advance, will contact you about the President's attendance.
The President's acceptance of this invitation should not be
announced to anyone until official notification is given by the
White House Press Office, and any public announcement of this
event must be coordinated with Mr. Jay Allison who may be reached
at 202/456-2100.
You should be aware that certain physical facility requirements
exist for any Presidential appearance. The costs associated with
these requirements are generally the responsibility of the host
and are summarized on the attached list.
If you wish to alter the current plans for this event in any way,
such as changing any part of the format, the location, or the
participants, please direct your request for the proposed change
to the Office of Presidential Appointments and Scheduling.
With best wishes,
Sincerely,
JOSEPH W. HAGIN II
Deputy Assistant to the President
for Appointments and Scheduling
Mr. John F. Welch
Chairman of the Board
General Electric Company
3135 Easton Turnpike
Fairfield, Connecticut 06431
JWH/lhw
CC Fincominato Helen Donalderon
CC May Rawlins
GE
DWP 4
John F. Welch
General Electric Company
Chairman of the Board
3135 Easton Turnpike, Fairfield, CT 06431
November 21, 1989
The President
The White House
Washington, D.C. 20500
Dear Mr. President:
I need your help.
Engineers Week is February 19 - 23, 1990, and as Chairman of
the National Academy of Engineering, I would like to invite you to
make it a memorable and important one by presenting the first
Draper Award for "outstanding achievement in engineering and
technology that contributes to the advancement of human welfare
and freedom." We would hope that you could present it on either the
evening of February 20 or 22, after a black-tie dinner at the State
Department.
We believe the Draper Award will become the "Nobel Prize for
Engineering," with a cash award of $350,000 to the annual honoree.
We feel this event will reemphasize the importance of engineering
to national competitiveness and way of life, and your presentation
of it would impart a significance that would make it an enduring
symbol of excellence and achievement in engineering in the years to
come.
Every engineer in the country will be honored -- I know I
will be -- if you could set aside this event for us.
I hope you can do it.
Sincerely,
JACK
GE
PHILLIPS S. PETER
VICE PRESIDENT
Nov. 22, 1989
Dear Tony,
As discussed, here is the
invitation from Jack Welch,
GE's Chairman, to the President
for him to present the Draper
Award ( the engineering /technology
equivalent to the Nobel Prize
same $350,000 cash dward ) on
the evening of February 20 or 22,
1990 at the State Department
during Engineering Week.
Thanks for your help on this.
Sincerely,
this
GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY
1331 PENNSYLVANIA AVE.. N.W.
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20004
(202) 637-4455
GE
PHILLIPS S. PETER
VICE PRESIDENT
Nov. 22, 1989
Dear Ed,
As discussed, here is the
invitation from Jack Welch,
GE's Chairman, to the President
for him to present the Draper
Award (the engineering /technology
equivalent to the Nobel Prize
+ same 350,000 cash award)
on the evening of February 20 02
22, 1990 at the State Department
during Engineering Week.
Thanks for your help on this.
Sincerely,
Phil
P.S. Tony Benedi
is aboard
on this.
GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY
1331 PENNSYLVANIA AVE., N.W.
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20004
(202) 637-4455
Milkens are no
admiration or
of the "Greed
The indispensable
lionaires on the
beards in some
rious scratching
engineers
figuring their
can get by for a
oming in. I am
by all meas-
en and women
What engineers do is so infinite and various
the turn of the century-just one more
eather and the
that the discipline beggars description. They
decade-the United States will be short
other cities, far
take science and use it to solve the problems
150,000 engineers.
$ and sounds of
and challenges of life, from the eraser on
For our part, we've launched a number
nåking plans. I
your pencil to the exploration of Mars. Lately
of programs to attract the best students-in
after all these
id ourselves.
there's been a lot of discussion about the
engineering and other disciplines we
begin.
"knowledge-based" society to come, but
require-for careers at Mobil. At certain key
301
engineers have always lived in a knowledge-
universities, a team of Mobil employees from
based society. They've shaped our high-
different operating units visits regularly to
tech world-and starting February 18th,
meet students and teachers, share ideas,
the whole country will honor them through
and set up internships that provide potential
National Engineers Week.
recruits with hands-on technical experience.
Mobil's interest in the celebration is obvi-
We also provide scores of grants designed to
ous: we make our living through high tech-
keep U.S. engineering expertise among the
nology. Engineers-probing oceans, jungles,
world's best and to fund research that
and mountains; in their research labs; at
fense, and to
expands U.S. technological capabilities.
tealth bomber
their computers-help us find and produce
Engineers are the world's worst at toot-
did not name
the raw materials and natural resources that
ing their own horn. Most are so busy getting
; is by now a
Mobil customers require. Engineers help us
the job done-turning out quality products,
out of Buck
move these resources to where they're
protecting the environment, safeguarding
erg. Skeptics
needed, design ways to refine and manufac-
public health-that they have little time to
refore, if the
stem and the
ture them, market the fuels and products
crow. But this reticence has harmed their
structure (to
that result. We couldn't get along without
need to attract tomorrow's crop of engi-
ic needs) are
them-and neither could you.
neers: The young people who must design
to the 'threat'
est, or actually
So many simple needs-thread, a paper
and manage the 21st Century. There are
le Republican
clip, a spoon, a shoelace, good water from
rewarding careers and immense challenges
the tap, a clean sheet of paper-depend on
e President's
awaiting any youth who prepares for the
be misled by
engineers. Their name itself means they are
engineering profession.
In fact, mili-
the contrivers, and at its root, that they
The global economy is upon us. Those
ip, though not
predicted. The
embody talent. They make things. They fix
countries-and companies-that prepare for
e $295 billion,
things. They dream things-like light bulbs,
its highly competitive enterprise and techno-
IS a reduction
moon rockets, and horizontal oil wells-that
logical sophistication will flourish. Since
ted Pentagon
never were. And we are all better off because
esents an in-
engineers will be in the front lines of that
in actual dol-
they make those dreams come true.
struggle, we hope everyone will join their
ar. Proposed
Not everyone wants to be an engineer,
coming celebration of science, invention,
: limited and
S Aspin, the
at play (as Isaac Newton put it) upon the
and creativity.
of the House
shores of the great ocean of truth. Business,
They'll probably be as quiet as usual
tee.
the arts, and many other occupations and
during National Engineers Week-but let's
7 force, bris-
weapons sys-
professions offer satisfying careers to
make sure they all hear three rousing cheers
project U.S.
millions. But engineers are in demand. By
from the rest of us.
world, won't
he embattled
rdly see the
romised him,
g in the face
14 retreat and
ary power.
Mobil®
country who
ation, health
comfort only
ven with the
ray, George
lard against
S.
NYT 2/8/90
©1990 Mobil Corporation
Marcon
VOLUME 18
M to Mexico City
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
AMERICANA
INTERNATIONAL EDITION
COMPLETE IN THIRTY VOLUMES
FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1829
GROLIER INCORPORATED
International Headquarters: Danbury, Connecticut 06816
304
MARCONI
nations to both the University of Bologna and
the Naval Academy at Leghorn. Marconi's later
TI
testimony that at age 20 he was "fairly well
March
acquainted" with prior work on radio waves by
Écult
Maxwell, Kelvin, Hertz, Édouard Branly, Oliver
shoul
Lodge, Augusto Righi "and many others" cannot
west
easily be attributed to the resources at Leghorn.
carrie
His oldest daughter Degna's 1962 biography of
Mors
her father says that Righi, a professor at the Uni.
and
versity of Bologna and a neighbor of the Villa
3.38
Grifone, allowed the eager young Marconi to
time,
audit classes and do laboratory exercises at the
only
university, and offered advice when requested.
rond
Whatever the preliminaries, Marconi seems to
11
have first hit on the idea of communication by
for =
radio waves in mid-1894, after reading a memo-
xhie
rial review of Hertz' work written by Righi. In
trans
the Villa Grifone's long attic he assembled a
finall
Hertz-Righi spark transmitter and a Branly-Lodge
den.
coherer receiver, and by early 1895 he could ring
T
a bell a few yards away. For greater distance
the 5
the experiments were moved outdoors. Major
drivi
improvements resulted when horizontal wires a
Marc
few feet long were extended from each side of
thou
the transmitter spark circuit and terminated in
irrep
suspended metal plates, and a similar structure
the
was attached to the receiver circuit. When in late
man:
1895 these wires were changed to a vertical posi-
lentl
coni
tion, and the lower plates laid flat on moist earth,
BROWN BROTHERS
U.S.
Marconi's radio operated a Morse "inker" at the
Guglielmo Marconi at one of the radio transmitting and
1915
receiving stations that inaugurated the era of radio.
remote end of the estate, more than a mile away
and over a small hill. This antenna-ground struc-
side
a di
ture was a major invention.
sent
MARCONI, mär-kõ'nē, Guglielmo (1874-1937),
Marconi's parents now agreed that it was time
nica
Italian inventor, who received half of the 1909
to explore commercial prospects. Following re-
wee
Nobel Prize for physics for his work in develop-
jections in Italy, an Irish relative and grain-
mun
ing wireless telegraphy. This award surprised
milling engineer, Henry Jameson Davis, invited
quel
many physicists, since previous awards had been
Marconi to come to London. Marconi arrived
dire
for such laboratory studies as revealing X rays,
there with equipment in February 1896. By
its ti
radium and radioactivity, and the electron. What
July a patent was applied for and granted, and
ect,
had Marconi done? Measured by the extent to
a successful demonstration was made to Post
H. J
which he had shattered firmly established "laws
Office engineers over a distance of almost a mile.
Offi
of nature," Marconi was well qualified for the
When the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Com-
way
prize. Mainly in the years 1900-1903, he had
pany was formed a year later, the distance
meg
shown that the electromagnetic waves predicted
achieved was close to 10 miles (16 km).
I
by James Clerk Maxwell and demonstrated by
For the next three years Marconi, with com-
a 2:
Heinrich Hertz could carry messages at frequen-
pany money, engaged mainly in building several
nam
cies of a few hundred kilohertz 2,000 miles
experimental wireless stations, extending the maxi-
erni
(3,200 km) and more around the earth's curva-
mum distance of transmission and making demon-
own
ture, many times farther than any known theory
strations whose publicity might bring business.
tory
A major obstacle to commercial success was the
would allow. It was a major geophysical dis-
of h
covery not fully explained until the 1920's.
total government monopoly in Britain and many
last
European countries of all facilities for commercial
Marconi's background for the accomplishment
crov
message-handling within or between the coun-
was unusual. His 38-year-old widower father,
high
Giuseppe, a businessman of Bologna, Italy, had
tries. Communications exempted from the mo-
boo
eloped in 1864 with 17-year-old Annie Jameson,
nopoly included ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore
the
service and a few transoceanic routes. Thus the
a music student from a well-to-do family in Ire-
niqu
land. Their children were Alfonso, born a year
company's first small income-producing contracts
were with Lloyd's of London, the British Army
Mai
later, and Guglielmo, born in Bologna on April
and Navy, and three shipping companies.
elit
25, 1874. About 1855, Giuseppe's father had
By mid-1900, Marconi had persuaded his
to
sold the Marconi ancestral estates and bought the
Villa Grifone, a manor house with several hun-
directors that transatlantic service was of prime
usu
dred acres at Pontecchio near Bologna. This was
financial importance. The company's first super-
eng
Marconi's home until the age of 22, and here he
power station, with a transmitter designed by
first
performed his first crucial experiments in wireless
consultant John A. Fleming of the University of
Iris
London, was ready at Poldhu in Cornwall a year
terr
telegraphy using radio waves generated by elec-
later, followed shortly by a similar station at
mai
tric sparks.
South Wellfleet on Cape Cod, Mass. When both
in ]
Frequent childhood visits with his mother to
relatives in Britain made Marconi fluently bi-
flimsy antenna structures collapsed in autumn
bea
lingual at an early age. Formal schooling started
storms, Marconi had a simpler one built at
Poldhu and then hurried to Newfoundland with
for
with a tutor at home, and ended about 1894
after seven years at the Leghorn Lyceum, a sort
receivers and kite antennas to establish the his-
Ma
of technical institute. He failed entrance exami-
toric priority of transatlantic wireless by receiving
Ital
the famous letter S on Dec. 12, 1901.
University of Bologna and
at Leghorn. Marconi's later
There will always be those who doubt that
age 20 he was "fairly well
Marconi received the legendary S, given the dif-
rior work on radio waves by
ficult conditions and the claimed frequency of
ertz, Édouard Branly, Oliver
shout 800 kilohertz. However, on his next east-
hi 'and many others' cannot
west Atlantic crossing a few weeks later, Marconi
to the resources at Leghorn.
carried equipment that received confirmed
Degna's 1962 biography of
Morse-inker messages to 1,550 miles (2,500 km),
Righi, a professor at the Uni.
and the letter S in headphones to 2,100 miles
and a neighbor of the Villa
13,380 km), from Poldhu. It was noted at the
e eager young Marconi to
time, but not fully appreciated, that this occurred
0 laboratory exercises at the
only at night, and that nothing was received be-
red advice when requested.
vond 700 miles (1,130 km) in the daytime.
eliminaries, Marconi seems to
While always pursuing other projects, Marco-
e idea of communication by
ni focused his primary attention after 1902 on the
1894, after reading a memo-
achievement of commercially reliable two-way
work written by Righi. In
transatlantic wireless telegraph service. He was
long attic he assembled a
finally successful in 1908, with stations in Clif-
insmitter and a Branly-Lodge
den. Ireland, and Glace Bay, Nova Scotia.
This attainment of his original dream marks
AP/WIDE WORLD
I by early 1895 he could ring
away. For greater distance
the summit of Marconi's role as innovator and
Ferdinand and Imeldo Marcos as they were about to be-
re moved outdoors. Major
driving force behind the company, now called
come president and first lady of the Philippines in 1965.
ed when horizontal wires a
Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, al-
extended from each side of
though he remained a world-famous figure and
k circuit and terminated in
irreplaceable company representative. In 1910
MARCOS, mär'kõs, Ferdinand E(dralin) (1917-
ates, and a similar structure
the company acquired an aggressive general
), Philippine political leader. He was the
eceiver circuit. When in late
manager, Godfrey Isaacs, who waged such re-
country's first president to succeed himself, its
e changed to a vertical posi-
lentless legal warfare against infringers of Mar-
first prime minister, and its first chief executive
coni's strong patents that by 1912 the biggest
to be exiled.
lates laid flat on moist earth,
U.S. companies were forced out of business. In
ated a Morse "inker" at the
Marcos was born in Sarrat, Ilocos Norte (Lu-
1915, when Italy entered World War II on the
zon), on Sept. 11, 1917. Throughout his political
tate, more than a mile away
side of the Allies, Marconi began a long period as
career he capitalized on his claim that he had led
This antenna-ground struc-
a distinguished international diplomatic repre-
ention.
a guerrilla unit against the Japanese during
sentative of his native land. His interest in tech-
now agreed that it was time
World War II, an assertion that U.S. Army docu-
nical experimentation reappeared for a few
ments made public in 1986 denied. Marcos was
al prospects. Following re-
weeks in 1916 when he carried out pioneer com-
Liberal minority leader in the lower house of
1 Irish relative and grain-
munication tests with "very short waves" at fre-
Congress from 1949 to 1959 and a senator from
enry Jameson Davis, invited
quencies of 100 to 300 megahertz, using highly
) London. Marconi arrived
1959 to 1965. After becoming Senate president
directional antennas. The work was far ahead of
int in February 1896. By
in 1963 he switched to the Nationalist party, and
its time. A decade later his assistant on this proj-
pplied for and granted, and
in the 1965 election for president of the Philip-
ect, company engineer C.S. Franklin, along with
pines he defeated Diosdado Macapagal.
stration was made to Post
H. J. Round and others, built for the British Post
a distance of almost a mile.
During his first term as president, Marcos
Office a worldwide system of high-power short-
Telegraph and Signal Com-
built roads, bridges, airports, and schools, and
wave stations using vacuum tubes at about 10
a year later, the distance
oversaw a tenfold increase in rice productivity.
megahertz.
He was reelected in 1969, but campaign waste
0 10 miles (16 km).
By 1921, Marconi was wealthy enough to buy
and mounting inflation led to violent demonstra-
e years Marconi, with com-
a 220-foot (67-meter) oceangoing steam yacht,
d mainly in building several
tions. In 1971 grenades were exploded at a pub-
named by him the Elettra, which the British gov-
lic rally of the opposition senatorial candidates,
stations, extending the maxi-
emment had seized in wartime from its Austrian
all of whom were wounded. Marcos took advan-
smission and making demon-
owner. Using it as both a globe-roaming labora-
licity might bring business.
tage of this incident to suspend habeas corpus
tory and a home, Marconi spent much of the rest
and to intern thousands of dissidents. Mean-
commercial success was the
of his life aboard. In 1932 it was the base for his
while, in order to circumvent the constitutional
nopoly in Britain and many
last important experimental discovery, that mi-
limit of eight consecutive years for a president's
f all facilities for commercial
crowaves at frequencies of 500 megahertz and
term of office, Marcos had called a constitutional
thin or between the coun-
higher bent farther below the horizon than text-
convention to create a parliamentary form of gov-
ns exempted from the mo-
books said they should. This work anticipated
ernment. As prime minister under this system,
p-to-ship and ship-to-shore
the "scatter propagation" communication tech-
he could rule indefinitely.
insoceanic routes. Thus the
nique used 20 years later in polar regions.
By 1971, Muslim unrest was increasing in the
income-producing contracts
Living in the heyday of the giant ocean liners,
south, and open revolt had broken out in the
London, the British Army
Marconi greatly enjoyed traveling with socially
north led by the New People's Army, a Maoist
shipping companies.
elite passengers in first-class luxury. He is said
group. Disorder spread to central Luzon in mid-
arconi had persuaded his
to have made more than 100 Atlantic crossings,
1972 following disastrous floods. In September
lantic service was of prime
usually at company expense. Several shipboard
1972, Marcos proclaimed martial law. As tempo-
The company's first super-
engagements were made and broken before his
rary president and (from 1973) concurrent prime
a transmitter designed by
first marriage in 1905 to a charming, aristocratic
minister under the new but suspended constitu-
leming of the University of
Irish girl, Beatrice O'Brien. Romances with in-
tion, he ruled by decree. He muzzled the press,
Poldhu in Cornwall a year
ternational socialites recurred at intervals. The
ly by a similar station at
nationalized major industries, and seized proper-
marriage was terminated by Vatican annulment
ties of his opponents-whose leader, Sen. Benig-
ape Cod, Mass. When both
in 1927, when he married Cristina Bezzi-Scali, a
no Aquino, was convicted of subversion by a
tures collapsed in autumn
beautiful titled Italian less than half his age.
military tribunal and imprisoned until 1980.
] a simpler one built at
For many reasons, including company trans-
ried to Newfoundland with
formations and health problems, the center of
International groups protested Marcos' violation
tennas to establish the his-
Marconi's life after 1927 gradually reverted to
of human rights, charging his government with
torture and murder.
tlantic wireless by receiving
Italy. He died in Rome on July 20, 1937.
In 1978, his emergency rule endorsed by
n Dec. 12, 1901.
ROBERT A. CHIPMAN, University of Toledo
questionable referenda, Marcos permitted the
305
thenry Ford
VOLUME 11
Falstaff to Francke
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
AMERICANA
INTERNATIONAL EDITION
COMPLETE IN THIRTY VOLUMES
FIRST PUBLISHED IN 1829
GROLIER INCORPORATED
International Headquarters: Danbury, Connecticut 06816
566
FORD
FORD, Henry (1863-1947), American automobile
the low-priced Model N, he moved to the
manufacturer, who revolutionized the early in-
T, which appeared late in 1908.
dustry with his low-priced Model T, produced
sturdy vehicle had a 4-cylinder,
by assembly-line methods. He popularized the
motor; ignition was provided by
automobile as a means of transportation for the
into the engine; a planetary
average American and created a major company.
Early Life. Ford was born in Springwells
gears; "splash" lubrication was used; and OF
nated the gear shift and danger of stripping
township (now part of Dearbom), Mich., on July
30, 1863. He attended rural schools and early dis-
strength, was employed in many of the
dium steel, easy to machine but of high terms VESID
played mechanical and inventive skills. In 1879
parts. Although his associates contributed
he moved to Detroit, where he obtained a job as
a machinist's apprentice. During the next few
nificantly to the novel features of the vehicle sig,
Ford was responsible for the overall concept
years he worked for several different companies,
repaired watches and clocks as a sideline, and
many of the basic ideas embodied in the of and
struction of the Model T.
improved his knowledge of machinist and engi-
neering skills by reading and practice.
The car, which sold for $825 as a roads:
After his apprenticeship, Ford set up and re-
and $850 as a touring car, clearly met the needs
paired Westinghouse steam engines in southern
and means of the American public. In the the
Michigan for about a year. He married Clara J.
year more than 10,000 Model T's were sold.
Bryant on April 11, 1888. They moved to De-
1914 the number reached 250,000, and Ford heid IL
troit in 1891 and two years later Ford was made
just under 50% of the nation's automobile mari,
chief engineer of the Edison Illuminating Com-
By the time its production ceased in 1927. 13
million T's had changed American motoring
pany. On Nov. 6, 1893, the Fords' only child,
Ford's concentration on the Model T
Edsel Bryant, was born.
mitted him to utilize standardized parts pay. 271
Car Builder and Racer. Fascinated by the prom-
assembly-line production. The volume of produce
ise of the internal combustion engine and its
tion made it possible to reduce the price of the
application to a self-propelled vehicle, Ford con-
car steadily without detriment to profits.
structed a 1-cylinder gasoline motor in 1893. He
A
major advertising campaign kept the Model T
went on to build his first car, a light carriage
the public's eye, and nationwide distribution "as in
powered by a 2-cylinder engine, which was
handled through a carefully devised network of
completed in June 1896. He resigned from the
branch agencies and dealerships. "Road men
Edison company in 1899 to organize the Detroit
working out of branch agencies, ensured that
Automobile Company.
dealers, who numbered some 7,000 by 1913
The new company was forced into bank-
provided adequate repair service and presented
ruptcy in less than two years, and Ford decided
a favorable image.
to make a reputation for his cars as racers. This
Patent Victory and $5 Daily Wage. Ford Has
decision brought him into conflict with the
always of an independent frame of mind, and he
backers of the reorganized Detroit Automobile
refused to join the automobile manufacturers who
Company, now known as the Henry Ford Com-
accepted the validity of a patent obtained In
pany. Unable to develop a racer on company
George B. Selden on a basic gasoline engine and
time, he left the firm (which then dropped his
paid royalties to the holders of the patent. A
name) in March 1902. Ford's racers brought
court fight resulted, and in 1911 Ford's position
him the publicity he sought. He defeated
that he had not infringed the patent was upheld
Alexander Winton in a memorable race at Grosse
His reputation was further enhanced in 1914
Pointe, Mich., in October 1901, and Barney
when the company announced a $5 daily mins.
Oldfield, driving a Ford racer, added to the
mum wage for employees who met certain bask
builder's reputation. Ford drove his "999" to a
requirements. This step was hailed as an innova.
world's record of 39.4 seconds for a mile over
tion in employee compensation and made em-
the ice on Lake St. Clair in January 1904.
ployment at the Ford plant a prize.
Ford Motor Company Organized. Meanwhile,
Changes and Troubles. Ford's position in the
Ford, with the financial backing of a Detroit coal
company was so strong that he could dictate
dealer, Alexander Y. Malcolmson, and a small
policy when he was so inclined. After 1914 he
group of investors, had organized the Ford Motor
became increasingly disposed to exercise this
Company on June 16, 1903. Its principal assets
power. His decision to integrate operations from
were Ford's talent and that of his assistant, C. H.
raw material to finished vehicle threatened the
Wills, backed by the business acumen of James
Dodge brothers, parts suppliers who held a 10%
Couzens, Malcolmson's office manager and later
interest in the Ford firm. A controversy erupted
U.S. senator from Michigan. Ford owned 25.5%
but Ford acquired the Dodges' stock, and by
of the stock of the new company, which was
1919 he and his immediate family held complete
capitalized at $150,000, of which only $28,000
control of the Ford Motor Company.
was paid in cash. The first car produced by the
Despite setbacks, especially in the post-World
new company was sold within a month, and from
War I Depression, Ford continued to integrate
then on orders and production rose rapidly.
production processes under one roof at the huge
In 1905, Malcolmson and Ford were at odds
new Rouge plant in Dearborn. However, he lost
over the type of car on which the company
or dismissed many of the key individuals who
should concentrate. Malcolmson favored an ex-
had helped to build the company's early success
pensive car that the market appeared to demand,
Ford's son, Edsel (1893-1943), became presi-
but Ford argued for a simple, inexpensive model.
dent of the company in 1919 and displayed con-
As a result of their disagreement, Malcolmson
siderable executive talent. The automobile mar-
was put under pressure to sell his interest in the
ket was changing and the purchasing public
company. When he finally did so, Ford became
wanted more than a sturdy, compact, black car
the majority stockholder and president in 1906.
such as the Model T. The car buyer was willing
Success of the Model T. Free to follow his own
to buy on the installment plan, but Henry Ford
ideas, Ford found overwhelming success. From
had little sympathy for sales on credit. Edsel was
Ref.
PN6081
P55
WH
Respectfully
Quoted
A Dictionary of Quotations
Requested from the
Congressional Research Service
edited by Suzy Platt
Congressional Reference Division
PROPERTY OF
LIBRARY
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF
THE PRESIDENT
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS . WASHINGTON . 1989
Santa Claus
"Dear Editor: I am 8 years old.
"Some of my little friends say there is no Santa Claus.
"Papa says 'If you see it in The Sun it's so.'
"Please tell me the truth; is there a Santa Claus?
"Virginia O'Hanlon.
"115 West Ninety-fifth Street."
Virginia, your little friends are wrong. They have been affected by the skepticism of a
skeptical age. They do not believe except they see. They think that nothing can be which is
not comprehensible by their little minds. All minds, Virginia, whether they be men's or
children's are little. In this great universe of ours man is a mere insect, an ant, in his
intellect, as compared with the boundless world about him, as measured by the intelligence
capable of grasping the whole of truth and knowledge.
Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus. He exists as certainly as love and generosity
and devotion exist, and you know that they abound and give to your life its highest beauty
and joy. Alas! how dreary would be the world if there were no Santa Claus. It would be as
dreary as if there were no Virginias. There would be no childlike faith then, no poetry, no
romance to make tolerable this existence. We should have no enjoyment, except in sense
and sight. The eternal light with which childhood fills the world would be extinguished.
Not believe in Santa Claus! You might as well not believe in fairies! You might get
your papa to hire men to watch in all the chimneys on Christmas Eve to catch Santa Claus,
but even if they did not see Santa Claus coming down, what would that prove? Nobody sees
Santa Claus, but that is no sign that there is no Santa Claus. The most real things in the
world are those that neither children nor men can see. Did you ever see fairies dancing on
the lawn? Of course not, but that's no proof that they are not there. Nobody can conceive or
imagine all the wonders there are unseen and unseeable in the world.
You may tear apart the baby's rattle and see what makes the noise inside, but there
is a veil covering the unseen world which not the strongest man, nor even the united
strength of all the strongest men that ever lived, could tear apart. Only faith, fancy, poetry,
love, romance, can push aside that curtain and view and picture the supernal beauty and
glory beyond. Is it all real? Ah, Virginia, in all this world there is nothing else real and
abiding.
No Santa Claus! Thank God! he lives, and he lives forever. A thousand years from
now, Virginia, nay, ten times ten thousand years from now, he will continue to make glad
the heart of childhood.
FRANCIS P. CHURCH, "Is There a Santa Claus," editorial, The Sun, New York City,
September 21, 1897, p. 6.
After Church's death on April 11, 1906, The Sun broke its policy of editorial ano-
nymity to announce that he had written this editorial.
Science
1661 It is not enough that you should understand about applied science in order that your
work may increase man's blessings. Concern for the man himself and his fate must always
form the chief interest of all technical endeavors; concern for the great unsolved problems
of the organization of labor and the distribution of goods in order that the creations of our
mind shall be a blessing and not a curse to mankind. Never forget this in the midst of your
diagrams and equations.
ALBERT EINSTEIN, speech at the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Cali-
fornia, February 16, 1931, as reported in The New York Times, February 17, 1931, p. 6.
1662 Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind.
312
Science
ALBERT EINSTEIN, paper prepared for initial meeting of the Conference on Science,
Philosophy and Religion in Their Relation to the Democratic Way of Life, New York City,
September 9-11, 1940.-Einstein, Out of My Later Years, chapter 8, part 1, p. 26 (1950, rev.
and reprinted 1970).
Hanlon.
Street."
1663 Modern civilization depends on science
James Smithson was well aware that
ticism of a
knowledge should not be viewed as existing in isolated parts, but as a whole, each portion of
be which is
which throws light on all the other, and that the tendency of all is to improve the human
be men's or
mind, and give it new sources of power and enjoyment
narrow minds think nothing of
ant, in his
importance but their own favorite pursuit, but liberal views exclude no branch of science or
intelligence
literature, for they all contribute to sweeten, to adorn, and to embellish life
science is
the pursuit above all which impresses us with the capacity of man for intellectual and moral
generosity
progress and awakens the human intellect to aspiration for a higher condition of humanity.
hest beauty
JOSEPH HENRY, first secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Inscription on the
would be as
National Museum of American History, Washington, D.C.
) poetry, no
ept in sense
1664 What is a scientist?
We give the name scientist to the type of man who has felt
iguished.
experiment to be a means guiding him to search out the deep truth of life, to lift a veil from
u might get
its fascinating secrets, and who, in this pursuit, has felt arising within him a love for the
lanta Claus,
mysteries of nature, SO passionate as to annihilate the thought of himself.
Nobody sees
hings in the
MARIA MONTESSORI, The Montessori Method, trans. Anne E. George, p. 8 (1964).
dancing on
conceive or
1665 A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making
them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation
e, but there
grows up that is familiar with it.
the united
MAX PLANCK, Scientific Autobiography and Other Papers, trans. Frank Gaynor, pp.
ancy, poetry,
33-34 (1950).
beauty and
Ise real and
Sea
I years from
) make glad
1666 I have seen the sea lashed into fury and tossed into spray, and its grandeur moves
the soul of the dullest man; but I remember that it is not the billows, but the calm level of
the sea from which all heights and depths are measured.
V York City,
Representative JAMES A. GARFIELD, speech nominating John Sherman for presi-
dent.-Proceedings of the Republican National Convention, Chicago, Illinois, June 2-8,
ditorial ano-
1880, p. 184 (1881).
Garfield himself was ultimately nominated at this convention.
1667 As they say on my own Cape Cod, a rising tide lifts all the boats. And a partnership,
by definition, serves both partners, without domination or unfair advantage. Together we
er that your
have been partners in adversity-let us also be partners in prosperity.
must always
ed problems
President JOHN F. KENNEDY, address in the Assembly Hall at the Paulskirche,
ations of our
Frankfurt, West Germany, June 25, 1963.-Public Papers of the Presidents of the United
idst of your
States: John F. Kennedy, 1963, p. 519.
Kennedy used the "rising tide" image a number of times.
adena, Cali-
1931,p.6.
313
312
Mator Policy Initrative
BUDGET OF THE
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT
netet.
may not.add to the titals
OF THE
THE
PRESIDENT
OF
OFFICE OFFICE OF AND BUDGET OF UNITED THE
03
FISCAL YEAR 1991
III.C. ENHANCING RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT: AN INVESTMENT IN THE
FUTURE
Research and development (R&D) yields new
ments on space platforms to be developed
knowledge, products and processes that, over
by the U.S., Europe and Japan over sever-
the long term, result in economic growth and
al decades.
improved quality of life for all Americans. In-
Agricultural Research Initiative.-The
vestment in research and development is a top
priority for an Administration that believes in
budget proposes the first step of a new
investing in the future. It is the key to enhanc-
program in agricultural research, designed
to enhance production efficiency, food
ing American competitiveness, improving our
safety and environmental quality.
quality of life, and laying the groundwork for
building a better tomorrow.
Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome.-An overall
The budget proposes to allocate about $71
increase of 18 percent in all aspects of the
billion in budget authority for research and
Federal response to HIV/AIDS: research,
development, including R&D facilities, in 1991.
prevention, treatment, and income sup-
This is an increase of $4.5 billion, or 7 percent
port.
over 1990 enacted levels. Civilian R&D will
increase by 12 percent while defense-related
Moon-Mars Exploration.-A major new
R&D will increase by 4 percent. Within this
effort of $1.3 billion to develop the ena-
total, $12 billion will be allocated for basic re-
bling technologies and begin the robotic
search, an increase of $1 billion or about 8
science missions needed to carry out the
percent over 1990.
President's goal of manned exploration of
space beyond Earth orbit. This effort is the
The 1991 budget contains a number of new
first step toward a manned lunar base and
and expanded programs and initiatives that
a manned mission to Mars.
will contribute greatly to the Nation's R&D
enterprise. Examples include:
Space Station Freedom.-A 36 percent in-
crease for the development of Space Sta-
Doubling of the National Science Founda-
tion Freedom to a total of $2.6 billion. This
tion budget.-An increase of over 14 per-
increase will provide for the critical transi-
cent which will continue progress toward
tion from design to the initial fabrication
doubling the NSF budget by 1993.
of long-lead hardware elements.
Global Change.-An increase of 57 percent
Superconducting Super Collider (SSC).-An
for the U.S. Global Change Research Pro-
increase of $100 million (or 46 percent) for
gram (USGCRP), to a total of over $1 bil-
the SSC to a total of $318 million. This
lion. This program places the United
will support continued work to complete
States in a world leadership role in cli-
the design of the prototype magnets, and
mate change research. A major portion of
transition from prototype to production.
this increase will be used to initiate the
The funding level maintains the 10-year
Earth Observing System, a series of instru-
design and construction schedule.
67
68
THE BUDGET FOR FISCAL YEAR 1991
ENHANCING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
(Dollar amounts in millions)
Budget Authority
Outlays
1990
1991
Dollar
Per-
1990
1991
cent
En-
Pro-
Dollar
Per-
En-
Pro-
acted
posed
change
acted
posed
change
cent
change
change
Major initiatives: 1
гизмчолауза
Doubling the NSF budget
2,084
2,383
+299
+14
1,959
2,213
+254
+13
Global Change
659
1,034
+375
+57
595
853
+258
+43
Agricultural Research Initiative
43
100
+57
+133
36
46
+10
+28
HIV/AIDS
2,932
3,463
+531
+18
2,454
3,203
+749
+31
Moon/Mars Exploration
859
1,267
+408
+47
767
1,037
+270
+35
Space Station Freedom
1,928
2,627
+699
+36
1,434
2,198
+764
+53
Magnetic Levitation Transportation
2
10
+8
+400
2
7
+5
+306
Superconducting Super Collider
218
318
+100
+46
188
293
+105
+56
Advanced Technology: Robotics
150
192
+42
+28
126
166
+41
+32
Science and Engineering Education
839
1,061
+222
+26
723
871
+148
+20
Government-wide totals:
Conduct of R&D:
Basic Research
11,398
12,366
+968
+8
10,961
11,886
+925
+8
Civilian
10,459
11,372
+913
+9
10,016
10,911
+895
+9
Defense 2
939
994
+55
+6
945
975
+30
+3
Applied Research and Development
52,313
55,773
+3,461
+7
51,124
53,745
+2,622
+5
Civilian
13,375
15,346
+1,971
+15
12,321
14,449
+2,129
+17
Defense 2
38,938
40,427
+1,490
+4
38,803
39,296
+493
+1
Subtotal, Conduct of R&D
63,711
68,140
+4,429
+7
62,085
65,632
+3,547
+6
R&D Facilities
3,023
3,059
+36
2,590
2,738
+149
+6
Total 3
66,734
71,199
+4,465
+7
64,674
68,370
+3,695
+6
1 Major initiatives include funds for research and development which also are included in the Government-wide
totals for R&D as well as funds from other non-R&D programs.
3 2 Includes military-related programs of the Departments of Defense and Energy.
Components may not add to totals because of rounding.
wen
R&D for Advanced Technology.-An in-
Intellectual Property.-The Administration
crease of 28 percent for robotics R&D, and
will aggressively pursue improved interna-
continued support for R&D on high-per-
tional protection of intellectual property.
formance computing, semiconductors, su-
The current negotiations in the Uruguay
perconductivity and advanced imaging.
Round of the General Agreements on Tar-
Science and Engineering Education.-The
iffs and Trade are an important forum for
Administration is committed to improving
this activity.
the quality of science and engineering edu-
cation. The budget will propose over $1
R&E Tax Credit.-The Administration will
billion for science and engineering educa-
propose to make the Research and Experi-
tion activities in five agencies.
mentation Tax Credit permanent.
Magnetic Levitation Transportation.-An
Encouraging R&D by Transnational Com-
increase of nearly 400 percent in funding
panies.-The Administration will propose
to $10 million to explore the possibility of
to make permanent the rules for alloca-
stepped-up U.S. efforts in this emerging
tion by transnational companies of R&D
technology.
91
III.C. ENHANCING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
87
nd
search) will be funded at $3.4 billion in 1991.
The "pipeline" of young people that feeds
20
The Department of Energy R&D activities in-
the S&E workforce may not be adequate in
a-
clude the research, development and testing of
either numbers or quality to provide the work-
S.
all nuclear weapons. The Department also con-
ers that will be needed during the next décade
as
ducts R&D on nuclear-powered directed energy
and beyond. Between 1980 and 2000, the
or
weapons for the Strategic Defense Initiative,
number of 18-24 year olds will decline by 19
ill
Naval reactor systems, and technology to
percent while the overall population will in-
on
verify arms control treaties.
crease by 18 percent. Even if the historic aver-
in
age holds, and 5, percent of 18-24 year olds
STRENGTHENING SCIENCE AND
obtain S&E degrees, the resulting shortfall in
TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
the S&E workforce could reach into the hun-
dreds of thousands. Moreover, many students
At a time when the number of American
with an expressed interest in science and engi-
e
students pursuing advanced science and engi-
neering careers leave the pipeline before get-
neering education is declining, the scientific
ting a degree in science and engineering. This
and engineering (S&E) workforce is becoming
is particularly true for underrepresented mi-
more critical to the strength of the overall
norities Currently Black and Hispanic chil-
economy. This is a disturbing trend
dren constitute 25 percent of our school chil-
d
Many jobs created in the future will require
dren; by the year 2000 this percentage will rise
people who are well-versed in mathematics
to 47 percent. Yet it is these groups that are
and science and who have greater facility with
now the most underrepresented in the S&E
it
higher order reasoning skills than most high-
workforce: in 1988, only 231 Black and Hispan-
school and college graduates now have. Be-
ic Americans earned doctorates in science or
tween 1976 and 1986, S&E employment grew
engineering fields (excluding psychology or the
at an average annual rate of over 6 percent,
social sciences). Together, Black and Hispanic
four times as fast as annual growth in the
Americans constitute 20 percent of the Na-
total U.S. workforce and twice the yearly rate
tion's population but only 4 percent of em-
1-
of increase in total professional employment.
ployed scientists and engineers.
is
ONLY A SMALL PROPORTION OF STUDENTS RECEIVE
SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING (S&E) DEGREES
IOL
S&E Students
nowho
are
onTotal S&E
under-
student
represented
population
minorities
Total sophomores in 1977
856,000
4,000,000
High school sophomores with S&E interest
86,000
730,000
High school seniors with S&E interest
bas
2065,000
590,000
College freshmen, S&E preference
bs40,000
340,000
College juniors, S&E major
14,000
214,000
S&E B.S. degrees
13,000
206,000
S&E graduate students
noilling
2,500
60,000
S&E M.S. degrees
U.
2,000
46,000
S&E Ph.D. degrees
Under 400
10,000
Note: Science and engineering participation reported here excludes: psychology and
the social sciences.
(Uperib
480
ons
e
JB
bemis
88
THE BUDGET FOR FISCAL YEAR 1991
This situation is compounded by an even
ings in the Nation's science and technology
more serious factor. The performance of U.S.
education enterprise. The 1991 budget provides
precollege students in math and science is far
the concrete manifestation of the Administra-
below that of students in other major industri-
tion's commitment in this area. It should be
alized nations. The quality of education, par-
noted, however, that the responsibility for both
ticularly science, mathematics, and engineer-
the quality and the quantity of the Nation's
ing education, must be improved if America is
to be competitive in the future.
S&E workforce belongs to every sector, not
just, and not primarily, to the Federal Govern-
The Administration is moving aggressively
ment.
on a number of fronts to address the shortcom-
to
INVESTING IN SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS, AND
ENGINEERING EDUCATION
(Dollar amounts in millions)
Budget Authority
Department or Agency
1990
1991
Dollar
Percent
Enacted
Proposed
change
change
National Science Foundation
357
463
+106
+30
Education
136
230
94
+69
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
42
51
+8
+21
Energy
17
25
+8
+47
National Institutes of Health
287
292
+5
+2
Total
839
1,061
+222
+26
The 1991 budget proposes a total of $1 bil-
the numbers of students entering and staying
lion in direct spending in four agencies for
in the S&E pipeline. Examples include: work-
science, mathematics, and engineering educa-
shops for teachers, development of innovative
tion, an increase of 26 percent above 1990. The
educational materials, research experiences for
direct spending programs include a variety of
high-school and college students in working re-
measures to support teacher training, curricu-
lum development, and direct assistance to stu-
search laboratories, and support for innovative
dents. In addition, there is a much greater
programs at many of the Nation's science mu-
amount of funding for fellowships and other
seums. In addition, NSF supports many pro-
forms of support that is provided indirectly
grams aimed specifically at recruiting and re-
through research grants.
taining underrepresented groups.
The 1991 budget provides $463 million to the
The Department of Education maintains
National Science Foundation for a range of
strong relationships with State educational en-
activities designed to improve education and
tities and has the ability to reach thousands of
develop human resources for science and engi-
students and teachers through its large formu-
neering. This is an increase of $106 million or
la grant programs. The 1991 budget proposes
30 percent over 1990. NSF directly supports
$230 million, an increase of $94 million or 69
high-leverage science, math, and engineering
percent over 1990, for the Dwight D. Eisenhow-
education programs aimed at improving the
er Mathematics and Science program, which
quality of teaching, the quality of students and
will be provided to States to develop and im-
III.D. INVESTING IN HUMAN CAPITAL
103
Student aid.-The other large program area
and management abilities to be teachers and
for Federal funding is postsecondary education
principals, increase the endowment funds of
financial aid. The 1991 budget continues to
the nation's Historically Black Colleges and
support over $18 billion in aid to almost 6,
Universities, and provide special funding for
million students with budget authority of $9.5
the school districts with the worst drug abuse
billion. This aid, in the form of grants and
problems.
subsidized loans and jobs, helps make it finan-
cially possible for qualified students to obtain
Congress did not complete action on the bill.
a postsecondary education, regardless of family
Appropriations were provided for 1990 for the
income.
two largest programs, Merit Schools and
Magnet Schools of Excellence, contingent upon
In recent years, some schools have taken ad-
passage of the authorizing legislation.
vantage of the availability of Federal student
aid to enroll students who are not truly quali-
The budget assumes that Congress will pass
fied for postsecondary education or for whom
the Educational Excellence Act on a timely
they will not be providing a good education
basis. For 1991, the budget includes $401 mil-
Many of these students are not equipped for
lion in budget authority for these programs.
the job market when they leave school and
often drop out of school very. early while the
Other Education Initiatives
school keeps the Federal aid. Some of these
Support for programs for the disadvantaged
dropouts have taken out large loans which
absorbs the bulk of Federal education spend-
they cannot repay, and thus default. The Edu-
ing. Other Federal program activities are less
cation Department is taking aggressive regula-
costly, but perhaps in the long run more im-
tory and administrative actions to stop these
portant for educational improvement. The
schools from taking advantage of Federal aid
budget for research and statistics and the Even
and of disadvantaged students. Additional leg-
Start program have already been discussed.
islative proposals will further strengthen the
Other key policies in the 1991 budget include:
Secretary's enforcement powers to prevent pro-
gram abuses.
Summit follow-up.-$20 million is requested
Much of the Federal student aid now sup-
for activities related to implementing the
ports vocational training, in addition to the
Summit Agreements. Uses may include activi-
traditional support for students attending two
ties to help States implement proposed legisla-
and four year colleges. The Administration is
tion providing flexibility and enhanced ac-
considering means to rationalize support for
countability, and additional funding for devel-
vocational training under the student aid pro-
opment of measures of progress toward nation-
grams, the Job Training Partnership Act, and
al educational goals.
the Vocational Education Act.
Dropout demonstrations.-$45 million is re-
quested for a program of dropout prevention
The Educational Excellence Act
demonstrations. These projects will be careful-
Shortly after taking office, President Bush
ly designed to build on the learning from $22
proposed eight education initiatives. In addi
million in dropout demonstrations now coming
tion to providing renewed Presidential commit-
to an end. Coupled with evaluation of the prior
ment to improved education, his goal was to
demonstrations, and $5 million in new dropout
reinvigorate the education reform movement
research, these projects will help States learn
by selectively adding Federal money in select-
how to prevent young people from dropping
ed areas.
out of school and how to help them return to
The President transmitted his bill, "The
school if they do drop out.
Educational Excellence Act", on April 5, 1989.
School principals.-Principals and other ad-
This bill would give incentives to schools to
ministrators play essential leadership roles in
improve educational achievement, expand the
school reform. A new $25 million program is
use of magnet schools, reward excellent teach-
included in the budget that will improve the
ers and students, promote the hiring of per-
abilities of school principals and other admin-
sons with proven subject matter knowledge
istrators. Under this program, talented persons
104
THE BUDGET FOR FISCAL YEAR 1991
preparing to become principals will receive
Working Group on Education is coordinating
some short-term training and then spend a
literacy initiatives across many agencies of
year with a proven successful principal to
government, and is developing plans for close
learn from this "mentor" how best to address
cooperation with volunteer and private sector
the complex problems of school administration.
literacy action efforts.
Mathematics and science education.-$230
Historically black colleges and universities.
million is proposed for the Dwight D. Eisen-
$95 million is provided to support the oper-
hower Mathematics and Science Education
ations of historically black colleges and univer-
programs, a 70 percent increase over what
sities and graduate institutions. Most impor-
Congress provided in 1990. These programs
tantly, an additional $15 million is provided
provide funds to States to improve the knowl-
for matching endowment grants for these insti-
edge and teaching abilities of mathematics and
tutions, triple the amount provided in 1990.
science teachers. In addition, programs for sci-
Encouraging the building of endowments is the
ence, mathematics and engineering education
government's most effective contribution to
in the National Science Foundation are pro-
the future financial independence of these in-
posed to be increased by $100 million, to $460
stitutions:
million, a 28 percent increase over 1990. Other
iborios
Federal agencies, such as the National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration and the
SUMMARY OF THE EDUCATION BUDGET
Energy Department, also have education ini-
AND POLICIES FOR 1991
tiatives. The Domestic Policy Council Working
The 1991 budget for the Education Depart-
Group on Education is providing coordination
ment asks Congress to provide $1.2 billion
across agencies.
more in 1991 than it did in 1990 for discretion-
Literacy.-$239 million is proposed for the
ary programs. This is a 6 percent increase. The
Adult Education programs of the Department
projected decline in interest rates, to which
of Education, an increase of more than 25 per-
guaranteed student loan subsidies are tied,
cent over what Congress provided in 1990. In
produces anticipated savings of nearly $700
1991, $200 million would be distributed to
million which help finance the discretionary
States to help finance remedial education and
program increases. The combination of discre-
thus to improve the literacy levels of adults
tionary increases and loan subsidy savings re-
The Education Department will also create a
sults in a total Federal Education Department
new Adult Literacy Clearinghouse to help
budget of $24.6 billion, an increase of $500 mil-
States, volunteer groups and the private sector
lion over total 1990 budget authority. This is
share knowledge of what works in literacy pro-
the largest education budget ever proposed.
grams. Funding is also proposed to be doubled
The Presidential and State commitments to
from $3 million to $6 million in 1991 for the
educational improvement supported by this
VISTA (Volunteer in Service to America) Lit-
budget represent a new beginning for national
eracy Corps of the ACTION agency, which sup-
education policy. There can now be some cau-
ports volunteer efforts to overcome the prob-
tious optimism for improvements in education
lems of illiteracy. The Domestic Policy Council
in the 1990s and far into the next century.
IMPROVING JOB TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES
Learning does not end with graduation from
though most job training is provided by em-
high school or college. It is a constant life-long
ployers for their employees, the government
process. If giving every child the opportunity
also provides second chance job training for
for a basic education is essential in a demo-
those with poor skills who have not succeeded
cratic society, so is providing access to addi-
in the traditional education establishment or
tional training beyond the classroom. Al-
work environment.
BUILDING
A BETTER
AMERICA
"We live in a peaceful, prosperous time, but we can make it better
A new breeze is blowing, and a nation refreshed by freedom stands ready
to push on. There is new ground to be broken, and new action to be taken." "
-- President Bush
Inaugural Address
January 20, 1989
December 11, 1989
15
restructuring of the education system; and measuring
performance. A commitment was made to develop national
goals and initiatives to increase flexibility and
accountability by early 1990.
On April 5, the President submitted to Congress a
comprehensive set of education initiatives, The Educational
Excellence Act of 1989. The Act proposes:
-- The Presidential Merit Schools program -- to reward
schools that are making substantial progress in raising
students' educational achievement, creating a safe and
drug-free school environment, and reducing the drop-out
rate.
--
A new Magnet Schools of Excellence program -- to
support the establishment, expansion or enhancement of
magnet schools, focusing on disciplines important to
the Nation's economic competitiveness such as math and
science, increasing parental choice and improving
quality education.
-- The Alternative Certification of Teachers and
Principals program -- to assist States interested in
broadening the pool of talent from which to recruit
teachers and principals.
--
President's Awards for Excellence in Education -- to
recognize public and private school teachers in every
state who meet the highest standards of excellence.
--
Drug-free Schools Urban Emergency Grants -- to provide
special assistance to selected urban school districts
that are disproportionately affected by drug
trafficking and abuse.
--
A National Science Scholars program -- to provide
college scholarships to high school seniors who have
excelled in the sciences and mathematics.
--
Additional Funding Authorization for Endowment Matching
Grants at Historically Black Colleges and Universities
(HBCUS) -- to strengthen HBCUs by building endowments,
an especially effective way to create financial
strength and long-term security.
On April 24, the President issued a new Executive Order on
Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Highlights of
the order include:
861-4000
522-1212
Corrie Levendasoki
334-1563(9)
1
334 - 1657
on smbitions
1st in the world
in moth de science
by the YOAR
2000
1
-Roe
Moon Landing
NGINEERING AND
ADVANCEMENT OF
Application
Satellites
HUMAN WELFARE
WE
II
I
/
Jumbo Jet
Microprocessor
Outstanding Achievements
Lasers
1964-1989
Computer-Aided
Design and
Manufacturing
Fiber-Optic
Communication
CAT Scan
Genetically
as
Engineered
Products
Advanced
Composite
NAE 25
Materials
The National Academy of
Engineering is a private
organization established in
1964. It shares in the
responsibility given the
National Academy of Sciences
under a congressional charter
granted in 1863 to advise
the federal government on
questions of science and
technology. This collaboration
is implemented primarily
through the National Research
Council. The National Academy
of Engineering also recognizes
distinguished engineers,
sponsors engineering programs
aimed at meeting national
needs, and encourages
education and research.
© 1989 by National Academy
of Engineering
Library of Congress Catalog No.
89-63947
International Standard Book No.
0-309-04185-6
Copies of this brochure are
available from:
Office of Public Awareness
National Academy of Engineering
NAS-069
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20418
Carrie Levandoski
Public Awareness Officer
ENGINEERING AND
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF
ENGINEERING
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20418
THE ADVANCEMENT OF
(202) 334-1657
Note poges
HUMAN WELFARE
14 14-17 17
NAE 25
CONTENTS
Introduction 2
Outstanding
Moon Landing 4
Achievements
Application Satellites 10
Microprocessor 14
1964-1989
Computer-Aided Design and
Manufacturing 18
CAT Scan 22
Selected by the National Academy of Engineering
on the occasion of its 25th anniversary
Advanced Composite
December 5, 1989
Materials 26
Jumbo Jet 30
Lasers 34
Fiber-Optic Communication 38
Genetically Engineered
Products 42
Further Reading 46
Acknowledgments 48
NAE 25
Introduction
The years 1964 to 1989, the first 25 years of
gave modern living conveniences to tens of
the National Academy of Engineering, have
thousands of people in the desert. The
witnessed more advancement in technology
Alaska pipeline, deepwater oil platforms,
and, consequently, greater change in the lives
and drilling technologies help supply much
of people than any previous 25-year period
of our energy need. Auto emission control
in recorded history. As part of its anniversary
systems, including the catalytic converter,
celebration, the Academy has selected what
and processes for vitrifying hazardous
it considers to be the 10 outstanding engi-
waste-sealing them in glass for long-term
neering achievements that have reached the
storage-provide additional protection for
public since the Academy's founding on
our environment. Artificial hearts, cardiac
December 5, 1964. Each represents a major
pacemakers, and orthopedic implants give
advance or breakthrough in engineering and
new life to thousands of people.
a significant contribution to human welfare.
The top 10 achievements are presented
This brochure presents each of the 10
here in nearly chronological order. In some
achievements in a separate story, where we
cases we have grouped related achieve-
share with you some of the engineering
ments. For instance, lasers stimulated the
challenge, insight, and excitement that
development of fiber-optic communication,
attended the achievements. In doing so, we
so we placed them together. And we chose to
hope also to convey a better understanding
lead the list with the moon landing, which is
of what engineering does and how it has
truly one of the outstanding engineering
contributed to human welfare over the past
achievements of all time.
quarter century by improving our lives,
The most striking aspect of these 10
extending our possibilities, and expanding
diverse achievements is how closely they are
our horizons.
tied together. The microprocessor, which has
Members of the Academy and represen-
probably had the widest impact of all, has
tatives of several professional engineering
contributed to the development of today's
societies submitted suggestions of outstand-
application satellites, the CAT scan, computer-
ing engineering achievements. More than
aided design and manufacturing, as well as
340 suggestions were reviewed by the NAE
genetically engineered products. Modern
Advisory Committee on the 25th Anniver-
jumbo jets benefit from microprocessors,
sary Celebration. The Council of the Acade-
computer-aided design and manufacturing,
my approved the top 10.
lasers, fiber-optic communication, advanced
No such list can encompass all the
composite materials, and application
technological advances important to society;
satellites. In turn, many of these achieve-
many other engineering accomplishments
ments are closely tied to earlier, sometimes
nearly made our list. The Indus Basin
seemingly unrelated advances in the basic
Scheme and its Tarbela Dam, for instance,
sciences, including mathematics.
bring flood relief and stable water supply to
It is also striking how widely and deeply
millions in Pakistan. The entirely new cities
these engineering advances have affected
of Jubail and Yanbu-ports at either end of
our daily lives. Weather satellites, which
the crude-oil pipeline across Saudi Arabia-
have been routinely used only since 1966,
generate the satellite pictures seen on almost
every television weather report. The micro-
processor, invented in 1971, operates toys,
televisions, videocassette recorders,
2
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
microwave ovens, and burglar alarms in
chemical analysis of the body without
probably the majority of U.S. homes.
breaking the skin? We've used microproces-
Advanced composites, which first appeared
sors to make soda machines talk, but can we
in commercial products in 1973, are now
use them to make computers really think
used by most people who golf, ski, or play
before they speak? And yes, we have been to
tennis. And every telephone call of any
the moon, but what about going to Mars?
distance is undoubtedly carried on beams of
The engineering achievements of the future
laser light flashed through fiber-optic cable, a
are limited only by the laws of nature and
service that has been commercially available
our own imagination.
only since 1977.
Because some engineering achievements
are often viewed as sources of environmental
degradation, it is important to note the
Robert W white
beneficial effects many of these 10 have had
on the environment. For example, the
ROBERT M. WHITE
famous pictures of the earth taken by Apollo
President
astronauts on their moon flights vividly
show us how delicate and small our planet is
compared with the forbidding immensity of
space. Photos from Landsat and other earth-
observation satellites for the first time have
given us a good look at our fragile global
environment, pinpointing areas needing
help. And microprocessors, by improving
the efficiency of everything from cars to
power plants, help conserve scarce natural
resources and greatly reduce the amount of
pollutants released into the environment.
The next 25 years will witness even
more advances in technology, bringing ever-
greater changes to our way of life. It is
therefore important, if we are to ensure the
wise use of technology, that all of us-
engineers and nonengineers alike-
understand the nature of engineering and
how it can be used to benefit us individually
and as a society.
Finally, it is obvious that many more
fascinating challenges for engineers lie in
the future. We've built CAT scans and other
wonderful machines that peer into the
unopened human body, but can we develop
devices and techniques that perform a total
INTRODUCTION
3
Moon
Landing
Right: The first steps of
Six hundred million people-
an earthling on another
celestial body are recorded in
nearly one-fifth of the world's
moon dust.
population-watched on
television in July 1969 as an
earthling first set foot onto
another celestial body. With
that step, human conscious-
ness leaped a quarter million
miles into space, expanding
mankind's vision to a degree
unequalled since Columbus's
voyage to the New World.
"The astronauts didn't just
go to the moon," said one
observer. "All our minds went
to the moon."
back revealed that the moon was formed at
the same time and of the same elements as
Looking back from the moon, people
earth but that it lacks water, atmosphere, and
saw white wispy clouds and blue sparkling
life. The astronauts also left instruments to
water covering a planet framed by immense
gather data on ground tremors and other
darkness. Earth appeared as a highly
phenomena. A laser reflector left by Apollo 11
integrated unit, not just a collection of
astronauts is still being used to measure the
isolated oceans and continents. And it was
earth-to-moon distance and study the
strikingly obvious how small, fragile, and
movement of continents.
beautiful our planet really is, a precious oasis
The feat of landing men on the moon
in the vastness of space.
and returning them safely home ranks the
The Apollo program sent nine spacecraft
Apollo project with the Egyptian pyramids,
to the moon from 1968 to 1972, landing a
the Panama Canal, and the Manhattan
dozen astronauts at six different sites. The
Project as outstanding engineering achieve-
rocks and scientific information they brought
ments of all time. It stands alone for the
advances in size and sophistication it made
over prior technology. Apollo required a
4
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
=
U
asse
=
ID
rocket 15 times more powerful, a navigation
worked together well enough SO that
Apollo 17 is readied for a
system far more reliable, a unique lunar
millions of parts would arrive where they
nighttime launch toward the
landing craft, and improved space suits
should on schedule and would fit and
moon, peeking out from the
clouds beyond. The spacecraft
capable of withstanding a very hostile
function properly.
carried the first scientist to
environment. In addition, the program
The Saturn/Apollo system was com-
the moon and was the only
demanded a novel, comprehensive manage-
posed of an Apollo spacecraft, a lunar lander,
one launched at night in the
ment system to ensure that thousands of
Apollo series.
government and industrial organizations
MOON LANDING
5
and a three-stage Saturn V rocket, which
engines of the Saturn V, however, each
launched them toward the moon. Once in
produced 1.5 million pounds, and there were
lunar orbit, the spacecraft released the two-
five. Together they burned 3 tons of kerosene
stage lander, which carried two of the three
and liquid oxygen per second. Building
astronauts to the surface. The lander's ascent
reliability into such monstrous engines was a
stage later returned them to the spacecraft
monumental challenge. Yet, all 12 Saturn V
and was abandoned. Just before they
rockets launched in the Apollo series suc-
reentered the atmosphere, the astronauts
ceeded.
jettisoned the large service unit that supplied
To fuel the second and third stages,
engineers chose liquid hydrogen, which gave
40 percent more thrust per pound of fuel
burned than kerosene. The second stage was
a cluster of five engines, while the third had
just one. But unlike those in lower stages, the
third-stage engine had to be restartable in
order to push the spacecraft toward the
moon after coasting an hour and a half in
earth orbit.
Building a rocket of such size and design
required many new and advanced engineer-
ing techniques. The field of fracture mechan-
ics, for example, advanced greatly in answer-
ing questions raised during construction of
the second-stage fuel tank, which was 65 feet
long, 33 feet in diameter, and held liquid
hydrogen at -423 degrees F. The aluminum
tank was pieced together with literally miles
of welds, which could contain a few tiny
cracks. But how big could the cracks be
before they began to weaken the tank? By
analyzing aluminum with similar cracks,
engineers calculated the amount of pressure
the metal could stand before cracks of
various sizes begin to grow and thus become
dangerous. To ensure its safety, they tested
each second-stage tank by loading it with
liquid hydrogen at a pressure 5 percent
higher than the maximum required for flight.
If cracks did not grow at that pressure, they
would not grow at the lower pressure during
An Apollo 11 astronaut
power, water, and oxygen and returned to
flight.
unpacks a scientific
earth in the small command capsule of the
The Apollo flights would have been
experiment to measure
ground tremors on the moon.
spacecraft.
impossible without inertial navigation,
The small laser reflector, on
Buildings shook and the ground trem-
which was developed in the 1950s and was
the ground behind the
bled when a Saturn V rocket roared skyward
just being installed in the early 1960s on
astronaut, is still being used
with the first trio of astronauts heading for
aircraft, submarines, and ballistic missiles.
for laser measurements of the
lunar orbit in December 1968. The rocket
Radio navigation from earth was impractical
distance between the earth
and moon.
developed roughly enough thrust to hurl a
during the final minutes of a landing
small house into earth orbit. Thirty-six stories
approach to the moon. The time radio signals
tall and weighing as much as a good-sized
take to travel that distance is too long for the
Navy destroyer, the Saturn/Apollo vehicle
immediate reactions needed to land a craft
used the biggest, most powerful rocket ever
safely. Radio navigation was also useless for
built.
flights behind the moon because it requires
The first stage of the three-stage Saturn
line-of-sight transmission from earth.
V dwarfed the largest rockets of its day. An
Atlas ballistic missile, for instance, produced
360,000 pounds of thrust. The first-stage
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
Apollo's navigation-the rocket,
The five first-stage engines of
spacecraft, and lunar lander each had a
the mighty Saturn V rocket lift
Apollo 11 off the launch pad
separate system-included gyroscopes and
and start the spacecraft
accelerometers, which sensed change in
toward the moon. Astronauts
direction and speed. They were combined in
are in the conical command
single subsystems, called inertial measure-
capsule atop the rocket. Just
ment units, or IMUs, which measured
below the capsule is the
cylindrical service unit. Below
movement along, as well as off, the desired
that, the lunar lander is
course due to rocket thrust or atmospheric
packed in another cylinder
resistance. When leaving or approaching the
just above the rocket's third
earth or moon, IMUs were critical for making
stage.
quick guidance decisions. Gravitational
influences of the earth and moon were
calculated before flight and added to
onboard guidance computers. This informa-
tion and the IMU data permitted control
systems to keep the craft almost exactly on
course. During the flight, astronauts used a
sextant in calculating midcourse corrections.
In practice, however, ground radar stations
usually performed this time-consuming task
and radioed up commands to correct
deviations.
The two-stage lander that ferried
astronauts to the lunar surface was the first
manned vehicle designed to fly solely in
space. Its structure could be extremely
lightweight, since the moon's gravity is only
one-sixth that of earth. And aerodynamics
did not need to be considered, since there is
no air on the moon. The lander was essential-
ly built inside out. Its thin aluminum pres-
surized cabin was inside, wiring and tubing
surrounded that, and a patchwork of black
or golden insulating materials covered the
outside. These materials absorbed or reflect-
ed light, depending on whether that part of
the lander needed protection from cold or
heat. Its four spiderlike legs with wide foot
pads could keep the lander upright, whether
it touched down on a slope, in deep dust, or
under any of 500 other combinations of
terrain and landing conditions anticipated by
the engineers.
One of the most critical parts of the
lander was the small ascent engine. Once the
astronauts landed, they were completely
dependent on this engine to return them to
the mother ship. There was no backup. The
basic portion of the flight engine had been
briefly test-fired on earth. Its fuel system,
however, had not previously been exposed
to the highly corrosive propellants for fear of
weakening its seals and corroding its valves.
So engineers ground-tested ascent-engine
prototypes for every failure they could
MOON LANDING
7
required more than 450 persons in the launch
control center and nearly 7,000 others on 9
ships, in 54 aircraft, and at stations around
the world. At its peak, 400,000 people were
working on Apollo at three major space
centers and 20,000 contractor sites. The
people who managed Apollo pioneered
techniques that remain the model for
operating a massive, well-run engineering
program. In 1961 NASA estimated that the
project would cost $20 billion and would put
a man on the moon before 1970. The space
agency actually spent $25.4 billion for all the
Apollo flights. And two Apollo 11 astronauts
stepped onto the moon on July 20, 1969.
On the planning and control side of the
program, the Apollo managers created a
monitoring system that gave them enough
information to ensure that the millions of
pieces for the project were coming together at
the right time and place, in the right engi-
neering configuration, and for the right price.
To do this, they identified a few hundred
critical milestones-such as "rocket first
stage complete" or "stage shipped to Cape
Kennedy"-for each program area. Once a
month, contractors reported their progress to
the three NASA centers, who reported to the
Apollo managers. The managers, in turn,
identified projects that were falling
The lunar lander, seen from
imagine that might happen in flight. None
behind-most of them did-and devised
the Apollo 11 spacecraft,
did.
solutions to bring them back on schedule.
heads for a landing on the
Astronauts who walked on the moon
moon. The descent stage,
For instance, when a tragic fire killed three
with outstretched legs and
wore a three-piece space suit and backpack
astronauts during a ground test of their
protruding rocket nozzle, will
of life-support equipment for up to four
spacecraft, managers swiftly reviewed the
remain on the moon when the
hours outside the lander. The ensemble
safety of nearly the entire Saturn/Apollo
upper ascent stage brings the
weighed 190 pounds on earth but only a
system, redesigned the spacecraft and space
two astronauts back to the
mother ship.
sixth of that on the moon. The first piece was
suit, and brought the program back on
a cooling undergarment of knitted nylon-
schedule in little more than a year.
spandex with a network of plastic tubes
Right: Dressed in a three-
filled with water circulating from the
piece space suit, an Apollo 11
backpack. The next piece was the basic suit, a
astronaut climbs down a leg
of the lunar lander and hops
rubber-coated nylon bladder sandwiched
onto the hard, dusty surface
between a cloth lining and a nylon cover to
of the moon. His life-support
shape the suit. The third piece was a protec-
back pack carried enough
tive outer garment of 17 layers, including 6
oxygen for a 4-hour tour
layers of Beta cloth. This is a fireproof fabric
outside the lander.
of fiberglass threads coated with Teflon to
prevent itching. The outfit was completed by
a helmet, boots, gloves, and the backpack,
which also carried a radio and antenna.
The Apollo program was probably the
most complex and ambitious engineering
project ever attempted. A moon flight
8
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
On the technical side, the great challenge
astronauts traveled over the lunar surface
was to create a management system that
in a motorized rover to gather rocks and
would ensure the precise interface among
conduct scientific experiments. Apollo 17, the
millions of pieces-the Saturn V alone had
last of the program, carried the first scientist-
6 million-manufactured by thousands of
a geologist-to the moon in December 1972.
contractors. Careful records were kept of
Since the inception of the Apollo
specifications for all the parts and the
program, nearly all the known planets in our
interfaces between them. This documenta-
solar system and many of their moons have
tion was especially valuable when, for
been visited by unmanned spacecraft.
instance, during the unmanned second
Between them, the United States and the
Apollo flight, the first-stage engines began to
Soviet Union have sent automated probes to
Apollo 15 astronauts explore
flicker, a piece of an aluminum panel fell off,
Earth's two neighbors, Mars and Venus, as
the moon in a lunar rover,
and two second-stage engines quit early. By
well as to Mercury, the planet nearest the
which was packed aboard the
lander and unfolded on the
comparing flight instrument data with the
sun. U.S. probes have journeyed to all the
lunar surface. It carried the
documentation, engineers were able to find
other planets except Pluto. The most cele-
astronauts 17.5 miles during
the problems, simulate them on the ground,
brated unmanned spacecraft, Voyager 2, left
three exploratory tours and
and correct them with enough confidence to
Earth in 1977, rendezvoused with Jupiter in
helped them collect 170
go ahead with the next flight-the first with
1979 and then with Saturn, Uranus, and
pounds of moon rocks for the
return to earth.
astronauts aboard.
finally Neptune in 1989. Yet, it was man's
The first two moon flights-Apollo 8 and
landing on the moon that truly captured the
The earth, like a sparkling
10-put astronauts into lunar orbit; Apollo 11
world's imagination, an engineering achieve-
jewel against black velvet,
and 12 put them on the moon. An exploding
ment that has extended the human domain
rises above a barren lunar
oxygen tank in the service unit crippled
landscape to greet the Apollo
far beyond the boundaries of earth.
11 astronauts 240,000 miles
Apollo 13, whose astronauts took temporary
out in space.
shelter in the lunar lander during the
emergency return to earth. Apollo 14 went
smoothly. During the next three missions,
MOON LANDING
Application
Satellites
In November 1982, a U.S.
satellites later, Early Bird's descendants
weather satellite spotted a
handle up to 120,000 calls at once or share the
capacity with TV broadcasts, computer data,
hurricane developing south-
and electronic mail. They are part of a
west of Hawaii and watched it
worldwide communications network
start moving north. Suddenly
launched by the International Telecommuni-
cations Satellite Organization, or Intelsat,
the storm turned east and
which now has more than 100 member
raked across the islands less
nations.
Communications satellites have dramat-
than 24 hours later, leaving
CHARLESTON
ically altered the nature of our global com-
nearly a quarter billion dollars
munity. Twenty-five years ago, reliable
of damage in its wake. But
communications existed only between
only one life was lost. Hurri-
countries in the developed world. But
communications satellites and the develop-
cane warnings, based largely
ment of small, portable television cameras
on satellite pictures, had
have linked people together around the
alerted most people in time to
globe. In 1969, for example, communications
satellites brought TV coverage of the first
take shelter.
manned lunar landing-live from space-
The 125-mile-per-hour winds
Twenty-five years ago, there were no
to nearly a fifth of the world's population.
of Hurricane Hugo begin
operational satellites for weather forecasting
Today they bring instant coverage of news
to lash the coast of the
or for any other routine application. Today,
and events to every corner of the earth.
southeastern United States
under the constant gaze of a
however, satellite systems girdle the earth
Scores of civilian and military communi-
U.S. weather satellite.
watching for storms, relaying communica-
cations satellites sit in a ring around the earth
Satellite images warned
tions, mapping uncharted terrain, and
22,300 miles above the equator. At that
residents of Charleston (upper
helping ships and airplanes navigate any-
altitude they complete one revolution every
left) of the approaching Hugo,
where on the globe.
24 hours and therefore remain stationary
still 210 miles away in this
Satellites started to become routine in
relative to the surface of the earth below.
picture, giving them several
days to prepare for the storm
April 1965, when the first nonexperimental
Satellites in this geostationary orbit provide
and evacuate the city.
commercial satellite flew into space and
high sky platforms for relaying signals to
parked in orbit over the Atlantic. Early Bird
and from ground stations, vehicles, boats,
carried circuits for 240 telephone calls or
and planes scattered over the surface below.
television service between Europe and North
The idea for a system of radio-relay
America. Today, several generations of
satellites in geostationary orbit maintained
by astronauts was described by science
fiction writer and futurist Arthur C. Clarke
10
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
An astronaut retrieves a
communications satellite,
Westar VI, that failed to go
into high geostationary orbit
after being launched into low
earth orbit. The space shuttle
brought the satellite back to
earth, where it was
refurbished. Pending U.S.
government approval, the
satellite will be launched
aboard a Chinese rocket and
will provide a communications
link for East Asia.
Communications satellites
relayed live television
coverage of moon missions to
millions of people around the
world. Here, Apollo 15
astronauts collect rock
samples.
in 1945. Astronaut custodians, however, were
northern latitudes. These satellites were not
impractical and, when Early Bird went up in
geostationary. However, one always rose
the 1960s, shown to be unnecessary. Transis-
above the country just as another set. Now
tors and other solid-state components of the
more than 40 countries have established their
satellite's innards were far more reliable than
own satellite communications systems, often
the vacuum tubes of 1945-vintage radios and
by constructing ground stations and renting
small enough to fit into a tiny satellite. Early
circuits on commercial satellites.
Bird lasted more than three years without
Before the era of routine satellite use,
maintenance, and today's communications
weather observations were available for less
satellites frequently last until their fuel runs
than 20 percent of the globe. Much of the
out, about a decade.
unobserved region covered the vast oceans
A country divided by mountains,
of the Southern Hemisphere and the tropics,
jungles, water, or distance is now often
where a storm could churn into a hurricane
united by a domestic satellite communica-
with no one knowing until it sank a ship or
tions system. In 1965 the Soviet Union
washed away a town. But since 1966, when
established the Molniya system using
the first fully operational weather satellite
satellites in oblong orbits looping over the
APPLICATION SATELLITES
11
system was launched, no major tropical
Weather satellites frequently carry
storm has gone undetected anywhere in the
equipment to relay data collected by thou-
world.
sands of remote automatic ground stations
Two U.S. weather satellites circling from
from instruments such as rain or river-flow
pole to pole scan the earth from low orbit
gauges. And, since 1982, increasing numbers
twice a day. Soviet satellites also routinely
of U.S. weather satellites, as well as Soviet
survey global weather from polar orbit.
navigation satellites, have also been carrying
High-flying satellites in geostationary orbit
search-and-rescue radio equipment, some of
monitor wide reaches of the planet and
it supplied by Canada and France. The
generate the weather pictures seen on
devices pick up distress calls from ships and
television. The United States launched the
planes in trouble, leading to the rescue so far
first such operational satellite, GOES
of more than 1,200 persons.
(Geostationary Operational Environmental
Images generated by weather satellites
Satellite), in 1974 and now maintains one
have been used to study snow cover, geolog-
above the western Atlantic and another over
ic faults, and other large ground features. But
the eastern Pacific. A European satellite
the need for more detailed information
hovers over Africa, an Indian satellite over
gathered in a systematic, repetitive way led
the Indian Ocean, and a Japanese satellite
to the development of specialized terrain-
over the western Pacific. These five provide
observation satellites. These orbiters create
high-quality images that can be used to help
Two dish antennas near
study worldwide crop production, search for
Bogota, Colombia, aim at a
minerals and petroleum, monitor environ-
communications satellite in
geostationary orbit above the
mental problems such as desert creep and
equator.
deforestation, and measure snowmelt to
predict water resources and control flooding.
In 1972 the United States launched the first in
a series of Landsat satellites, which scrutinize
the entire earth from near-polar orbit,
observing each spot at the same local time
every 18 days.
All Landsats have carried multispectral
sensors that measure solar energy and
infrared radiation at four or more wave-
lengths. Every type of terrain reflects and
absorbs sunlight and emits infrared radiation
in ways that reveal its identity and condition.
Objects often show up better at one wave-
length than another, which gives this
technique an advantage over conventional
photography. The data are transmitted back
continuous coverage of weather throughout
to one of several ground stations, processed
the equatorial and midlatitude regions of the
into images, and made available to the
earth.
public. France and the Soviet Union have
Radiometers carried by weather satel-
launched similar satellites and make their
lites measure reflected solar energy and
images available commercially. The French
infrared energy radiating from the earth and
SPOT system produces particularly high
atmosphere. Computers then turn the data
quality images.
into images of clouds and weather patterns.
Infrared satellite images do not show as
Radiometers also measure radiation at
much detail as visible images, but they yield
precise wavelength intervals, generating
thermal information that the others cannot
information that allows scientists to deter-
provide. Water, for example, that collects in
mine atmospheric temperature, water vapor,
faults usually holds more heat than sur-
and ozone levels. Today's radiometers are
rounding rock. Infrared sensors detect this
sensitive enough to sound the atmosphere
heat differential, revealing an otherwise
from geostationary satellites more than
hidden geologic formation. Infrared imaging
22,000 miles up in space.
is also useful for monitoring pollution,
observing volcanic activity, and leading
12
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
fishing boats to warm waters where fish
might be gathered.
More recently, experimental terrain-
observation satellites have been carrying
microwave radar, which penetrates all types
of weather, day or night. Microwave radar
can, to a certain extent, penetrate leaves and
is used to map jungle terrain. It can also
penetrate dry sand and has been used to
trace buried watercourses in the desert.
Radar return signals also tell much about the
land that is useful for mineral and petroleum
exploration.
The military forces of the United States,
the Soviet Union, and other countries use
their own terrain-observation satellites to
keep track of foreign troop movements,
electronic communications, military installa-
tions, and rocket launchings. The satellites
are hardier than their civilian counterparts,
as well as more sophisticated, capable, and
flexible. These "eyes in the sky" have greatly
reduced the possibility for surprise attack
and have thus helped maintain peace among
world powers for the past quarter century.
In the future, satellites may be used to
monitor the health of the entire earth bio-
sphere. A major step in that direction will be
taken as part of the International Space Year
in 1992. A "Mission to Planet Earth" is being
organized using earth-observation satellites
their locations to within 10 meters. The heart
Satellite image reveals
and other means to study such problem
of the system is an atomic clock in each
extensive clear cutting in
areas as polar ozone holes, deforestation,
satellite that loses or gains just one second
Tongass National Forest on
ocean productivity, landcover change, and
the northern tip of Prince of
every 33,000 years. A plane, for example,
Wales Island, Alaska. Recently
global warming caused by the "greenhouse
receives signals from four satellites, each
cleared areas appear pink,
effect."
signal telling the time it was emitted and the
cleared areas that have
The precision of their orbits makes
position of the satellite. The plane's comput-
started to recover are light
satellites ideal instruments for navigation.
erized receiver calculates how far each signal
green, and undisturbed
They have all but replaced the sextant since
forests are dark green.
has traveled, then uses this data to pinpoint
about 1968, when the Navy completed a
its position in space.
system of navigation satellites, called Transit,
In 1988 a satellite was launched to track
for ballistic missiles fired from submarines.
long-haul trucks in the United States. A
Transit employs satellites in near-polar orbits
freight company using the system immedi-
that are spaced to provide global coverage.
ately found one of its trucks 300 miles off
Using data encoded on satellite signals, a
course. More advanced systems used by
computer-aided receiver on a ship or plane
some military aircraft show pilots a map of
can determine its location to within less than
the local area. Cars may someday be
a quarter mile.
equipped to receive satellite signals that
Several satellites have already been
provide drivers with a street map of the city
launched for a new navigation system-
being traveled. Indeed, satellites may
the Global Positioning System (GPS), or
become our standard means of navigation,
Technicians prepare a
Navstar-that will have 18 satellites plus
whether on land, in the air, or at sea.
Navstar navigation satellite
3 spares when completed. Using GPS,
for launch. The 12 spike
receivers in ships, planes, ground vehicles,
antennas will form the
and portable packs will be able to determine
satellite's signal into a
cone covering the entire
hemisphere below.
APPLICATION SATELLITES
13
Microprocessor
The microprocessor-a tiny
room. At work, they help
"computer on a chip" no
design complex buildings and
bigger than your fingernail-
control huge manufacturing
has quickly and quietly
machines. In between, they
infiltrated our lives since it
coordinate traffic lights and
was introduced in 1971. At
improve fuel efficiency in cars.
home, microprocessors are the
And everywhere there is a
personal computer, there is a
microprocessor churning
away inside.
A microprocessor works something like
a juke box's record player, which plays the
tune on a record retrieved from its collection.
A microprocessor, however, plays the set of
instructions retrieved from a memory chip,
performing simple functions-such as
addition or subtraction-programmed into
the instructions. Microprocessor and memo-
ry chips alike rely on microscopic integrated
circuits to perform their tasks.
Before microprocessors, integrated
circuit chips were generally not
programmable. They could do only a single
function for which they were designed, like a
record player playing one tune engraved on
its turntable. The first microprocessor, in fact,
A web of electronic
brains in electronic devices
was developed by an American engineer
circuitry spreads across the
who was given the task of designing 12
face of the 4004, the first
that control microwave
single-function chips for a Japanese calcula-
microprocessor. The chip
ovens and change television
tor. Instead, the engineer designed one
contains 2,300 transistors yet
measures only 1/6 inch by 1/4
channels from across the
general-purpose chip that performed all 12
inch, about the size of a
functions according to instructions stored in
child's fingernail.
a memory chip. Because each instruction
contained only four bits-the electronic 1's
14
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
and O's of digital code-the microprocessor
Microprocessor chips in a variety of sizes
Microprocessors are the
was classified a 4-bit chip.
provide the delicate control that improves
tiny "brains" inside
Microprocessors of the first generation
the efficiency of power plants, cars, and
microcomputers and hundreds
of other electronic devices.
were too feeble to power anything resem-
heating and cooling systems in buildings,
bling a personal computer. But they
which translates into lower operating costs
were-and still are-powerful enough to
and less pollution. They are also widely used
drive pocket calculators and control
in the cockpits of advanced commercial
machines performing simple tasks. They
airliners to control navigation and other
have become, like the motor, a tool for every
avionics systems, thereby improving the
use. Millions are sold each year to operate
efficiency of aircraft and crew.
home burglar alarms, remote television
Second-generation microprocessors-
controllers, programmers for videocassette
the mighty 8-bit chips that appeared in
recorders, and dozens of toys. The "4-bitter"
1974-had enough calculating power to
was the hottest selling microprocessor every
operate low-performance computers. These
year until 1988, when 8-bit chips took the
"microcomputers" were built around
lead.
microprocessors and remained curiosities,
the electronic playthings of hobbyists, until
MICROPROCESSOR
15
Microprocessors make modern
airliners easier to fly by
displaying flight instrument
data on video screens, as in
the cockpit of this advanced
747. These data display
screens and other design
improvements helped reduce
the number of cockpit lights,
switches, and gauges to fewer
than 400 in this aircraft
compared with nearly 1,000
in earlier models.
the introduction of third-generation chips in
tasks such as word processing. For instance,
1975. These delivered much better perfor-
word processing software might be pro-
mance than their forerunners and brought
grammed SO that typing C-O-P-Y initiates
down microprocessor prices to as low as $25
the thousands of instructions for duplicating
from nearly $200. Within two years, they
a page of text on the computer screen.
spawned commercial lines of home micro-
Software was not readily available for
computers that were soon being used for
the earliest microcomputers. Hobbyists
nonhome tasks.
labored to compose their own operating
It was, however, the fourth generation-
systems-programs telling a computer how
mostly the powerful 16-bit microprocessors-
to run itself-and application programs for
that convinced the traditional computer
tasks such as word processing or playing
industry that microcomputers based on these
Space Invaders. However, a cottage industry
chips were powerful enough for more than
of programmers began to sprout in the mid-
home video games. And in 1981 the main-
1970s and was soon turning out commercial
frame-computer industry began marketing
programs for a multitude of applications,
microcomputers for such computational
including word processing, video games,
tasks as graphics, desktop publishing,
inventory control, and personal finance
managing large data bases, and computer-
management.
aided design in business and industry.
The combination of ready-made soft-
Microcomputers would have been
ware and low-cost microcomputers pro-
Small, inexpensive personal
useless without software, the programs of
duced the true personal computer, a machine
computers built around
simple commands that tell computers how to
so affordable and easy to use that it was
microprocessors bring
perform complex tasks. Each computer has
available to almost everyone. The impact has
computer power into
millions of homes around the
coded operating instructions already wired
been enormous. PCs have done for comput-
world. Ready-to-use programs
into it, but they are awkward for people to
ing power what the printing press did for
have made it easy for children
use. So the codes have been translated into
knowledge-gave it to the masses. Connect-
as well as adults to use these
languages, such as BASIC, FORTRAN, and
ed by telephone lines, PC users tap into
computers for video games,
COBOL, based on easy-to-use words and
networks of computers as well as into data
word processing, and dozens
of other applications.
symbols. The languages further simplify
banks for stock quotations, medical informa-
programming by using single symbols for
tion, and legal cases. In the future they may
some simple functions that are generated by
be able to draw on data bases of library
a series of instructions. For example, "X"
books, newspapers, and magazines from all
might trigger the series of instructions for the
over the world.
function "multiply". The languages, in turn,
are used to program larger sets of instruc-
tions, or programs, that perform complex
16
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
Today's microprocessors greatly outper-
form their 4-bit ancestors. One 32-bit chip, for
example, is a thousand times faster. Another
carries 500 times more transistors, packing 1
million of them onto a chip no bigger than a
postage stamp. Others-made by a process
called CMOS, for complementary metal-
oxide semiconductor-use less energy and
produce less heat than conventional chips.
They are used in satellites, portable comput-
ers, and other devices where energy con-
sumption is critical. The speed of some
microprocessor chips has been improved by
a design known as RISC, or reduced instruc-
tion set computer, which uses a small
number of simple instructions. Complex
instructions, which occur infrequently, are
handled in software. Larger memory chips
have also been developed to hold the
complex programs that exploit the power of
the new microprocessors.
In the future, multipurpose microproces-
sor chips will probably grow to 64 bits, some
containing as many as 10 million transistors.
Application-specific processors will be
designed for just a few specific tasks. Such
chips are faster and more efficient at a single
job than a chip designed to do everything.
The key to making application-specific
processors will be advanced computer-aided
design (CAD) systems-themselves based
on microprocessor chips-that design such
specialized chips quickly and inexpensively.
The new microprocessors and the
systems they run will have the power to
generate better graphics and higher-quality
three-dimensional images for CAD systems.
Microcomputers, for example, will certainly
be more adept at human talents, such as
understanding spoken words, speaking, or
even learning and reasoning-artificial
An even greater challenge lies in figur-
The i486 microprocessor
intelligence. And they will be able to process
ing out how to take best advantage of the
squeezes 1.18 million
incredible amounts of data at lightning
wonderfully powerful computers based on
transistors-500 times
more than the first
speeds. Work is under way on a new genera-
these new microprocessors. That is the task
microprocessor-onto a chip
tion of supercomputers, which would link
of the programmers, whose work is limited
about the size of an adult's
hundreds, even thousands, of microproces-
only by their ability to think creatively.
thumbnail.
sors in parallel arrays. Each chip would work
on a different part of a massive problem, such
as a global weather forecast, solving the entire
problem in a fraction of the time needed if
each part were solved one after the other. The
challenge of parallel-array systems is to
develop mathematical formulas and operat-
ing systems to coordinate the work of all the
microprocessors.
MICROPROCESSOR
17
Computer-Aided
Design and
Manufacturing
Hidden behind factory
instructions for the automatic tools that will
walls throughout the world,
create the part. Small computers on the
machines themselves allow the machines to
another industrial revolution
be quickly changed from producing one part
is unfolding around the
to making another. Small computers have
computer. It is changing
also spread to other areas of the factory,
controlling manufacturing processes,
industry as profoundly as
operating robots that move pieces from one
power machinery did in the
machine to another, and guiding automatic
eighteenth century and mass
carts that move materials, parts, and finished
products around the plant.
production, typified by the
Modern CAD and CAM systems began
assembly line, did early this
appearing on the market around 1970,
following the marriage of CAD and CAM
century.
computer programs to minicomputers in the
Computer-aided design and computer-
$100,000 range. Previously they were limited
aided manufacturing-CAD and CAM-
to a few large manufacturers of aircraft,
have already increased speed and efficiency
autos, and textiles who wrote their own CAD
for many manufacturers. They are improving
and CAM programs and ran them on
the quality of products while decreasing the
mainframe computers that often cost a
A worker sets up a computer-
time to take them from idea to market. And
million dollars or more.
controlled profiling machine
they are giving manufacturers the flexibility
The roots of CAD and CAM reach back
that cuts complex parts out of
to respond to an ever-changing market.
to two Air Force programs in 1949. CAD
aluminum, steel, and
titanium. The program of
Essentially, CAD covers the use of
hardware-the machines-began with
instructions for making a part
computers on the design side of a product
efforts to build an air defense system by
is usually generated on a
while CAM refers to their use on the manu-
linking radar to computers, whose data were
separate CAM system, then
facturing side. On the design side, engineers
displayed on video screens. At the same
transferred to the machine's
use computer graphics to design the new
time, the forerunner of CAM software-
computer, which can store
programs for dozens of parts.
part or product. Other engineers use analyti-
programs to run the hardware-began with
cal programs to determine whether the part,
the creation of punched tapes to operate
as it is designed, will hold up under the
numerically controlled (NC) machines. These
stress of actual use. Drafters use computer-
machines cut, drill, and perform other tasks
ized devices to add detail to the design and
according to instructions fed into their
produce the final drawings. On the manufac-
control units on a punched paper tape. Tapes
turing side, computers help engineers write
for the first generation of commercial NC
machines were laboriously punched by
hand. After the creation of a computer
18
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
The screen of a CAD/CAM
system illustrates the complex
tool path that a milling
machine must follow to create
the curving surface of an
impeller blade for a jet
engine.
programming language called APT, for
that store several programs for producing
Automatically Programmed Tools, tapes
different parts.
were generated on mainframe computers.
Computer-aided design has sparked its
Modern CAM really began in 1969 with
own revolution within the broader move-
the appearance on the market of a less
ment toward factory computerization. Like
complex language, called Compact II, for
the telescope and the microscope, CAD
programming NC machines. Before then,
systems have opened up new worlds of
companies produced their NC tapes by
understanding to the engineers who design,
hand, made them with APT on a mainframe
analyze, and test today's sophisticated
computer, or sent the work to be done on a
products. CAD is applied to nearly every
time-sharing basis on an out-of-house
large or complex engineering project under-
mainframe. Compact II was initially a time-
taken today, from designing modern jumbo
sharing service. But later the program was
jets to planning energy-efficient buildings. It
sold to run on a minicomputer, further
was, for example, extensively used in
reducing the cost of the service. With such a
designing Stars & Stripes, the racing yacht
CAM system, an engineer could quickly
that won the America's Cup competition
write a program to produce a part, press a
held in Australia in 1987. And CAD is
button, and the computer would punch out
absolutely essential for designing the tiny
the correct instructions on an NC tape. The
circuits in microprocessors and other inte-
tape was taken to the NC machine to make
grated-circuit chips that run most electronic
the part.
devices.
Today, even easier languages have been
The second wave of the CAD revolution
introduced for programming NC machines.
rose in 1981 with the introduction of single-
In some systems, the tapes have been
user CAD workstations. Workstation
eliminated by hooking the programming
computers are powered by microprocessors
computer directly to the machine tool. And
and generally have more computing power
many NC machines have small computers
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING
19
and graphics capability than personal
market. They not only copied the circuit
computers, which are also based on micro-
pattern but also told the engineer whether
processors. However, a workstation costs
the patterns were too close together or
about one-tenth as much as a minicomputer.
violated any other design rules. In the early
Today, the price of some workstations is
1980s, even more intelligent programs were
under $10,000, and their power equals that of
developed. Called "performance models,"
most minis.
they could tell a design engineer what would
Modern CAD did not spring full grown
happen when electric signals flowed through
into existence. It began as a drawing aid for
the circuit and point out flaws in the design.
Today, no self-respecting engineer would
PIN
spacing:
0.25
inches
GRID:
Snep
0.25
0.25
Select Count:1
HELP
SETUP
design a circuit without performance
MINDOWS
FILE
BASIC
ADVANCED
Display
every
1
modeling.
PTF3
THE
BTPA
One of the first modern CAD systems
for mechanical design arrived in 1971 on the
heels of electronic CAD. It was really a
BACK
drafting aid that consisted of a drawing table,
computer, screen, and plotting arm that
digitized its movements: that is, translated
them into digital electronic signals. By
Scrxfer
Select
Group
moving the plotter to different points on the
Nove
table and telling the computer what to draw
Comment
between them, a draftsman could copy a
Propert
design into the computer while watching it
Delete
Undo
Redo
materialize on the screen. After correcting the
design, the draftsman pressed a button, and
the plotting arm automatically redrew the
-7.053.0.920,Edit
design on a clean piece of paper. Called
-Rectangle
ALL
SELect
OBJect
-7.853,-8.981,Edit
Interact I, this mechanical CAD system ran
on a minicomputer with four terminals and
cost around $375,000.
A microprocessor is designed
drafters and developed along two parallel
The early mechanical CAD systems
with the aid of an electronic
paths. One led through electronic design,
could draw points, lines, circles, arcs, and
CAD system. Using this
and the other through mechanical design.
symbols in two dimensions but with no
program, an engineer can
quickly design an electronic
In the electronics industry, the great
mathematical idea of what they were doing.
circuit by placing and
problem facing engineers in the late 1960s
By 1973 more intelligent programs were
connecting symbols of
was the design of increasingly smaller and
developed that could not only create three-
components on the screen.
more complex integrated circuits on tiny
dimensional figures on the computer screen
The computer automatically
silicon chips. NC machines had been devel-
but understood the geometry and mathemat-
adds the details to the
oped for cutting the stencil-like masks used
ics associated with them. These were wire-
final design.
in etching circuit patterns onto chips. But
frame models like the 3-D figures engineers
instructions for the machines were still
traditionally drew.
calculated and punched into the tapes by
More important than creating 3-D design
hand. In 1970 one of the first commercial
models, though, was the intelligence of such
electronic CAD systems, called Design
a CAD program. Using a mathematical
Assistant, appeared on the market. It consist-
model of the design in its data base, it could
ed of a minicomputer, screen, sketch pad,
answer questions from the engineer: How
and keyboard plus software. The engineer
long is that line? What is the area of this
drew the circuit on the pad, watching the
plane? Where is the center of gravity? And if,
design appear on the screen. After correcting
for example, the engineer tried to put a 2-
mistakes, the engineer pressed a button, and
inch piece in a space 1.75 inches wide, the
An engineer uses a
instructions for cutting the design were
CAD program would reply that the piece
workstation and a mechanical
punched into an NC tape. This early CAD
was 0.25 inch too long. It was smart enough
CAD program to design
system sold for about $150,000. But just two
to calculate and draw a new line through a
a new wheel hub assembly.
years later, improved versions were selling
model if the engineer so requested. It could
for half that price.
also calculate a section, in effect slicing the
In the mid-1970s, new electronic CAD
model in two SO the engineer could see how
programs for "design rule check" came to the
20
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
parts fit together inside the design. And it
office to another, where it may take 50 to 100
could turn the model to be viewed from
hours to enter the data into another comput-
different angles. This was not just a drafting
er system. On the manufacturing side,
device but a true CAD system that helped an
computers are only slowly being applied to
engineer design a part.
tasks that they could perform faster and
The newer mechanical CAD programs
more effectively. In addition, many factories
were also intelligent enough to perform
could greatly increase their productivity by
simple analyses on the design, to see how it
joining isolated computerized systems into
would hold up under the stress of actual use.
integrated networks. Such computer-
They could also prepare a design for more
integrated manufacturing, or CIM, has
complex analysis by dividing the model into
begun in a few factories, and some of the
the hundreds or thousands of geometrical
results have been spectacular. For example,
shapes that formed it. The data were then
the highly integrated use of computerized
sent to analytical engineers who tested the
systems at one company that manufactures
design on powerful mainframe computers.
motor-starter components helps it produce
This preparation, which the CAD program
and ship the parts in less than 24 hours, a job
did in seconds, would have taken engineers
that used to take about 15 days.
hundreds of hours to do by hand.
Another challenge in computerizing the
In the late 1970s, computer models of
manufacturing process lies in integrating
solid objects came onto the market. These
were even better for analysis than 3-D wire-
Von Mises
frame models. Nevertheless, since there are
Stress
Top
so many variables in designing a mechanical
lbi/in**2
48248
part, mechanical CAD systems today are
46740
45233
only beginning to reach the level of perfor-
43725
42217
mance modeling that electronic CAD
40709
39202
systems achieved nearly a decade ago.
37694
36186
34678
However, programs are being developed
33171
31663
that allow engineers to analyze mechanical
30155
28647
systems for a large number of variables. For
27140
25632
example, engineers soon could be able to
24124
22616
model the performance of a mechanical
21109
19601
system as complex as a commercial power
18093
16585
plant.
15078
13570
12062
CAD programs of the late 1970s also
10554
9047
began linking to CAM systems on the
7539
6031
manufacturing side of factories, eliminating
4523
3016
the need for many paper design drawings
1508
0
and reducing the time manufacturing
engineers need to write instruction programs
for the NC machines that make the parts.
computers throughout the company, not just
An engineer uses a
Previously, engineers had to study the paper
at an individual factory. Such a CIM network
mechanical CAD program to
drawings in order to calculate tool move-
might include finance, market forecasting,
analyze stress on the lifting
arm in the design of an
ments. These CAD systems, however, could
material ordering, customer service, and
automobile jack assembly.
simulate the movement of a cutting tool
stocking, as well as CAD and CAM. Current
The program creates a solid
around the design model in order to deter-
debate swirls around how to integrate the
model of the device, top. It
mine the necessary tool movements. These
computers-whether to design one big
uses a mesh to divide the
were not only determined more quickly
network or to integrate computers only
lifting arm into small "finite
elements" that are analyzed
using CAD models, they were also more
where and when it becomes necessary. Too
for stress individually, center.
accurate.
much integration could flood and slow the
The program then uses color
In the future, engineers will seek ways to
network with needless data.
coding to indicate varying
use CAD and CAM more effectively. Today
Computers have found an indispensable
levels of stress throughout the
CAD programs are linked to CAM systems
role to play in manufacturing through CAD,
component, telling the
in only a small number of factories. On the
engineer where to strengthen
CAM, and other automated systems. No one
the design, bottom.
design side of factories, separate CAD
really disagrees. How big a role they will
systems often exist independently in design,
play, and when, are the real questions for the
drafting, and engineering departments.
future.
Drawings are still often carried from one
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING
21
CAT Scan
Right: A patient lies quietly
Ever since 1895, when
as a CAT scan's x-ray tube
shoots from hundreds of
German physicist Konrad
points around her head.
Sensors opposite the tube
Roentgen took the first
record the strength of beams
roentgenogram, x-ray pictures
passing through the patient.
With this data, the CAT scan
have been clouded by shad-
computer generates an image
OWS of bones, teeth, and tissue
showing the structure in that
cross section of her head.
piled together on one piece
of film. But the marriage of
modern computers to this old
technology has given birth to
a machine that produces clear,
detailed images of things
inside the body.
The machine is called a CAT scan, for
computerized axial tomography scanner. The
wedding of computers to other diagnostic
missed altogether by regular x-rays or other
techniques has subsequently led to ultra-
diagnostic techniques. A normal series of 30
sound imaging, magnetic resonance imaging
scans is performed in about 20 minutes and
(MRI), and other new procedures that peer
usually without injections. CAT scans have
inside the body without resorting to surgery.
reduced the need for some diagnostic
Indeed, many doctors believe that more
techniques that require uncomfortable
progress has been made in medical diagnos-
injections and a stay in the hospital.
tics since the CAT scan was introduced than
The procedure has also revealed to
in all previous medical history.
researchers brain abnormalities in some
CAT has so far had the widest impact of
persons suffering from schizophrenia,
A young man's vertebrae,
the new imaging technologies. It has saved
alcoholism, manic-depressive illness, and
broken in a motorcycle
untold numbers of lives by quickly finding
Alzheimer's disease. CAT scans locate brain
accident, appear almost
tumors, infections, bleeding, and blood clots
tumors precisely for radiation treatment and
lifelike in a three-dimensional
that would have been found too late or
are used to build three-dimensional models
image created from dozens of
CAT scans. CAT scans are
for reconstructive surgery. CAT is especially
particularly good for showing
good at finding internal injuries because it
the fine detail of bone
easily distinguishes between blood and
structure.
22
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
A cross on this three-
dimensional image generated
from a series of CAT scans
marks the location of a tumor
near the center of the
patient's head. Color coding
shows sensitive areas, such as
the eyes, spinal cord, and
lungs, that should be
protected from unnecessary
radiation when the tumor is
treated.
tissue. Some hospitals now have a CAT
CAT-often shortened to CT, for
scanner in the emergency room, and the U.S.
computed tomography-doesn't make a flat
Army is developing a rugged, lightweight
picture on photographic film, like a normal
one that can be transported by truck or
x-ray. Instead, it constructs a television image
helicopter to medical stations in combat
zones.
CAT SCAN
23
An enhanced MRI scan shows
a tumor growing in the spinal
cord of a 4-year-old girl, who
lost her ability to walk. A
doctor quickly removed the
tumor, and the girl eventually
recovered the use of her legs.
based on density measurements of a "slice"
showing density patterns that reveal the fine
of the patient. The process is something like
structure of the slice.
seeing a slice of salami without cutting the
The practical CAT scanner emerged
meat.
from the confluence of several new technolo-
To measure density, the CAT scan's
gies. The most important developments were
x-ray tube shoots a thin beam edge-to-edge
low-cost minicomputers and, later, parallel-
through a slice while circling the patient.
array computers that could perform many
Detectors circling opposite the tube measure
calculations at the same time. These high-
the strength of the emerging beam-and
speed computers and the mathematically
therefore the density of the slice-from
complex programs to operate them made it
hundreds of points around the patient. With
possible to run millions of calculations for
this information, the CAT scan computer
each slice. In 1979 the Nobel Prize in physiol-
calculates the density for each of more than
ogy or medicine was awarded to British
250,000 tiny bits of tissue in the slice. It then
research engineer Godfrey Hounsfield for
displays these values in a television picture
pioneering the CAT scan and to U.S. physi-
cist Allan Cormack for work on the mathe-
matics behind it. The first CAT scanners were
24
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
installed in Great Britain in 1971 and in the
United States two years later. Today they are
used in more than half of U.S. hospitals and
in hundreds of clinics.
Very small x-ray detectors and ultrasen-
sitive signal amplifiers have greatly increased
the speed of CAT scanning. An early scan
took about 4½ minutes. Today it takes less
than 2 seconds as a scanner's 1,000 detectors
each record 2,000 separate measurements.
The machine's sensitivity has improved, too.
Now, for example, CAT can detect a liver
tumor of almost the same density as normal
tissue. The difference would not show up on
a regular x-ray. Tomorrow's scanner will
produce even more detailed images as scan
slices become progressively thinner and scan
times decrease even more. The patient will
move continuously through the scanner, like
a car on an assembly line, completing a 40-
slice series in about a minute. And it may
soon become routine for a treating doctor to
beam the scan image via satellite to a
consulting specialist thousands of miles
away.
Small, powerful computers have been
applied to other diagnostic imaging tech-
niques since the CAT scan. Each uses a
different means of probing the patient, but
the image is constructed by computer. Low-
level radioactive isotopes are injected into the
continued development of CAT, ultrasound
Doctors discuss features
blood during positron emission tomography
imaging, and especially MRI should further
revealed by MRI images.
(PET) and single-photon emission computed
reduce the need for exploratory surgery or
MRI employs radio waves and
magnetic fields to produce
tomography (SPECT). With digital subtrac-
invasive imaging techniques such as those
images in which bones are
tion angiography (DSA), a computer sub-
involving injection of contrast agents that
invisible. It is therefore very
tracts an earlier x-ray image from another
may occasionally cause allergic reactions. In
useful for looking at soft
one taken after a contrast substance has been
fact, in 10 or 15 years, MRI may be able to
tissue inside the skull and
injected into the blood, leaving the clear
perform an entire diagnostic chemical
spinal column.
contrast outline of blood vessels on the
analysis of a patient, without breaking the
second image. Ultrasound devices bounce
skin.
high-frequency sound waves off internal
surfaces to indicate their position and
motion.
The most promising computer-assisted
technique, though, uses magnetic fields and
radio waves to coax information from the
nuclei of atoms in body chemicals. This
nuclear magnetic resonance imaging, or
MRI, is particularly good for examining the
brain and spinal cord, whose surrounding
bone is invisible to it.
CAT culminates the development of
Roentgen's technology. And although
traditional x-ray pictures still account for 80
percent of medical diagnostic imaging, they
may one day be completely replaced by
computer-generated video images. The
CAT SCAN
25
Advanced
Composite
Materials
The unusual design of the
bricks stronger. Today steel rods are used to
Starship business plane-
reinforce concrete highways, bridges, and
buildings. Resin reinforced by glass fibers is
slender wings, vertical wing
probably the most widely used composite
tips, down-hanging rudder,
today.
and winglets on the nose-
Advanced composites, however, are in a
class alone. Most were originally developed
masks the real revolution
to provide lighter, stronger, more tempera-
behind this aircraft. Its body
ture-resistant materials for military aircraft
Right: A strong, ultralight leg
and wings are made entirely
prosthesis of graphite/epoxy
of advanced composite
composite helps an athlete
compete in world-class
materials far lighter and
bicycle races.
stronger than the aluminum
Giro
most aircraft are made of
today. As a result, the plane
needs less maintenance than
conventional aircraft and flies
as far on a gallon of fuel as
planes much smaller.
Advanced composites like those in the
Starship were unheard of 25 years ago. Yet
they have already spread throughout the
transportation industry and into everyday
objects where higher performance provides
an advantage. They add lightness and
strength to racing boats and cars, golf clubs,
and electric guitars.
Composites are simply a matrix of one
and spacecraft. Skyrocketing fuel prices in
material reinforced by fibers or particles of
the 1970s made the new materials attractive
another. Humans have been making com-
to civil aviation, where their lower weight
posites since the ancients discovered that
has helped cut the cost of operating airliners.
putting straw into mud bricks makes the
The broadening market and more efficient
processing techniques have reduced the cost
of composites to a level where they can now
26
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
Graphite/epoxy and other
advanced composite materials
are used to construct the
entire body and wings of the
Starship business plane and
account for more than
70 percent of its overall
structural weight.
18
be used in many other products, especially
materials with higher strength-to-weight and
sporting goods.
stiffness-to-weight ratios than aluminum.
The matrix of an advanced composite is
The most promising was boron, which is
often an organic material, such as epoxy
stronger than steel but weighs less than
resin, but can also be metal or ceramic. High-
aluminum. The challenge, however, was to
strength fibers, such as graphite or Kevlar,
put it into a usable form. The best, easiest,
are frequently used as reinforcements. But
most cost-effective method turned out to be
many combinations of matrix and reinforce-
making it into a fiber that could be embed-
ment are created for particular uses. Knowl-
ded in a matrix of epoxy. Epoxy holds the
edge about their interactions-how fibers or
fibers in place, distributes the load among
particles function within a matrix-is the key
them, and protects them from the environ-
to designing these high-performance
ment. To make an aircraft part, strips of
materials. And it has ushered in an era of
epoxy tape with fibers running through it are
designing new materials to meet new needs.
laid in a mold in directions that will reinforce
Advanced composites came directly out
of Air Force efforts in the early 1960s to find
ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS
27
In 1971 a U.S. company started making
graphite fibers by a continuous process that
took less than eight hours. These fibers cost
only $125 per pound, and their price
dropped steadily over the next decade. The
first production graphite-composite parts
went into F-15 aircraft delivered to the Air
Force in 1974. And today's Starship business
plane is made primarily of graphite/epoxy.
The first commercial graphite-composite
products, though, were sporting goods. In
1972 a California company began making
golf club shafts of graphite/epoxy, which is
stronger and lighter than the steel in conven-
tional shafts. The new shafts appeared in
Japanese golf clubs the following year.
Graphite composite increased stiffness and
reduced shaft weight by about 40 percent,
allowing golfers to swing the club faster and
drive the ball farther than they could with
heavier clubs. Composite tennis rackets
appeared next, followed by fishing rods,
race-car chassis, and other sports equipment.
Auto manufacturers are investigating
graphite composite to replace steel in
passenger cars, but its price is still generally
too high to make it economical for mass-
produced vehicles. However, since 1988 a
graphite composite has been used to rein-
force aluminum drive shafts on some light
Layers of woven Kevlar
sections where strength is critical. High heat
trucks.
fibers strengthen composite
and pressure transform the epoxy into a
Another high-strength fiber, Kevlar, is
downhill snow skis while
reducing weight and damping
solid, lightweight part. Such composites
widely used in composites where high
vibration. Advanced
were introduced to operational aircraft in tail
tensile strength-resistance to being pulled
composite materials are
sections of the F-14, which was delivered to
apart-is important but the stiffness of
used in many sporting goods,
the Navy in 1972.
graphite fibers is unnecessary. Kevlar is a
whose high performance
Boron fiber is expensive. So parallel
trade name for an aromatic polyamide, or P-
provides a competitive
advantage.
work in England and Japan focused on
aramid, fiber that is derived from petroleum.
graphite as a less expensive high-strength
It is lighter than fiberglass but five times
fiber. Graphite is a form of carbon, and its
stronger than steel on a pound-for-pound
fibers are made by transforming organic
basis. It appeared commercially as a replace-
fibers such as rayon, acrylic, or pitch.
ment for steel cord in radial tires in 1972. A
The first high-strength graphite fibers
high-strength form of Kevlar is used in resin-
produced in the late 1960s were made by a
matrix composites for aircraft bodies, sailboat
time-consuming, labor-intensive process and
hulls, snow skis, and artificial limbs.
cost around $400 per pound. It began with an
P-aramid fibers were discovered in 1965,
acrylic fiber that was wound on steel racks to
but the breakthrough came five years later in
stretch the fiber and align its long molecules
learning how best to convert the substance
into stronger, parallel orientation. The fiber
into much stronger fibers. P-aramid would
was heated at low temperature to stabilize
not melt like other plastics nor would it
the orientation, then cut into strands and
dissolve easily in any normal solvent used in
slowly baked in a furnace with inert
making synthetic fibers. The substance, it
gas-usually nitrogen-to burn away
turned out, needs an especially strong
impurities. The remaining graphite fibers
solvent-100 percent sulfuric acid-to
were treated with chemicals to help them
dissolve it. Normal sulfuric acid solvent
bond to a resin matrix.
contains about 3.5 percent water, but this is
enough to keep P-aramid from dissolving
in it.
28
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
In addition, P-aramid molecules would
metallic nor organic-also have great
not align themselves in strong, parallel
strength and light weight, but brittleness
orientation during a normal fiber-producing
often limits their use. Reinforcements,
process. Usually a solution containing a fiber
however, can toughen them. Since the mid-
substance is forced through a plate, called a
1980s, aluminum oxide reinforced with
spinneret, with hundreds of tiny holes. The
silicon-carbide whiskers has been used in
emerging fibers are pulled directly into a
cutting tools. Similar composites are being
bath that leaches out the solvent, then
developed as armor to protect helicopters,
stretched to align the molecules before being
armored personnel carriers, tanks, soldiers,
wound around a spindle. This did not work
and police. These composites are up to five
with P-aramid. The problem was solved,
times tougher than unreinforced ceramics,
however, by stretching the fibers-and
lighter than steel, and less expensive than
aligning their molecules-in an air gap just
other advanced materials now used for
as they emerge from the spinneret. Then they
armor.
are pulled into a cold-water bath that leaches
Ceramic composites are also being
out sulfuric acid, gels the fibers, and fixes
studied for use in car and jet engines, where
molecular orientation. Finally the fibers are
their light weight and heat resistance would
dried and wound onto a spindle.
substantially boost fuel economy. They may
High-strength fibers and particles are
find wider use in low-temperature applica-
also embedded in metal matrices for use at
tions where their ability to withstand hostile
high temperatures that would melt organic
environments gives them an advantage over
A strong, light ceramic-
matrices such as epoxy. Metal-matrix
other materials. For example, ceramic-matrix
composite tool cuts a thin
composites, however, have a rather slim
composites might be used in valves and
chip from a fast-turning
bar of tough nickel alloy.
range of current applications in diesel and jet
reactor vessels handling corrosive chemicals
The durability of this
engines, spacecraft structures, and high-
or in structures, such as satellites, that must
ceramic composite at high
performance sports equipment.
endure the harshness of space.
temperatures allows it to
The first commercial use of a metal-
Carbon is similar to a ceramic, and
withstand the heat produced
matrix composite was in high-performance
composites made of graphite fibers embed-
in high-speed cutting.
diesel engines by a Japanese automaker in
ded in a matrix of graphite are extremely
1982. The composite, made of aluminum
heat resistant. This carbon/carbon composite
with various reinforcements, forms a
is used in the nose and leading edges of the
reinforcing ring around the crown of the
space shuttle to protect against the searing
pistons. It resists wear as well as steel but is
heat of atmospheric reentry. And, because of
much lighter. Many automakers are investi-
its light weight and durability, it is being
gating metal-matrix composites for use in
used increasingly for wheel brake linings in
pistons and other moving engine parts.
military and commercial aircraft.
Lightweight composite parts would use less
Special composite materials are being
energy and would reduce the total weight of
developed for the experimental National
the engine.
Aero-Space Plane, which is designed to take
The first actual use of a metal-matrix
off and land on runways, cruise at hyperson-
composite, though, was probably the
ic speeds of Mach 6 (six times the speed of
The National Aero-Space
boron/aluminum structural tubing used in
sound) or greater in the upper atmosphere,
Plane flies far above the
earth in an artist's
the space shuttle, which first orbited the
and reach Mach 25 while climbing into orbit.
drawing. New advanced
earth in 1981. Aluminum-oxide/aluminum
The plane's skin, frame, and engines will
composite materials are
is now being used in handlebars of
need to be extremely light, strong, and heat
being developed for its skin,
lightweight racing bicycles. And although
resistant. The skin, in particular, will have to
engines, and other
silicon-carbide/aluminum is relatively
withstand repeated exposure to extreme heat
components that will allow
expensive, it still costs less than half as much
and cold and must be far thinner than the
the space plane to climb into
orbit or cruise in the
as the beryllium it is replacing in an instru-
composite tiles that protect the space shuttle.
atmosphere at more than six
ment housing for the inertial navigation
The plane is scheduled to fly in the late
times the speed of sound.
system of a Navy ballistic missile.
1990s. But before it does, a new generation of
Composites with ceramic matrices are
advanced composites will have to be born.
theoretically superior to metal-matrix
composites for high-temperature applica-
tions. Ceramics-materials that are neither
ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS
29
Jumbo Jet
People react much the same
the introduction of jumbos in the early 1970s
when a jumbo jet lumbers up
reduced the immediate need to expand
many airports or build new ones. In fact, no
to the boarding gate: eyes
major U.S. airport has been built since 1974.
widen, jaws slowly drop, and
The 747, DC-10, and L-1011 jumbo jets
speech fails until the looming
joined the commercial air fleet in 1970, 1971,
and 1972, respectively, forming a necessary
giant rolls to a stop just
link in a chain of events that introduced long-
outside the window.
distance air travel to the masses. Since then
the combination of rising fuel prices, lower
To most passengers, a jumbo jet is huge
air fares, and economical long-range jumbos
outside, spacious inside, and a lot more
has helped triple the annual revenue passen-
comfortable to fly than lesser planes. To the
ger miles (one RPM equals one paying
airline industry, the jumbos, with their huge
passenger carried one mile) logged by the
capacities of 300 to 450 passengers or more,
U.S. airline industry. In 1988, 420 billion
are economy of scale. It is more economical,
RPMs were logged, and the figure is project-
for example, for an airline to fly 400 passen-
ed to surpass 760 billion by the year 2000.
gers in a single jumbo jet than 100 each in
The origin of the jumbo jet lies in the
four smaller planes. Jumbos also carry
competition for the giant Air Force C-5A
passengers much farther without costly
cargo plane, which began operational flights
refueling stops. Earlier jets with a range of
in 1969. The challenge of building the jumbos
about 4,500 miles, for example, had to refuel
was to fit those design advances plus other
in Hawaii during a flight to Tokyo from San
state-of-the-art technologies into a huge
Francisco. Some of today's jumbos, flying
machine that was not only safer than earlier
6,500 miles or more nonstop, make the same
airplanes but less expensive to operate. The
trip uninterrupted from San Francisco,
747, for instance, reduced the per-mile cost of
Chicago, or even New York.
carrying a passenger 20 to 30 percent.
Jumbo jets also help relieve air traffic
The jumbos also introduced an era of
congestion at airports, which can handle
safer aircraft designed with a strong empha-
The introduction of jumbo jets
only a limited number of takeoffs and
sis on several redundant, or backup, systems.
in the early 1970s helped
landings per hour whether the plane holds 4
The failure of a single system would not
relieve air traffic congestion
at airports.
or 400 passengers. In the mid-1960s, when
cripple the airplane. For instance, designers
the first jumbo jets were designed, air travel
of the 747 put four main landing-gear legs on
was growing at a rate that would double the
the plane instead of the usual two and added
number of passengers every five years. But
a middle spar to the wings. If the front spar
were damaged in a collision, the middle and
rear ones could hold the wing together for
30
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
landing. Designers of the L-1011 built in four
They help the big planes fly farther, consume
The size of jumbo jets sets
separate hydraulic systems to operate the
less fuel per passenger mile, and climb into
them apart from earlier
airliners, and so does their
critical pitch control system-elevators and
the sky with a murmur compared with the
increased emphasis on safety.
stabilizers-which moves the nose up or
scream of earlier jet aircraft. Advanced metal
The four main landing-gear
down. Three are powered by the plane's three
alloys, new cooling systems, and the high-
legs on the 747 instead of
engines and the fourth by an auxiliary power
bypass design help the engines deliver
the usual two are an example
unit. The DC-10 was designed with five
almost twice the thrust per pound of engine
of the multiple backup
generators-each of which can keep the
weight, while using 20 to 25 percent less fuel
systems that add a wide
margin of safety to jumbo
plane flying-plus an emergency backup
per pound of thrust than conventional
jets.
battery system. Three of the generators are
turbojet engines.
powered by the aircraft's three engines, one
The core of a high-bypass engine
by an auxiliary power unit, and the other by
operates like a pure turbojet, in which
an extendable windmill.
whirling compressor blades pull air into the
The jumbo jets owe much of their
engine's combustion chamber, where the air
success to the high-bypass engine, which
and fuel are burned. This creates a hot,
was introduced to military aviation on the C-
rapidly expanding gas that thrusts the engine
5A and to the commercial sector on the 747.
JUMBO JET
31
forward. The gas also spins a turbine, whose
temperatures. Creep causes cracking along
shaft runs back through the hollow engine
the boundaries between alloy crystals, which
core to turn the compressor blades.
form when the blade is cast. In earlier blades,
The high-bypass engine, however, takes
the crystals solidified in random alignments.
advantage of the fact that for a given power
Directional solidification, however, forces the
level, a large volume of slowly moving air
alloy to solidify in long crystals that grow
will generate more thrust than a small
from one end of the blade to the other. This
volume of fast moving air. In the high-bypass
eliminates crystal boundaries across the
engine, the turbine also turns a wide fan at
blade and so reduces creep and cracking.
the front, which pushes a large mass of air
Directional solidification begins by
The high-bypass engine gets
past the combustion chamber. The ratio of air
pouring molten alloy into a mold that sits
its name from the huge fan
bypassing the combustion chamber to air
inside a hot furnace. At the bottom of the
that thrusts air past the
combustion chamber, the
flowing through it was 5:1 on the first
mold is a water-cooled chill plate, where the
section where the technician is
commercial high-bypass engines and 8:1 on
alloy starts cooling and crystals begin
working. In the conical back
military versions. The fat cowling covering
forming. The mold is slowly lowered out of
end of the engine, expanding
the large fan clearly distinguishes the high-
the furnace, causing the first crystals to
gas from the combustion
bypass engine from the slender, less efficient
continue growing up in parallel columns
chamber spins turbines on a
shaft that turns the fan.
turbojet.
toward the top of the mold. Turbine blades
The new engines are much quieter, too.
made this way could operate at temperatures
All the thrust of a turbojet comes from its
Right: Nickel-alloy turbine
exhaust, which shoots out at twice the speed
blades cast as single crystals
of sound with an ear-splitting roar. But a
have greater strength and
durability and higher
high-bypass engine mixes quieter low-
temperature capability than
velocity air with the high-velocity exhaust to
blades made of earlier
slow its speed and reduce its noise. The noise
materials. The wavelike
level of the first DC-10's, for example, was
patterns, enhanced for this
about half that of earlier four-engine airliners.
photo by chemical processing,
are caused by minute chemical
High-bypass engines are also more
differences between parts of
efficient than earlier turbojets in part because
the crystal that solidify earlier
they operate at higher combustion tempera-
in the casting process and
tures. Turbines in the new engines tolerate
those that solidify later.
burner-exit gas temperatures up to 2,800
degrees F, about 500 degrees greater than the
earlier engines. Much of this higher tolerance
results from new air cooling systems that
allow turbine blades to operate in gas
streams at temperatures higher than their
material melting point. The blades are cooled
by compressed air that is channeled around
the combustion chamber and directed onto
the whirling disk holding the blades. A
up to 100 degrees F hotter than conventional
pressure differential causes the air to flow
blades.
into the base of each hollow blade, where a
The heat tolerance of turbine blades has
network of passages carries the air through-
since been raised another 100 degrees by
out the blade to cool it from inside. As air
making each blade out of just one crystal.
escapes through strategically spaced holes, it
With a single crystal and no boundaries,
flows over the external surface in a protective
engineers could remove from the alloy
film that insulates the blade from hot gas.
several boundary-strengthening ingredients
Gas temperatures are 200 or more degrees
that, essentially, had prevented the blades
hotter than the melting point of the blades.
from tolerating higher heat. The trick was to
Large fans on the high-bypass
Some of the increased engine perfor-
select a single crystal that would grow both
engines of these DC-10s push
mance also came from an advanced process,
vertically and horizontally to fill the entire
air out the back of the silver
engine cowlings while
called directional solidification, for casting
mold. The problem was solved by putting a
combustion chambers shoot
the nickel-alloy turbine blades. Whirling
corkscrew bottleneck between the chill plate
expanding gas through the
blades under high centrifugal force tend to
and the mold. As with directional solidifica-
gray cones.
creep, or elongate, at turbine operating
tion, several crystals start to grow from the
chill plate. But the bottleneck is small enough
that only the crystal with the best horizontal
32
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
saudia
ALL NIPPON AIRWAYS
B
EFF
HZ-AHA
saudia SAUDI ARABIAN AIRLINES
and vertical growth properties can worm
jumbos carry many fewer. In addition, the
L-1011s, here under
through the corkscrew into the mold. The
three jumbo families will be joined by a
construction, have four
fourth, the A330/340, in the early 1990s.
separate hydraulic systems for
first single-crystal turbine blades went into
added safety. They operate
engines for the midsize 767 jetliner in 1982
Supersonic transports, such as the
the elevators and stabilizers
and subsequently into new jumbo-jet
Concorde, generate an unacceptable sonic
on the wings, which control
engines.
boom that limits their use over populated
the pitch of the jumbo's nose.
Many of the engineering advances
areas. The next really advanced commercial
developed for jumbo jets have been incorpo-
aircraft therefore may be one that travels at
rated in smaller aircraft. High-bypass
hypersonic speeds at and above Mach 6
engines are now found on nearly all new
(six times the speed of sound). A proposed
commercial airliners of every size. The
hypersonic plane, the National Aero-Space
jumbos, in turn, are benefiting from new
Plane, is expected to travel at speeds and
technologies developed for commercial
altitudes where its sonic boom would create
aircraft in general: composite structural
less of a problem. It will probably burn liquid
materials, automated landing and flight
hydrogen in a propulsion system that uses jet
systems, and "all glass" cockpits in which
engines while in the atmosphere and rockets
instrument readings are displayed on color
while in space. It remains to be seen, though,
television monitors.
whether hypersonic planes will become
Over the next 10 to 15 years, the current
economical for long-haul commercial
family of jumbos will continue to expand in
transport. In the meantime, the jumbos and
size, range, and capability. Future jumbos
their descendants will undoubtedly remain
may weigh 1 million pounds, compared with
the workhorses of the airlines into the
870,000 pounds today. They will carry over
twenty-first century.
600 passengers more than 8,000 miles
nonstop. Currently, only short-range jumbos
carry that many passengers and long-range
JUMBO jet
33
Lasers
Before lasers were invented,
in phase-crest next to crest, trough next to
scientists dreamed of harness-
trough. Coherency intensifies the waves'
combined power, much as football fans
ing the unique properties of
intensify their combined sound by chanting
light to study the swift motion
in unison. In addition, the waves are almost
of molecules, atoms, and
perfectly parallel and so travel in nearly the
same direction. This directionality keeps the
electrons. The military wanted
waves concentrated in a narrow beam that
light's awesome power to
widens only gradually over great distance.
annihilate enemy tanks,
Incoherent light waves from the sun, light
bulbs, and other nonlaser sources travel out
planes, and missiles. Once
of phase at different frequencies in a beam
the practical laser was built,
that quickly spreads and disappears from
however, the "glamorous
sight.
Laser waves are no more powerful than
blowtorch" began doing jobs
waves of other light. But, because of their
no one had dreamed of. Today
unique properties, they are easily focused to
lasers play music, read price
a point that can vaporize diamond and steel.
Where continuous power of this magnitude
tags, carry phone calls, cut
is needed, the carbon dioxide laser has been
cloth, perform surgery, and
the workhorse since it was introduced
test the quality of air. And
commercially in 1967. It drills holes in hard
ceramics, cuts through composite materials,
although the military is still
and heat-treats metals to harden them. A
waiting for a light-ray
CO2 laser beam focuses to a fine point for the
weapon, lasers have become
delicate work of cutting cloth or drilling
holes in rubber baby-bottle nipples. Doctors
standard research tools for
use the CO2 laser as a surgical knife; the laser
scientists and engineers in
cauterizes blood vessels as it cuts, eliminat-
laboratories around the world.
ing much bleeding. Because light from a CO2
A carbon dioxide (CO2) laser
laser is infrared and thus invisible, a red,
cuts heavy-duty circular saw
The word laser stands for light amplifica-
low-energy helium-neon laser is often used
blades from 1/4-inch steel
tion by stimulated emission of radiation, and
to aim it.
sheet. The powerful CO2 laser,
the workhorse of industry, has
laser light is unlike any other. Light waves
Laser light is useful, too, in other areas of
been applied to a wide
from a laser all have the same frequency,
medicine. Its single-frequency nature lets a
assortment of tasks, ranging
creating a beam with one characteristic color.
from tough metal work to
The light is also coherent, its waves traveling
delicate surgery.
34
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
A researcher aims the
beam from a YAG (yttrium-
aluminum garnet) laser at a
sample of gallium arsenide
in an experiment to
measure impurities in the
semiconducting material.
laser zap one kind of tissue while causing
patterns act like a complex system of micro-
little harm to another. This is because some
scopic mirrors. They reflect back the object's
materials absorb more light energy at one
image if the original laser light is shined on
particular frequency than at others. The
the film at the original angle. The patterns are
colorless central portion of the eye, for
so intricate that they reflect a slightly differ-
example, absorbs little of the argon laser's
ent image in slightly different directions. This
green light, which is readily absorbed by
lets you see the object from different angles
blood-containing tissue at the back of the
and gives the image its three-dimensional
eye. Doctors, therefore, use the low-powered
quality.
argon laser to spot weld detached retinas and
Holograms are difficult to counterfeit
seal the leaking blood vessels that often blind
and so are used as tamper-proof seals on
diabetics. Lasers also vaporize brain tumors,
boxes of videocassettes and auto parts as
perform delicate inner-ear surgery, and
well as on credit cards and passports.
remove warts and gynecological cysts. Laser
Double-exposure holograms are used widely
light goes inside the body through fiber-optic
for quality control in, for example, the
endoscopes to burn fatty deposits out of
aircraft tire industry. Disruptions in the
clogged arteries, pulverize kidney stones,
delicate wave pattern on a double exposure
stanch bleeding stomach ulcers, and open
of a tire reveal defective bulges only
blocked fallopian tubes.
6 millionths of an inch high. Since 1980
Coherent light is necessary for construct-
holograms have been used to direct the beam
ing the three-dimensional pictures called
in many laser scanners that read price bar
Rows of microscopic bumps
holograms. They are made by shining one
codes at checkout counters. Holograms on a
on this video disc carry digital
part of a laser beam directly onto photo-
whirling disc bend a red helium-neon laser
information that is read by a
laser and translated by
graphic film while bouncing the other part
beam in different directions, allowing it to
computer into visual images.
off an object and then onto the film. Waves
scan for the bar code up to 1,800 times per
from the two beams interfere with each other
second. The light pattern reflecting back to
in complex patterns that are recorded on the
film. When the film is developed, these
LASERS
35
sensors from any successful scan will
The semiconductor laser quickly became
transmit the code.
the key to compact disc (CD) recordings,
The directionality of laser light makes it
which store large amounts of information
very useful for aligning new buildings,
and can be played at home. CDs were
tunnels, and pipes as well as leveling and
invented in the Netherlands, and the first
grading land. And the ability to switch them
audio CDs were introduced in Japan in 1982.
rapidly on and off lets lasers produce the tiny
Information for a disc is translated into the
pulses needed for timing measurements of
1's and O's of digital code and then stamped
long distances. Lasers can generate pulses of
onto the upper side of the disc in a series of
less than 0.1 billionth of a second-far
long pits. To read the information, a pin-
shorter than those made by mechanical or
point laser beam scans the bumps on the
electrical switches. By timing pulses bounced
underside. Flat surfaces between the bumps
off reflectors placed on the moon by U.S.
reflect a strong return beam; bumps scatter
astronauts and Soviet unmanned landers,
the light and weaken the beam. Sensors
laser instruments measure the earth-to-moon
detect differences between strong and weak
distance with less than 1 centimeter of error.
beams, interpreting them as digital code.
Scientists use even shorter laser pulses to
Music, video, and computer data can all be
observe the lightning movement of atoms,
stored in digital form on compact discs.
molecules, and chemical reactions. The
Other types of laser are especially useful
pulses can, in effect, take "snapshots"
for probing the environment. Government
quickly enough to prevent blurring. One
agencies and private organizations around
laser system generates a pulse of just
the world use ground-based and airborne
6 quadrillionths of a second, fast enough to
lasers to measure air pollution, monitor the
take step-by-step shots of a chemical reaction
weather, and study climate. Laser instru-
lasting only 100 quadrillionths of a second.
ments have been used to study holes in the
Lasers are also good for measuring very
ozone layers over the North and South poles,
slow movements. Geologists use them to
particulates and gases over the Amazon rain
measure the almost imperceptible creep
forests, and dust drifting across the Atlantic
along the San Andreas Fault in California.
from the Sahara.
A two-laser device on one side of the fault
Laser radar, or lidar (light detection and
A fraction of a second after
shoots red and blue beams at a reflector
ranging), detects airborne particles of dust,
the flash of an ultraviolet
farther up the fault on the other side. One
laser beam, a "smoke" plume
moisture, and chemicals by measuring the
beam could be used to measure the distance.
erupts from the corneal
strength of laser light reflected back to the
surface of the eye, shoots
But by comparing two beams of different
instrument. These fine particulates are
upward, and turns into a
frequencies, geologists calculate how much
invisible to normal radar. Weather scientists
microscopic mushroom cloud
the atmosphere has slowed the beams on a
use lidar plus knowledge of the Doppler shift
during a surgery experiment.
given day. With this information, they
Laser beams of other
to study wind speeds. Light reflected off
frequencies pass harmlessly
compensate for measurements taken under
particles moving with the wind changes
through the cornea to perform
different atmospheric conditions. Shooting at
frequency, which gets higher if the particles
surgery inside the eye.
a reflector 5 kilometers away, the instrument
are moving toward the observer and lower if
can detect a shift in the earth of only
they are moving away. A similar frequency
2 millimeters.
shift causes a train whistle to sound higher
The ability to develop lasers with special
while a train approaches and lower as it
talents opened the door to their use in
speeds away.
communications in the 1970s. The break-
Another system, called differential
through came with development of a
absorption lidar, uses laser beams at two
semiconductor laser that operates at room
frequencies to detect the presence of a gas in
temperature, is smaller than a grain of sand,
the atmosphere and measure whatever is
and produces a light frequency that travels
there. The first beam uses lidar to measure
well through glass optical fiber. This laser
the light reflected back by particulates. The
made it practical to use fiber-optic cables for
second beam, at a wavelength absorbed by a
long-distance telephone lines that carry
gas such as ozone, scans the same area. Some
thousands of calls at once. The installation of
of its light is absorbed by the gas but some is
fiber-optic telephone cables since then has
reflected back by particulates. The amount of
expanded long-distance telephone service
gas in the air and its location are revealed by
and reduced its cost.
comparing the return echoes of the two
beams.
36
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
A laser beam shoots
moonward from an
observatory, left, in a test
to learn whether a laser
could hit a small target on
the moon. Laser beams from
this and another observatory
appear as two tiny dots of
light, above, sparkling on
the dark side of the earth
in a photo taken from the
moon by a television camera
In the future, laser research will aim at
schemes because they can be operated by
on the Surveyor 7 lunar
reducing the size and cost of lasers while
computer and used by robots. And, because
probe. This test led to the use
of lasers for measuring the
expanding their versatility. Technology is
light beams are quickly redirected with
earth-to-moon distance.
being developed for arrays of tiny semicon-
mirrors and fiber-optic cables, lasers can be
ductor lasers-which are limited in
assigned new jobs without costly retooling.
size-that develop enough power for devices
The fastest growing field for lasers,
such as printers and facsimile machines. The
though, is undoubtedly medicine. Lasers are
search for a powerful laser that can be tuned
being investigated for reshaping the cornea
to many frequencies has sparked interest in
to correct eye problems. They are being
the free-electron laser. This laser generates
tested for activating toxic anticancer drugs
light by sending electrons through a periodi-
that accumulate in tumors but pass through
cally alternating magnetic field. Its periodici-
the rest of the body. And lasers are being
ty or its strength can be altered to change the
used experimentally for drilling new blood
frequency of the light beam.
channels in weakened hearts and for other
At the same time, existing lasers are
techniques aimed at reducing heart disease,
being applied to many new tasks. Lasers will
the leading cause of death in the United
find use in industries seeking greater speed
States.
and efficiency. They fit well into automation
LASERS
37
Fiber-Optic
Communication
Right: Ultrapure glass fibers
The information revolution
encased in protective ribbons
are the mainstay of fiber-
of the 1960s created such an
optic communication systems.
avalanche of data that
futurists saw it soon over-
whelming the telephone lines
and radio waves that carry
information around the globe.
That vision-and the
invention of lasers-spurred
research into the tremendous
potential of light, which can
carry thousands of times more
information than either
electric signals or radio waves.
The work led in 1970 to a very
transparent glass thread
called TAT-8 and laid in 1988, is the first
whose appearance quickly
transoceanic fiber-optic cable. TAT-7, the
copper cable laid in 1983, carries less than a
opened the door to fiber-optic
fourth as many calls and is twice as thick.
communication, a technology
The huge capacity of optical fibers translates
able to channel the flood of
into lower construction cost per telephone
circuit. The first trans-Atlantic copper cable,
information into the twenty-
for example, cost more than $1 million per
first century.
circuit to install in 1956; 32 years later, TAT-8
cost less than $10,000 per circuit.
Today's optical fiber is thinner than a
Waves of light carry more information
human hair. Yet it carries so much informa-
because they have higher frequencies-
tion that four fibers-two in each direction-
measured in wave cycles per second, or
in a trans-Atlantic telephone cable are
hertz-than either radio waves or the electric
handling up to 40,000 calls at once. The cable,
waves on copper telephone wires. High-
frequency waves can be switched on and off
faster than low-frequency waves, SO they can
38
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
The green light of a an argon
laser flows through several
miles of experimental optical
fiber wound around a spool.
Similar hair-thin optical fibers
are the heart of cables that
carry 40,000 or more
simultaneous telephone calls
on beams of laser light under
oceans and across continents.
be divided into more pulses per second. The
megahertz, 100 million times higher than a
pulses and gaps between them represent the
typical AM radio signal and 100 billion times
1's and 0's of digital information. The
higher than an electric telephone signal.
infrared laser light used in optical telephone
Fiber-optic communication became
cables has a frequency of about 100 million
practical with the development of fibers that
carry light pulses a substantial distance
FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION
39
Below: Fiber-optic cables
before needing a repeater. Their cores are
expensive than lasers. Although their signals
carry many more communica-
made of silica glass, one of the most transpar-
deteriorate over long distances, LEDs are
tion signals than do copper
cables of similar size. Fiber
ent solid substances known. Impurities in
efficient for short links between, for example,
cable laid in the trans-Atlantic
early glass fibers weakened pulses SO much
a compact-disc player and stereo amplifier or
link is less than half the size
that light lost 99 percent of its energy after
computers in a local network.
of copper cable used in an
just 20 meters. But a new chemical process,
Optical fibers can handle many times
earlier link but carries more
pioneered in the 1970s, now produces cores
more information if they carry light pulses of
than four times as many
telephone calls.
of such high transparency that fibers in TAT-
several frequencies at the same time. The
8 need only 101 repeaters to boost signals
bandwidth of light (its range of frequencies)
across the Atlantic. TAT-7, the copper cable,
is about 10 billion megahertz from infrared to
needs 662.
ultraviolet and can be divided into millions
The debut of a practical fiber coincided
of signal channels, each at a slightly different
with the development of other technologies
frequency. Radio waves cover a relatively
needed for fiber-optic communication. In
tiny bandwidth, leaving little room for
1970 a room-temperature, semiconductor
multiple channels. The bandwidth is even
laser was built that could transmit well-
smaller for electric channels.
defined pulses through long-distance optical
Most optical fibers today carry light of
fiber. Photodetectors were developed that
only one frequency, although they are
could handle the torrent of pulses pouring
capable of transmitting several more. So far,
The C.S. (Cable Ship) Long
out the other end and convert them into
it has proved economical to use multifre-
Lines laid more than 3,600
electric signals. For short-distance systems,
quency systems only in special cases of
miles of the TAT-8 fiber-optic
cable, from the United States
tiny light-emitting diodes (LEDs) were
growing demand where limited numbers of
to a point off the coast of
devised that use less power and are less
fibers have already been installed. For
Europe. From there, British
example, fiber pairs that were carrying
and French ships laid branch
24,000 voice circuits between Chicago and
cables to their respective
Philadelphia have been upgraded to transmit
countries. In all, nearly 4,200
miles of cable were laid.
40
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
two frequencies, so they now carry 48,000
circuits.
Fiber-optic communication has other
advantages over radio and electric channels.
Light signals do not produce the external
halo of electromagnetic waves that surround
electric telephone lines and cause "cross talk"
between them. Optical fibers are also
relatively secure from unwanted eavesdrop-
pers, who can easily intercept radio waves or
tap electric telephone signals without being
detected.
Optical fibers have been quietly weaving
into communication networks since the first
commercial system opened in Chicago in
1977. Since then more than 1.5 million miles
of optical fiber have been installed across the
United States; copper cables are no longer
laid for main lines between U.S. cities. An
undersea fiber-optic cable that U.S. and
Japanese cable ships laid across the Pacific
was activated in 1989. Optical fibers have
also been adapted for sensing movement in
gyroscopes, linking industrial lasers to
cutting and drilling tools, and threading light
into the human body for examinations and
laser surgery.
A future engineering challenge lies in
building a computer that uses light instead of
electricity. Theoretically, an optical computer
would be 1,000 times faster than the best
United States, Great Britain, Japan, France,
A technician in Philadelphia
modern supercomputers. Another challenge
Canada, and West Germany have been
checks a device that uses
closer to home is in stringing fibers to
running optical fibers to homes on an
microprocessors to pinpoint a
malfunction among signal
individual users from the optical main lines
experimental basis since 1980. Once econom-
regenerators along the
that now exist. At present, copper wires
ic and regulatory obstacles are overcome, the
heavily used fiber-optics line
connect homes to central telephone
pace of replacing copper wires with optical
between New York City and
exchanges, where electric signals are convert-
fibers to individual homes in the United
Washington, D.C.
ed into light pulses that are channeled into
States should pick up. Economical optical
the main lines. Telephone authorities in the
switches and converters for such "end-to-
end" systems still need to be developed.
But early in the twenty-first century, many
Left: Optical fibers can be
people could be enjoying hundreds of
threaded into the ureter, the
television shows, movies, newspapers, and
tube leading from the bladder
to the kidney, to bring in
books brought into their homes through a
laser light that dislodges
single, hair-thin optical fiber.
kidney stones. The photo here
shows a laser chipping a
kidney stone into fragments
small enough to pass through
the ureter naturally.
FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION
41
Genetically
Engineered
Products
The first fruits of genetic
in late 1987. It quickly dissolves blood clots
engineering-the products
that cause heart attack and prevents their
recurrence. It is already standard treatment
made by organisms implanted
for heart attack victims at hundreds of U.S.
with a foreign gene-have
hospitals.
contributed handsomely to
These and other genetically engineered
products now available are created through
human welfare in the few
the efforts of biologists and engineers. It is
short years since they
biologists who "engineer" new organisms by
appeared.
splicing a gene from one organism into
another. Traditional engineers provide an
Insulin, needed by millions of diabet-
indispensable bridge from biology lab to the
ics, has been produced commercially by
public. They design and build the mechani-
genetically engineered bacteria since 1982.
cal systems that allow the new organisms to
The product is identical to human insulin
grow in large quantities and that process the
and so does not cause the allergic reactions
valuable substances the organisms produce.
sometimes produced by insulin derived from
In addition, they develop complex laboratory
animals. Nor is its supply subject to the ups
instruments that simplify and speed the
and downs of the livestock market.
work of genetic engineering.
Human growth hormone (HGH),
A genetically engineered product begins
Technicians inspect the
needed for normal physical development,
with biologists who find a gene that pro-
control unit at the bottom of
has been available as a genetically engi-
duces a valuable substance such as HGH.
a large-scale evaporator used
in the final steps of purifying
neered product since 1985. Previously, many
Using enzymes that dissolve bonds to
human insulin produced by
of the more than 10,000 U.S. children low in
neighboring genes, they cut the valuable
genetically engineered
HGH could not get treatment with the
gene out of the DNA, the genetic material of
bacteria.
natural substance, which is extracted in tiny
a cell. Then they insert this gene into another
amounts from the pituitary glands of
organism-such as the common bacterium
cadavers at autopsy. And in 1985, distribu-
Escherichia coli-that will multiply itself and
tion of HGH from this source was stopped
the foreign gene along with it.
after evidence suggested it might be contam-
Once the genetically engineered "bug"
inated with a virus causing a rare, fatal
has been created, engineers design a system
disease. Today, however, there is plenty of
in which its product can be produced and
pure biosynthetic HGH.
processed in large quantities at a reasonable
Tissue-plasminogen activator, or t-PA,
cost. The production of human insulin, the
appeared as a genetically engineered product
first commercial product of genetic engineer-
ing, is a good example. It was developed in
the United States and appeared commercial-
ly under the trade name Humulin, first in the
42
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
A spiraling chain of DNA,
the genetic blueprint of life,
shimmers in this computer-
generated molecular model.
Certain DNA segments make
up the genes that produce
insulin, human growth
hormone, and other important
substances.
United Kingdom and later in the United
carbon dioxide that flowed out were decon-
States.
taminated. A special double seal was
The insulin molecule is composed of two
invented to prevent the escape of microbes
parts called A and B chains. The original
from around the shaft of the paddle-like
Humulin process used two versions of E. coli
agitator that stirred the culture. And the
to produce the chains. One version contained
tanks were designed to function under
a gene producing A chains and the other
negative pressure-the opposite of conven-
contained the B-chain gene. Each version
tional tanks-to suck back any bacteria that
was grown, or fermented, in a large separate
otherwise might escape. Engineers also
tank. The chains they produced were
developed a new pasteurization system hot
extracted from the bacteria and purified.
enough to kill the bacteria as they were
Afterward, A and B chains were combined in
withdrawn from the tanks, but cool enough
a third vessel. The complete molecules were
not to damage the A or B chains.
then purified and crystallized into a usable
The big challenge in producing
form of human insulin.
Humulin, however, was in scaling up
The Humulin process demanded special
production from expensive 10-liter batches in
engineering to handle the uncertainty
the laboratory to less expensive batches of
surrounding the first large-scale use of
40,000 liters in the factory. The scaleup was
genetically engineered microbes. Scientists in
particularly difficult because these bacteria
the late 1970s did not know whether such
store the A or B chains within themselves,
bugs might survive in nature and contami-
unlike microbes that produce antibiotics and
nate the environment. So the bacteria were
secrete them. Engineers devised a way to
grown in closed stainless steel tanks with the
extract the chains by pressurizing the cells in
inflow of nutrients and oxygen carefully
a tank and then shooting them out into
controlled by computer. Water vapor and
normal atmosphere, where the pressure
change caused the cells to explode like
balloons and release their contents. The
GENETICALLY ENGINEERED PRODUCTS
43
chains were separated from cell debris in
degrade pesticides, or to turn organic waste
several steps ending with high-performance
material into useful products. They may one
liquid chromatography. This laboratory
day use genetically altered bacteria to loosen
technique is performed by pouring a mixture
underground oil so it can be pumped to the
through a pencil-sized column of material
surface or to leach precious minerals from
that sifts out certain molecules. But for large-
ore.
scale Humulin production, columns 10 feet
Perhaps the biggest contribution of
tall and 12 to 16 inches in diameter had to be
traditional engineering to this field has been
designed. Today, Humulin is produced by a
the development of instruments that speed
the process of genetic engineering and
expand its possibilities. Two devices-the
protein sequencer and the DNA synthesizer-
have already had tremendous impact on the
detective work of genetic engineering. For
instance, one biologist working with a DNA
synthesizer can do the amount of work in
one afternoon that would have taken 25
biologists five years to complete in the early
1970s.
The discovery of a valuable gene often
begins with identifying the sequence of
amino acids in the protein it produces. There
are only 20 different amino acids. But the
chainlike protein molecules have hundreds
of amino acids linked in specific order. An
instrument that can decipher this sequence
appeared on the market in 1969. It is essen-
tially a computer-controlled plumbing device
that uses solvents to cut one amino acid at a
time from the end of a protein molecule.
The first insulin produced by
similar, but more efficient process involving a
Knowing the amino acid order, biologists can
bacteria implanted with
new type of genetically engineered bacteria
identify the gene that made the protein.
human insulin genes was
and only one fermentation tank.
Another device, which entered the
processed into crystals. The
insulin must be separated
Traditional engineers are not directly
market in 1982, can actually build small
from the bacteria and
involved in some other aspects of genetic
genes or gene fragments out of DNA-the
purified in relatively large
engineering, such as the genetic alteration of
genetic material found in cells. A DNA
quantities in order to be
plants and animals or the potential treatment
synthesizer hooks together subunits, called
useful to many diabetics.
of humans with genetic disorders. They are,
bases, in the proper order for a particular
however, becoming more involved with
gene or gene fragment. These synthetic genes
processing the products that are produced by
and fragments can then be used for several
genetically altered plants and microorgan-
purposes, including genetic engineering. For
isms. Biologists are modifying organisms to
example, the genes that produce Humulin
produce everything from pharmaceuticals to
are really synthetic genes created by a DNA
food processing agents to specialty chemi-
synthesizer.
cals. In fact, the greatest use of genetic
The dream machine of genetic engineer-
engineering in the future may be in the
ing, though, is a device that can rapidly
production of products that are now created
sequence DNA, much as proteins are
by chemical processes, which often involve
sequenced. Human DNA contains more than
high temperatures and pressures as well as
3 billion bases, and today's DNA sequencers
toxic by-products. Biological synthesis, on
can analyze only about 9,000 bases per day.
Potentially useful genes are
the other hand, usually takes place at room
The challenge for today's engineers is to
often identified by analyzing
temperature under normal pressure and
develop in the next four or five years
the proteins they produce. A
protein sequencer is used to
produces biodegradable waste.
machines that are at least 10 times faster than
determine the order of amino
In the meantime, people have already
present sequencers.
acids making up a chainlike
begun to investigate the use of genetically
The amount of genetic information
protein molecule, thereby
altered microbes to clean up toxic waste,
already being generated by DNA sequencers
uncovering the identity of the
is overwhelming. To check a new sequence
gene that made it.
against the massive, growing data bank of
44
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
2-8-84
Tracy
10-5-83
TRUCK
2-28-83
known sequences will require faster comput-
Work is under way to determine the
For nine years, a deficiency in
er systems. One under development uses a
entire sequence of human DNA, called the
human growth hormone (HGH)
genome, and map the location of all 100,000
stunted the growth of this
series of 500 or more microprocessors that
California girl. But in her
can each be programmed to recognize one of
or so genes. This data would reveal more
tenth year, injections of HGH
the four types of DNA base. Essentially, the
about human biology and disease than has
produced by genetically
series is programmed to reflect the order of
been learned in the past 200 years. Scientists
altered bacteria stimulated
bases in the new DNA sequence. As known
and engineers would dearly love to map the
a 5-inch burst of growth,
sequences from the data bank flow past the
entire human genome. With the right tools,
catching her nearly up to the
normal height of a girl her
series, each microprocessor "lights up" when
they may soon do it. Completing the project
age.
its particular base passes by. When all light
would be, some believe, the biological
up together, they signal the location of an
equivalent of putting a man or woman on
identical sequence in the data stream. Using
the moon.
this recognition system, the computer can
search the DNA data bank for similar
patterns thousands of times faster than
existing computers.
GENETICALLY ENGINEERED PRODUCTS
45
Further Reading
Moon Landing
Computer-Aided Design and
Bilstein, Roger E. Stages to Saturn: A Technical
Manufacturing
History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles.
Loeffelholz, Suzanne. "CAD/CAM Comes
Washington, D.C.: NASA, 1980.
of Age." Financial World, October 18, 1988,
Brooks, Courtney G., James M. Grimwood,
pp. 38-40.
and Loyd S. Swenson, Jr. Chariots for
Pond, James B., and Robert E. Harvey.
Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Space-
"Dream Factories Leap-Frog the Opposi-
craft. Washington, D.C.: NASA, 1979.
tion." Iron Age, November 15, 1985, pp. 26-
Hallion, Richard P., and Tom D. Crouch, eds.
36.
Apollo: Ten Years Since Tranquility Base.
Mitchell, Larry D. "Computer-Aided Design
Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
and Manufacturing." McGraw-Hill
Press, 1979.
Encyclopedia of Science & Technology. New
Pellegrino, Charles R., and Joshua Stoff.
York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.
Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story behind
the Race to the Moon. New York:
CAT Scan
Atheneum, 1985.
Andreasen, Nancy C. "Brain Imaging:
Applications in Psychiatry." Science,
Application Satellites
March 18, 1988, pp. 1381-1388.
Badgley, Peter C. "Remote Sensing."
Randal, Judith E. "NMR: The Best Thing
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science &
Since X-Rays?" Technology Review, January
Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.
1988, pp. 59-65.
Canby, Thomas Y. "Satellites That Serve Us."
Sochurek, Howard. Medicine's New Vision.
National Geographic, September 1983,
Easton, Pa.: Mack Publishing, 1988.
pp. 281-334.
Sochurek, Howard. "Medicine's New
Heckman, Joanne. "Ready, Set, GOES:
Vision." National Geographic, January 1987,
Weather Eyes for the 21st Century." Space
pp. 2-40.
World, July 1987, pp. 23-26.
Rasool, S.I. "Applications Satellites."
Advanced Composite Materials
McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science &
Chou, Tsu-Wei, Roy L. McCullough, and R.
Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.
Byron Pipes. "Composites." Scientific
American, October 1986, pp. 192-203.
Microprocessor
Office of Technology Assessment, U.S.
"EDN Microprocessor Issue." EDN, October
Congress. Advanced Materials by Design.
27, 1988.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Garetz, Mark. "Evolution of the Microproces-
Printing Office, 1988.
sor: An Informal History." Byte, Septem-
Rapson, Robert L. "Advanced Composites"
ber 1985, pp. 209-215.
(under "Composite Material"). McGraw-
Grossblatt, Robert. "A Decade of Change:
Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology.
The Microprocessor." Radio-Electronics,
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.
April 1986, pp. 61-65.
Steinberg, Morris A. "Materials for
Kerr, Douglas A. "It's 16 Bits, But Is That
Aerospace." Scientific American, October
Wide or What?" Creative Computing, June
1986, pp. 67-72.
1985, pp. 40-45.
46
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
Jumbo Jet
Genetically Engineered Products
Aeronautical Staff of Aero Publishers. DC-10
"DNA: Inherited Wealth." The Economist,
Jetliner. Fallbrook, Calif.: Aero Publishers,
April 30, 1988, Biotechnology Survey,
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FURTHER READING
47
Acknowledgments
Hugh McIntosh researched and wrote the
Advanced Composite Materials
10 stories. H. Dale Langford and Douglas L.
Martin Burg, Composite Market Reports;
Wolford edited the text, and Pamela Reznick
Tobey M. Cordell, Wright Research and
designed the booklet. We would like to thank
Development Center; James A. Fitzgerald,
the scores of persons who contributed their
Du Pont; Bernard H. Kear, Rutgers Universi-
expertise, including the following who
ty; Steven E. Russell, Hercules Aerospace;
provided invaluable advice in the prepara-
Jacques E. Schoutens, Metal Matrix Compos-
tion of the manuscripts:
ites Information Analysis Center; John D.
Venables, Martin Marietta; Klaus M. Zwilsky,
Moon Landing Robert A. Duffy, Charles
National Research Council.
S. Draper Laboratory; William F. Ezell,
Rocketdyne; Joseph G. Gavin, Jr., Grumman;
Jumbo Jet Leon R. Anderson, Pratt &
David G. Hoag, Charles S. Draper Laborato-
Whitney; Alexander H. Flax, NAE; Maurice
ry; Samuel C. Phillips, U.S. Air Force; Henry
L. Gell, Pratt & Whitney; Willis M. Hawkins,
O. Pohl, NASA; James B. Skaggs, Primrose.
Lockheed; Joseph S. Sutter, Boeing.
Application Satellites David S.
Lasers Carroll O. Alley, University of
Johnson, National Research Council; John L.
Maryland; Ellet H. Drake, American Society
McLucas, QuesTech; Robert M. White, NAE.
for Laser Medicine and Surgery; David R.
Hertling, Georgia Institute of Technology;
Microprocessor David R. Hertling,
Richard Q. Hofacker, Jr., AT&T Bell Labora-
Georgia Institute of Technology; Howard
tories; Thomas R. Lettieri, National Institute
High, Intel; Robert E. Kahn, Corporation
of Standards and Technology; C. Kumar N.
for National Research Initiatives; John M.
Patel, AT&T Bell Laboratories; Charles T.
Richardson, National Research Council;
Troy, Photonics Spectra.
Jacob T. Schwartz, Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency.
Fiber-Optic Communication David
R. Hertling, Georgia Institute of Technology;
Computer-Aided Design and
Richard Q. Hofacker, Jr., AT&T Bell Labora-
Manufacturing Michael J. Cronin,
tories.
Automatix; Gerald P. Dinneen, NAE; Charles
W. Hoover, Jr., Polytechnic University; E. Jan
Genetically Engineered Products
Hurst, Computer Graphics Historical Project;
John E. Burris, National Research Council;
Richard H. F. Jackson, National Institute of
David W. Dennen, Eli Lilly; Barbara Filner,
Standards and Technology; Richard L. Kegg,
Howard Hughes Medical Institute; Clifford J.
Cincinnati Milacron; Carl Machover, Nation-
Gabriel, National Research Council; Alan R.
al Computer Graphics Association; Joel
Goldhammer, Industrial Biotechnology
Moses, Massachusetts Institute of Technolo-
Association; Leroy Hood, California Institute
gy; Fontaine K. Richardson, Eastech Manage-
of Technology; Robert Jones, Applied
ment.
Biosystems; James E. Tavares, National
Research Council.
CAT Scan Stanley Baum, University of
Pennsylvania; B. J. Bowen, General Electric
Medical Systems.
48
ENGINEERING AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF HUMAN WELFARE
National Academy of Engineering
Council
Frederic A. L. Holloway
H. Norman Abramson
Edward G. Jefferson
Lew Allen, Jr.
William S. Lee
Holt Ashley
William E. Leonhard
George Bugliarello
Harold Liebowitz
Gerald P. Dinneen (Foreign Secretary)
Peter W. Likins
Thomas E. Everhart
Clarence H. Linder
Alexander H. Flax (Home Secretary)
John L. McLucas
Ralph E. Gomory
Ruben F. Mettler
Mary L. Good
Richard M. Morrow
Paul E. Gray
Bruce S. Old
George N. Hatsopoulos
Courtland D. Perkins
Edward R. Kane (Treasurer)
William H. Pickering
Ralph Landau (Vice President)
Cornelius J. Pings
John L. McLucas
Allen E. Puckett
Herbert H. Richardson
Simon Ramo
Morris Tanenbaum
Arthur E. Raymond
John F. Welch, Jr. (Chairman)
Ian M. Ross
Robert M. White (President)
Robert C. Seamans, Jr.
Chauncey Starr
Advisory Committee on the
H. Guyford Stever
25th Anniversary Celebration
Julius A. Stratton
Stephen D.Bechtel, Jr. (Chairman)
C. Guy Suits
John A. Armstrong
Richard F. Tucker
Harold Brown
Eric A. Walker
Walker L. Cisler
Ernst Weber
Floyd L. Culler
Albert R.C. Westwood
W. Kenneth Davis
F. Karl Willenbrock
Thomas E. Everhart
Thornton A. Wilson
N. Bruce Hannay
PHOTO CREDITS Cover Column 1, top to bottom: courtesy of NASA (photos 1 and 2); courtesy of Intel Corporation;
courtesy of McDonnell Douglas Systems Integration Company, Manufacturing and Engineering Systems; © Howard Sochurek.
Column 2, top to bottom: courtesy of E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. (Inc.); William Kennedy, The Image Bank; © Robert Rathe,
FOLIO; courtesy of AT&T; courtesy of Eli Lilly and Company. Moon Landing Courtesy of NASA (all), 4,5, 6, 7, 8,9.
Application Satellites NOAA, 10; courtesy of NASA, 11(left, right); © Greg Pease, FOLIO, 12; Reproduced by permission
of Earth Observation Satellite Company, Lanham, Maryland, USA, 13(top); courtesy of Rockwell International Corporation,
13(bottom). Microprocessor Courtesy of Intel Corporation, 14, 17; © John Maher, UNIPHOTO, 15; courtesy of Apple Computer,
Inc., 16(left); courtesy of Boeing Commercial Airplanes, 16(right). Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing
Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, 18; courtesy of McDonnell Douglas Systems Integration Company, Manufacturing & Engineering
Systems, 19; courtesy of Mentor Graphics Corporation, 20(top); courtesy of Hewlett-Packard Company, 20(bottom); courtesy of
Aries Technology, Inc., 21(top, center, bottom). CAT Scan © Howard Sochurek, 22(left), 23, 24; Matthew Borkoski, FOLIO, 22(right);
© Charles Gupton, UNIPHOTO, 25. Advanced Composite Materials Courtesy of DAW Industries, Inc., 26; courtesy of Beech
Aircraft Corporation, 27; courtesy of E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. (Inc.), 28; courtesy of Kennametal Inc., 29(top); courtesy of
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Aeronautical Systems Division, 29(bottom). Jumbo Jets Courtesy of United Airlines, 30;
William Kennedy, The Image Bank, 31; courtesy of Pratt & Whitney, 32(top left, center right); © Rene Sheret, FOLIO, 32(bottom left);
courtesy of Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Company, 33. Lasers Courtesy of Coherent Incorporated, Palo Alto, California, 34;
courtesy of AT&T, 35(top); © Robert Rathe, FOLIO, 35(bottom); courtesy of Dr. Carmen A. Puliafito and the Archives of
Opthalmology, © 1987 American Medical Association, 36(top, center, bottom); courtesy of the University of Maryland-NASA,
37(left); J.R. Eyerman, 37(right). Fiber-Optic Communication Courtesy of AT&T, 38, 39, 40(top, bottom), 41(top right);
courtesy of Candela Laser Corporation, 41(bottom left). Genetically Engineered Products Courtesy of Eli Lilly and
Company, 42, 44(top); courtesy of Molecular Science Research Center at Battelle's Pacific Northwest Division, 43; courtesy of
Beckman Instruments, Inc., 44(top); Ted Spiegel, BLACKSTAR, 45.
National Academy of Engineering
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