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The original documents are located in Box 28, folder "Apollo - Soyuz Test Project" of the
Betty Ford White House Papers, 1973-1977 at the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.
Copyright Notice
The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of
photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted material. Betty Ford donated to the United States
of America her copyrights in all of her unpublished writings in National Archives collections.
Works prepared by U.S. Government employees as part of their official duties are in the public
domain. The copyrights to materials written by other individuals or organizations are presumed to
remain with them. If you think any of the information displayed in the PDF is subject to a valid
copyright claim, please contact the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.
apollo.soyuz
test project
Экспериментальный
проект
« Союз» - -«Аполлон»
USSR COSMONAUTS
USA ASTRONAUTS
Aleksey A. Leonov Valeriy N. Kubasov Thomas P. Stafford Donald K. Slayton Vance D. Brand
"DECALS INSIDE"
s tunu
ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛЬНЫЙ ПОЛЕТ "АПОЛЛОН"/"СОЮЗ"
APOLLO SOYUZ TEST PROJECT
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
APOLLO SOYUZ TEST PROJECT
ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛЬНЫЙ ПОЛЕТ "АПОЛЛОН"/"СОЮЗ"
FIRST INTERNATIONAL MANNED SPACE MISSION
ПЕРВЫЙ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫЙ ПИЛОТИРУЕМЫЙ ПОЛЕТ B KOCMOCE
The Apollo Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) is a joint endeavor
Экспериментальный проект "Аполлон-Союз" /ЭПАС/
of the United States and the Soviet Union as part of the
coBMecTHoe начинание CCCP И CIIIA Ha ocHoBe соглашения
agreement on cooperation in space which President Nixon and
O сотрудничестве B области исследования космического
Chairman Kosygin signed in Moscow in May of 1972. Both
пространства, подписанного B Mae 1972 Γ. B MocKBe
countries have agreed to develop compatible rendezvous and
Председателем CoBeTa Министров CCCP Косыгиным И
docking systems which will provide a basis for docking and
Президентом CIIIA Никсоном. Стороны заключили
rescue on future spacecraft of both nations.
соглашение O разработке совместимых систем сближения
It was agreed to conduct a joint experimental mission in mid-
И стыковки кораблей Ha орбите, применимых B случае
1975 to rendezvous and dock a manned Apollo spacecraft with
необходимости оказать ПОМОШЬ пилотируемому кораблю B
a manned Soyuz-type spacecraft to test these docking systems
KocMoce.
in orbit.
Было решено провести B середине 1975 Γ. совместный
Each nation is separately developing docking systems based on
экспериментальный полет пилотируемых кораблей и
a mutually agreeable single set of interface design specifications.
испытать стыковочные системы Ha орбите.
The major new U.S. program elements are the Docking
Module and docking system necessary to achieve compatibility
Ha ocHoBe разработанных единых требований по
of rendezvous and docking systems with the U.S.S.R. devel-
взаимодействию, каждая cTpaHa осуществляет cBoe
oped hardware to be used on a Soyuz spacecraft. The Docking
самостоятельное конструирование стыковочной системы.
Module and system together with an Apollo Command and
Service Module (CSM) will be launched on a Saturn IB
Основной частью американской программы исследований
launch vehicle. The ASTP mission will include testing a
является создание стыковочного модуля и стыковочной
compatible rendezvous system in orbit testing the compatible
системы, совместимых c советской стыковочной
docking systems: verifying techniques for transfer of astro-
системой, используемой Ha кораблях типа "Союз".
nauts and cosmonauts: conducting experiments while docked
Стыковочный модуль CO стыковочной системой И
and undocked: developing experience for the conduct of
командно-служебный модуль /KCM/ будут выведены Ha
potential joint flights by U.S. and U.S.S.R. spacecraft, includ-
ing, in case of necessity, rendering aid in emergency situations.
орбиту ракетой-носителем "CaTypH" IB. Программа
ЭПАС предусматривает испытание Ha орбите совместимой
системы сближения, испытание совместимой стыковочной
системы, проверку методов перехода из корабля B
корабль, проведение экспериментов B состыкованных и
расстыкованных кораблях, накопление опыта для
возможных совместных полетов B будущем И оказания
ПОМОЩИ B аварийных ситуациях.
JSCL-128
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 671-183/3
STAFFORD
NASA
SLARTON
BRAND
NASA
NASA
APOLIA
APOLLO
BOWE
APOLLO SOYUZ TEST PROJECT PRIME CREWMEN
ПЕРВЫЕ ЭКИПАЖИ ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛЬНОГО ПРОЕКТА АПОЛЛОН-СОЮЗ
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
APOLLO SOYUZ TEST PROJECT PRIME CREWMEN
ASTP PRIME CREWS-These five men compose the two prime
crews of the joint U.S.-USSR Apollo-Soyuz Test Project docking
in Earth orbit mission scheduled for July 1975. They are Astronaut
Thomas P. Stafford (standing on left), commander of the Ameri-
can crew; Cosmonaut Aleksey A. Leonov (standing on right),
commander of the Soviet crew; Astronaut Donald K. Slayton
(seated on left), American docking module pilot; Astronaut Vance
D. Brand (seated in center), American command module pilot;
and Cosmonaut Valeriy N. Kubasov (seated on right), flight
engineer of the Soviet crew.
Космический центр имени Джонсона, Хьюстон, Texac
Первые экипажи ЭПАС.
Эти пять человек составляют два основных экипажа coBMecTHoΓo
американско-советского экспериментального проекта Аполлон -
Союз по стыковке Ha околоземной орбите, запланированной Ha
июль 1975 года. Они являются: acTpoHaBT ToMac П. Стаффорд
/ стоит слева/ - командир американского экипажа; KocMoHaBT
Алексей A. Леонов / стоит справа/ - командир coBeTcKoΓo
экипажа; acTpoHaBT Дональд K. Слэйтон / сидит слева/ - пилот
американского стыковочного модуля; acTpoHaBT BaHc Д. Бранд
/ сидит B центре/ - пилот американского командного модуля; И
KocMoHaBT Валерий H. Кубасов / сидит справа/ - советский
борт-инженер.
JSCL 129
* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1975 671-188/5
NASAFacts
An Educational Publication
of the
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
NF-52/5-75
APOLLO SOYUZ TEST PROJECT
In mid-July 1975, three American astronauts and
Apollo-Soyuz will open the way to an inter-
two Russian cosmonauts will bring their spacecraft
national space rescue capability and to future
together in Earth orbit, exchange visits, and con-
international manned space missions that would
duct joint scientific and technical experiments. The
eliminate duplications of effort and thereby con-
principal goal of this Apollo-Soyuz Test Project,
tribute to economies and progress in space opera-
the world's first international manned space flight,
tions. In perspective, the most important result of
is to test compatible rendezvous and docking sys-
this international manned mission may be the mu-
tems for manned spacecraft.
tual confidence and trust it creates-confidence and
Apollo-Soyuz rendezvous. Rendezvous occurs about 50 hours
trust that may be significant not just for what peo-
after Soyuz launch. The spacecraft dock about an hour later.
ples working together may accomplish in space but
11.
10.
12.
I.
A.
J.
4.
2
B.
G(9)
13.
9.(G.)
1.
Command Module is readied for flight.
American part of docking system (foreground) and cylindrically
shaped Docking Module (background) during check-out.
C.
F(8)
also for what peoples working together may achieve
Instrument, at rear, with subsystems required for
on Earth.
power, communications, propulsion, and other
8.(F).
functions.
D.
Existing Spacecraft Used
Among the major modifications of Soyuz for the
E.
Apollo-Soyuz is named for two tried and tested
joint program are a new type of docking mechan-
spacecraft-the American Apollo and Russian
ism, additional communications equipment to ac-
Soyuz-that have been adapted for the mission.
commodate the United States ultra-high frequency
Apollo is fundamentally the same craft that waited
of 296 MHz, a transponder (a combined receiver-
in lunar orbit during the Apollo lunar landings and
transmitter that beams a signal when triggered by
that later carried astronauts between Earth and
another radio signal) for Apollo use in ranging (dis-
Apollo-Soyuz Mission Profile.
the Skylab experimental manned space station.
tance calculation) during rendezvous, and align-
Apollo consists of the cone-shaped Command
ment aids to aid Apollo in docking.
Module in which the men live, eat, and work; and
Soyuz's internal atmosphere consists of nitrogen
Soyuz
Apollo
the cylindrical Service Module with its rocket en-
and oxygen at an Earth sea level pressure of 760
A. Launch.
1. Launch.
gines, propellant, oxygen, and electrical power
mHg (millimeters of mercury), or 14.7 pounds per
supplies. As in the Apollo and Skylab programs, the
square inch. Apollo's atmosphere is pure oxygen at
B. Soyuz-launch vehicle separation.
2. Separation of Saturn IB first stage.
Service Module will be jettisoned when Apollo
about 260 mHg (5 pounds per square inch). To
C. Solar panels, that generate electricity
3. Second-stage separation.
begins the atmosphere-entry portion of its descent
facilitate crew transfer, Soyuz pressure will be re-
to Earth. The astronauts will return in the Com-
duced to about 520 mHg (10 pounds per square
from sunlight, unfold.
4. Apollo turnaround.
mand Module.
inch) during docking and re-pressurized to sea level
D. Soyuz turnaround.
5. Apollo extracts Docking Module from
Among major modifications to the Command/
before atmosphere entry. Equipment to reduce and
second stage.
Service Module for Apollo-Soyuz are an increased
increase pressure has been added to Soyuz. The
E. Soyuz continues to final orbit.
6. Apollo turnaround.
number of propellant tanks for the reaction control
lowered air pressure in Soyuz enables the men to
F. (8) Rendezvous.
(orientation and stabilization) system, added equip-
transfer from Soyuz to Apollo without a lengthy
7. Apollo orbit circularization.
ment required to operate the new Docking Module
period in the airlock to breathe pure oxygen and
G. (9) Joint activities.
8. (F) Rendezvous,
and the American-Russian rendezvous and docking
wash nitrogen from their bodies. Otherwise, the
9. (G) Joint activities.
systems, and provisions for scientific and technical
men would be subject to the bends, a painful con-
H. Deorbit.
experiments.
dition caused by nitrogen gas bubbles in the body
I. Separations of Orbital, Descent, and
10. Apollo jettisons Docking Module.
The Soyuz has been the primary Soviet manned
tissues.
Instrument Modules.
11. Turnaround and rocket firing for deorbit.
spacecraft since its introduction in 1967. It consists
of three basic modules:
Docking Module Is New
J. Descent and landing of Descent Module
12. Service Module jettison.
NASA developed and constructed a Docking
Orbital, located at the forward end, used by the
Module that will also serve astronauts and cosmo-
in Kazakhstan. U.S.S.R.
13. Descent and landing near Hawaii.
crew for work and rest in orbit.
nauts as an airlock and transfer corridor between
Descent, with main controls and crew couches,
Apollo and Soyuz. It holds two suited crewmen and
used by crew during launch and return to Earth.
is attached to the forward end of Apollo.
2
3
The Docking Module and Soyuz use a co
patible docking system designed by NASA a
Soviet engineers. Such a system will later be e
ployed on the United States Space Shuttle,
Soviet manned spacecraft, and possibly fut
spacecraft of other nations, providing internatio
space rescue capabilities as well as facilitating
ture international manned space flights requir
docking of two or more vehicles.
Proven Launch Vehicles Used
Saturn IB launches Apollo into Earth orl
Saturn IB was employed for the Earth-orbi
Apollo test flights prior to the Moon launches a
for Skylab, the first American Earth-orbital spa
station program. Saturn IB has a first-stage thr
of 720,000 kilograms (1.6 million pounds).
Soyuz is launched by the Raketa Nosit
Soyuz, or Soyuz Rocket Booster. The Soviet Un
has used this rocket vehicle in all Soyuz missio
including Soyuz 4 and 5 which achieved the fi
manned transfer between spacecraft on July
1969.
Mission Highlights
The mission plan calls for the Soviet Union
rocket Soyuz from the Baikonur launch comp
near the Aral Sea in Kazakhstan. Initially, Soyu
orbit will be elliptical. However, the Soyuz will e
cute one or two maneuvers to circularize its or
at an altitude of 225 kilometers (140 miles).
About 7½ hours after the Soyuz launch, Apo
will be rocketed into orbit from the John F. K
nedy Space Center in Florida. After separating fr
Saturn, Apollo will turn about, maneuver to
forward end of Saturn, and dock with and extr
the Docking Module housed there.
Apollo will then execute a series of maneuv
that will result in rendezvous and docking w
Soyuz. The docking will occur about 52 hours af
the Soyuz launch. The spacecraft will remains
docked for approximately two days as exchar
visits and joint experiments are conducted. Th
they will be separated.
The Soyuz is expected to remain in orbit for
additional 43 hours before returning to Earth.
will land in Kazakhstan. Apollo will operate in spa
for approximately six days after separation. It \
land in the Pacific Ocean near Hawaii.
Experimental Activities
Twenty-seven experiments planned for Apol
Soyuz involve space science, space processing a
manufacturing, Earth surveys, and life sciences.
few examples:
The stable and relatively prolonged mission \
be employed to gain more data on a compa
Historic meeting in space. Astronaut and cosmonaut greet
each other with handshake. Two astronauts are in Docking
Module air lock. The other is in Apollo Command Module.
Both cosmonauts are in the Orbital Module of Soyuz. Desc
Module is behind Orbital Module.
training and for working group meetings. Joint tests
have been made of such components as the docking
system.
Representatives of each country will be in the
other's mission control center during the mission.
Americans also will check out Apollo communica-
tions equipment that will be carried aboard Soyuz
prior to the Soyuz launch.
Each country's team is being intensively trained
in the other's language. Flight documents and pri-
mary ground and space controls will be labeled in
both Russian and English.
Biographies Of The Prime Crews
Astronauts
Astronauts Stafford (light coat, black cap) and Cernan (on his
left) on Moscow tour with other members of Soviet and
Vance D. Brand, Command Module Pilot, was born
American Apollo-Soyuz technical teams. Cernan is Special
May 9, 1931 in Longmont, Colorado. He earned a
Assistant to Dr. Glynn S. Lunney, the U. S. Technical Director
Bachelor of Science degree in Business from the
of Apollo-Soyuz. The American team was in Star City near
Moscow for Soyuz familiarization training. In background is
University of Colorado in 1953, a Bachelor of Sci-
Cathedral of the Intercession (St. Basil's) Museum. Kremlin is
ence degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the
at right.
University of Colorado in 1969, and a Master's
Astronauts Slayton (foreground) and Stafford in back-up Dock-
degree in Business Administration from the Uni-
ing Module.
made of lymphocytes and polymorphonuclear
versity of California, Los Angeles, in 1964.
leukocytes in blood samples taken from the astro-
Mr. Brand earned the Johnson Space Center Cer-
tively low-energy, X-ray background in the sky
nauts before and after their mission. Leukocytes
tificate of Commendation in 1970 and the NASA
detected by sounding rocket studies. Little is
are the white cells that attack infectious bacteria.
Exceptional Service Medal in 1974.
known about this phenomenon. The aim is to
Lymphocytes either manufacture antibodies that
Mr. Brand and his wife, Joan, have four children.
ascertain both the source of the radiation and the
battle viruses and other infectious agents or
process by which it is derived. Just as studies of
transmit information to other cells on how to
solar emission processes contributed to develop-
repel disease. The studies will add to knowledge
ment of atomic power plants, understanding of
about the body's defense mechanisms.
these X-ray sources may lead to development of
improved techniques for generating energy.
Satellite To Play Important Role
Mixtures of living cells will be separated by elec-
Communications from the docked Apollo and
Thomas P. Stafford, Commander, was born in
trophoresis into groups, each having a different
Soyuz spacecraft will be relayed to Earth through
Weatherford, Oklahoma, September 17, 1930. He
function. Electrophoresis refers to the movement
NASA's Applications Technology Satellite-6, a ver-
graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy in 1952.
of particles suspended in a fluid under the influ-
satile spacecraft being used for experiments on the
Stafford is a recipient of the following honorary
ence of an electric field. The weightless spacecraft
frontiers of communications, meteorology, and
degrees: Doctorate of Science, Oklahoma City Uni-
environment may permit better separation than
space science.
versity, 1967; Doctorate of Laws, Western State
can be obtained on Earth. If so, electrophoretic
If Apollo-Soyuz were transmitting directly to
University College of Law, 1969; Doctorate of Com-
separation on future space missions such as those
ground stations, as has been the practice in past
munications, Emerson College, 1969; Doctorate of
of the Space Shuttle could be a valuable tool for
manned flights, its comparatively low orbit and
Aeronautical Engineering, Embry-Riddle Aeronau-
biological research and lead to useful applica-
the limited number of stations would restrict com-
tical University, 1970.
tions in preparation of cell transplants and prod-
munications between the astronauts and Mission
Special honors have included the NASA Distin-
ucts that can be obtained from cell cultures, such
Control to an average of only about 15 minutes out
guished Service Medal, two NASA Exceptional
as enzymes and antibodies.
of each approximately 90-minute orbit.
Service Medals, the Johnson Space Center Certifi-
Observations will be made of Earth features,
Applications Technology Satellite-6, however, is
cate of Commendation, the Air Force Command
processes, and phenomena in many scientific dis-
in constant communications view of nearly half the
Pilot Astronaut Wings and Distinguished Flying
Donald K. Slayton, Docking Module Pilot, was born
ciplines. Among these are surveying the Hima-
globe from its vantage point about 35,680 kilo-
Cross, the National Academy of Television Arts
March 1, 1924, in Sparta, Wisconsin. He earned a
layan snow fields and drainage patterns as an aid
meters (22,300 miles) above Earth and, with sup-
and Science Special Trustees Award, and the 1966
Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engi-
to irrigation and flood control on the Indan Sub-
porting ground stations, Apollo and the ground-
Harmon International Trophy, administered by the
neering from the University of Minnesota in 1949.
continent and mapping extensions of the San
based flight controllers will be able to communicate
Clifford B. Harmon Trust.
His honorary degrees include Doctorate of Science
Andreas Fault and related fracture systems in
for about 50 minutes out of each orbit.
His space flights include Gemini 6 as pilot,
from Carthage University, Carthage, Illinois, in
the United States for oil and mineral exploration
Gemini 9 as command pilot, and Apollo 10 as com-
1961 and Doctorate in Engineering from Michigan
and earthquake studies.
Training Grounds Include Both Nations
mander. He has logged more than 290 hours in
Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, in
Among the life sciences experiments are studies
Astronauts, cosmonauts, and Russian and Ameri-
space.
1965.
of how weightlessness may affect the body's re-
can technical support staffs for Apollo-Soyuz have
Commander Stafford and his wife, Faye, have
He has been awarded two NASA Distinguished
sponse or resistance to infection. Studies will be
made numerous visits to each other's facilities for
two children.
Service Medals, the NASA Exceptional Service
6
7
Medal, the Collier Trophy of the National Aero-
nautic Association, and the Society of Experimental
Test Pilots' Iven C. Kinchloe Award and J. H.
Doolittle Award.
Mr. Slayton was chosen as one of the original
seven Mercury astronauts in April 1959 but a heart
condition, discovered in August 1959, precluded his
making any space flights. He subsequently served
as Coordinator of Astronaut Activities and later as
Director of Flight Crew Operations. In March 1972,
following a comprehensive medical review by
NASA's Director of Life Sciences and by the Fed-
eral Aviation Administration, Mr. Slayton was re-
stored to full flight status.
Mr. Slayton and his wife, Marjory, have one
Flight Engineer Kubasov is a Hero of the Soviet
child.
Union and a Pilot-Cosmonaut of the U.S.S.R.
Kubasov was enlisted in the Soviet cosmonaut
unit in 1966. As flight engineer of Soyuz 6, he took
Cosmonauts
part in the group flight with Soyuz 7 and Soyuz 8
in October 1969. During this mission, he conducted
the first experimental welding in space.
Valeriy Kubasov and his wife, Lyudmila, have
two children.
Part Of 1972 Agreement
Apollo-Soyuz was included in an agreement on
cooperation in space between the United
States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Re-
publics. The agreement was signed May 24,
1972, by President Nixon and Premier Ko-
sygin, Chairman of the U.S.S.R. Council of
Ministers.
Aleksey Arkhipovich Leonov, Commander, was
born May 30, 1934, in Listvayanka, in the Kem-
erovo Region of Siberia. He is a graduate of the
Chuguyev Air Force School and the Zhukovsky Air
Spacecraft Statistics
Force Academy. He is also qualified as an Air Force
APOLLO
Paradrop Instructor.
Command Module
Commander Leonov is a Hero of the Soviet Union
Rear End Diameter
3.90 meters
(12.8 feet)
and a Pilot Cosmonaut of the U.S.S.R. He is also a
Length
3.66 meters
(12 feet)
deputy to the Moscow Regional Soviet. In addition,
Service Module
he is a vice-president of the USSR-Egypt Friend-
Diameter
3.90 meters
(12.8 feet)
ship Society and a board member of the USSR-Italy
Length
6.71 meters
(22 feet)
Society.
Docking Module
Commander Leonov was enlisted, together with
Diameter
1.52 meters
(5 feet)
Yuri Gargarin, in 1960 in the first unit of Soviet
Length
3.05 meters
(10 feet)
cosmonauts. He was second pilot in the Earth
orbital flight of Voskhod 2 on May 18, 1965. During
SOYUZ
that mission, he achieved the world's first extra-
vehicular activity in space.
Orbital Module
Diameter
2.29 meters
Commander Leonov and wife, Svetlana, have two
(7.5 feet)
Length
2.65 meters
(8.7 feet)
children.
Descent Module
Diameter
Valeriy Nikolayevich Kubasov, Flight Engineer,
2.29 meters
(7.5 feet)
Length
2.20 meters
(7.2 feet)
was born January 7, 1935, in Vyazniki, Vladimir
Region. He graduated from the Moscow Aviation
Instrument Module
Institute in 1958. He is the author of a number of
Diameter
2.77 meters
(9.75 feet)
studies dealing with the calculation of spacecraft
Length
2.29 meters
(7.5 feet)
trajectories and holds a Master of Science (Engi-
neering) degree.
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1975-0-574-983
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
8
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 30 cents
Stock Number 033-000-00612-8
RENDEZVOUS IN SPACE: APOLLO-SOYUZ
by F. Dennis Williams
FORD
Public Affairs Officer, Office of International Affairs,
National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
BERALD
Revised and updated from a manuscript written
by Gerald R. Kovacs, Department of History,
Indiana University.
A reprint from June 1975 "NASA Report to Educators"
APOLLO/COЮ3
As many Americans awaken on July 15, Soviet tech-
nicians will be completing an afternoon countdown for
a Soyuz rocket booster to be launched from the Bay-
konur complex near Tyuratam in Central Asia, some
2,000 miles southeast of Moscow.
Meanwhile, NASA technicians at Kennedy Space Cen-
ter will clear the area around an Apollo launch pad and
begin loading liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen into the
224-foot Saturn IB. Seven and a half hours after Soyuz
has begun its journey around the Earth, at 3:50 p.m.
EDT, Apollo will roar over the Atlantic Ocean in pursuit.
The dual launch of Apollo and Soyuz, beginning the
only three months. During this period, its radio beep
first manned spaceflight to be conducted jointly by the
and movements revealed information about the density
United States and the Soviet Union, is the result of
of the upper atmosphere, temperatures experienced in
years of negotiating, careful planning, and extensive
the new environment, and the effectiveness of radio
testing. The flight itself, though it symbolizes a new era
transmission from space.
in U.S.-Soviet relations, is only the last in a series of
But the dawn of the space age had a tremendous
tests for a new docking system-a system designed
impact on world public opinion. For more than two
jointly by engineers of the two nations to give future
years, the United States had been publicizing its plans
astronauts of both nations a common mechanism for
for launching an artificial satellite as part of the 1957
locking their spacecraft together. For those who have
International Geophysical Year. Now, with virtually no
had dreams of Earth-orbiting space stations supplied
advance publicity, the Soviet Union appeared to have
and manned by spacecraft from many nations, such a
surpassed the United States in a single giant leap.
standardized docking system is an essential first step.
Soviet representatives had, in fact, made passing
Without a compatible docking system, each nation would
mention that their government was pursuing investiga-
be limited to its own independent activity during a
tions to this end, but such information sounded no
period when research and practical applications in
alarms in the United States. Now, the resulting political
Earth orbit are steadily increasing in value. For others,
effects in the United States and in other countries were
who have watched the independent progress of the two
remarkable. Although the Soviet Union had made sub-
great spacefaring nations, the fact that such a mecha-
stantial progress since the 1917 Revolution, the argu-
nism could be designed and tested jointly will be evi-
ment that the Soviet system was better able than the
dence in itself of a far greater accomplishment-a sig-
American to provide developing nations with economic
nificant increase in understanding between superpowers
and technological growth had proved unconvincing to
that once waged an ideological war that seemed to
much of the world. Now, in an era of Cold War, the
threaten the safety and security of the entire globe.
Soviets had scored a propaganda coup of major pro-
portions.
Beginnings in space. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet
For people all over the world, the space successes of
Union launched the first artificial earth satellite. In
the Soviet Union were viewed as symbolic of the overall
retrospect, the accomplishment seems a modest one-
technical and scientific level of the Soviet society.
Sputnik I operated for three weeks and stayed in orbit
During the first few years, the Soviet accomplishments
2
3
greatly enhanced their prestige and influence in the
Canada's Alouette, were launched in 1962 atop U.S.
in 1969, the first circumlunar flight to be returned to
to involve other nations in a wide range of future space
world. Their new image convinced many that they had
rockets.
Earth.
activities; a second panel, composed of representatives
at the very least equalled the United States. The mili-
Despite a number of formal and informal approaches
Meanwhile, the United States national space pro-
of several government agencies, began reviewing the
tary implications of the successful launches of great
to Soviet officials in the first years of the space age, no
gram also made significant advances. The first global
possibilities for U.S.-Soviet cooperation in space. The
payloads into Earth orbit were lost on few. The scientific
agreement on the nature of specific cooperative projects
weather photo, the first communications satellites, the
enthusiasm of NASA Administrator Paine for seeking
equipment, animals, and finally cosmonauts that orbited
acceptable to both sides was reached until 1962, after
first photograph of the Earth from space, the first dock-
new joint projects was now bolstered by supporting
the Earth all rode into space on missiles capable of
the first orbital flight by John Glenn. Chairman Nikita
ing of manned spacecraft in orbit, the first photographs
statements from many quarters.
Khrushchev's congratulatory telegram included a state-
carrying nuclear weapons.
of Mars, the first orbiting solar observatory-all were
On the other side of the globe, Soviet officials began
In the United States, the Sputnik launch and the
ment concerning the desirability of cooperative effort
U.S. accomplishments in the 1960s. The crowning
opening their doors. Congratulatory telegrams and in-
following explosion of our own Vanguard rocket on the
by our two nations in the exploration of outer space.
achievements-the first manned flight around the Moon,
formal expressions of Soviet support for increased space
launch pad brought a flurry of activity. Within a year,
In response, NASA and other U.S. agencies provided
the first docking in lunar orbit, and finally the first
cooperation flowed from Soviet officials to their U.S.
Congress had created a new agency, the National Aero-
specific proposals for concrete space projects that
manned landing on the Moon-significantly extended
counterparts within days of the Apollo 11 landing.
nautics and Space Administration, to lead the civilian
might be undertaken by the U.S. and USSR. Presi-
man's reach into space.
Assured of the President's personal support for a broad
dent Kennedy's letter to Khrushchev outlined these as
space effort.
Growing U.S.-Soviet communication. In the latter half
initiative, Paine sent Mstislav V. Keldysh, President of
Following Yuri Gagarin's successful orbital flight on
(1) establishment of an operational world weather satel-
of the 1960s, as the United States moved toward the
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, a copy of two
April 12, 1961, President John Kennedy asked his ad-
lite system through coordinated satellite launchings and
successful landing on the Moon, American space offi-
reports on long-range U.S. goals in space and expressed
visors to present him with a space program that would
global data exchange; (2) exchange of spacecraft track-
cials repeatedly offered to undertake additional coopera-
the hope that they would suggest to Keldysh, as they
demonstrate American technological leadership and re-
ing services; (3) mapping of Earth's magnetic field with
tive efforts with the Soviet Union, but none of these
did to him, possibilities for moving beyond the current,
gain our international prestige. Vice-President Lyndon
each nation launching its own satellites equipped to
overtures brought an affirmative response from the
limited cooperation in space between their two coun-
Johnson, chairman of the National Space Council, passed
share this task; (4) an invitation to the Soviet Union to
USSR.
tries. In the closing days of 1969 Keldysh replied that
the desired recommendations to the President, who
provide a ground terminal as part of an international
During this period, however, the United States and
he agreed on the need to develop U.S.-USSR coop-
announced on May 25, 1961, an urgent national priority:
program using U.S. communications satellites.
the Soviet Union were among the dozens of nations
eration further. He suggested that in three or four months
to land a man on the Moon and to return him safely to
In view of the extensive cooperation already under-
signing the Outer Space Treaty in 1967. These nations,
they return to the subject and agree on the time and
Earth before the end of the decade.
way between the United States and many other nations,
and the others signing in succeeding years, agreed that
place for a meeting.
the agreement signed by Anatoliy Blagonravov of the
space is free for exploration and use by all countries,
In the succeeding months, the movement toward U.S.-
International cooperation. During the first years of
Soviet Academy of Sciences and Hugh L. Dryden,
that space exploration shall be carried out for the benefit
Soviet space cooperation broadened and gathered
space activity, international cooperation in space was
Deputy Administrator of NASA, in June 1962 represented
of all humanity, and that the Moon and other celestial
momentum. In correspondence, at an informal dinner in
endorsed by both the United States and the Soviet
a very small step toward cooperation between the two
bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes.
New York, at private meetings, at an international space
Union. Because of the military implications of the ad-
nations that were most active in space.
This was followed in 1968 by a supplemental treaty con-
meeting in Leningrad, officials from NASA and other
vanced propulsion and guidance technology, some areas
This first agreement on space cooperation between the
cerning assistance by nations to astronauts in distress.
interested organizations suggested possible opportuni-
-booster development, for example-were clearly not
United States and the Soviet Union provided for mutual
The rapid progress of NASA's lunar program was
ties for cooperative effort.
suited for intimate cooperation between the super-
exchange of data from weather satellites, mapping of
accompanied by steady growth in U.S. cooperative space
During these months, several U.S. officials suggested
powers.
the Earth's magnetic field through an exchange of re-
activities with other nations. From 1965 through 1969,
that the two nations work together to develop a common
In the realm of scientific research, however, NASA
sults from independent satellite launches, and a com-
a dozen separate U.S. launches carried satellites from
docking mechanism for use on future spacecraft. In July
quickly advertised its willingness to engage in coop-
munications experiment using the U.S. satellite Echo II.
Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy
1970, a year after the first landing on the Moon, the
erative projects with other nations, and a number of
In 1965, stimulated by a Soviet suggestion, negotia-
and the ten-nation European Space Research Organiza-
Embassy of the USSR in Washington conveyed a message
programs to launch sounding rockets and small satel-
tors agreed on a plan to prepare a joint review of space
tion. Foreign scientists also provided experiments to be
from Academician Keldysh: Soviet officials were ready to
lites were agreed to in the early 1960s. The first inter-
biology and medicine, the first U.S.-Soviet cooperative
included in U.S. spacecraft and shared the responsi-
begin discussions leading to the development of common
national satellites, the United Kingdom's Ariel and
effort in an area directly related to manned spaceflight.
bility for analyzing data gathered by U.S. instruments.
docking mechanisms for space stations.
After a decade of compilation and review, the U.S.-
But even in early 1969, when new NASA Administrator
Agreement is reached. In October, U.S. and Soviet
Left, Explosion of the
U.S.S.R. editorial board has approved this impressive
U.S. Vanguard on the
Thomas Paine embarked on another campaign to elicit
officials met in Moscow for preliminary technical discus-
launch pad in 1957. Below,
joint work for publication in the coming months.
Soviet cooperation in defining mutually desirable space
sions. This first joint session led to basic agreements in
Britain's Aerial satellite,
Although U.S. space cooperation with dozens of na-
projects, the results were disappointing. Despite the
several areas. Three joint working groups were formed,
launched by the U.S. in
tions flourished in the 1960s, joint efforts with the
an early example of
great potential for space cooperation between the two
each with responsibility for a portion of the effort neces-
Soviet Union were limited to a very modest exchange
cooperation.
nations most actively exploring the cosmos, no new
sary to create a new docking system. These working
of results and some small attempts at coordinating the
joint effort had been undertaken for several years.
teams would adapt procedures and systems developed
two vigorous independent national programs.
Until July 20, 1969, when American astronauts landed
independently by the two nations so that future vessels
From the launch of Sputnik in 1957 through the 1960s,
their lunar module on the dusty surface of the Moon,
would be able to dock in space. This first meeting not
the Soviet space program recorded a number of firsts: in
the pursuit of a more extensive program of space coop-
only produced a formal agreement to design compatible
1959, the first spacecraft to escape Earth's gravity, Luna
eration between the United States and the Soviet Union
rendezvous and docking systems for future manned
I; also in 1959, the first pictures of the far side of the
produced no hint of success.
spacecraft, it also led to a plan of action for their
Moon, by Luna 3; in 1960, the first recovery of orbited
If the landing on the Moon awakened mankind to both
development.
animals; in 1961, the first manned orbital flight, with
the needs of Earth and the potential of the human
The success of the rendezvous and docking meeting in
Yuri Gagarin in Vostok 1; in 1962, the first spacecraft
species, the accomplishment also stimulated a new in-
October was followed by an agreement to substantially
to fly past Mars, Mars 1; in 1964, the first multi-manned
terest in international space activity. Congressional
expand U.S.-Soviet space cooperation by establishing
flight with a crew of three in Voskhod 2; in 1965, the first
resolutions endorsed an increased effort to bring about
five new joint working groups. NASA Deputy Administra-
walk in space, by Aleksey Leonov, now commander of
cooperation with all nations and to share the benefits of
tor George Low and Academician Keldysh met in January
the Soviet prime crew for the Apollo-Soyuz mission; in
the Apollo success with the entire world. An advisory
1971 and agreed to the formation of new working groups
1966, the first spacecraft to impact Venus, Venera 3; and
panel created by President Nixon recommended steps
to further cooperation in programs for weather satel-
4
5
agreed on hardware tests, training exercises, and mission
U.S. astronauts with the Soyuz spacecraft in exercises
simulations to be conducted before the flight; they
at the cosmonaut facility known as Star City, just outside
formulated mutually acceptable policies for handling
Moscow. The Soviet crew members practiced in an
various situations that might arise in space; and they
Apollo training device in Houston. The teams that will
established general guidelines for the exchange and
be in the U.S. and Soviet mission control centers during
public release of information concerning the joint flight.
the joint flight also exchanged visits and were trained
Although each of these areas would be more extensively
in control center operations.
negotiated during future meetings, the basic plan was
A total of nine astronauts and eight cosmonauts have
firmly established when the session concluded on April
received extensive training in all aspects of the joint
6, 1972.
flight. The Apollo prime crew is commanded by Thomas
On May 24, 1972, President Richard Nixon and Aleksey
P. Stafford, 45, a brigadier general in the U.S. Air Force,
Kosygin, Chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers,
a veteran of three spaceflights, and an astronaut for more
On May 24, 1972, Richard M. Nixon and Alexei
signed an agreement "concerning cooperation in the
Kosygin signed a cooperative Space Agreement.
than a dozen years. Stafford flew to within eight miles
exploration and use of outer space for peaceful pur-
of the surface of the Moon on Apollo 10, the last test
poses." The leaders formally endorsed the arrangements
flight to precede the lunar landing in 1969. In 1965,
lites, atmospheric sounding rockets, space sciences, the
previously agreed to at a lower level and established
Stafford participated in the first rendezvous in space
environment, and space biology and medicine. Two of
the two nations' determination to test the compatible
when he and Walter Schirra brought the Gemini 6 to
the projects to grow from the Low-Keldysh meeting were
docking system with an experimental Apollo-Soyuz flight
within a half-dozen feet of Gemini 7. In 1966, Stafford
Above, Joint crew training at Johnson Space Center
an exchange of lunar samples and a joint study of the
in 1975.
commanded Gemini 9 during a three-day flight in Earth
Bering Sea using satellites, research ships and specially
The purpose of the new standardized system being
during a "walk-through" of the first day. Below, Soviet
orbit.
flight controllers during a briefing at Houston.
equipped aircraft.
designed for spacecraft and space stations was, in the
Donald K. "Deke" Slayton, Apollo docking module
At the January meeting, Low suggested to Keldysh that
words of the Nixon-Kosygin agreement, "to enhance the
pilot, has called himself the world's oldest space rookie.
Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft be considered for a test
safety of manned flight in space and to provide the
Slayton, 51, was one of the first seven U.S. astronauts
flight of the new docking system the two nations would
opportunity for conducting joint scientific missions in the
selected in April 1959 and was to have piloted the second
be developing. Then, in March, Low reported the recent
future." The new docking system would provide the two
U.S. spacecraft to orbit the Earth, until a very slight
developments in U.S.-Soviet cooperation to the Con-
nations with a steppingstone to cooperation in space.
heart irregularity was discovered. A comprehensive medi-
gressional committees that oversee the U.S. space pro-
ASTP development. Subject to continuing budget ap-
cal review in 1972 found Slayton physically qualified for
gram. NASA officials held regular discussions with sen-
proval from the Congress, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
spaceflight, and he will make his first trip into space on
ators, representatives, and staff members from Senate
was underway. During the three years to follow, well
July 15.
and House committees throughout the negotiations with
over a hundred U.S. engineers, astronauts, and project
The third U.S. prime crewmember is Vance D. Brand,
the Soviet Academy of Sciences.
officials have traveled to the Soviet Union to meet with
44. An astronaut for eight years, Brand trained as a back-
NASA and Soviet officials met again June 21-25, 1971,
their counterparts, and a similar number of Soviet per-
up crewmember for the Apollo 15 lunar landing mission
in Houston to discuss the technical requirements for
sonnel have visited the United States. At these joint
and for the last two missions to use the Skylab space sta-
compatible docking systems. Among the areas consid-
working group meetings, every aspect of the proposed
tion. Brand has been named Apollo command module
ered were radio and visual systems necessary for ren-
mission that required coordinated effort was discussed.
pilot for his first spaceflight.
Astronauts and cosmonauts began receiving language
The two-man Soyuz is commanded by Aleksey Leonov,
Leonov was the first person to walk in space when he
dezvous and docking, differences in the communications
and environmental control systems used by the two
instruction in preparation for the flight. Engineers agreed
one of the first group of Soviet cosmonauts to be chosen,
spent 12 minutes outside Voskhod 2. Flight engineer for
nations' spacecraft, and the basic functions and design
on a design for the docking system, then each nation set
and now a colonel in the Soviet Air Force. In 1965,
the Soyuz will be Valeriy Kubasov, who flew aboard
Soyuz 6 in a 1969 flight that included a rendezvous with
of the proposed docking system. The two groups also
about building its own hardware to meet the joint re-
two similar spacecraft, Soyuz 7 and 8.
agreed to study the costs and technical feasibility of
quirements. As a result, the docking systems are inter-
testing the new docking sysem with existing spacecraft.
nally different, but the parts connect perfectly.
The men who will fly the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
The spacecraft. The equipment for the Apollo-Soyuz
in July, from left to right: astronauts Slayton,
The technical feasibility of a test flight using existing
The Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft selected to test
Stafford, and Brand; cosmonauts Leonov and Kubazov.
Test Project includes both standard systems and new
spacecraft was confirmed in the succeeding meeting,
the new docking system are different in many important
hardware developed specifically for the upcoming flight.
held November 29-December 6 in Moscow; then at the
respects. The orbiting Apollo weighs about sixteen tons,
The U.S. will use an Apollo spacecraft left in storage
Low-Keldysh meeting the following April, U.S. and
more than twice as much as Soyuz. Designed for lengthy
when the number of lunar landing flights was reduced
Soviet delegations agreed that a test flight using U.S.
missions to the Moon, Apollo has a larger fuel supply
in a cost-cutting effort. Because the Apollo command
Apollo and a Soviet Soyuz would be desirable.
for maneuvering; Apollo also has more spacious interior
module was built with a docking system designed to
During the April session, both sides carefully and
quarters. During the joint flight, the two Soyuz crew-
work only with U.S. spacecraft like the Apollo lunar
completely reviewed the work of the previous eighteen
members will remain in space for just under six days;
module or the Skylab space station, some method of
months. Before a formal agreement could be signed by
with a larger supply of fuel, oxygen, water, and food, the
incorporating the new compatible docking system de-
the chief executives of the two nations, every major
three Apollo astronauts will be able to stay in orbit for
signed by American and Soviet engineers had to be
element in the proposed Apollo-Soyuz Test Project had
nine days, permitting additional scientific experiments to
found.
to be outlined to the satisfaction of both sides. Before
be completed.
A second important problem required solution before
advising the President of the United States to formally
To be certain that no surprises occur when the two
a joint flight could be made. The Apollo uses a pure
approve such a test mission, NASA officials sought and
spacecraft dock 140 miles above the Earth, numerous
oxygen atmosphere at about one-third the atmospheric
obtained firm commitments from their counterparts in
tests were conducted in the U.S. and the Soviet Union.
pressure found on the surface of Earth; Soyuz, on the
the Soviet Union on the methods and schedules to be
The docking system was subjected to extremes of heat
other hand, uses a nitrogen-oxygen mix like the air we
followed in the coming three years. The two sides care-
and cold and to other stresses that will be encountered
breath on the ground, and at normal atmospheric pres-
fully detailed the objectives of the joint flight; they
in the vacuum of space. Soviet training teams familiarized
sure-14.7 pounds per square inch. To permit crewmem-
6
7
bers to pass from Soyuz to Apollo, engineers had to
Tyuratam, east of the Aral Sea. If one of the Soyuz
spacecraft will reveal the quantity of atomic nitrogen
materials that cannot be produced on Earth because of
include an airlock to equalize the pressure. A direct
launches is unsuccessful, or if the Apollo is unable to
and atomic oxygen to be found in the region 135 miles
the distorting effect of the planet's gravitational forces.
transfer from the Soyuz atmosphere to the low-pressure
follow within a few days of the Soyuz launch, the second
above the Earth.
A Soviet scientist has prepared one of the samples to
oxygen of Apollo would cause the "bends," a condition
Soyuz will be available for the joint flight.
Following the joint experiments, Soyuz will dock with
be inserted into the furnace. Other joint studies concern
experienced by deep-sea divers when they come back
By the time the flight itself begins, every procedure
Apollo in a further test of the new docking system. Later
the effects of cosmic rays on bacteria, and the move-
to the surface too quickly and nitrogen gas bubbles
will have been worked out in detail, and many of the
on Saturday, following undocking, Apollo will fire its
ment of microbes between crewmembers and the interior
form in their body fluids.
possible problems will also have been carefully re-
engines briefly and begin moving away from Soyuz.
surfaces of the two spacecraft.
viewed. As the Soyuz stands ready on the launch pad
Soyuz will descend from orbit and land in the south
ASTP CSM/DOCKING MODULE
The U.S. crew will conduct several independent
in the Soviet Union, television pictures of the crew and
central USSR near Karaganda early Monday morning.
astronomy projects to record various forms of radiation
rocket will be relayed to the U.S. mission control center
The Apollo spacecraft will continue in orbit, with
from within our galaxy-the Milky Way-and from the
in Houston from the Soviet mission control center at
astronauts Stafford, Slayton, and Brand conducting sev-
universe beyond. Two other experiments will measure
3.9 METERS
Kaliningrad, outside Moscow. Throughout the flight,
eral scientific experiments and making science demon-
the relative movement of the Apollo command module in
communications between the spacecraft and the global
strations before they splash into the Pacific Ocean
relation to an advanced communications satellite
tracking networks of the two nations will be relayed to
southwest of Hawaii at 5:18 p.m. EDT, Thursday, July 24.
launched last year and in relation to the docking module,
flight controllers on both sides of the Earth. The control
U.S. experiments. Because this will be the last U.S.
which will be sent spinning away by the crew after the
centers will be linked by lines for telephone, teleprinter,
13 METERS
manned spaceflight in Earth orbit until the first Space
docking experiments are concluded. By detecting small
and television to permit rapid communication between
Shuttle launch in 1979, NASA officials are taking advan-
changes in the relative motions of the spacecraft, scien-
all of the participants as the flight progresses.
tage of the joint mission to carry on several scientific
tists can map areas where the Earth's gravity is slightly
Fortunately, the problem presented by differences in
The ASTP mission. The Soyuz will be launched first
research projects during the nine-day flight. In addition
greater because of concentrations of mass beneath the
the two spacecraft atmospheres and the need to adapt the
to take advantage of the fact that Apollo has a greater
to the two experiments mentioned above, which require
surface. Tracking of satellites from the ground has re-
Apollo to use the new docking system were resolved by
fuel capacity and is better able to close the gap with
the participation of both the U.S. and Soviet spacecraft,
vealed larger concentrations, while smaller differences
combined action: the U.S. built a new piece of equip-
Soyuz once the two spacecraft are in orbit. Apollo will
three other joint experiments and 22 independent U.S.
can be detected by instruments here on the surface.
ment and the Soviets made a modification to the Soyuz.
follow in 7½ hours, with subsequent launch opportuni-
experiments are planned for the flight.
The Apollo experiments will fill the gap between these
Since the existing Apollo could not be changed to
ties on each of the five succeeding days.
Many of these experiments will explore areas investi-
two.
accommodate the new docking system without consid-
About an hour after Apollo is launched, the command
gated by the crews of the Skylab space station, which
In two medical experiments, an electric field will be
erable work and expense, the U.S. decided to build a
module will turn around in orbit, connect with the dock-
completed its work in February 1974. Inside the docking
used to separate blood samples into their constituents.
small docking module-an airlock ten feet long and five
ing module, and begin moving away from the second
module, an electric furnace will be used to experiment
In another form of space cooperation, Germany provided
feet in diameter with the new docking system on one
stage of the rocket that placed Apollo in orbit.
on the processing of materials in space, a field that may
the equipment for one of these two electrophoresis ex-
end and a system compatible with the Apollo on the
During the succeeding 42 hours, from Tuesday eve-
someday return great dividends in the form of new
periments. The investigations will help to determine
other. The Saturn IB rocket used to launch Apollo will
ning (July 15) to just after noon on Thursday, the Apollo
also carry the 4,400-pound docking module, and the
and Soyuz crews will slowly and carefully guide their
astronauts will turn the Apollo around and connect it to
spacecraft to dock some 137 miles above the Earth.
SCIENCE DEMONSTRATIONS FROM SPACE
matter how the spheres are launched, they must
the docking module after they are in Earth orbit.
Seven or more Apollo maneuvers will be required to
always rotate in a plane.
To eliminate the need for a lengthy adaptation period
dock with Soyuz-each changing the Apollo's initial
During the flight of Apollo-Soyuz, the astronauts
for crewmembers passing from Soyuz to Apollo, Soviet
velocity-about 17,500 miles an hour-by less than fifty
will conduct some science demonstrations that will
Chemical reactions in foams-will involve the mix-
engineers will reduce the atmospheric pressure aboard
miles an hour to bring it closer and closer to Soyuz.
utilize the unique conditions of the spaceflight en-
ing of chemicals in zero g by shaking them to a foam.
Soyuz by about one-third-to 10 pounds per square inch
After docking is completed and a check is made of the
vironment in a way not possible on Earth. These
After a certain delay, a chemical reaction will occur,
-while the two spacecraft are linked. The smaller differ-
new system, Apollo astronauts Stafford and Slayton will
demonstrations, which are in addition to the 27 ex-
turning the colorless foam to a deep red. The stability
ence in pressures allowed the United States to simplify
open the hatch from the command module to the docking
periments to be conducted, should be of great interest
of the foam, as well as the time of reaction, will be
and reduce the cost of the docking module, since crew-
module, leaving Vance Brand behind in Apollo. At 3:26
to science teachers and their students. They will be
noted and compared to ground-based studies.
members will not be required to spend long periods in
p.m. EDT Thursday afternoon, the two U.S. crewmembers
recorded on motion picture film and made available
Capillary wicking-on Earth, the action of wicks is al-
the airlock. The change also will make enough time
will open the hatch to Soyuz and greet the Soviet crew.
later for showing in high school science classes. The
ways the result of two forces, adhesion and gravity.
available to permit all crewmembers to participate in
Three more crew transfers will be made on Friday,
demonstrations are:
Even when the wicking proceeds horizontally, some
the exchange of visits.
assuring that all of the U.S. and Soviet crewmembers
The "book" gyroscope-will show that a book-
influence of gravity exists. In orbit, the wicking action
The docking module includes virtually everything nec-
will crawl through the airlock for at least one visit in the
shaped object can rotate very stably about two of its
should proceed without the disturbing influence of
essary to meet the compatibility requirements for
other's spacecraft, an important part of the test of
symmetry axes (those of least and greatest moments
gravity. The rate of capillary action in different wicks
Apollo. Only minor changes were necessary in the Apollo
procedures and equipment developed for future coop-
of inertia), but no matter how carefully it is started
placed in a law surface-tension fluid will be observed
command module itself, for example the installation of
erative work.
rotating about the third symmetry axis the book soon
and compared with rates on Earth.
controls for the docking module.
At 8:02 a.m. Saturday morning, the Apollo and Soyuz
undergoes an interesting flip-flopping motion which
Liquid spreading-liquids, when brought in contact
The Soviet side built new, modified Soyuz spacecraft
will undock and Apollo will move about 650 feet away
will be visible with the object rotating slowly and
with solid surfaces, have a tendency to spread over the
specifically for the planned joint mission-each with the
from Soyuz to provide an artificial solar eclipse for
unsupported in zero g.
entire surface, provided that cohesive forces between
new compatible docking system included as an integral
Leonov and Kubasov to observe. The cosmonauts will
molecules of the liquid are smaller than adhesive
part of the Soyuz design. Two unmanned test flights
photograph the outer atmosphere of the Sun and will
Planetary orbits-two metal spheres tethered to-
forces between molecules of liquid and molecules of
were made with the new configuration, and in December
also record the effects of the Apollo steering rockets as
gether by fine thread will be launched with rotation
the solid. Under Earth gravity, this wetting action takes
1974 Soviet back-up crewmembers for the joint flight
they fire their gases into the vacuum around the U.S.
but no translation about their center of mass, so as
place only when the flow of the liquid along the surface
rehearsed the entire mission independently during the
spacecraft. Then Apollo will fly around Soyuz, beaming
to orbit about each other in a plane. A pair with both
proceeds in a horizontal or downward direction. How-
six-day flight of Soyuz 16.
special lights to a mirror or "retroreflector" on Soyuz
masses equal will be a double-star model. A pair with
ever, under the zero-g conditions, a wetting liquid will
Two of the new Soyuz spacecraft will be prepared for
and back to a spectrometer on the Apollo. The amount of
one heavy and one light sphere will model a sun-
spread evenly over a surface irrespective of its
launch from the Baykonur launch complex near
light absorbed as the beam travels between the two
planet or planet-moon or black-hole-star-system. No
orientation.
8
whether the unique space environment may offer a better
BIBLIOGRAPHY
means of isolating viruses, enzymes, and other small
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Aviation Week and Space Technology, May 5, 1975. Special
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One of the more interesting Apollo experiments con-
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Aeronautics and Astronautics, December 1974, pp. 24-25.
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"The International Age in Space," AIAA Student
U.S. astronauts will focus their eyes and cameras on the
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International Cooperation in Space. Englewood
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Although the Soviet crew may also conduct scientific
cooperation, by NASA's Assistant Administrator for Inter-
experiments during their flight no similarly extensive pro-
national Affairs.
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Despite the many scientific experiments added to the
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Kash, Don E. The Politics of Space Cooperation. Lafayette,
The new compatible docking system is now a reality.
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All that remains to accomplish is the final flight test
count of U.S. participation in international space programs
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great differences have shown during the intervening
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matic climax to years of quiet effort on both sides, a
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An interpretive account of the American space program;
Chapter 14 summarizes international developments and
the potential for joint work in space-work that nations
problems involving space cooperation.
may do together despite their ideological differences.
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7
APOLLO SOYUZ TEST PROJECT
MISSION SEQUENCE
1.
SOYUZ LIFT-OFF
8.
SOYUZ CIRCULARIZATION MANEUVER
2.
SOYUZ ORBIT
9. DOCKING
ADJUSTMENT MANEUVER
3.
APOLLO LIFT-OFF
10.
CREW ACTIVITIES
4. TRANSPOSITION
11.
SOYUZ DEORBIT MANEUVER
5. DOCKING
12.
SOYUZ LANDING
6.
DOCKING MODULE EXTRACTION
13.
APOLLO DEORBIT MANEUVER
7.
APOLLO RENDEZVOUS MANEUVERS
14.
APOLLO LANDING