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Library
of the
University of Wisconsin
Digitized by Google
SKETCH
OF
CIVIL ENGINEERING
IN
NORTH AMERICA.
Google
Digitized by Google
37
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Geo. Aikman Sc.
Digitized by Google
SKETCH
OF THE
CIVIL ENGINEERING
OF
NORTH AMERICA;
COMPRISING REMARKS ON THE
HARBOURS, RIVER AND LAKE NAVIGATION, LIGHTHOUSES,
STEAM-NAVIGATION, WATER-WORKS, CANALS, ROADS,
RAILWAYS, BRIDGES, AND OTHER WORKS IN
THAT COUNTRY.
BY
DAVID STEVENSON,
CIVIL ENGINEER.
LONDON:
JOHN WEALE, ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY,
59. HIGH HOLBORN.
MDCCCXXXVIII.
Digitized by Google
85,766
RECEIVED
MAR 12 1895
WIS. HIST. SUBJETY,
6229495
187342
AUG -71914
SN
ST4
PREFACE.
HAVING at various times heard much to interest
and surprise me respecting the engineering works
of America, and having been unable to meet with
any publication containing satisfactory information
regarding them, I resolved to take advantage of a
short interval of professional leisure, to examine
the subject for myself.
In a tour of about three months I visited
Upper and Lower Canada, and the most interest-
ing parts of the United States of America, and
endeavoured, throughout, to direct my attention to
those objects which are of greatest importance to
a Civil-Engineer. My observation embraced many
of the principal Sea-ports, and navigable Rivers,
Digitized by Google
viii
PREFACE.
two of the Great Lakes, the principal Canals, Rail-
roads, Bridges, and other means of communication,
and the most remarkable of the works for supply-
ing the cities with water. The Steam-navigation
of those countries, and the system of Lighthouses
established along their coasts, also came incident-
ally under my notice, as well as some other points
of more or less interest and importance.
I was well aware, before leaving this country,
that a field so extensive and varied could not be
fully examined in so limited a period ; but this
rapid tour, though it has not afforded that full
measure of information upon many points of in-
quiry, which, had my time permitted, it would have
been my endeavour to procure, has fully answered
my purpose, by giving me a general view of the
state of Civil-Engineering in America.
Having in the course of this journey seen a good
deal that was entirely new to me, I have been in-
duced to lay before my professional brethren the
information thus obtained. It is true that Civil-
Engineering, as practised in America, is not always
applicable to the circumstances of Europe; but
still the modifications to which it is subject in a
new country may prove useful, by suggesting va-
Digitized by Google
PREFACE.
ix
rious methods of working, adapted to local circum-
stances or limited funds.
The object, however, of this brief sketch is not
to satisfy the curiosity of Engineers in England;
but rather to stimulate others, who may have
it in their power, not only to examine more tho-
roughly the ground here gone over, but to ex-
tend their researches to other parts of the coun-
try, which my limited time did not permit me to
visit. Judging from the attentions shewn me by all
classes of persons in America, and their readiness
to communicate freely every kind of information, I
feel certain that any such extended engineering
tour would be attended with no less pleasure than
interest.
It is impossible to acknowledge in suitable terms
the kindness experienced by me while in America.
I had the honour of seeing the Earl of Gosford at
Quebec, and received from his Lordship repeated
offices of kindness during my stay in Canada. At
Washington I had the honour of being presented
to Mr Van Buren, the President of the United
States, who afforded me every facility in prosecu-
ting the object of my journey. To Mr Poinsett,
Digitized by Google
X
PREFACE.
the Secretary at War, and Mr Pleasonton, one of
the Auditors of the Treasury, I am much indebted
for attentions received from them in their official
capacities. At Pittsburg, much kindness was shewn
me by Judge Baldwin; and, in the course of my
journey, I profited on many occasions by the good
offices of Professor Hare, Professor Bache, Mr
Strickland, Mr Walter, and Mr Keating, at Phila-
delphia; Professor Webster at Boston; Professor
Silliman at Newhaven ; Dr Francis, Dr Wilks, Mr
Pitcairn, and Mr Redfield, at New York ; and Ge-
neral Van Rensselaer, the Patroon, at Albany.
It is unnecessary here to mention the names of
the Civil-Engineers to whom I was introduced in
America, as occasions will occur in the following
pages, to acknowledge the pleasure derived from
their acquaintance, and their liberality in affording
me information regarding the works under their
care.
DAVID STEVENSON:
EDINBURGH, July 1838.
Digitized by Google
CONTENTS.
CHAP. I-HARBOURS.
PAGE
Natural facilities for the formation of Harbours on the American
Coast-Tides-Construction of Quays, and Jetties-Cranes
-Graving Docks-Screw Docks-Hydraulic Docks-Land-
ing Slips, &c.-New York-Boston-Philadelphia-Balti-
more-Charleston - New Orleans-Quebec-Montreal -
Halifax,
17-47
CHAP. II.-LAKE NAVIGATION.
Great Western Lakes-Ontario-Erie-Huron-Michigan-Su-
perior-Welland Canal-Lake Harbours-Construction of
Piers, Break-waters, &c.-Buffalo-Erie-Oswego-Toronto
-Kingston-Vessels employed in Lake Navigation-Violent
Effects of Storms on the Lakes-Ice on the Lakes-Effects
of Ice on the Climate-Lake Champlain,
48-74
CHAP. III.-RIVER NAVIGATION.
The sizes and courses of the North American Rivers influenced
by the Alleghany and Rocky Mountains-Rivers flowing
into the Pacific Ocean-Rivers flowing into the Gulf of St
Lawrence-River St Lawrence-Lakes, Rapids, and Islands
on the River-Lachine Canal-St Lawrence Canal-The
Ottowa-Rideau Canal-Towing vessels on the St Lawrence
-Tides-Freshets-Pilots, &c.-Rivers rising on the east of
the Alleghany Mountains, and flowing into the Atlantic
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xii
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Ocean, and north-east corner of the Gulf of Mexico-The
Connecticut-Hudson-Delaware-Susquehanna-Patapsco
-Potomac, &c.-Mississippi and its tributaries-The Yazoo
-Ohio-Red River-Arkansas-White River-St Francis—
Missouri-Illinois, &c.-State of the Navigation- Snags,"
" Planters," " Sawyers," and " Rafts-Construction of
Vessel for removing "Snags," &c.
75-115
CHAP. IV.STEAM NAVIGATION.
Introduction of Steam Navigation into the United States-Dif-
ference between the Steam Navigation of America and that
of Europe-Three classes of Steamers employed in America
-Eastern Water, Western Water, and Lake Steamers-Cha-
racteristics of these different classes-Steamers on the Hudson
-Dimensions of the "Rochester"-Construction of the Hulls
of the American Vessels-Arrangement of the Cabins-Engine
Framing-Engines-Beams-Mode of Steering-Rudder-
Sea-Boats-Dimensions of the "Naraganset"-Cabins-
Engines-Paddle-Wheels-Boilers-Maximums speed of the
Rochester"-Power of the Engines-Mississippi Steamers—
Their arrangement-Engines-Boilers-Lake Steamers-St
Lawrence Steamers-Explosions of Steam-Boilers-Table of
the Dimensions of several American Steamers,
116-169
CHAP. V.-FUEL AND MATERIALS.
Fuel used in Steam-Engines and for domestic purposes-Wood
-Bituminous Coal-Anthracite Coal-Pennsylvanian Coal-
mines-Boilers for the combustion of Anthracite Coal-
Building Materials-Brick-Marble-Marble-quarries of New
England and Pennsylvania-Granite-Timber-Mode of con-
ducting the " Timber Trade"- Booms"-Rafts on the St
Lawrence, and on the Rhine-Woods chiefly used in America
-Live Oak-WhiteOak-Cedar-Locust-Pine-Shingles"
-Dimensions of American Forest Trees,
170-184
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CONTENTS.
xiii
CHAP. VI.-CANALS.
PAGE
Internal Improvements of North America-Great extent of the
Canals and Railways-Introduction of Canals into the United
States and Canada-Great length of the American Canals-
Small area of their Cross Sections-North Holland Ship Canal
-Difference between American and British works-Use of
wood very general in America- - Wooden Canal-Locks,
Aqueducts, &c.-Artificial navigation of the country stopped
by ice-Tolls levied, and mode of travelling on the American
Canals-Means used in America for forming water-communi-
cations-Slackwater navigation on the River Schuylkill, &c.
-Construction of Dams, Canals-Locks-Erie Canal-Canal
Basin at Albany-Morris Canal-Inclined Planes for Canal
lifts, &c.
185-214
CHAP. VII.-ROADS.
Roads not suitable as a means of communication in America-
Condition of the American Roads— Corduroy Roads"-Road
from Pittsburg to Erie-New England Roads-The "National
Road"-The Macadamized Road"-City Roads-Cause-
waying or Pitching-Brick Pavements-Macadamizing-
Tesselated wooden Pavements used in New York and in St
Petersburgh,
215-222
CHAP. VIII.BRIDGES.
Great Extent of many of the American Bridges-Different Con
structions adopted in America-Bridges over the Delaware
at Trenton, the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, the Susquehanna
at Columbia, the Rapids at the Falls of Niagara, &c.-
Town's " Patent Lattice Bridge"-Long's " Patent Truss
Bridge,"
223-236
Digitized by Google
xiv
CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAP. IX.-RAILWAYS.
European Railways-Introduction of Railways into the United
States-The European construction of Railways unsuitable
for America-Attempts of the American Engineers to con-
struct a Railway not likely to be affected by frost-Construc-
tions of the Boston and Lowell, New York and Paterson, Sa-
ratoga and Schenectady, Newcastle and Frenchtown, Phila-
delphia and Columbia, Boston and Providence, Philadelphia
and Norristown, New York and Haerlem, Buffalo and Nia-
gara, Camden and Amboy, Brooklyn and Jamaica, and the
Charleston and Augusta, Railroads-Rails, Chairs, Blocks,
and Sleepers, used in the United States-Original Cost of
American Railways-Expense of upholding them-Power
employed on the American Railways-Horse-power-Loco-
motive Engines-Locomotive Engine Works in the United
States-Construction of the Engines-Guard used in America
-Fuel-Engine for burning Anthracite Coal-Stationary En-
gines-Description of the Stationary Engines, Inclined Planes,
and other works on the Alleghany Railway-Railway from
Lake Champlain to the St Lawrence in Canada.
237-277
CHAP. X.-WATER-WORKS,
Fairmount Water-works at Philadelphia-Construction of the
Dam over the River Schuylkill-Pumps and Water-wheels-
Reservoirs, &c.-The Water-works of Richmond in Virginia
-Pittsburg-Montreal-Cincinnati-Albany-Troy-Wells
for supplying New York and Boston-Plan for improving the
supply of Water for New York, &c.
278-295
CHAP. XI.-LIGHTHOUSES.
Parts of the United States in which Lighthouses have been erect-
ed-Great extent of coast under the superintendence of the
Lighthouse Establishment-The uncultivated state of a great
part of the country, and the attacks of Indians a bar to the
establishment of Lights on the coast-Introduction of Sea
Lights in America-Description of the present establishment
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CONTENTS.
XV
PAGE
-Number of Lighthouses, Floating Lights, and Buoys-An-
nual Expenditure-Management-Superintendents-Light-
Keepers-Supplies of Stores, &c.-Lighting Apparatus-Dis-
tinctions of Lights-Communication on the subject from
Stephen Pleasonton, Esq., Fifth Auditor of the Treasury, 296-308
CHAP. XII.
HOUSE-MOVING,
309-316
Nore ON THE MANUFACTORIES AT LOWELL,
317-320
Digitized by Google
ERRATUM.
Page 200, line 12, for twenty-nine locks, read one hundred and
twenty-nine locks,
SKETCH
OF
AMERICAN ENGINEERING.
CHAPTER I.
HARBOURS.
Natural facilities for the formation of Harbours on the American
Coast-Tides-Construction of Quays, and Jetties-Cranes-
Graving Docks-Screw Docks-Hydraulic Docks- - Landing
Slips, &c.-New York - Boston - -Philadelphia-Baltimore-
Charleston-New Orleans-Quebec-Montreal-Halifax.
THE eastern and southern coasts of North America
are indented by numerous bays and sheltered sounds,
which afford natural facilities for the formation of har-
bours more commodious than any which works of art
alone, however costly, could possibly supply, and to an
extent of which, perhaps, no other quarter of the globe
can boast. The noble rivers with which this country
abounds, and its inland lakes, which, for expanse, de-
serve the name of seas, are subjects of great interest
to the general traveller ; but to the civil-engineer, who
is more alive to the importance of deep water and
good shelter in the formation of harbours, and who,
B
Digitized by Google
18
HARBOURS.
at every step in the exercise of his profession, feels the
difficulty, and is made aware of the expense, which
attend the attainment of these indispensable qualities
by artificial means, the natural harbours of the conti-
nent of North America afford a most interesting and
instructive subject of contemplation.
The original founders of the sea-port towns on this
coast appear to have been very judicious in their se-
lection of situations. for forming their settlements.
The towns, if not placed at the mouths of fine navi-
gable rivers, in most cases possess the advantages of
sheltered anchorages, with deep water, and accommo-
dation for all classes of vessels. The chief object in
founding most of the towns seems to have been the
formation of a port for shipping, or the cultivation of a
valuable adjacent tract of country watered by a navi-
gable river ; in which latter case the harbours do not
always possess the same natural advantages, but stand
in need of works for their improvement, which would
involve a greater expenditure of capital, and occupy
more time in their execution, than a country, as yet
new in the arts, has been disposed to bestow upon
them. Viewing the harbours of America generally,
however, no one can fail to be struck with their im-
portance, and, in connection with its inland naviga-
tion, convinced of their mighty effect in advancing the
prosperity of that enterprising country.
The largest ports of North America are Quebec,
Halifax, and Montreal, in the British dominions, and
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HARBOURS.
19
Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charles-
ton, and New Orleans, in the United States. Besides
these ports, there are many towns on the coast, of
later origin, having less trade and importance, but
nevertheless possessing splendid natural facilities for
the formation of harbours.
B was fortunate enough to visit many of the Ame-
rican ports, and in most of them, I found that accom-
modation for vessels of great burden had been obtain-
ed in so satisfactory a manner, and at SO small an ex-
pense, as could not fail to strike with astonishment all
who have seen the enormously costly docks of London
and Liverpool, and the stupendous asylum harbours
of Plymouth, Kingstown, and Cherbourg. I have little
hesitation in saying, that the smallest of the post-office
packet stations in the Irish Sea has required a much
larger expenditure of capital, than the Americans
have invested in the formation of harbour accomino-
dation for trading vessels along a line of coast of no
less than 4000 miles, extending from the Gulf of St
Lawrence to the Mississippi.
The American packet-ships trading between New
York and the ports of London, Liverpool, and Havre,
are generally allowed to be the finest class of mer-
chant-vessels at present navigating the ocean ; and
for their accommodation we find in England the splen-
did docks of London and Liverpool, and in France
the docks of Havre. An European naturally con-
cludes that a berthage no less commodious and costly
B 2
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Google
20
HARBOURS.
awaits their arrival in the ports to which they sail ;
but great will be his astonishment when, on reaching
New York, the same fine vessel which lately graced
the solid stone-docks of Europe, is moored by bow and
stern to a wooden quay ; and, on leaving the vessel,
he will not fail to miss the shade of a covered veran-
dah enclosed within high walls, the characteristic of a
British dockyard, and will have any thing but pleasant
sensations when he is ushered forth upon a hastily
constructed wooden jetty, which, in certain states of
the weather, is deeply covered with mud, and gene-
rally affords a footpath far from agreeable.
This state of things strikes a foreigner, on first
landing in America, in a very forcible manner. The
high, and in some cases superfluous, finish, which the
Americans bestow on many of their vessels employed in
trading with this country, lead those who do not know
the contrary to expect a corresponding degree of com-
fort, and an equal display of workmanship, in the works
of art connected with their ports ; and it strikes one at
first sight as a strange inconsistency, that all the
works connected with the formation of the harbours
in America should be of so rude and temporary a de-
scription, that, but for the sheltered situations in which
they are placed, and other circumstances of a no less
favourable nature, the structures would be unfit to
serve the ends for which they were intended. But,
when we come to inquire into the reasons for this dif-
ference between the construction of the European and
Digitized by Google
HARBOURS.
21
American harbours, they soon become apparent and
satisfactory. The difficulties and expense encounter-
ed in the formation of most European harbours, have
arisen chiefly from the necessity of constructing works
of a sufficient strength to withstand the violence of a
raging sea to which they are in general exposed, or in
obtaining a sufficient depth of water, by the construc-
tion of docks or other means, to enable the vessels fre-
quenting them to lie afloat at all times of tide. In
Britain, these difficulties in a great measure arise from
the narrowness of our country, which necessarily con-
tains but a small extent of inland waters, whose quan-
tity and currents, when compared with the bays and
rivers on the American coast, are agents too unim-
portant and feeble to produce, without recourse to ar-
tificial means, the depth or shelter required in a good
harbour. The Americans, on the contrary, among
the numerous large bays and sounds by which their
coasts are indented, have the choice of situations for
their harbours, perfectly defended from the surge of
the ocean, and requiring no works, like the breakwa-
ters of Plymouth and Cherbourg, for their protection ;
and the basins formed and scoured by their large na-
vigable rivers afford, without resorting to the con-
struction of docks like those of Liverpool, London,
Leith, or Dundee, natural havens, where their lar-
gest vessels lie afloat at all times of tide within a few
paces of their warehouse doors.
The kind of workmanship which has been adopted
Digitized by Google
22
HARBOURS.
in the formation of the American harbours is almost
the same in every situation ; and the harbours gene-
rally bear a strong resemblance to each other in the
arrangements of the quays, and even in their locali-
ties. This renders a detailed description of the works
of more than one harbour unnecessary ; and, for the
purpose of giving an idea of an American harbour, I
would select that of New York, because it undoubted-
ly ranks as the first port in America, and is, in fact,
the second commercial city in the world, the aggregate
tonnage of the vessels belonging to the port being ex-
ceeded only by that of London.
The island of Manhattan, in the state of New York,
is about fifteen miles in length, and from one to three
miles in breadth. The city of New York is situate
on the southern extremity of this island, in north la-
titude 40° 42', and west longitude 74° 2' from Green-
wich. It was founded by the Dutch in the year
1612, and it now contains a population of about
300,000 inhabitants, and measures about ten miles in
circumference. On the east, the shore of Manhattan
Island is washed by the sound which separates it from
Long Island, and on the west by the estuary of the
river Hudson, which, as far up as Albany, is more pro-
perly an arm of the sea than a river, the stream itself
being small and contemptible. These waters, which
have received from the Americans the appellation of
the East and North Rivers, meet at the southern ex-
tremity of the island of Manhattan, and at their junc-
Digitized by
Google
HARBOURS.
23
tion form the spacious bay and harbour of New York,
the great emporium of the western hemisphere.
The Bay of New York, which extends about nine
miles in length and five miles in breadth, has a com-
munication with the Atlantic Ocean through a strait
of about two miles in breadth, between Statten Island
and Long Island. This strait is called The Nar-
rows ;'' and on either shore stands a fort for protect-
ing the entrance to the harbour. This magnificent
bay, which is completely sheltered from the stormy
Atlantic by Long Island, forms a noble deep-water
basin, and offers a spacious and safe anchorage for
shipping to almost any extent, while the quays which
encompass the town on its eastern, western, and
southern sides, afford the necessary facilities for load-
ing and discharging cargoes. The shipping in the
harbour of New York, therefore, without the erection
of breakwaters or covering-piers, is, in all states of the
wind, protected from the roll of the Atlantic. With-
out the aid of docks, or even dredging, vessels of the
largest class lie afloat during low water of spring-
tides, moored to the quays which bound the seaward
sides of the city ; and, by the erection of wooden jet-
ties, the inhabitants are enabled, at a very small ex-
penditure, to enlarge the accommodation of their port,
and adapt it to their increasing trade.
The situation of New York is peculiarly favourable
for the extensive trade of which it has become the
seat, by the nearness of its harbour to the ocean ; the
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24
HARBOURS.
quays being only about eighteen miles from the shore
of Sandy Hook, which is washed by the waters of the
Atlantic. This naturally makes the communication
more direct and easy, as a very short time elapses
between making land and mooring at the quay ; and
all the anxiety which is experienced after falling in
with the European land, in a coasting navigation of
several days, before the mariner terminates his cares
by docking his vessel in Liverpool or London, or in
any other port of Great Britain, is thus avoided. I
may mention, in illustration, that I left the quays of
New York at half-past eleven on the forenoon of the
8th of July 1837, in the " François Premier" packet-
ship, Captain Pell, for Havre, with a very light breeze
from the north-west and, at seven o'clock on the
evening of the same day, our vessel was gliding
through the Atlantic with nothing in sight but sky
and water. This case is strongly contrasted with what
took place on my outward passage, on which occasion
I left Liverpool, under no less advantageous circum-
stances, on the 12th of March of the same year, in the
"Sheffield" packet-ship, Captain Allen ; but we did not
clear the Irish land till two days after our leaving
port.
The perpendicular rise of tide in the harbour of
New York is only about five feet. The tidal wave,
however, increases in its progress northwards along
the coast, till at length, in the Bay of Fundy, it at-
tains the maximum height of 90 feet. Towards the
Digitized by Google
HARBOURS.
25
south, on the contrary, its rise is very much decreased ;
and, in the Gulf of Mexico, is reduced to eighteen
inches, while on the shores of some of the West India
Islands it is quite imperceptible.
A bar extends from Sandy Hook to the shore of
Long Island, across the entrance to the harbour. Over
this there is a depth of twenty-one feet at low water,
which is sufficient to float the largest class of merchant-
vessels.
The wharfs erected for the accommodation of the
shipping of New York are formed entirely of timber
and earth, in a very rude and simple manner. A row
of wooden piles, driven close to each other into the
bed of the river, forms the face-work of the quay, which
is projected from the shore as far as is necessary to
obtain a depth of water sufficient to float the largest
class of vessels at all times of the tide. The situation
of New York, in this respect, is very favourable, as
deep water is very generally obtained at the distance
of from forty to fifty feet from the margin of the
water. The piles, of which the face-work of the piers
is composed, are driven perpendicularly into the
ground, and are secured in their place by horizontal
wale-pieces or stretchers, bolted on the face of the
quay, and running throughout its whole extent. Dia-
gonal braces are also bolted on the inside of the piles,
and beams of wood are connected to the face-work, and
extend behind it to the shore, in which they are firmly
embedded. These beams act both as struts and ties,
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HARBOURS.
serving to counteract the tendency of lateral pressure,
whether acting externally or internally, to derange the
line of quay. The void between the perpendicular piles,
which form the face-work and the sloping bank rising
from the margin of the water, is generally filled up
with earth, obtained in the operation of levelling sites
and excavating foundations for the dwellings and ware-
houses of the city. This hearting of earth is carried
to the height of about five feet above high water of
spring-tides, at which level the heads of the piles,
forming the face-work, are cut off, and the whole
roadway or surface of the quay is then planked over.
The planking used in forming the roadway of the
quay is, in some cases, left quite exposed ; but, in
general, where there is a great thoroughfare, the sur-
face of the quays is pitched with round water-worn
stones, and corresponds, in appearance and level, with
the adjacent streets. The following cross section of
one of the wharfs, will shew more clearly the man-
ner in which they are constructed.
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27
A continuous line of wooden quay-wall, constructed
in this manner, surrounds the city of New York on its
eastern, western, and southern sides ; and the inhabi-
tants are still rapidly extending their harbour accom-
modation to meet the wants of increasing trade, which
has now become so great, that the wooden wharf-walls,
by which the city is surrounded, have attained a length
of no less than seven miles. Numerous jetties, of the
same construction as the continuous quay-wall already
described, project into the harbour from its face, at
distances of from three to four hundred feet apart.-
The jetties are generally from two to three hundred
feet in length, and from fifty to sixty feet in breadth.
The vessels frequenting the harbour, for the purpose
of discharging or loading their cargoes, are moored in
the bays formed between these projecting jetties, where
they lie closely penned together, waiting their turn to
get a berth alongside the wharfs.
The wood-work in the quays and jetties is of a very
rude description. The timbers employed in their
construction are seldom squared, and never, in any
case, protected by paint or coal-tar from the destroying
effects of the atmosphere. Wood is so plentiful in
America, that to repair, or even construct works in
which timber is the only material employed, is gene-
rally regarded as a very light matter.
The fixed crane for raising great weights, which is so
generally used in the quays of Europe, is not employ-
ed in New York, nor, in fact, in any of the American
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HARBOURS.
ports. There, vessels generally discharge and take in
cargo with a purchase hung from the yard-arm.
Tackling, attached to moveable sheer-poles or der-
ricks, is also in pretty general use in some of the
ports; but this apparatus proves a very poor substitute
for fixed quay-cranes, which are certainly of great
convenience and utility in a shipping port.
The want of proper accommodation for vessels re-
quiring repair is much felt by the shipping frequenting
the American ports. The construction of an effective
graving dock is, under any circumstances, an operation
of considerable expense ; but, in situations where the
rise of tide is small, the difficulties encountered in its
construction, and the inconvenience and expense at-
tending the use of it when completed, prove a great
bar to the introduction of this useful appendage to a
dock-yard. It is, in a great measure, owing to these
circumstances that graving docks, for the repair of
trading vessels, are not used in the American ports ;
in the most important of which, the perpendicular rise
of tide is so small, as to lessen, in a great degree, the
advantages which, under more favourable circum-
stances, would be derived from their introduction.
The only graving docks at present existing in North
America, are those which have been erected for the use
of the Navy by the Government of the United States, in
the Navy-yards of Boston in Massachusetts, and Nor-
folk in Virginia. These docks have been formed of such
a size, as to admit, with ease, the largest class of govern-
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ment vessels belonging to the American Navy. The
dock of Boston measures 341 feet in length, and 80 feet
in breadth, and has a depth of water of 30 feet. But,
although the depth of water in the dock is 30 feet at
high water of spring tides, the fall of the tide is only 13
feet, which leaves 17 feet of water to be pumped out of
the dock by means of a steam-engine every time a ves-
sel is admitted for repair, an operation both tedious and
expensive. The material used in their construction
is a grey-coloured granite from Quincy in Massachu-
setts, and, as far as regards workmanship and general
execution, they are inferior to no marine works which
I have ever seen. These graving docks are believed
to have cost about L. 152,000 each. They are the
finest specimens of masonry which I met with in Ame-
rica, and are equally creditable to the government of
the United States, and to Mr Baldwin, the engineer
under whose direction they were constructed.
In the American harbours the method of careening
or laying vessels on their sides to get at their lower tim-
bers, is still often resorted to. I, however, met with
three different mechanical arrangements for raising ves-
sels from the water, when decay or damage renders this
operation necessary for effecting their repair. In one
of these arrangements, the requisite object is attained
by the use of an inclined. plane (on the well-known
principle of Morton's patent-slip, but of a very rude de-
scription), on which vessels are drawn ashore by means
of a system of wheel-work driven by a steam-engine.
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HARBOURS.
The second method, which savours more of origina-
lity, is called the Screw-dock, the operation of which I
witnessed on one occasion in the harbour of New York.
The vessel to be raised by this apparatus was floated
over a platform of wood, sunk to the depth of about
ten feet below the surface of the water, and suspended
from a strongly built wooden frame-work by sixteen
iron screws four and a half inches in diameter. This
platform has several shores on its surface, which were
brought to bear equally on the vessel's bottom, to pre-
vent her from canting over on being raised out of the
water. About thirty men were employed in working
this apparatus, who, by the combined power of the lever,
wheel and pinion, and screw, succeeded, in the course
of half an hour, in raising the platform, loaded with a
vessel of 200 tons burden, to the surface of the water,
where she remained high and dry, suspended between
the wooden frames. At Baltimore, I saw a large screw
dock, constructed on the same principles, on which the
platform for supporting the vessel was suspended by
forty screws of about five inches in diameter.
The last of those methods to which I have alluded,
is an apparatus called the Hydraulic-dock, a beautiful
application of the principle of Bramah's press, to pro-
duce a power capable of raising vessels of 800 tons bur-
den. In this apparatus, as in the screw-dock, the ves-
sel is raised on a platform swung between two frames.
In the hydraulic dock, however, the platform is sus-
pended by forty chains, twenty on each side, which
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Sketch shewing the principle of the Hydraulic Dock at New York.
PLATE I.
Fig. 1.
d
d
e
0)-
Fig. 2.
d
g
9
b
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400
within
Stevenson's Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America.
Thomas Stevenson. Delt
Published by John Weale, 59, High Holborn, 1838.
Gao. Aikman, Sculp!
HARBOURS.
31
pass over cast-iron pullies, supported on the top of
the wooden frame-work. The lower ends of the chains
are fixed to the platform, and the upper ends to a ho-
rizontal beam of wood, which is attached by means of
a crosshead to the ram of a hydraulic engine. When
the ram, therefore, which is placed in a horizontal po-
sition, is moved, by the injection of water. into the
cast-iron cylinder in which it works, the motion is com-
municated to the horizontal beam, and thence, by the
suspending chains, to the platform bearing the vessel,
which is thus slowly raised to the surface.
Plate I. is a sketch illustrative of the principles on
which this apparatus is constructed. Fig. 1. is a lon-
gitudinal view, and Fig. 2. an end view of the platform
and vessel. In both of these views, letters a a a a re-
present the platform; bbbbb, the suspending chains ;
cccc, the pullies on which they run ; dddd, the ho-
rizontal beam to which the chains are attached ; e, the
hydraulic engine ; and f, the injection-pipe by which
the water is forced into the ram.
The cylinder and ram of the particular apparatus
which I saw, were made in England, at the works
of Messrs Bolton and Watt. The fixtures of the
cylinder are embedded in a large mass of masonry, so
as to render it quite immoveable. The perfect stabi-
lity of this part of the apparatus is obviously of the
highest importance, as the safety of the suspended
vessel depends in a great measure on the attainment
of this object. The external diameter of the water
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HARBOURS.
cylinder is twenty-eight inches, and its internal dia-
meter is twelve inches. The ram which works in it
is eleven inches in diameter, and ten feet in length.
There are several racks attached to the apparatus, for
supporting the platform, and taking part of the weight
off the ram after the vessel is suspended. When she
is ready to be lowered, these racks are unshipped, and
the water being permitted to escape through a small
aperture provided in the cylinder for that purpose, the
vessel slowly descends into the water. The water is
injected into the cylinder by a high-pressure steam-
engine, of six horses' power, and the attendance of four
persons is all that is necessary to raise a vessel of 800
tons register. The perpendicular lift of these docks
is ten feet, which is found to be sufficient : the rise of
tide in New York harbour being only five feet at
spring tides, renders a greater height unnecessary.
The Screw and Hydraulic docks belong to a
party of private individuals, called the " New York
Screw-dock Company," who derive a considerable re-
venue from raising vessels by their ingenious appa-
ratus. The following are their terms :-
For vessels under 75 tons, £3 per day.
Single-decked vessels of 75 tons and upwards, 10d. per ton per day.
Double-decked vessels of 75 tons and upwards, 1s. old. per ton
per day.
After the first day the charge is
For vessels under 170 tons, £3 per day.
For all vessels of 170 tons and upwards, 4₫d. per ton per day.
Cargo or ballast is charged at the rate of 1s. old. per ton.
5
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33
The wharfs in the harbour of New York, are in
general the property of private individuals, possessing
the land on the margin of the river. Some of them
also belong to the Corporation of New York. The
wharfage dues are collected by the owners of the re-
spective quays, and vary in their rates according to the
local advantages which the sites possess, and the plea-
sure of the parties to whom they belong.
Vessels have, occasionally, been damaged while ly-
ing at the quays of New York, by the vast masses
of floating ice which, upon the breaking up of the
frost, are brought down from the interior of the coun-
try by the waters of the Hudson. For the protection
of shipping against the recurrence of such accidents,
which, however, are liable to affect only the vessels
lying on the western side of the town, the erection of
a breakwater in the river above New York harbour,
has been for some time contemplated.
The trade of this great port is generally more or
less interrupted by ice, for about a month every win-
ter, and the river Hudson at New York has, once
or twice, been covered by a coating of ice so thick
as to afford a safe road for carriages. This, however,
happens very rarely ; but such is the severity of the
New York winter, that the omnibuses, and other
wheel-carriages employed in running in the city, are
always laid up for the space of five or six weeks during
the depth of winter, and their places supplied by
sledges, which run on the hardened snow.
C
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HARBOURS.
The large suburb called Brooklyn occupies the
shore of Long Island, directly opposite to New York.
It is separated from the town by Long Island Sound,
which at this point is about one-third of a mile in
breadth, and forms part of the harbour of New York.
One of the United States' navy-yards has been esta-
blished at Brooklyn, which is also in other respects a
place of considerable trade and importance. A con-
stant communication is kept up between it and New
York, by means of numerous steam-boats, which cross
every five minutes, adding greatly to the bustle and
confusion of this busy and crowded part of the har-
bour.
The stoppage and inconvenience which a bridge
across the sound in this situation would occasion to
the shipping, has prevented its erection, but the spi-
rited inhabitants have had designs under their consi-
deration for connecting the opposite shores by means
of such a work, and also by the formation of a tunnel
passing under the bed of the river, similar to that at
present in progress under the Thames at London.
The steam ferry-boats, however, are SO well managed,
that the want of a more constant means of communi-
cation is not much felt. They are twin boats with the
paddle-wheel placed in the centre, and in their general
construction resemble those at one time used on the
ferries of the Tay at Dundee, and the Mersey at
Liverpool.
The landing slips between which they ply are very
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35
convenient and suitable for situations where the rise
of tide is not great. The slip consists of a large plat-
form of wood, the landward extremity of which is at-
tached to the edge of the quay by moveable hinge-
joints admitting of its free motion. The seaward ex-
tremity of this platform rests on a floating tank, and
has the same elevation above the surface of the water
as the deck of the ferry-boat. The outer extremity
of the platform which rests on the floating tank, is
thus elevated or depressed with the rise and fall of
the tide, but always remains on a level with the
steam-boat's deck, and affords during high-water a
level road, and during low-water an inclined plane,
for the passage of carriages and passengers between
the vessel and the land.
Before quitting the subject of harbours, I shall
make a few general remarks on some of the other Ame-
rican ports of consequence.
Boston, in Massachusetts, is generally supposed to
rank next in importance to New York and New Or-
leans, The town is situated at the head of Massa-
chusetts Bay, which extends over about fifty miles of
coast between Cape Ann and Cape Cod, and contains
within its limits many excellent anchorages. Boston
Bay, in which the harbour has been formed, is a shel-
tered inlet of about seventy-five square miles in ex-
tent, enclosed by two necks of land, which SO nearly
approach each other as to leave only a very narrow
entrance communicating directly with the Atlantic.
C 2
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HARBOURS.
The exports from Boston are of a varied nature, con-
sisting chiefly of the produce and manufactures of
that part of the United States called New England.
The population of the town is about 80,000. Its si-
tuation is curious. Placed on a peninsula having
deep water close in-shore, and almost entirely sur-
rounding it, it is connected with the adjoining coun-
try by means of a dam and seven wooden bridges, of
which the most extensive is about a mile and a half
in length. The dam consists of an embankment of
earth 8000 feet in length, enclosed between two stone
retaining-walls. It serves the double purpose of af-
fording a means of communication, and also forming
a large basin, in which the tide-water being collected,
a water power is created for driving machinery.
The quays at Boston are constructed in the same
style, and of the same materials, as those of New
York, but more attention has been paid by the builders
to the durability of the work. Some of the wharfs
extend about a quarter of a mile into the harbour, and
are of sufficient breadth to have a row of warehouses
built on them. The rise of tide in Boston Harbour
is thirteen feet in spring and nine feet in neap tides.
In the suburb called Charlestown, which is connected
with Boston by means of three wooden bridges, is
situate the navy-yard of the United States, and the
graving-dock already noticed.
Philadelphia is a town of 230,000 inhabitants, and
stands on a peninsula between the rivers Delaware
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and Schuylkill in the State of Pennsylvania. Its
harbour is at the head of the ship navigation of Dela-
ware Bay, a vast arm of the sea, which is navigable
for vessels of the largest class as far as Philadelphia,
a distance of about a hundred miles from the Atlantic
Ocean. In the bay of Delaware the tide has generally
a rise of only three feet, but it is sometimes much in-
creased by the state of the winds.
The town of Baltimore contains a population of
about 80,000 inhabitants, and lies on the north
side of the river Patapsco, about fourteen miles from
its mouth. The basin forming the harbour is a splen-
did sheet of water, in which it is said 2000 vessels
could ride at anchor with ease.
Chesapeake Bay, which receives the waters of the
river Patapsco, on which Baltimore stands, is navi-
gable for 200 miles from the ocean, and forms an out-
let for the trade of the ports of Baltimore, Annapolis,
Washington, Fredericksburg, Richmond, and Nor-
folk, and receives the waters of the Susquehanna,
Patapsco, Potomac, and James rivers. The rise of
tide at Baltimore is about five feet, but is much in-
fluenced by the state of the wind, which has a great
effect upon the waters of Chesapeake Bay.
Charleston, in North Carolina, is a port of consi-
derable size, built on a tongue of land formed by
the rivers Ashley and Cooper. There is a bar at the
entrance of the harbour with only twelve feet of water
on it at low tides, but within the bar there is a good
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HARBOURS.
anchorage. The rise of tide in this harbour is about
six feet.
As I had it not in my power to visit the Mis-
sissippi, I cannot speak of the port of New Orleans
from personal knowledge; but as it is certainly the
most important in the southern states, I felt unwill-
ing to omit all mention of it in this sketch, and
therefore applied to my friend Captain Basil Hall, who
has kindly sent me the following notice on the subject.
" You are quite right," says Captain Hall, " to in-
clude New Orleans in your list of American harbours,
for though it is not strictly a sea-port, it answers all the
purposes of one in a remarkable degree. New Or-
leans lies at the distance of about a hundred miles from
the Gulf of Mexico, and the ebb and flow of the tide
do not reach so high as the city. The level of the ri-
ver is, however, subject to fluctuations, in consequence
of the changes in the supply of water from the upper
countries through which it flows. It rises from Janu-
ary to May, remains full all June and a part of July,
after which it begins to fall, and goes on decreasing in
height till September and October, when it is lowest.
The perpendicular difference in height of the surface
of the Mississippi at New Orleans, is about thirteen or
fourteen feet, and when at its lowest, it is nearly on a
level with the sea at the mouth of the river, so that
the flow is then scarcely perceptible.
" In former times, before steam-navigation was
known, there was great delay, and considerable diffi-
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culty as well as danger, in getting from the sea to
New Orleans, in consequence of the opposing stream,
the numerous shoals, and the very tortuous nature of
the course, which rendered it scarcely possible to sail
up all the way with the same wind. To these annoy-
ances may be added the very bad nature of the an-
choring ground every where, and the difficulty as well
as risk of lashing large vessels to the banks of such
a river. All these things rendered New Orleans a
harbour highly objectionable in a nautical point of
view.
" Now, however, that steam has got command of
" time and space," New Orleans may be considered
an excellent sea-port, safe, and as easy of access as of
egress. I need not mention that there are at all times
any number of steam-tugs ready to take ships down
the river, or to bring them up. When I was there in
April 1827. eleven years ago, several steam-boats left
the city every evening about sunset, each having in tow
one or more vessels astern, besides one, two, or three
lashed on each aside, SO that the boat was often quite
hid by the cluster round her. In this way they proceed-
ed down, and at daylight came to the bar which lies
across the mouth of the river opening into the Gulf
of Mexico. On reaching the sea, or rather before they
reached it, the steam-boats cast off their companions,
and left them to be taken in charge by their respec-
tive pilots, unless in cases of calm or contrary wind,
when, of course, they got a tow into the offing.
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HARBOURS.
" The most important service of these steam-boats,
however, is to tow ships up the river, for although it
is always troublesome, and often very dangerous, to drop
down with the current from New Orleans to the sea,
'it can be and is done, even without the help of steam.
But to make way upwards against the Mississippi is
a most heart-breaking work without such aid, and
now-a-days the attempt would be considered absurd.
Accordingly, the steam-vessels which have carried
down the ships during the night, and have launched
them in safety over the bar into the salt sea, look about
them for others, which having made the land, are ready
to enter the river. These they seize upon, and either
take in tow, or lash alongside of them, and tow up to
New Orleans. Of course they cannot, as in the down-
ward case, carry along with them such a cluster as they
brought down, nor is it likely that they will often be
called upon to exert their strength so far, for the ships
arrive off the. entrance of the river by one or two at a
time, and are not prepared, as within the port, to start
in bodies at a given time.
" In this way, it may be fairly stated, that New Or-
leans, though a hundred miles from the sea, is virtu-
ally one of the best and most accessible ports in the
Union. It may be added, that, as all the ships lie along-
side of the levée or embankment which separates the
river from the city, and which serves the purpose of a
perfectly commodious wharf, and as the water is always
smooth, nothing can be more easy and secure than the
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communication, both for loading and unloading goods.
The ships lie alongside of each other in tiers, and I
have seldom seen, in any country, such a forest of
masts.
" Abreast of the upper part of the city may be seen,
in like manner, numerous tiers of steam-boats of gi-
gantic dimensions, just arrived from, or preparing to
start for, the upper countries, through which the Mis-
sissippi and its innumerable tributaries pass. And far-
ther up in this most extraordinary of harbours, lie
crowds of huge rafts, or arks, as they are called,-rude
vessels without masts, which have dropped down the
river, and are loaded with that portion of the produce
of the interior which will not bear the expense of
steam-cariage.
At every hour,-I had almost said at every mi-
nute of the day,-the magnificent steam-boats which
convey passengers from New Orleans into the heart of
the western country, fire off their signal guns, and
dash away at a rate which makes me giddy even to
think of.
I must now conclude this brief notice by regret-
ting, that the limitation in your time did not al-
low you to visit, and to describe in detail, this most
remarkable of all the wonderful commercial pheno-
mena,-as it may be called,-which the great western
confederacy of states presents to the traveller, namely, a
mighty city built in the midst of one of the most un-
healthy swamps on earth, and a port, 100 miles from
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HARBOURS.
the sea, which rivals, in all essential respects, that of
New York or London ; possessing, moreover, an un-
interrupted and ready communication with the inte-
rior parts of a vast continent, to the distance of thou-
sands upon thousands of miles, every where rife with
civilization, though, but a few years ago, the whole was
one vast wilderness, the exclusive abode either of al-
ligators, wild beasts, or savages !"
These are the most considerable ports in the United
States ; but, in addition, it may not be amiss shortly
to notice the following bays and sounds, which deserve
attention, as many of them afford good anchorage and
sheltered lines of navigation.
Passamaquoddy Bay is situate at the boundary be-
tween the British dominions and the United States.
It receives the waters of the river St Croix, the bound-
ary line between the two countries. The tide in it
rises twenty-five feet.
Penobscot Bay receives the waters of the Penobscot
river, and has a rise of tide of ten feet.
Narragansett Bay is navigable for vessels drawing
sixteen feet of water to the town of Providence, which
is about thirty-five miles from the sea. The town
of Newport in this bay, though a place of little im-
portance, has one of the finest natural harbours in
America.
Long Island Sound lies between the mainland and
Long Island, and extends in a north-easterly direction
from New York harbour. It affords a sheltered line
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of navigation of about a hundred and twenty miles in
extent.
Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, in North Carolina,
are more remarkable for their curious geological for-
mation than for any advantages held out by them for
navigation, for which the difficulties of their entrance
and shallow water, wholly unfit them. The narrow
stripes of land, by which these sounds are separated
from the Atlantic Ocean, stretch along the coast for a
distance of about two hundred miles, and extend about
forty miles south of Pamlico Sound. They are very
little elevated above the level of the sea, and from
their alluvial formation appear to have been gradually
deposited by the Gulf Stream, which flows from the
Gulf of Mexico, charged with the sediment and earthy
matters bornedown by the Mississippiand other streams
which discharge themselves into the Gulf of Mexico.
Chatham, Appalachee, and Mobile Bays, in the
Gulf of Mexico, are not reported as possessing, in any
extraordinary degree, the qualifications of good ha-
vens, and, as already noticed, there is very little rise
of tide on this coast. It may also be mentioned, that
the hot and unhealthy climate of all the southern
ports of the United States, from Charleston to New
Orleans inclusive, as well as the nature of the slave
population of the southern states, renders them very
unsuitable for the growth of that hardy race of sea-
men, of which the northern ports of the country are
the true and only nurseries.
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HARBOURS.
The naval-yards belonging to the Government of
the United States are established at Boston, Ports-
mouth in New Hampshire, New York, Philadelphia,
Washington, Norfolk in Virginia, and Pensacola in
the Gulf of Mexico ; and those of them which I had an
opportunity of visiting seemed to be very well regula-
ted. Considering the natural advantages held out by
that country, and the abundance of fine timber pro-
duced in it, it is not surprising that the Americans
have bestowed SO much attention upon naval affairs,
or that their efforts should have been crowned by so
great success in the improvement both of inland and
maritime navigation. The genius of the people for
naval affairs is doubtless the birthright of their British
origin, and their patrimony has been improved by the
energy which characterises all their efforts.
Quebec is the seat of government of Lower Ca-
nada, and, in a commercial point of view, is the first
port in the British dominions in America. It is si-
tuate at the junction of the river St Charles with the
St Lawrence ; and, though distant fully 700 miles
from the Atlantic Ocean, the spacious and beau-
tiful Bay of Quebec, formed by the junction of the
two rivers, affords a noble deep-water anchorage for
vessels of all sizes, and almost in any numbers.
The bay measures about three miles and three quar-
ters in length, and two miles in breadth, and the water
in some parts of it is twenty-eight fathoms in depth.
The population of the town is about 22,000, and its
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trade consists in the export of wood, potash, and furs,
the produce of Upper and Lower Canada. The rise
of tide at Quebec is twenty-three feet in spring-tides,
and the quays and wharfs there, as well as in the har-
bours of the United States, are constructed entirely of
wood.
The ferry-boats at Quebec, plying between the
opposite sides of the river, which is about a quarter of
a mile in breadth, are propelled by horses and oxen.
These animals are secured in small houses on the
decks of the vessels ; and the effort they make in the
act of walking on the circumference of a large hori-
zontal wheel, produces a power which is applied to
drive the paddle-wheels of the ferry-boat, in the same
manner as the motion of the wheel in the tread-mill
is applied to the performance of different descriptions
of work. I have seen horse ferry-boats in Holland,
and, I believe, they have also been used in America,
in which the power was more advantageously applied
by means of an apparatus like the gin of a thrashing-
mill, in which case the horses are not stationary, but
are made to walk in a circle, and the motion commu-
nicated by them to an upright shaft, is conveyed, by
means of wheel-work, to the paddle-wheels of the
vessel. A boat of this kind was used for some time
in England, between Norwich and Yarmouth.
Montreal, which is 180 miles to the westward of
Quebec, and 880 miles from the ocean, is at the head
of the ship navigation of the St Lawrence, and consi-
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HARBOURS.
derably above the influence of the tide. The town is
built on the island whose name it bears, which is
situate at the junction of the Ottowa, or Grand
River, with the St Lawrence. The quays and land-
ing slips at Montreal are built of stone ; and in this
respect it differs from the other American ports which
I have noticed. The material used in their construc-
tion is a blue limestone, which is very abundant
throughout the greater part of Canada, and is much
used in all building operations. The trade of Montreal
is of the same description as that of Quebec, though
not so extensive.
Halifax harbour is considered one of the finest in
the world, and is calculated to afford anchorage for
upwards of a thousand vessels of the largest class. It
is a place of very considerable importance ; for through
it comes much of the trade of Nova Scotia ; and it is
the British post packet-station for Canada.
Such is a brief sketch of the construction and capa-
bilities of some of the principal harbours of America,
in the formation of which nature has done so much,
that little has been left for the labour of man, and
works of an extensive and massive description, and
operations such as are found to be indispensable in
rendering European harbours accessible or commo-
dious, have there been found to be unnecessary. By
erections of a temporary description, constructed of
the wood produced in the operation of clearing their
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HARBOURS.
47
lands, the inhabitants have been enabled, along the
whole line of coast, to afford, at a very small cost, ac-
commodation for an extent and class of shipping, to
obtain which, in any other quarter of the globe, would
have involved an enormous investment of capital, and
a much greater consumption of time.
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CHAPTER II.
LAKE NAVIGATION.
Great Western Lakes-Ontario-Erie-Huron-Michigan-Sape-
rior-Welland Canal-Lake Harbours-Construction of Piers, Break-
waters, &c-Buffalo-Erie-Oswego-Toronto-Kingston--Vessel
employed in Lake Navigation-Violent Effects of Storms on the
Lakes-Ice on the Lakes-Effects of Ice on the Climate-Lake
Champlain.
THE great chain of inland lakes, whose vast expanse
justly entitles them to the name of seas, are the largest
bodies of fresh water in the known world, and consti-
tute an important feature in the physical geography
of North America. When viewed in connection with
the River and Gulf of St Lawrence, by which their
surplus waters are discharged into the Atlantic Ocean,
ideas of magnitude and wonder are excited in the
mind, which it is impossible to describe. But the
effects which they produce on the commercial and do-
mestic economy of the country are considerations far
more important and striking. With the aid of some
short lines of canal, formed to overcome the natural
obstacles presented to navigation by the Falls of Nia-
gara and the Rapids of the St Lawrence, these great
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lakes are converted into a continuous line of water-
communication, penetrating upwards of 2000 miles
into the remote regions of North America, and afford-
ing an outlet for the produce of a large portion of that
continent, which, but for these valuable provisions of
nature, must, in all probability, have remained for ever
inaccessible.
The great western lakes of America are five in
number :-Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan, and Su-
perior. The extent of these lakes has been variously
stated, and the several accounts which have been given
of them, differ very considerably ; but the dimensions
which I shall quote are taken partly from the work of
Mr Bouchette, the Surveyor-General of Canada, and
partly from the charts constructed by Captain Bayfield,
of the Royal Navy.
Lake Ontario, the most eastern of the chain, lies
nearest to the Atlantic. The River St Lawrence, which
has a course of about a thousand miles before reaching
the ocean, is its outlet, and flows from its eastern ex-
tremity. This lake is 172 statute miles in length, 59t
miles in extreme breadth, and about 483 miles in
circumference. It is navigable throughout its whole
extent for vessels of the largest size. Its surface is
elevated 220 feet above the medium level of the sea ;
and it is said to be, in some places, upwards of 600
feet in depth. The trade of Lake Ontario, from the
great extent of inhabited country surrounding it, is very
considerable, and is, at this moment, rapidly increasing.
D
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
Many sailing vessels and splendid steamers are now
employed in navigating its waters. Owing to its great
depth, it never freezes, except at the sides, where the
water is shallow ; SO that its navigation is not so effec-
tually interrupted as that of the comparatively shal-
low Lake Erie.
The most important places on the Canadian or Bri-
tish side of Lake Ontario, are the city of Toronto, which
is the capital of Upper Canada, and the towns of King-
ston and Niagara, and, on the American shore, the
towns of Oswego, Genesee and Sackett's Harbour.
Lake Ontario has a direct communication with the At-
lantic Ocean, in a northerly direction, by the St Law-
rence, and in a southerly direction by the river Hudson
and the Erie Canal, with which it is connected by a
branch canal, leading from Oswego to a small town
on the line of the Erie Canal called Syracuse.
Lake Erie is about 265 miles in length, from thirty
to sixty miles in breadth, and about 529 miles in cir-
cumference. The greatest depth which has been ob-
tained in sounding this lake is 270 feet, and its surface
is elevated 565 feet above the level of the Hudson at
Albany. Its bottom is composed chiefly of rock. Lake
Erie is said to be the only one of the chain in which
there is any perceptible current, a circumstance which
may, perhaps, be occasioned by its smaller depth of
water. This current, which runs always in the same
direction, and the prevailing westerly winds, are rather
against its navigation. The shallowness of the water
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also, which varies from 100 to 270 feet in depth, ren-
ders it more easily and more permanently affected by
frost, its navigation being generally obstructed by
ice for some weeks every spring, after that of all the
other lakes is open and unimpeded.
The principal towns on Lake Erie are Buffalo,
Dunkirk, Ashtabula, Erie, Cleveland, Sandusky, Port-
land, and Detroit. Between forty and fifty splendid
steam-boats, and many sailing-vessels, are employed in
its trade, which is very extensive ; and several harbours
with stone-piers have been erected on its shores for
their accommodation.
The surface of Lake Erie is elevated 322 feet above
Lake Ontario, into which its water is discharged by
the river Niagara. In the course of this river, which
is only thirty-seven miles in length, the accumulated
surplus waters of the four upper lakes descend over a
perpendicular precipice of 152 feet in height, and form
the "Falls of Niagara." These falls, with the rapids
which extend for some distance both above and below
them, render seven miles of the river's course unfit for
navigation. The unfavourable structure of the bed
of the river Niagara,-the connecting link between
Lakes Erie and Ontario,-for the purposes of naviga-
tion, induced a company of private individuals, assisted
by the British Government, to construct the Welland
Canal, by which a free passage from the one lake to the
other is now afforded for vessels of 125 tons burden.
This undertaking was commenced in the year 1824,
D 2
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
and completed in 1829, five years having been occu-
pied in its execution. The expense of the works con-
nected with it is said to have been about L.270,000.
The canal extends from Port Maitland on Lake Erie
to a place called Twelve-Mile Creek on Lake Onta-
rio. Its length is about forty-two miles ; its breadth at
the surface of the water is fifty-six feet, and at the bot-
tom twenty-six feet, and the depth of water is eight
feet six inches. The whole perpendicular rise and fall
from the surface of Lake Ontario to the summit level,
and thence to Lake Erie, is 334 feet, which is over-
come by means of thirty-seven locks of various lifts,
measuring one hundred feet in length and twenty-two
feet in breadth, most of which are formed of wood.
The most considerable work occurring on the Wel-
land Canal is an extensive excavation of forty-five
feet in depth, from which 1,477,700 cubic yards of
earth, and 1,890,000 cubic yards of rock, are said to
have been removed.
Lake Erie is connected by the Erie Canal with the
river Hudson and the Atlantic Ocean, and again by
the Ohio Canal with the river Ohio and the Gulf of
Mexico. The Erie Canal is 363, and the Ohio Canal
334, miles in length. I shall advert more particularly,
however, to the construction and details of the canal
works in North America in another section.
Lake Huron is about 240 miles in length, from
186 to 220 miles in breadth, and 1000 miles in cir-
cumference. The outline of this lake is very irregular,
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and Mr Bouchette says of its shores, that they consist
of " clay cliffs, rolled stones, abrupt rocks, and wooded
steeps." Its connection with Lake Erie is formed by
the river St Clair, which conveys its water over a
space of thirty-five miles into a small lake of the same
name, of a circular form, and about thirty miles in
diameter, from whence the river Detroit, having a
course of twenty-nine miles, flows into Lake Erie.
The communication between the two lakes is navi-
gable for vessels of all sizes.
Lake Michigan is connected with Lake Huron by
the navigable strait Michillimackinac, in which is si-
tuate the island of Mackinaw, now the seat of a cus-
tom-house establishment, and a place of considerable
trade. Lake Michigan is about 300 miles in length,
seventy-five miles in breadth, and 920 miles in cir-
cumference, having a superficies of 16,200 square
miles. It is navigated by many steamers throughout
its whole extent. The principal towns on the lake,
the southern shore of which has now become the seat
of many prosperous settlements, are Michigan, Chi-
cago, and Milwawkie. The Illinois river takes its
rise near the shores of Lake Michigan, and flows into
the Mississippi ; and a canal, for the purpose of con-
necting their waters, is now in progress; an improve-
ment which, when completed, will form a second water-
communication, extending from the Gulf of St Law-
rence to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of upwards of
3000 miles,-the other communication being that
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
already alluded to between Lake Erie and the Ohio
by a canal from Cleveland to Portsmouth.
Lake Superior is connected with Lake Huron by
the river St Mary. This river, which is about forty
miles in length, has a fall of twenty-three feet on the
whole length of its course, and is navigable only for
small boats. As yet the march of improvement has not
penetrated to this remote region, but ere long Lakes
Superior and Huron, like Erie and Ontario, will pro-
bably be connected by a canal. Lake Superior is
about 360 miles in length, 140 miles in breadth,
and 1116 miles in circumference ; the depth is in
some places said to be 1200 feet, and its surface is
627 feet above the level of the sea. Its bottom
consists of clay and small shells. This lake is the
largest body of fresh water known to exist ; and al-
though surrounded by a comparatively desert and un-
cultivated country, at a distance of nearly 2000 miles
from the ocean, and at an elevation of 627 feet above
its surface, it is navigated by steam-boats and sailing
vessels of great burden, which are reported to be not
inferior to the craft navigating the lower lakes.
From what has been said regarding the great western
lakes, it will easily be believed that, notwithstanding
the secluded situation which they hold in the centre
of North America, far removed from the ocean and from
intercourse with the world at large, their waters are
no longer the undisturbed haunt of the eagle, nor
their coasts the dwelling of the Indian. Civilization
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
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and British habits have extended their influence even
to that remote region, and their shores can now boast
of numerous settlements, inhabited by a busy popula-
tion, actively engaged in commercial pursuits. The
white sails of fleets of vessels, and the smoking chim-
neys of numerous steamers, now thickly stud their
wide expanse, and beacon-lights, illuminating their
roeky shores with their cheering rays, guide the be-
nighted navigator on his course. Every idea con-
nected with a fresh-water lake, must be laid aside
in considering the different subjects connected with
these vast inland sheets of water, which, in fact,
in their general appearance, and in the phenomena
which influence their navigation, bear a much closer
resemblance to the ocean than the sheltered bays
and sounds in which the harbours of the eastern coast
of North America are situated, although these estu-
aries have a direct and short communication with the
Atlantic Ocean.
The whole line of coast formed by the margins of the
several lakes above enumerated, extends to upwards
of 4000 statute miles. There are several islands in
Lake Superior, and also at the northern end of Lake
Michigan, but the others are, generally speaking, free
from obstructions. They have all, however, deep
water throughout their whole extent, and present
every facility for the purposes of navigation.
It was not till the year 1818, that the navigation
of the lakes had become so extensive and assumed so
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
important a character, as to render the erection of
lighthouses necessary and expedient, for insuring the
safety of the numerous shipping employed on them.
Since that period, the lighthouses have been gradual-
ly increasing, and, on the American side of the lakes,
they now amount to about twenty-five in number, be-
sides about thirty beacons and buoys, which have been
found of the greatest service.
About the same period at which the introduction of
lighthouses was considered necessary, some attention
was also bestowed on the subject of lake harbours.
Many which formerly existed, were then improved and
enlarged, and others were projected, and the works con-
nected with them are now either finished, or are draw-
ing to a close. I visited several of these ports on Lakes
Erie and Ontario, which have good sheltered anchor-
ages, with a sufficient depth of water at their entrances
for the class of vessels frequenting them. But good
harbour accommodation is by no means so easily
obtained on the shores of the lakes, as, generally
speaking, on the sea coast of the United States. Most
of the lake harbours are formed in exposed situations,
and as regards the expense and durability of the seve-
ral works executed in their formation, are much better
calculated to resist the fury of the winds and waves,
than the wooden wharfs of the sea-ports on the east-
ern coast of the country of which I have given a de-
scription. In connection with what has already been
said on the subject of the harbours of the American
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LAKE NAVIGATION,
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coast, I shall give a brief sketch of some of those which
came immediately under my notice on the shores of
the lakes.
The town of Buffalo stands at the eastern corner
of Lake Erie in the state of New York, and contains
a population of about 16,000. As regards the num-
ber of its inhabitants and the extent of its commer-
cial transactions, it is the most important place on
the lakes, being in fact the New York of the west-
ern regions. From the month of June till the month
of December inclusive, during which period the navi-
gation of the lakes is generally open and unimpeded
by ice, between forty and fifty steam-boats, varying
from 200 to 700 tons register, are constantly plying
between Buffalo and the several ports on the shores of
the lakes. Some of these steamers make regular voy-
ages once a month to Chicago in Lake Michigan, a
distance of no less than 965 miles; and one leaves the
harbour of Buffalo twice every day, during summer,
for Detroit, a distance of 325 miles. The New York
and Erie Canal, the earliest, and perhaps the most
important public work executed in the United States,
which enters the lakes at Buffalo, has a great effect
in increasing its trade and importance.
Buffalo is built at the mouth of a creek commu-
nicating with the lake, in which the harbour is formed.
The wharfs in the interior of the harbour are made
of wood, but the covering pier, and other works ex-
posed to the wash of the lakes, are built of stone,
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
and cost about L.40,000. The depth of water in the
harbour is nine feet when the lake is in its lowest or
summer water state. The following diagram repre-
sents a cross section of the covering pier, which has
been erected for the purpose of protecting the ship-
ping and tranquillizing the water within the harbour
during heavy gales. It measures 1452 feet in length,
and its form and construction are so very substantial,
that one may fancy himself in some sea-port,' forget-
ting altogether that he is on the margin of a fresh-
water lake, at an elevation of more than 300 feet above
the level of the ocean.
The top of the pier on which the roadway is formed,
measures eighteen feet in breadth, and is elevatedabout
five feet above the level of the water in the harbour. On
the side of the roadway which is exposed to the lake, a
parapet-wall five feet in height extends along the whole
length of the pier, from the top of which, a talus wall,
battering at the rate of one perpendicular to three
horizontal, slopes toward the lake. This sloping wall
is formed of a description of masonry, which is techni-
cally termed coursed pitching. Its foundations are se-
cured by a double row of strong sheeting piles driven
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into the bed of the lake, and a mass of rubble pierres
perdues, resting on the toe of the slope. The inner
side of the pier, as shewn in the diagram, presents a
perpendicular face toward the harbour, and is sheathed
with a row of sheeting piles, driven at intervals of
about five feet apart from centre to centre, to prevent
the quay-wall from being damaged by vessels coming
alongside of it.
The entrance to the harbour is marked by a double
light, exhibited from two towers of good masonry built
on the pier.
The workmanship and materials employed in erect-
ing many of the other lake harbours, are of a much
less substantial description than that adopted at Buffa-
lo. The breakwater for the protection of Dunkirk
Harbour on Lake Erie, for example, was formed in a
most ingenious manner, by sinking a strong wooden
frame-work filled with stones. The frame or crib was
erected during winter on the ice over the site which
it was intended to occupy. The ice was then broken,
and the crib being filled with small stones, sunk to its
resting place in the bottom of the lake.
Presque-Isle Bay, in which the town of Erie
stands, is formed by the peninsula of Presque-Isle,
on the shore of Lake Erie. This bay measures about
one mile in breadth, and three miles in length, and af-
fords a splendid anchorage for vessels of the largest
size. It opens toward the north-west, and is shelter-
ed from the waves of the lakes by two covering break-
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
waters, measuring respectively 3000 and 4000 feet in
length, projecting from the shore, and leaving a space
between their outer extremities of 300 feet in breadth,
for the ingress and egress of vessels. Some other works
of considerable extent are contemplated, to render this
harbour still more safe and convenient.
Oswego, situate at the mouth of the Seneca River,
on the southern shore of Lake Ontario, is a town of
6500 inhabitants, having a good harbour. It stands
at the commencement of the branch canal, which con-
nects the great New York and Erie Canal with Lake
Ontario, and is the seat of several manufactories and
mills driven by the Seneca River, on which there are
some very valuable falls. The pier, which has been
built at this place for the protection of the harbour, is
a. very good specimen of masonry, finished somewhat
in the same style as that at Buffalo, and cost about
L.20,000. The depth of water in the harbour is
twenty feet, and it has a good harbour-light placed in
a substantial tower of masonry at the extremity of the
pier.
The works required in the construction of Buffalo,
Erie, and Oswego harbours were done at the expense,
and under the direction, of the government of the
United States, who have also executed harbour-works
of great extent, varying according to the nature of
their situations, at the towns of Chicago, Michigan,
Milwawkie and Green Bay in Lake Michigan ; De-
troit, Sandusky, Ashtabula, Portland, and Dunkirk, on
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Lake Erie; and at Genesee and Sackett's Harbour on
Lake Ontario. Sackett's Harbour is remarkable as
having been the United States Navy-yard during the
war.
The harbours on the Canadian or British shores of
the lakes are, as yet, not so numerous. The princi-
pal ones are those of Toronto, Port Dalhousie, Bur-
lington, Hungry Bay, and Kingston, on Lake On-
tario ; and Amherstburgh, and Put-in Bay on Lake
Erie.
Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, lies in
a bay which is nearly circular, and measures about
a mile and a half in diameter. It is sheltered from
the lake by a projecting neck cf land called Gibraltar
Point, on which the harbour-light is erected. This
bay has a considerable depth of water, and affords an
extensive and safe anchorage. Port Dalhousie is at
the entrance of the Welland Canal, and has two piers,
measuring respectively 200 and 250 feet in length,
and also some pretty extensive works, connected with
a basin for receiving timber. Kingston, situate at
the eastern end of Lake Ontario, just at the point
where the river St Lawrence flows out of the lakes, is
the British Government Naval Yard. Navy Bay, in
which it stands, is a good anchorage for vessels draw-
ing eighteen feet of water, but is exposed to south and
south-west winds. The British Government have
also executed works in some of the other harbours on
the Canadian side of the lakes.
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
The tonnage of most of the craft employed in the
lake navigation is regulated by the size of the canals
which have been constructed for the purpose of con-
necting the lakes, and facilitating the navigation of
the St Lawrence. The locks of these canals are
formed of such dimensions as to admit vessels of 125
tons burden, and consequently the lake craft, with a
few exceptions, do not exceed this size. The steam-
boats, however, and all the vessels which are employed
exclusively in the navigation of one lake, are never
required to enter the canals, and many of these are of
great size; some of the new steamers being no less
than 700 tons burden. The art of ship-building,
which is practised to a considerable extent in almost
every port, is greatly facilitated by the abundance of
fine timber produced in the neighbourhood of the
lakes; and to so great an extent has the art been car-
ried on, that during the wars a vessel called the St
Lawrence, of 102 guns, was launched by the British
at Kingston, and another by the Americans at Sackett's
Harbour, which measured 210 feet in length on her
lower gun-deck.
The vessels used in the lake navigation, and more
especially the steam-boats, which I had frequent op-
portunities of examining, possess, in a much greater
degree, the character of sea-boats, than the same
class of vessels employed in the sounds and bays
on the shores of the Atlantic; and the substantial
masonry of which the piers and breakwaters on the
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lakes are composed renders these works also, as before
noticed, much more capable of resisting the fury of
the winds and waves than the wooden wharfs of the
eastern coast of the country. The strength and du-
rability of material which both the piers and the ves-
sels present, are, at first sight, apt to appear super-
fluous in works connected with lake navigation. I
was certainly impressed with this conviction when I
first saw the stone-piers of Buffalo, which I have al-
ready described ; and the sight of the steamer " James
Madison," a strongly built vessel of 700 tons burden,
drawing about ten feet of water, which plies between
Buffalo on Lake Erie and Chicago on Lake Michigan,
was in no way calculated to lessen the impression
which the harbour had left ; an impression which
was heightened by the circumstance of my having,
a short time before, examined the harbours on the
eastern coast, and seen many of the slender fabrics,
drawing from three to five feet of water, which navi-
gate the bays and sounds in that part of the coun-
try. But, on inquiring more particularly into this
subject, I was informed that these lakes are often vi-
sited by severe gales of wind, which greatly disturb
the surface of their waters, and give rise to phenomena
which one hardly expects to find in a fresh-water lake.
In the opinion of many of the captains of the steamers
with whom I conversed on this subject, the undula-
tions created during some of these gales are no less
formidable enemies. to navigation than the waves of
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
the ocean, SO that the greatest strength in the hy-
draulic works and naval architecture of the lakes is
absolutely necessary to insure their stability. I had
not an opportunity, while in America, of witnessing
the effects produced on the lakes by a gale of wind ;
but in many situations where their shores were ex-
posed to a great expanse of water, and consequently
with an in-shore wind to the action of waves having
a long fetch and ample scope to develope them-
selves, I found many interesting indications of their
occasional violence when under the action of a hurri-
cane. In the harbour of Buffalo, for example, which
is situated in the north-east corner of Lake Erie,
and has an unobstructed expanse of water extending
before it for a distance of about 180 miles, the
effects of the waves are very remarkable. The pier
at this place is built of blue limestone. The mate-
rials are small, and no mortar is used in its con-
struction ; but the stones are hammer-dressed, well
jointed, and carefully assembled in the walls, and the
structure, as before noticed, both as regards the mate-
rials of which it is built, and its general design, is
calculated to stand a good deal of fatigue. On exa-
mining this pier, however, I was a good deal surprised
to find that it was in some places very much shaken,
and, more particularly, that several stones in different
parts of the work had actually been raised from their
beds ; and I was told that this work, as well as most of
the harbours on the lakes, has annually to undergo some
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repair of damage occasioned by the violence of the
waves. I measured several of the stones which had been
moved, and one of the largest of them, weighing up-
wards of half a ton, had been completely turned over,
and lay with its bed or lower side uppermost.
I met with another striking example of the violence
of the lake-waves on the road leading from Cattarau-
gus to Buffalo, which winds along the side of Lake
Erie, in some places close to the water, and in others
removed several hundred feet from its margin. The
surface of this road is elevated several feet above the
level of the lake ; but, notwithstanding this, many of
the fine large trees, with which the whole country
is thickly covered, have been rooted up and drifted
across the road by the violence of the wind and waves,
and now lie along its whole line piled up in the ad-
joining fields. Every winter's storm adds to these
heaps of drifted timber, and they will doubtless con-
tinue to be enlarged till the increasing value of the
lands on the margin of the lake, which, in their present
state, are wholly useless in an agricultural point of
view, renders the erection of works for their protec-
tion a matter of pecuniary interest to the proprietors.
The following extract also, from the Annual Re-
port of the Board of the New York State Canals for
1835, shews the severity of the lake storms :- The
method of towing barges by means of steam-boats has
been very successfully practised on the Hudson river ;
but on the lakes, though a great many steam-boats
E
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
have been in use for several years, the plan has not
been adopted, because the steam-boats cannot manage
barges in a storm. We have been informed of a pro-
position made to the proprietors of a steam-boat to
take some canal boats from Buffalo to Cleveland ;
and it was accepted only on the condition, that, in
the event of a storm, they should be at liberty to cut
them loose at the risk of the owners.
" An intelligent gentleman, of several years' expe-
rience in navigating steam-boats, and the two last
seasons on Lake Ontario, informs us, that he consi-
dered it impracticable, as a regular business, for
steam-boats on the lakes to tow vessels with safety,
unless the vessels were fitted with masts and rigging,
and sufficiently manned, so as to be conducted by
sails in a storm ; that storms often rise very suddenly
on these lakes, and with such violence as would com-
pel a steam-boat to cut loose vessels in tow in order to
sustain herself."
The most striking indications of the extreme vio-
Ience of these storms are found in those parts of the
coast where the lake is of great breadth, and where there
is deep water close in-shore. On the other hand, in si-
tuations where the shores are contracted, or defended
by islands, or where the lake is for some distance very
shallow, the water does not appear to be SO much agi-
tated by the wind. Such facts regarding the lake-
storms serve to indicate that the formation of those
undulations in the sea, which prove SO destructive to
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our marine-works, depends on the action of the wind,
and is not necessarily connected with the great tidal
wave occasioned by the attraction of the moon and
sun, whose influence in affecting the level of the lakes
is quite imperceptible, owing to the smallness of their
area compared with that of the ocean. It also ap-
pears, from what has been stated, that, to the produc-
tion of considerable undulations, capable of injuring
marine-works, or endangering their stability, three
conditions are necessary. First, That the sheet of
water acted upon by the wind shall have a consider-
able area. Second, That .its configuration shall be
such, that the wind, moving over it in any direction,
shall act upon its surface extensively, both in the di-
rections of length and breadth. And, third, That
the depth of the water shall be considerable, and un-
obstructed by shoals, so as to permit the undulations
to develope themselves to a great extent, without be-
ing checked by the retardations caused by shallow
water and an unequal bottom.
From my own observations, and from what I have
heard regarding the form assumed by the lake-waves,
and the effects produced by them, I am inclined to
believe that they bear a strong resemblance to the
undulations experienced, during gales of wind, in such
land-locked bodies of water as the Irish Sea, which, it
is well known, are very different from the long swell
met with in the ocean. In all land-locked bodies of
water, the waves are short and sudden in their move-
E 2
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
ments, proving very destructive to whatever obstacle
is opposed to their fury; but there is a characteristic
slowness in the long movement of the ocean's swell,
which, it is generally acknowledged, renders it less
destructive to the marine-works exposed to its action
than the waves produced in land-locked seas. It is con-
fidently hoped that the experiments which Mr-Russell
and others are at present conducting, at the suggestion
of the British Association, on the laws which regulate
the undulation of fluids, may lead to some satisfactory
results on this subject, SO interesting in a speculative
point of view, and SO important to the engineer.
The great area presented by the surface of the lakes
prevents any material variation in their level from tak-
ing place, which, in small bodies of water, would be the
necessary consequence of the torrents annually poured
into them from the melting snow. It is stated that a pe-
riodical rise of about two feet on the level of the lakes
occurs every seven years; but the facts connected
with this singular phenomenon do not appear to be
very satisfactorily established. The water of the
lakes and the river St Lawrence is remarkably pure
and clear. Mr M Taggart mentions, in his work on
Canada, that a white object, measuring a foot square,
may be seen at the depth of forty feet below the sur-
face. From my own observation, however, I cannot
say that the American lakes are, in this respect, more
remarkable than the Lake of Geneva, the waters of
which are certainly very transparent.
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The rigour of a Canadian winter, covering the face
of the country with snow, and congealing every river,
lake, and harbour, produces a stagnation in trade, which
cannot fail to have a bad effect on the commerce of
the country and the habits of the people, who are
compelled to complete their whole business transac-
tions during the summer and autumn months, and
remain in a state of comparative indolence during the
remainder of the year. When this inauspicious and
unfavourable state of things is kept in view, it is asto-
nishing, and in the highest degree creditable, particular-
ly to the inhabitants of the British colonies, that they,
situated as they are on the least favourable side of the
lakes, as far as climate is concerned, have made such
rapid advances in agriculture and public works. Con-
sidering the lakes in a commercial point of view, it is
impossible not to regret that their navigation is open
for SO very limited a period. For the space of, at
least, five months in the year, the greater part of their
surface is covered with a thick coating of ice ; and the
same sheet of water which, in summer, floats the ves-
sel of 700 tons, and devastates the shores with its
waves, becomes, in winter, a highway for the Canadian
sledge. The centre of the lakes, where the water at-
tains a considerable depth, is not frozen every season ;
but a vast sheet of ice is annually formed round
their margins, which almost effectually puts a stop to
navigation. Mr MTaggart mentions that, in the
year 1826, the ice at the margin of Lake Ontario was
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
within half an inch of being two feet in thickness ; and
that, during the winter of the same year, Lake Chau-
dière was covered with a coating which measured no
less than three feet six inches in thickness. He also
made several experiments to ascertain the densities of
lake and river ice, from which it appeared that the
volumes of six cubic feet of lake, and eight cubic feet
of river ice, were each equal when melted to five cubic
feet of water. The ice on the rivers and lakes does
not long retain a level surface. Large flaws make
their appearance soon after it is formed, and the whole
sheet gradually splits into pieces, which, being united
together in great masses or hummocks, resist the action
of the sun long after the disappearance of frost.
The period at which the lake navigation closes,
is generally about the end of November or begin-
ning of December, and this interruption is never re-
moved before the first week of May. In 1837, the
year in which I visited America, the navigation was
not wholly open till the last week of May. On the
20th of that month, I passed down Lake Erie, on my
way to Buffalo, in the steam-boat " Sandusky," on
which occasion, even at that late period in summer, we
encountered a large field of floating ice, extending as
far as the eye could reach. Our vessel entered the
ice about seven o'clock in the morning, and at twelve
in the forenoon she had got nearly half way through
this obstacle, when a breeze of wind sprung up, which,
from its direction, had the effect of consolidating the
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field into a mass SO compact, that our vessel being no
longer able to penetrate it, was detained a prisoner,
at the distance of about ten miles from Buffalo, the
port for which she was bound. During the two fol-
lowing days, the efforts of our crew to free the vessel
were unavailing, and SO thick was the field of ice by
which we were surrounded, that several of our less
patient and perhaps more adventurous fellow passen-
gers, made many fruitless attempts to reach the shore,
which was only two or three miles distant, by walk-
ing over its surface. On the morning of the 23d, a
breeze of wind fortunately loosened the ice, and our
captain, after having seriously damaged his vessel in
attempting to extricate her, succeeded in making his
escape, and landed his unfortunate passengers during
a torrent of rain, on the shores of the lake, far from
any house, and ten miles from Buffalo, the place of
our destination. The circumstance of there being up-
wards of two hundred passengers on board, and a great
scarcity of provisions, together with the coldness of the
weather, rendered our situation during the forty-eight
hours of our imprisonment far from agreeable.
The country through which I travelled for some days
before reaching the shores of the lakes, on my way from
the Ohio River to Lake Erie, and also that part of it
through which I passed on my route from the lakes to
Quebec, presented all the indications of summer, every
tree and shrub being in full foliage. In the immediate
neighbourhood of Lake Erie, however, no signs of the
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
approach of spring or returning vegetation were vi-
sible, though it was towards the end of May. The
country surrounding the margin of the lake was bleak,
and the trees were leafless, while the atmosphere was
exceedingly damp, and the temperature indicated by
the thermometer ranged from 32° to 35° of Fahrenheit.
Such was the effect produced on the climate by this
huge cake of floating ice, that it was almost impossible,
from the state of the lake atmosphere, and the ap-
pearance of the surrounding country, to divest one's
self of the idea that winter was not yet gone, although
in fact the first month in summer was drawing to a
close. This circumstance affords a striking example
of the degree in which climate may be influenced by
local circumstances; for, while the shores of Lake
Erie presented this sterile appearance, and were still
plunged in the depths of winter, the country in the
neighbourhood of Quebec, although lying three de-
grees further north, was richly clothed with vegetation.
The transition from winter to summer in the nor-
thern parts of North America, is very sudden. There
is no season in that country corresponding to our
spring, The vast heaps of hardened snow and ice
which have accumulated during the winter, remain
on the ground long after the sun has attained a
scorching heat, but it is not until his rays have melted
and removed them, that the climate becomes really
warm, and then the foliage being no longer checked
by the cold produced by these masses of snow and ice,
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instantly bursts forth, and at that particular time a
single day makes a marked difference on the face of
the country.
The only other body of fresh water in North
America demanding attention, is Lake Champlain,
which lies nearly north and south, dividing the States
of Vermont and New York. It is about 150 miles
in length, and measures fourteen miles at the point
where it attains its greatest breadth. The banks of
the lake are in general low and marshy, and for about
twenty miles at its southern extremity, it assumes the
appearance of a river, hardly affording sufficient space
to permit a vessel to turn. This lake is navigable
throughout its whole extent for vessels drawing five
feet of water, and several fine steam-boats ply on it
while the navigation is open. The principal towns
on its shores are St John's, Plattsburg, Ticonderoga,
Whitehall, and Burlington, at which last place the
steam-boats for its navigation are built. It is connected
with the river Hudson by the Champlain Canal, but it
discharges its surplus water into the St Lawrence by
the river Richlieu, called also the Sorell, on which the
towns of St Dennis, St Charles, and Sorell, are situ-
ated. The chief trade of Lake Champlain consists in
exporting iron-ore and timber ; the iron is sent to New
York by the canal, and the timber to the St Law-
rence by the river Richlieu. Its waters are exceed-
ingly pure, and are subject, during the wet seasons of
the year, to great augmentation. The captain of the
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LAKE NAVIGATION.
steamer by which I travelled informed me that, in the
spring of 1816, when the snow was leaving the ground,
the surface of the lake rose to the height of nine feet
above its summer water level. Its navigation, like that
of the other lakes, is suspended for five months in the
year by ice, and transport is carried on during that pe-
riod by sledges, which run on its surface.
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CHAPTER III.
RIVER NAVIGATION.
The sizes and courses of the North American Rivers influenced by
the Alleghany and Rocky Mountains.-Rivers flowing into the
Pacific Ocean.-Rivers flowing into the Gulf of St Lawrence.-
River St Lawrence.-Lakes, Rapids, and Islands on the River.
-Lachine Canal.-St Lawrence Canal.-The Ottowa.-Rideau
Canal.-Towing vessels on the St Lawrence.-Tides.-Freshets.
Pilots, &c.-Rivers rising on the east of the Alleghany Moun-
tains, and flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, and north-east corner
of the Gulf of Mexico.-The Connecticut.-Hudson.-Delaware.
-Susquehanna.-Patapsco.-Potomac, &c.-Mississippi and its
tributaries.-The Yazoo.-Ohio.- Red River. Arkansas.-
White River.-St Francis.-Missouri.-Illinois,c-State of the
Navigation.-" Snags," " Planters," " Sawyers," and " Rafts."
-Construction of Vessel for removing " Snags," &c.
THE rivers of North America are no less interest-
ing features in the hydrography of that country than
her inland sounds and lakes ; and the great lines of
navigable communication which so many of them af-
ford, extending in all directions from the shores of the
ocean to the very heart of the country, and forming
great public highways for the easy and quick trans-
port of the most bulky produce of the interior, as well
as the sea-borne manufactures and luxuries of foreign
lands, entitle them, in a commercial point of view, to
an equal share of attention.
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RIVER NAVIGATION.
It is impossible to convey to the reader an adequate
idea of those vast bodies of moving water, or to de-
scribe the feelings which the traveller experiences,
when, for instance, after crossing the Alleghany Moun-
tains, and completing a fatiguing land journey from
the eastern coast of several hundred miles into the in-
terior of the country, he first comes in sight of the
Ohio River at Pittsburg. Here, in the very heart of
the continent of North America, the appearance of a
large shipping port, containing a fleet of thirty or
forty steamers moored in the river, cannot fail to sur-
prise him ; and his astonishment is not a little in-
creased if he chances to witness the arrival of one of
those steamers, whose approach is announced long be-
fore it makes its appearance by the roaring of its steam,
and the volumes of smoke and fire which are vomited
from the funnels; but his wonder only attains its
height when he is told that this same vessel has come
direct from New Orleans, in the Gulf of Mexico, and
that fifteen days and nights have been occupied in
making this inland voyage, of no less than two thou-
sand miles, among the meanderings of the Mississippi
and Ohio.
The continent of North America may be said to
be divided into four distinct portions by the ranges of
the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains, which run
from north to south, in directions nearly parallel to
each other, and regulate the lengths of the various
rivers by which the country is drained, and, as it were,
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assign to each, the quantity of water which is due to
it, and the direction it must follow in its progress to
the ocean. I shall consider the rivers, therefore, under
four distinct heads. First, those which rise on the
west of the Rocky Mountains, and flow into the
Pacific Ocean. Second, those which take their rise
to the north of the mountain ranges, and discharge
themselves into the Atlantic Ocean by the river and
gulf of St Lawrence. Third, those which have their
sources on the east of the Alleghany Mountains, and
discharge themselves into the Atlantic and the north-
eastern part of the Gulf of Mexico ; and, fourthly,
the rivers comprehended under the head of the
Mississippi and its tributaries, which have their rise
in the great valley stretching between the Alleghany
and the Rocky Mountains.
Our information respecting the rivers comprising
the first of these divisions, or those which discharge
themselves into the Pacific Ocean, is very limited,
owing to the unexplored state of the country lying to
the westward of the Rocky Mountains, through which
they flow. It is certain, however, that their courses
are short, as the base of the Rocky Mountains, which
are said to be abrupt and lofty, extends to within a
few hundred miles of the shore, a circumstance which
renders it not unlikely also that the declivity of their
beds is considerable, and their currents in general too
rapid to admit of easy navigation. Those which have
been visited are Frazer's River, the Caledonia, the Co-
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RIVER NAVIGATION.
lorado, and the Columbia. The Rivers Colorado and
Columbia, are said to be navigable for a considerable
distance.
The rivers which flow into the great western lakes,
and those joining the St Lawrence in its course from
Lake Ontario to the sea, form the second division.
Although the St Lawrence does not assume its
name until it issues from Lake Ontario, it neverthe-
less takes its rise to the westward of Lake Superior.
Between Lakes Superior and Huron, it is called St
Mary's river. From Lake Huron it flows under the
name of the St Clair into the lake of that name, from
whence to Lake Erie it is called the Detroit River,
and between Lakes Erie and Ontario the Niagara ;
but still it is essentially the same stream, in the same
way as the Rhone, both above and below the Lake of
Geneva, is considered the same river, but there retains
the same name. When viewed in this light, the Law-
rence may be said to have a course of upwards of two
thousand miles, and to receive the waters of about
thirty rivers of considerable size. After leaving Lake
Ontario, it assumes the name of the St Lawrence,
and receives, in its progress to the ocean, by the river
Richlieu or Sorell, the water of Lake Champlain, and
is also augmented by the streams of the Ottowa, St
Francis, St Maurice, Chaudière, and Charles rivers.
Receiving the whole surplus waters of the North
American lakes, and the drainage of a great tract of
country traversed by the numerous streams which
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join it in its course to the ocean, the St Lawrence, as
regards the quantity of its discharge, presents abun-
dant advantages for safe and easy navigation. The
stream of the upper part of the river, however, is much
distorted by numerous expansions and contractions of
its banks, and also by declivities or falls in its bed, and
clusters of small islands, which render its naviga-
tion exceedingly dangerous, and in some places wholly
impracticable for all sorts of vessels excepting the
Canadian batteaux, which are strong flat-bottomed
boats, built expressly for its navigation. In several
parts of its course the river expands into extensive
lakes ; and in its waters," which are thus distributed
over a great surface, numerous shoals occur, among
which the ship-channel is generally tortuous and nar-
row, and only navigable in daylight. In some places
again, the St Lawrence forces its way between high
banks which encroach on its bed, and leave a compa-
ratively narrow gullet for its passage, and in others it
flows over a steep and rugged bottom. These sudden
contractions and declivities interrupt the peaceful flow
of the stream, and produce chutes, as they are there
called, or rapids, some of which are wholly impassable
for vessels of large size, and others can only be navi-
gated in certain states of the tide. The islands, which
occur chiefly in the upper part of the river between
Montreal and Lake Ontario, also distort the channel,
and give rise to rapids which are no less detrimental
in a commercial point of view.
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RIVER NAVIGATION.
Notwithstanding the numerous impediments to na-
vigation, occåsioned by the form of its bed, the river
St Lawrence, between Montreal and Quebec, pre-
sents a scene of constant animation and bustle, until the
approach of winter causes a suspension of its trade ; on
its stream the whole exports of Upper and Lower Ca-
nada are borne to the ocean, and by its current the va-
luable timber of that country is floated from its native
forests to Quebec, where it is shipped for exportation.
After passing the island of Orleans (on which the
great timber ship Columbus was built), is the city of
Quebec, the first place of importance that occurs in as-
cending the St Lawrence. The banks of the river at
this place are high and precipitous. The fort of Que-
bec, built on Cape Diamond, is elevated 350 feet above
the surface of the water, and commands a view of the
river and surrounding country, which, for extent and
grandeur, is perhaps unequalled in any part of the
world. The river St Charles joins the St Lawrence
close to the town, and the Chaudière flows into it a
few miles farther up.
The first obstacle to navigation are the Richlieu ra-
pids, about eighty miles above Quebec, where the banks
approach each other, and leave a narrow channel of
only about half a mile in breadth, which contracts the
vast body of water discharged by the river, and pro-
duces a current of such strength that vessels, unless
aided by steam, have great difficulty in stemming it.
The rapids extend over several miles, and sometimes,
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it is said, run with a velocity of six miles per hour, and,
notwithstanding this, the water, from its great depth,
presents a smooth and unbroken surface.
From the Richlieu Rapids to Montreal, the banks
are low, and the country, for some distance on each
side, is flat and monotonous ; and were it not for many
beautiful villages, with their churches and polished
tin spires which meet the eye in close succession, and
tend to diversify and enliven the scenery, the sail from
Quebec to Montreal would not prove very inviting.
About mid-way between those places, the bed of the
river expands, and at last attains the breadth of nine
miles, forming the large sheet of water called Lake
St Peter, which is twenty-one miles in length. In
this lake there is very little current, and but a small
depth of water, the natural consequence of the river
being extended over a great surface. A deep channel
winds through the middle of the flat, affording an in-
tricate passage for vessels, which, in their progress
through it, are compelled to cast anchor after sunset.
The course of this narrow channel is marked by buoys ;
and lights are exhibited at its two extremities for
guiding vessels out of it which happen in the course
of their voyage to reach either termination immediate-
ly after night has set in, in which case they are ena-
bled to proceed on their course without encountering
the delay of anchoring all night in the lake.
The rivers St Maurice and Richlieu or Sorell, flow
into Lake St Peter. At the mouth of the St Mau-
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rice stands the town of Trois Rivieres, which contains
about 3000 inhabitants, and ranks as the third town
in Lower Canada. The Richlieu enters the lake at
its southern extremity, and at its mouth stands the
town of William Henry or Sorell. The Richlieu, as for-
merly noticed, flows from Lake Champlain, from which
a great deal of timber is annually floated by its cur-
rent to the St Lawrence.
About a mile below Montreal, the navigation en-
counters a great impediment in the rapids of St Mary,
caused by St Helen's Island, which lies in the mid-
dle of the river. Here the current, it is said, runs
with a velocity of six miles an hour ; and about fifteen
years ago, before the powerful and well-constructed
steam vesselswhich nownavigate the St Lawrence were
built, a relay of oxen was kept at this place for assist-
ing the steamers to ascend the rapids. It is unfortu-
nate for Montreal, nautically or commercially speak-
ing, that it is situate above instead of below these ra-
pids, as it renders the port difficult of access to all
classes of vessels.
Montreal, as before noticed, is 180 miles from Que-
bec, and 580 miles from the Gulf of St Lawrence. It
is at the head of the ship navigation ; and although
upwards of 880 miles distant from the Atlantic Ocean,
vessels of 600 tons ascend the river, and lie afloat at
the quays.
The Lachine Rapids, extending over about seven
miles of the river's course, lie immediately above Mon-
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treal. As the velocity with which the water runs at
this place renders navigation impracticable, a work,
called the Lachine Canal, has been executed, at an
expense of L.115,000, in order to avoid this obstruc-
tion to the navigation. This canal was completed in
the year 1824, and was the first work of the kind
formed in Canada. It extends from Montreal to a
place called Lachine, a distance of nine miles, and
measures forty-eight feet in breadth at the water-line,
twenty-eight feet at the bottom, and five feet in
depth. The rise is forty-eight feet, which is over-
come by means of six locks of eight feet lift each.
The locks and other works on the line of the canal,
which are subject to much tear and wear, and require
strength and durability, are constructed of red sand-
stone, in a well-finished and substantial manner.
The St Lawrence is navigable from Lachine to the
"Cascades," where the " Cedar Rapids" again stop
its navigation for about sixteen miles. Above this the
river expands, and forms the navigable lake of St
Francis, which is twenty-five miles in length, and, in
some places, attains the breadth of five and a half
miles. The town of Regis stands at its northern
extremity, and is inhabited by part of a large tribe of
Indians, who have a settlement here on a tract of land
granted to them by the British Government. Above
Lake St Francis are the Longue Saut Rapids. These
are nine miles in length, and flow with greater velo-
city than any of the others which have been mention-
F 2
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RIVER NAVIGATION.
ed. At their head stands the town of Cornwall, from
which the river is navigable to Kingston, at the en-
trance to Lake Ontario. The towns of Ogdensburg,
Prescott, and Brockville, are situate on the banks of
the river, between Cornwall and Lake Ontario.
A few miles below Kingston is the celebrated
" Lake of the Thousand Isles." At this part of its
course, the St Lawrence assumes a great breadth, and
its surface is thickly studded with islands, varying
from a few square feet to several acres in extent. There
are said to be upwards of 1500 of them in the lake ;
and, though they form an interesting and splendid
object in the scenery of the river, they prove very de-
trimental to its navigation. A channel, having a
sufficient depth of water for ships of the largest size,
winds among the islands, and is in some places so
narrow, that, when the wind is high, vessels have often
difficulty in passing each other.
These obstructions in the St Lawrence are inju-
rious to its character as a navigable river; but they
impart to the scenery on its course a degree of gran-
deur and variety which is peculiarly pleasing to the
traveller. In passing over some of the rapids which
have been mentioned, the water is violently agita-
ted and tossed into the air, covering the whole sur-
face with a sheet of white foam, and forming a fine
contrast to the clear blue of the untroubled part of the
river. The fearless Canadians, however, daily descend
these impetuous streams with their batteaux and rafts
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of timber, without encountering the least accident or
inconvenience. The batteaux are strong flat-bot-
tomed boats, well suited to the navigation of the
rapids, and are generally manned by skilful naviga-
tors. They descend from Ogdensburg to Montreal,
a distance of ninety-five miles, heavily laden with the
produce of the country, and generally occupy about three
days in making the voyage. Steam-boats ply regularly
on those parts of the river which lie between the
rapids ; but the batteaux, as formerly observed, are the
only description of vessels that can, with any degree
of safety, be taken over the rapids.
The province of Upper Canada has commenced a
gigantic work, to supply these deficiencies in the navi-
gation of the river, which is to be called the St Law-
rence Canal. The first compartment of this work, ex-
tending from Cornwall, on the left bank of the St
Lawrence, to a place called Dickinson's Landing, is
twelve miles in length, and is intended to overcome
the Longue Saut Rapids. This work was in a very
advanced state when I visited the country. Two ad-
ditional short canals, however, and an alteration in the
dimensions of the Lachine Canal, must still be carried
into effect, in order to complete the whole of the con-
templated improvement, by which another communi-
cation, in addition to that already afforded by the
Rideau Canal, will be opened between the lower part
of the St Lawrence and the lakes. It is intended that
the St Lawrence Canal shall have a breadth of 100
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RIVER NAVIGATION.
feet throughout its whole extent, and be capable of
admitting the passage of all vessels under 100 feet in
length, which do not draw more than eight feet of
water. The locks are to be built of limestone, which
is obtained in fine blocks and great abundance in the
surrounding country.
The Ottowa, after a course of about 500 miles,
joins the St Lawrence immediately above the island
of Montreal. It is navigable to Bytown, 120 miles
from its mouth ; and the Grenville Canal, the locks
and works connected with which have been formed on
the same scale as those of the Lachine Canal, -was
constructed to obviate some of the rapids which occur
on the river.
The Rideau Canal, leading from Bytown on the
Ottowa to Kingston on Lake Ontario, was construct-
ed by the British Government, chiefly with the view
of providing a sheltered passage, at a secure dis-
tance from the frontier, for the transport of military
stores to the lakes, in the event of war with the United
States ; and, notwithstanding its construction, a great
deal of trade is still carried on by the batteaux which
continue to navigate the rapids of the St Lawrence.
About seventy miles of the Rideau Canal consist
of what is technically called slackwater navigation,
which in this case is formed by damming up the wa-
ters of the Rideau river and lake, and increasing their
depth SO as to fit them for steamers of a pretty large
size. The entrance of the canal at Bytown is 283
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feet below Rideau Lake, which is the summit level,
and 129 feet below Lake Ontario. There are several
bold and arduous works on the line of this canal, the
execution of which in so rough and unfavourable a
country confers great credit on Colonel By, the prin-
cipal, and Mr M Taggart, the assistant, engineers, un-
der whose directions they were conducted. The length
of the canal is 135 miles ; seventy miles of this, as
before noticed, are slackwater navigation, and its cost
is said to have been about L. 600,000. The works
are constructed on a scale sufficient to admit vessels of
125 tons burden. It is much to be regretted that
the locks of the Lachine Canal at Montreal .had not
been originally constructed of wood instead of stone,
as in that case they might have been enlarged at a
small cost, and rendered suitable for the same class
of vessels which now navigate the Rideau Canal, the
locks of which are of much larger dimensions, and
consequently admit larger craft.
The Lachine Canal, the Rideau Canal, and the
Welland Canal, constructed by the British subjects,
together with Ohio Canal, constructed by the inhabi-
tants of the United States, amount in all to four hun-
dred and fifty-one miles in extent. These interesting
works connect the Gulfs of St Lawrence and Mexico
by a water communication, forming with Lakes Onta-
rio and Erie, and the rivers St Lawrence, Ohio, and
Mississippi, a gigantic line of inland navigation up-
wards of three thousand miles in length.
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Vessels bound for Montreal are generally towed up
the river from Quebec by large and powerful steam-
boats, belonging to the " St Lawrence Steam-boat
Tow Company." The company's charge for towing
a vessel of 20 feet beam and 9 feet draught of water,
from Quebec to Montreal, is L. 33 : 6 : 8, and for a
vessel of 28 feet beam and 15 feet draught of water
(the largest size that ever penetrates so high as Mon-
treal), the charge is L. 83, 4s. Vessels of interme-
diate sizes are charged proportionally.
The art of towing vessels by steam-tugs is prac-
tised very extensively, and has been brought to great
perfection both on the Mississippi, as formerly noticed,
and on the St Lawrence. In both of these rivers the
narrowness of the navigable channels, and the great
distance at which the ports are removed from the sea,
render some other means than sails, for propelling the
vessels navigating them, absolutely necessary. The
most powerful tow-boat on the St Lawrence when I
visited the country was the John Bull." By this
vessel I passed from Quebec to Montreal, a distance
of 180 miles, in forty hours, being at the rate of four
and a half miles an hour, against a current averaging
about three miles an hour. Upon this occasion she had
no fewer than five vessels in tow ; one of these drew
twelve and a half, another ten and a half, two of
them drew nine, and the fifth about seven feet of
water. The vessels were all towed by separate warps,
and were ranged astern of each other in two lines,
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three of them being made fast to the larboard, and
two to the starboard side of our vessel. The ma-
nagement of a steamer with so great a fleet of ves-
sels in tow, in the intricate navigation and strong
current of the St Lawrence, requires no small degree
of caution and skill on the part of the captain, who
on this occasion had his whole charge most perfectly
under command : when it was necessary to stop the
steamer's progress for the purpose of taking in fuel or
goods, he dropped the vessels astern, and picked them
up again on resuming his course with the greatest
dexterity. Captain Vaughan, who commands the
John Bull," informed me, that it is by no means
uncommon, at certain seasons of the year, to have six
vessels in tow, and from 1200 to 1500 passengers on
board of his vessel at the same time. He tows every
vessel by a separate line, and generally keeps them all
astern in preference to taking any of them alongside of
the steamer, an arrangement which, in the St Law-
rence, where the navigable channel is in many places
very contracted, and often impeded by large rafts of
timber, would be very apt to occasion accidents.
There is a rise of twenty feet at spring-tides at the
quays of Quebec; and when there is not much flood-
water in the river, it is said to be affected by high
tides to the distance of fifty miles above the city, or
about 750 miles from the Atlantic Ocean at the en-
trance of the Gulf of St Lawrence. The floods or
freshets, which occur at the breaking up of winter, are
chiefly caused by the melting snow, and occasion a pe-
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riodical rise in the surface of the river, which is some-
times from this cause raised as much as ten feet above
its summer water level. When I visited the St Law-
rence in May 1837, it was under the influence of a
freshet produced by the melting of the snow; and it was
said to have raised the river to a greater height than
had ever been known before, the water being at that
time several feet above the level of some of the quays
in Montreal. Mr M Taggart, who had a good oppor-
tunity, during his residence in Canada, of making ac-
curate observations, states, that the whole quantity
of water annually discharged into the sea by the St
Lawrence may be estimated at 4,277,880 millions of
tons, and also, that the quantity of water annually dis-
charged into the St Lawrence from the melting of the
snow may amount to 2,112,120 millions of tons. As
the whole of this great body of water is poured into
the stream in a short space of time, it materially affects
the level of the water, causing it to overflow the banks,
and cover every low lying tract of ground in the vici-
nity of the river.
The severe and protracted winter of Canada, so
hostile to the interests and prosperity of the country,
puts a stop to the navigation and trade of the St
Lawrence for at least four and a half months annually,
and during great part of that period the ice at Quebec
often forms a spacious and safe bridge across the
river.
The navigation of the Gulf of St Lawrence, through
which the river discharges itself into the Atlantic, is
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very hazardous. In addition to the dangers arising
from the masses of ice which are constantly to be
met with, floating on its surface, for nearly one-half of
the year, it is subject to dense and impenetrable fogs,
and its rocky shores and desolate islands afford nei-
ther comfort nor shelter to the shipwrecked mariner.
One of the most desolate and dangerous of the islands
in the Gulf, is Anticosti, which lies exactly opposite
the mouth of the St Lawrence, and is surrounded by
reefs of rocks and shoal water. Two lighthouses have
been erected on it, and also four houses of shelter,
containing large stores of provisions, for the use of
those who have the misfortune to be shipwrecked on
its inhospitable shores.
The lighthouses, buoys, and pilots, belonging to
the St Lawrence, are under the control of the Trinity
House of Quebec. The lights are by no means so
numerous or efficient as the dangerous and crowded
navigation of the river requires. There are ten light-
houses between Montreal and Anticosti, a distance of
580 miles, and these are nightly illuminated while
the navigation of the river is open. The number of
the licensed pilots is about 250, who are compelled to
serve an apprenticeship, and to make at least one trip.
across the Atlantic previously to obtaining a licence
to act in this capacity.
The rivers belonging to the third division, which
take their rise on the east of the Alleghany Mountains,
and flow into the Atlantic Ocean and the north-east
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corner of the Gulf of Mexico, are upwards of one hun-
dred in number. They are distributed over the whole
eastern part of the country ; and, notwithstanding the
shortness of their courses, extending only from the
sea-coast to the base of the Alleghany Mountains, they
afford an aggregate amount of upwards of 3000 miles
of ship and boat navigation. The following are the
most important of these streams.
The St Croix is a short river, having a course of
about sixty miles, and is remarkable only as being the
boundary between the United States and the British
dominions in North America.
The Penobscot has a course of about 300 miles,
and flows into the sea at Penobscot Bay in the State
of Maine. It is navigable, for vessels of large burden,
to the town of Bangor, which is situate fifty miles
from the sea at the head of tide-water. Large quan-
tities of valuable timber are annually exported from
the towns on this river and bay.
Kennebeck River is the outlet of a small sheet of
water called Moosehead Lake ; it flows into the sea at
Augusta in the State of Maine, after a course of about
230 miles, and is navigable for a distance of forty
miles from the sea.
The Merrimac, flowing into the sea at Newburgh
Port in Massachusetts, has a course of upwards of 200
miles, but, in consequence of several falls which occur
in its bed, is navigable only for a distance of twenty
miles from the sea. It affords very valuable water-
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power, and on its banks is situate the large manufac-
turing town of Lowell.
The Thames falls into Long Island Sound at New
London and is navigable to the town of Norwich, fif-
teen miles from its mouth.
The Connecticut, after a course of 450 miles through
a highly cultivated and fertile country, discharges it-
self into Long Island Sound. It is navigable for
steamers and vessels of large burden to Hartford, a
distance of forty miles, and by means of some short
canal works, for steamers of a small size to Barnet in
Vermont, which is upwards of 250 miles from the sea.
The Hudson rises in the neighbourhood of Lake
Champlain, and pursuing an almost straight course of
about 250 miles in a southerly direction, flows into the
sea at the city of New York. Although that portion
of the Hudson which is strictly a river, or in which
the tide does not act, is by no means so remarkable for
its size as many others in the United States, yet it is
very interesting to the traveller, as well on account of
the beauty of its scenery, as the importance and ex-
tent of its trade; and in this respect it holds a very high
rank among the American rivers. It passes through
a beautiful and sheltered tract of country, and the po-
pulous towns of Newburgh, Hudson, Albany, and
Troy, and the military college of West Point, stand
on its banks. The produce of the large State of
New York and the great western lakes, as well as
the imports for the supply of an extensive and popu-
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lous district of the United States, are borne to and
from the harbour of New York by the Hudson, and
a large fleet of vessels is constantly engaged in its na-
vigation.
This river is navigable, for ships of large burden, to
the town of Hudson, about 120 miles from New York,
and for vessels of smaller draught of water to Troy,
about forty-four miles farther. By means of the
Erie, Oswego, and Champlain canals, it is connected
with Lakes Erie, Ontario, and Champlain. A large
part of the trade of the river Hudson is carried on by
sailing vessels of about 150 tons burden, having a
great breadth of beam, and carrying masts of from 90
to 100 feet in height. These vessels, being dependent
on the state of the winds, make tedious and uncertain
voyages ; but many of them, notwithstanding the in-
troduction of steam-navigation, still enliven the river
scenery with their white sails. The transport of goods,
however, is now more generally carried on in large
barges, towed by steamers which are exclusively devo-
ted to this trade, as passengers go only by the larger
and swifter boats built expressly for the purpose. The
current of the Hudson is said to average about two and
a half miles an hour, and the influence of the tide ex-
tends as far as Albany, 150 miles above New York.
The only obstacle to navigation occurs a little below
Albany, where there is a considerable shoal, called the
Overslaugh, caused by several small islands lying in
the fairway of the river. It is, however, at present
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passable for vessels drawing five or six feet of water,
and is still capable of being much improved.
The Delaware has a-course of about 310 miles, and
falls into Delaware Bay near Newcastle ; it is navi-
gable, for vessels of the largest class, for forty miles, to
Philadelphia. From Philadelphia it is navigated by
sloops, for a distance of thirty-five miles, to Trenton,
which is at the head of tide-water, and above this it
is navigable for boats of nine tons, which ascend the
river about one hundred miles farther into the interior.
The Susquehanna flows into Chesapeake Bay. It
is the largest river in the productive State of Penn-
sylvania, but is more celebrated for the beauties of
its scenery than the facilities it affords for communi-
cation. Excepting for about five miles from its mouth,
the navigation is completely stopped by the rugged
and shelving formation of the rocky bed in which it
flows. The course of this river is about 460 miles, and
works are now in progress, for the improvement of its
navigation, by the formation of short canals, and the
construction of dams, so as to form an extensive line
of slackwater navigation.
The Patapsco discharges itself into Chesapeake
Bay, and is navigable, for vessels drawing eighteen
feet of water, to Baltimore, which is at the head of
tide water, and is about fourteen miles from Chesa-
peake Bay. The whole course of the Patapsco is only
about one hundred miles.
The Patuxent rises to the west of Baltimore, and
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flows into Chesapeake Bay. It has a course of about
one hundred miles in length, and is navigable to the
distance of sixty miles from its mouth.
The Potomac has its source in the Alleghany Moun-
tains, and is 335 miles in length. It is seven and a
half miles in breadth at its entrance into Chesapeake
Bay, and is navigated, by vessels of the largest class,
as far as Washington, the seat of government of the
United States, which is situate about 103 miles from
its mouth. The tide flows three miles above Washing-
ton, but beyond this point the river is obstructed by
shoals, and several short canals have been constructed
for the improvement of its navigation.
The Rappahannock has a course of 176 miles, and
is navigable to the town of Fredericksburg, about 110
miles from its junction with Chesapeake Bay.
York River also flows into Chesapeake Bay, and
has a course of one hundred miles, thirty miles of
which are navigable for large vessels.
The James River has a course of upwards of 400
miles, and discharges itself into the Atlantic, at the
southern extremity of Chesapeake Bay. It is navi-
gable, for vessels of 125 tons burden, to the town of
Richmond, situate 122 miles from its mouth, where
the navigation is obstructed by falls in the river. By
means of a canal which has been formed to overcome
this obstacle, batteaux are now enabled to ascend the
river to a distance of 352 miles from the sea.
The Roanoke flows into Albemarle Sound in North
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Carolina, after a course of 370 miles. It is navigable,
for vessels of forty-five tons, to Halifax, seventy miles.
Batteaux ascend the river to the distance of 300 miles
from its mouth.
The Pamlico falls into Pamlico Sound. It has a
course of 200 miles, and is navigable for forty miles.
The river Neuse has a course of 271 miles ; Cape
Fear, 288 ; Pee Dee, 415 ; Santee, 370 ; and Edisto,
161 miles. These rivers are in North and South
Carolina, and are said to be capable of affording, by
means of some small improvements, about 630 miles
of boat-navigation.
The rivers Ashley and Cooper in South Carolina,
have courses of forty-three and forty-four miles, and,
at their junction, form the harbour of Charleston.
The Savannah River flows between the states of
South Carolina and Georgia. It has a course of 340
miles, and is navigable, for vessels of the largest size
to the town of Savannah, situate eighteen miles from
the sea. Above this, steam-navigation extends as far
as Augusta, 140 miles.
The great Ogeetchee is navigated by small vessels
for 300 miles, the Alatamaha for 220, the Santilla for
180, and the St Mary for 150 miles from the sea.
The rivers St John and Suwanee, in Florida, are said
to have courses of about 250 miles. Many of the
streams in the southern part of the United States,
however, and more particularly in Florida, have never
been fully explored.
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The Appalachicola has a course of 425 miles. It
is formed by the junction of the Chattahoochee and
Flint rivers, and discharges its waters into the Gulf
of Mexico. It is navigated by steamers to the town
of Columbus, 160 miles from its mouth.
The Mobile river is formed by the junction of the
Alabama and Tombeckbee. The Alabama has a
course of 500, and the Tombeckbee of 350 miles. The
Alabama affords ship-navigation to Clairbone, 100
miles, and batteaux-navigation to Fort-Jackson, 200
miles. The Tombeckbee is navigated by ships as far
as St Stephens, 100 miles, and by boats to the falls of
the Black Warrior, 250 miles from the Gulf of Mexico.
The part of North America which extends from
north to south between the great northern Lakes and
the Gulf of Mexico, and from east to west between
the ranges of Alleghany and Rocky Mountains, in-
cludes within its limits the valleys of the Mississippi,
Missouri, and Ohio, and is remarkable for the extreme
richness and fertility of its soil, which, after being
brought into cultivation, yields with little labour a
very abundant harvest. These fertile valleys include
nine of the United States of America, and a great
part of them is now in a high state of cultivation, and
thickly peopled. In the State of Louisiana, the crops
grown are sugar, cotton and tobacco ; and in Missis-
sippi and Arkansas cotton is produced in great abun-
dance, and of fine quality. Tennessee affords cotton
and tobacco, and Kentucky produces hemp, tobacco,
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wheat and Indian corn. The states of Ohio, Indiana, Il-
linois, and Missouri, are too far removed from the
equator for the growth of cotton, sugar, or tobacco, and
their inhabitants confine all their attention to raising
grain. The geographical structure of North America
shuts up this immense tract of land from any direct
communication with the seas which wash its eastern
and western coasts; for if we trace upwards, in their
course of many hundred miles through the eastern
States, those numerous large navigable rivers which
discharge themselves into the Atlantic, we find them
holding the character of rivulets long before we pene-
trate even to the verge of these fertile valleys ; and
on the western coast of the country, the range of the
Roeky Mountains extending along the shores of the
Pacifie, present an insurmountable barrier to any di-
rect communication with that ocean.
The Mississippi, however, and its numerous navi-
gable tributaries, afford a perfect and easy access to
the remotest corners of these States. The produce
which annually descends the river, is valued at the
enormous sum of fourteen millions of pounds Sterling,
and its four mouths pour into the Gulf of Mexico
the drainage-water of a district of country which has
been estimated at no less than 1,300,000 square
miles in extent. The source of the Mississippi is said
to have been discovered in the year 1832. It is situ-
ate to the westward of the great lakes, at a distance
of upwards of three thousand miles from the Gulf of
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Mexico, and at an elevation of fifteen hundred feet
above its surface. The river flows from its source as
a small stream, and gradually gathering strength, pre-
cipitates itself over the falls of St Anthony, after which
it swells in importance at every step of its course, gain-
ing accessions of strength from the numerous small
rivers which pour in their tributary streams from all
directions, until it is at length joined by the great
Missouri. The character of its waters, formerly clear
and tranquil, is here completely changed, and the
combined streams of the two rivers flow on in a deep
and muddy torrent. The Ohio, the Arkansas, the
Red River and many other large streams, fall into
this giant of rivers, which, swelled by the waters of its
various tributaries, whose aggregate length is upwards
of forty-four thousand miles, at last pours itself into
the Gulf of Mexico.
The Mississippi, exclusively of its tributaries, affords
an uninterrupted line of navigation for 2250 miles
between its mouth and the falls of St Anthony. New
Orleans, the most important town on the river, has
already been noticed. The town of Natchez, which
is about 380 miles from its mouth, stands on the left
bank ; it is a place of considerable importance, and is
the highest point visited by sailing vessels ; above this,
the Mississippi is navigated only by steam-boats. St
Louis, on the right bank of the river, about eighteen
miles below its junction with the Missouri, is also a
place of great trade.
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The Mississippi forms a striking contrast to the St
Lawrence, which, as has been already observed, flows
in a rocky bed, occasionally expanding into extensive
flats, or contracting its limits, and thus presenting
great impediments to navigation. The bed in which
the Mississippi flows, is of a soft alluvial forma-
tion, maintaining a nearly uniform breadth through-
out its whole course, and affording, at every point be-
low the falls of St Anthony, a sufficient depth of
water for vessels of the largest size. Its breadth from
the Gulf of Mexico to its junction with the Missouri,
which is a distance of about 1100 miles, is said to be
no more than half a mile, and its average depth no less
than a hundred feet. The principal mouth of the
Mississippi has a bar, on which the depth of water
in 1722, according to Malte Brun, was twenty-five,
in 1767 twenty, and in 1826 sixteen feet. Captain
Hall mentions that in 1828 it was only fifteen feet.
The vast tract of Delta land at the mouth of this
river, caused by the deposition of the earthy matter
carried down by its current, is gradually extending
its limits, and stretching into the Gulf of Mexico,
a circumstance which has led some to remark that,
in the course of time, the whole Gulf of Mexico,
at present occupied by the sea, may be filled up by
these alluvial deposits, and become a flat plain watered
by an extension of the Mississippi.
In enumerating the tributaries of the Mississippi, I
shall first notice those flowing into it from the east,
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and afterwards those which have their rise in the
western country, in the order in which they occur in
ascending the river.
The Yazoo, flowing through the State of Mississippi,
joins the river about 450 miles from the sea, and is
navigable for 150 miles.
The Ohio, the largest of its eastern tributaries, is,
excepting at one or two parts of its course, a smooth
running stream. It is formed by the junction of the
Monongahela and Alleghany rivers. The Mononga-
hela is navigable, for small boats, for two hundred miles,
and the Alleghany is navigable, for boats of ten tons,
for two hundred and sixty miles. The Ohio flows over
a course of 945 miles, and discharges itself into the
Mississippi about 1000 miles above New Orleans. Its
banks, which rise rather precipitously, are thickly co-
vered with fine timber, and the country through which
it passes is highly cultivated, and very productive.
The navigation of the river is stopped for about four
months every year by ice. The principal towns on the
Ohio are Louisville, Cincinnati, Wheeling and the ma-
nufacturing town of Pittsburg, which stands at thehead
of the navigation, on a point of land formed by the
junction of the rivers Monongahela and Alleghany.
During the spring months, when the Ohio is
swollen, steam-boats of the largest class, drawing from
eight to ten feet of water, ascend from the Gulf of
Mexico to Pittsburg, a distance of nearly 2000 miles.
But when the water is low, steamers cannot ascend
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higher than Louisville, in Kentucky, which is situ-
ate, on the left bank of the river, 560 miles below
Pittsburg. Here the river has a fall, occasioned by
an irregular ledge of limestone rock, of twenty-two
feet six inches in two miles, which produces rapids
that can only be passed when the river is high. The
Louisville and Portland Canal, constructed with a
view to remove the obstruction to navigation occa-
sioned by this fall, is rather more than two miles
in length, and is excavated in rock nearly throughout
its whole extent. It is sixty-eight feet in breadth,
and sixteen feet in depth, affords a passage for all
steam-boats under 180 feet in length, and is used by
them when the low state of the water in the river
renders the rapids impassable.
The canal has three lift-locks, measuring 183 feet
in length, and 50 feet in breadth, and one guard-lock
measuring 190 feet in length, and 50 feet in breadth,
all of which are built of stone.
Several shoals occur, in the upper part of the river,
which are also very hurtful to the navigation, as the
current on many of them runs with considerable velo-
city. In ascending the Ohio, the steamer by which
I travelled was very deeply loaded, and we were de-
tained several hours in attempting to pass one of these
shoals called the " White Ripple." Many unsuccess-
ful efforts were made, but the power of the engines
could not surmount the obstacle, until some of the
crew ascended the stream in a boat, and dropped an
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anchor with a strong cable attached to it, in the middle
of the channel ; the other end of the cable was made
fast to the capstan of the steam-boat, and the vessel
was at length, after much labour and detention, warped
through the rapid.
The principal tributaries flowing into the Ohio from
the north, are the Muskingum, which is navigable for
120 miles, the Miami, navigable for 75 miles, the Scioto,
which is navigable for 120 miles, and the Wabash.
The Tennessee river flows into the Ohio from the south.
It is 850 miles in length, and is navigable to Florence,
a distance of 250 miles. At this place there is an
expansion in the bed of the river ; and a collection of
stones, called " the Mussel Shoal," terminates the
navigation. The other tributaries flowing into the
Ohio from the south, are, the Cumberland river,
navigable for 440 miles, Green river, for 150 miles,
Kentucky river, for 130 miles, and Licking river, for
70 miles. The aggregate length of the Ohio and its
tributaries is about seven thousand three hundred miles.
The Illinois enters the Mississippi about 160 miles
above the Ohio, and is navigable for steam-boats for
about two hundred miles.
Ouisconsin and Chippewa rivers take their rise in
the neighbourhood of the lakes, and are both navi-
gable for some distance.
The most southern tributary of any importance
which flows into the Mississippi from the west is the
Red River. This river takes its rise at the base of
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the Rocky Mountains, and is 1500 miles in length ;
but its navigation is obstructed by a huge pile of wood,
composed of large trees, which having been swept away
in floods, and floated down the stream, have finally
found a resting place in the bed of the river, among
their former neighbours of the forest. This obstruc-
tion, which is called the " Red River Raft," has been
accumulating for ages. It commences about 500 miles
above its mouth, and is said to extend about seventy
miles. Measures have been adopted for effecting its
removal, and should this arduous undertaking, which
is at present in progress of execution, be successful,
the navigation of the river will be extended 500 miles
farther into the interior of the country. The Wa-
shita, one of the tributaries of the Red River, has
a course of 450 miles.
The Arkansas has its source in the Rocky Moun-
tains, and is said to be upwards of 2500 miles in
length, and with its tributaries 4500 miles. Steam-
ers can ascend this river for 640 miles from the Mis-
sissippi.
The White River, after a course of upwards of
1200 miles, including its tributaries, flows into the
Mississippi, twenty miles above the Arkansas, and is
navigable for 400 miles.
The St Francis has a course of 450 miles, but its
entrance is choked by a large stationary raft of drift
timber which puts an effectual stop to the navigation
of the river.
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The Merrimeg is navigable for 200 míles.
The Missouri joins the Mississippi 18 miles above
the town of St Louis, and about 1200 miles from the
Gulf of Mexico. It is, in every respect, the greater of
the two rivers, but the Mississippi having been first
discovered, the original name has been retained. The
sources of the Missouri are in the Rocky Mountains, its
whole course is 3217, and in connection with all its
tributaries upwards of 10,000 miles. Its navigation
is uninterrupted for 2532 miles from its mouth, and
is there broken by the falls of the Missouri, which are
said to vie in grandeur with those of Niagara, but the
river is navigable above the falls for 500 miles.
The lead mines on the river Missouri, are of very
great value. The district in which the lead occurs
is about seventy miles in length, and forty-five miles
in breadth. The government of the United States
have reserved 150,000 acres of land in the state of
Missouri as government property. This is let in small
lots to persons who undertake to open the mines ; they
are now very extensively worked, and a large quantity
of lead is prepared on the spot, and brought down the
Missouri for the market.
The tributaries of the Missouri are the Gasconade,
navigable for 150 miles; the Osage, said to be navi-
gable for 500 miles ; the Chariton for 300 miles, the
Tauzas for 200, and the Yellowstone for 800 miles.
The Moine flows into the Mississippi, 130 miles
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above the Missouri, and is supposed, with its tributa-
ries, to be navigable for a distance of 1500 miles.
The St Peter's, which is the most northern of the
tributaries, has a course of 500 miles, and is navigable
only for boats.
With the exception of the falls at Louisville, and
the White Ripple on the upper part of the Ohio River,
the Mississippi, and the navigable tributaries which
have been enumerated, are perfectly free from those
obstructions to navigation which are caused by any
irregular formation in the beds or banks of the stream.
Their currents have been estimated to run at the ave-
rage rate of about three miles an hour. In some places,
shoals or rapids occur, but these are by no means for-
midable, and do not affect the passage of steamers to a
greater extent than by retarding their progress a little
in ascending the river. Some dangers, however, exist,
which are peculiar to the navigation of the western
waters of America, and are even more to be dreaded
than currents and rapids produced by permanent ob-
structions in the bed of the stream, as they are con-
stantly changing their positions, and springing up
afresh every day, so that they cannot be guarded
against by any previous knowledge of the navigation of
the river. These dangers are caused by large trees,
which, being precipitated into the water, by the river
undermining its banks, are borne away on the current,
and occasionally get entangled, and even become firm-
ly fixed, in the bed of the stream. Sometimes a branch
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RIVER NAVIGATION.
of the tree is seen projecting from the water, but of-
ten no part of it is visible, and then the only indica-
tion of the existence of these hidden dangers is a slight
ripple on the surface of the water. They have re-
ceived from the boatmen of the Mississippi, the names
of " Snags," " Planters" and " Sawyers," bearing one
or other of these designations, according to their po-
sitions and the manner in which they are fixed in the
river. The term " snag" is applied to a tree firmly
imbedded in the bottom, and lying at a consider-
able angle, with its top inclined down the stream.
A " planter" is a tree firmly fixed in a perpendicular
position; and a sawyer" is the name applied to a tree
whose roots or branches have become entangled in the
bed of the river, and, whose trunk being loose, is kept
constantly swinging up and down by the current,
alternately shewing its head, and plunging it under
the surface. Sometimes several of these trees collect
together in the same place, and form a small islet,
which, after maintaining its position for some time,
and gradually increasing its dimensions, at length at-
tains an enormous magnitude, and often becomes an
impassable barrier, extending along the river's course
for many miles. This is what the boatmen call a
" raft." It generally occurs in the tributaries of the
Mississippi, and not in the river itself. One instance
of this is afforded by the Red River, already men-
tioned, and another by the Atchafalaya, a river flow-
ing out of the Mississippi, at a point about 250 miles
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from the sea. The Atchafalaya raft, which is particu-
larlynoticed in Captain Hall's work on North America,
extends over a space of twenty miles ; but the river's
bed, for the whole of this distance, is not filled up with
drift timber ; the actual length of the raft itself being
only about ten miles. The Atchafalaya is 220 yards in
width, and the raft extends from bank to bank, and
is supposed to be about eight feet in thickness.
All these obstructions are most injurious to the na-
vigation of the Mississippi and its tributaries, and
have, on many occasions, caused great loss both of lives
and property by sinking steamers. The snags" are
more dangerous than any of the other obstructions.
They are generally encountered by vessels on their up-
ward passage. Vessels descending the river keep in
the middle of the stream, where the water is deep and
the current is strongest, while those ascending the
river keep as close to the shore as possible, where they
have a more gentle current and shoaler water, and, of
course, are more apt to be injured by impediments in
the bottom. Besides, as the "snags" are always inclined
down the stream, vessels, going in the direction of the
current, slide easily over them, if they happen to come
in contact with them ; but their inclined position ren-
ders them exceedingly dangerous for vessels ascending
the river, which obviously encounter them in their
most destructive position. The strongest vessels in
the western waters are unable to withstand the shock
occasioned by running against a "snag." It almost
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RIVER NAVIGATION.
invariably pierces their bows, when they generally fill
with water and go down. Several steamers are built
with false bows, called 'snag-chambers," as a pallia-
tive of the danger arising from accidents of this kind.
In the event of the bow being stove in, the small com-
partment called the " snag-chamber," in the fore part
of the vessel, is all that is filled with water, and her
buoyancy is thus very little affected.
Some grants of money have been voted by the go-
vernment of the United States for the improvement of
the western water navigation. The money has been
expended in removing, from different parts of the Mis-
sissippi and its tributaries, the stationary rafts of tim-
ber and snags by which their streams are obstructed.
For this purpose, an apparatus called a 'snag-boat,"
has been used with much success. The machine con-
sists of two hulls, firmly secured to each other, at a dis-
tance of a few feet apart; and over the intervening
space a deck is thrown, having an aperture left'in the
centre. A powerful crab is placed over this aperture,
from which strong chains and grapplings are suspended
in the space between the two vessels. The " snag-
boat" is propelled by paddle-wheels, which, with the
gearing for raising the snags, are worked by a steam-
engine placed on its deck. In using the apparatus,
the vessel is brought to an anchor over the snag or
obstacle to be removed, and the grapplings are made
fast to the pieces which are to be raised. The pad-
dle-wheels being thrown out of gear, the engine is
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applied to work the crab, by which the snag is torn
from its hold in the bottom of the river, and, after
being cut in short pieces, is allowed to float down the
stream. This "snag-boat" has been extensively used
on the Red River, in the partial removal of the large
stationary raft formerly noticed, which at present ob-
structs the navigation of the stream.
The Mississippi and Ohio rivers are perfectly pure
and limpid; but after being mingled with the water
of the Missouri, which holds a large quantity of allu-
vial matter in suspension, they assume a red and
muddy appearance. A quantity of water, taken from
the lower part of the Mississippi, and allowed to settle
for fifteen or twenty minutes, deposits a thick cake of
mud on the bottom of the vessel containing it ; but,
notwithstanding this, the water is supposed by many
persons to be healthful, and, after undergoing the
process of filtration, is very generally used for do-
mestic purposes by the inhabitants of all the towns
situate on the river.
The average height of the annual rise in the waters
of the Ohio is fifty feet, the lowest state of the river
occurring in September, and the highest in March ;
but I was informed that the waters of the Mississippi
and Missouri are not subject to SO remarkable a change
of level.
The following interesting details are from Captain
Hall's work on North America, which contains much
valuable information regarding the Mississippi.
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RIVER navigation.
" At New Orleans, the difference between the level
of the highest water and that of the lowest is thirteen
feet eight inches perpendicular, English measure. The
sea is distant from the city upwards of 100 miles, and,
as the tide is not felt so far, the rise and fall alluded
to are caused exclusively by the rainy and dry seasons
in the interior."
"In proportion as we ascend the river, we find the
perpendicular space between the rise and fall of its
surface to increase. Near the efflux of the river La-
fourche, the rise and fall is twenty-three feet. This
is about 150 miles from the sea. At a place called
Baton Rouge, 200 miles from the sea, the pilot-books
state the perpendicular rise and fall of the river at
thirty feet. At Natchez, which is 380 miles from the
sea, it is said to be fifty feet. After it has flowed past
Natchez, the volume of water in the Mississippi is
dissipated over the Delta by such innumerable mouths,
and overflows its banks at so many places, that the
perpendicular rise and fall is of course much diminish-
ed. The velocity of the middle current seldom ex-
ceeds four miles an hour any where between the con-
fluence of the Ohio and the sea.
The width of the river at New Orleans at low
water is 746 yards, which is somewhat less than half
an English statute mile, being very nearly four-tenths,
-the mile being 1760 yards. At high water it is
8521 yards broad, or 106} more than at low water.
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This, however, is still under half a mile, being a little
more than forty-eight hundredths.
I am the more particular in stating these mea-
surements, from high authority, because a general be-
lief prevails, I think, that the Mississippi is much
broader. It may be mentioned that this river is fully
as wide,-I should say rather wider,-abreast of New
Orleans, than it is any where else from its mouth to
the confluence of the Missouri, a distance of more than
1200 miles. During the whole of that extent, it pre-
serves the most wonderful uniformity in width, very
seldom, indeed, varying more than a hundred yards
or so, over or under four-tenths of a mile. Mr Darby,
in his very interesting description of Louisiana, at
page 125, says :-' From careful triangular measure-
ments of the Mississippi, made at Natchez,-at the
efflux of Atchafalaya,-the efflux of the Plaquemine,
near the efflux of the Lafourche,-at New Orleans,-
Fort St Philips,-and at the Balize, the medial width
was found to be short of 880 yards, or half a mile.'
Eight hundred yards,' he adds, may be safely as-
sumed as the width of the cubic column of water con-
tained between the banks of the Mississippi.*
It is the depth which gives this mighty stream its
sublimity. At New Orleans, the greatest depth ob-
servable at high water is 168 feet, but this is only at
one place. At other parts, it varies much according
* A Geographical Description of Louisiana, by William Darby,
Philadelphia, 1816.
H
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RIVER NAVIGATION.
to the deposits, and at some places is not fifty feet in
depth. At Natchez, nearly 300 miles above New
Orleans, when the water is at the lowest, I understand
it is not less than seventy feet deep ; and during that
season the navigation of the river is exceedingly em-
barrassed by shoals, or bars, as they are called, which
extend to a great distance off the points. Mr Darby,
at page 135, gives the details of some measurements
of the depth of the Mississippi, a little below the efflux
of the river Lafourche, which I think is about fifty or
sixty miles above New Orleans. He makes the depth
there one hundred and thirty feet."
The level of the land on the banks of the Missis-
sippi, for some distance before it discharges itself into
the sea, is considerably below that of the surface of
the river. Extensive embankments, similar to those
of Holland and Belgium, have been erected for its
protection, and form a continuous line on both sides
of the river from New Orleans to St Francisville.
Above this, and all the way to Natchez, which is
about 380 miles from the sea, they occur only at in-
tervals, where the flatness of the land has rendered
their erection necessary. Captain Hall, on this
subject, says : " The swollen river looked so like a
bowl filled up to the brim, that it seemed as if the
smallest shake, or the least addition, would send it
over the edge, and thus submerge the city. The
footpath on the top of the levée or embankment was
just nine inches above the level of the stream. The
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colour of the water was a dirty, muddy, reddish sort
of white, and the surface everywhere strongly marked
with a series of curling eddies or swirls, indicative, I
believe, of great depth."
These embankments, or levées as they are termed,
are composed entirely of earth. They are from five to
fifteen feet in height, and are made of sufficient
breadth at the top to allow of a footpath being formed
on them. They occasionally yield to the pressure of
the river when in a flooded state, and give vent to its
water, which on such occasions never fails to overflow
and lay waste a large portion of the adjacent country.
H 2
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CHAPTER IV.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
Introduction of Steam Navigation into the United States-Difference
between the Steam Navigation of America and that of Europe
-Three classes of Steamers employed in America - Eastern
Water, Western Water, and Lake Steamers-Characteristics of
these different classes-Steamers on the Hudson-Dimensions of
the Rochester"-Construction of the Hulls of the American Ves-
sels-Arrangement of the Cabins-Engine Framing-Engines-
Beams-Mode ofSteering-Rudder-Sea-Boats-Dimensions of
the'Naragansett"-Cabins-Engines-Paddle-Wheels-Boilers
-Maximum speed of the Rochester" of the Engines-
Mississippi Steamers-Their arrangement-Engines-Boilers-
Lake Steamers-St Lawrence Steamers-Explosions of Steam-
Boilers-Table of the Dimensions of several American Steamers.
WHATEVER differences of opinion may exist as to
the actual invention of the steam-boat, there is no
doubt that steam navigation was first fully and suc-
cessfully introduced into real use in the United States
of America, and that Fulton, a native of North Ame-
rica, launched a steam-vessel at New York in the year
1807 ; while the first successful experiment in Europe
was made on the Clyde in the year 1812, before which
period steam had been, during four years, generally
used as a propelling power in the vessels navigating
the Hudson.
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The steam navigation of the United States is one
of the most interesting subjects connected with the
history of North America, and it is strange that hither-
to we should have received SO little information re-
garding it, especially as there is no class of works, in
that comparatively new and still rising country,
which bear stronger marks of long continued exer-
tion, successfully directed to the perfection of its ob-
ject, than are presented by many of the steam-boats
which now navigate its rivers, bays, and lakes.
It would be improper to compare the present state of
steam navigation in America with that of this coun-
try, for the nature of things has established a very im-
portant distinction between them. By far the greater
number of the American steam-boats ply on the smooth
surfaces of rivers, sheltered bays, or arms of the sea,
exposed neither to waves nor to wind ; whereas most
of the steam-boats in this country go out to sea, where
they encounter as bad weather and as heavy waves as
ordinary sailing vessels. The consequence is, that in
America a much more slender built, and a more deli-
cate mould, give the requisite strength to their vessels,
and thus a much greater speed, which essentially de-
pends upon these two qualities, is generally obtained.
In America the position of the machinery and of the
cabins, which are raised above the deck of the vessels,
admits of powerful engines, with an enormous length
of stroke being employed to propel them ; but this ar-
rangement would be wholly inapplicable to the vessels
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
navigating our coasts, at least to the extent to which
it has been earried in America.
But perhaps the strongest proof that the American
vessels are very differently circumstanced from those
of Europe, and therefore admit of a construction more
favourable for the attainment of great speed, is the
fact that they are not generally, as in Europe, navi-
gated by persons possessed of a knowledge of seaman-
ship. In this country steam navigation produces hardy
seamen, and British steamers being exposed to the
open sea in all weathers, are furnished with masts
and sails, and must be worked by persons who, in the
event of any accident happening to the machinery,
are capable of sailing the vessel, and who must there-
fore be experienced seamen. The case is very different
in America, where, with the exception of the vessels na-
vigating the Lakes, and one or two of those which ply
on the eastern coast, there is not a steamer in the
country which has either masts or sails, or is com-
manded by a professional seaman. These facts for-
cibly shew the different state of steam navigation in
America, a state very favourable for the attainment
of great speed, and a high degree of perfection in the
locomotive art.
The early introduction of steam navigation into the
country, and the rapid increase which has since taken
place in the number of steam-boats, have afforded an
extensive field for the prosecution of valuable in-
quiries on this interesting subject ; and the builders of
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steam-boats, by availing themselves of the opportuni-
ties held out to them, have been enabled to make
constant accessions to their practical knowledge, which
have gradually produced important improvements in
the construction and action of their vessels. But on mi-
nutely examining the most approved American steam-
ers, I found it impossible to trace any general prin-
cipleswhich seem to have served as guides for their con-
struction. Every American steam-boat builder holds
opinions of his own, which are generally founded, not
on theoretical principles, but on deductions drawn
from a close examination of the practical effects of the
different arrangements and proportions adopted in the
construction of different steam-boats, and these opi-
nions never fail to influence, in a greater or less de-
gree, the built of his vessel, and the proportions which
her several parts are made to bear to each other.
So lately as twelve years ago, about thirty hours
were occupied by the steam-boats navigating the
Hudson in making their passages from New York
to Albany, a distance of about one hundred and
fifty miles, which is at the rate of only five miles per
hour. Passengers were then conveyed in barges tow-
ed by steam-boats, to avoid the danger which, accord-
ing to the following extract from an advertisement of
the sailing of the vessels, seems at that time to have
attended the steam navigation of the country : Pas-
sengers on board the safety barges will not be in the
least exposed to any accident which may happen by
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
reason of the fire or steam on board of the steam-
boats. The noise of the machinery, the trembling of
the boat, the heat from the furnace, boilers, and kit-
chen, and every thing which may be considered as un-
pleasant or dangerous on board of a steam-boat, are
entirely avoided." These safety barges," however,
have been entirely laid aside, and the voyage between
Albany and New York is now generally performed in
ten hours, exclusive of the time lost in making stop-
pages, being at the astonishing rate of fifteen miles per
hour. They have effected this great increase of speed
by constantly making experiments on the form and
proportions of their engines and vessels, in short, by a
persevering system of trial and error, which is still
going forward; and the natural consequence is, that,
even at this day, no two steam-boats are alike, and few
of them have attained the age of six months without
undergoing some material alterations.
These observations apply more particularly to the
steamers navigating the Eastern Waters of the United
States, where the great number of steam-boat build-
ers, and the rapid increase of trade, have produced a
competition which has led to the construction of a class
of vessels unequalled in point of speed by those of any
other quarter of the globe. The original construction
of most of these vessels has, as already stated, been ma-
terially changed. The breadth of beam and the length
of keel have in some vessels been increased, and in
others they have been diminished. This mode of pro-
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cedure may seem rather paradoxical ; but in America it
is no uncommon thing to alter steam-boats by cutting
them through the middle, and either increasing or di-
minishing their dimensions as the occasion may require.
It is only a short time since many of the steam-boats
were furnished with false bows, by which the length
of the deck and the rake of the cutwaters were greatly
increased. On some vessels these bows still remain ;
from others they have been removed, subsequent ex-
periments having led to the conclusion, that a perpen-
dicular bow without any rake, as shewn in Plate II.
fig. 1, is best adapted for a fast sailing boat. When
I visited the United States in 1837, the "Swallow"
held the reputation of being one of the two swiftest
steamers which have ever navigated the American
waters, and this vessel had received an addition of
twenty-four feet to her original length, besides having
been otherwise considerably changed. Before these
alterations were made on her, she was considered, as
regards speed, to be an inferior vessel.
The inferences to be drawn from these facts are,
that the great experiment for the improvement of
steam navigation, in which the Americans may be
said to have been engaged for the last thirty years, is
not completed, and the speed at which they have suc-
ceeded in propelling their steam-vessels may yet be
increased ; and also that, in the construction of their
vessels, they have been governed by experience and
practice alone, without attempting to introduce theo-
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
retical principles, in the application of which, to the
practice of propelling vessels, by the action of paddle-
wheels on the water, numerous difficulties have hither-
to been experienced.
There are local circumstances, connected with the
nature of the trade in which the steam-boats are en-
gaged, and the waters which they are intended to na-
vigate, that have given rise to the employment of
three distinct classes of vessels in American steam
navigation, all of which I had an opportunity of sail-
ing in and particularly examining.
These steam-boats may be ranged under the fol-
lowing classification: First, those navigating the East-
ern Waters. This class includes all the vessels plying
on the River Hudson, Long Island Sound, Chesapeake
and Delaware Bays, and all those which run to and from
Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charles-
ton, Norfolk and the other ports on the eastern
coast of the country, or what the Americans call the
Sea-board. Second, those navigating the Western Wa-
ters, including all the steamers employed on the river
Mississippi and its numerous tributaries, including the
Missouri and Ohio. Third, the steamers engaged in
the Lake navigation. These classes of vessels vary
very much in their construction, which has been mo-
dified to suit the respective services for which they are
intended.
The general characteristics by which the Eastern
Water boats are distinguished, are, a small draught of
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water, great speed and the use of condensing engines
of large dimensions, having a great length of stroke.
On the Western Waters, on the other hand, the vessels
have a greater draught of water and less speed, and are
propelled by high-pressure engines of small size, work-
ed by steam of great elasticity. The steamers on the
Lakes, again, have a very strong built and a large
draught of water, possessing in a greater degree the
character of sea-boats than any of those belonging to
the other two classes. They also differ in having
masts and sails, with which the others are not pro-
vided.
The steam-boats employed on the Hudson River
are the first, belonging to the class of vessels naviga-
ting the Eastern Waters, of which I shall make parti-
cular mention.
The shoals in the upper part of the river, produced
by the Overslaugh which I formerly mentioned, have
rendered it necessary that the steam-boats employed
in its navigation should have a small draught of
water. The great trade of the river, and the erowds of
passengers which are constantly travelling between
New York and Albany and the intermediate towns,
have also led to the adoption of separate lines of boats,
one for towing barges loaded with goods, and another
devoted exclusively to the conveyance of passengers.
The attainment of great speed naturally became an
important desideratum in the construction of the ves-
sels employed in carrying passengers ; and the suc-
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
cess which has attended the efforts of the steam-boat
builders to produce vessels, combining swiftness with
efficiency and perfection of workmanship, is truly
wonderful, and in the highest degree creditable.
A table will be found at page 169, containing the
dimensions of several of the steam-boats running in
America, which I had an opportunity of examining
when I visited the country in 1837. Among these
the dimensions of several of the Hudson boats are
given ; but in order to explain more clearly the gene-
ral arrangement of their parts and mode of operation,
I shall give in detail the dimensions of the steam-boat
" Rochester," plying between New York and Albany.
The elevation, plan, and water-lines of this vessel are
shewn in Plate II.* The most satisfactory observa-
tions which I was able to make relative to the maxi-
mum speed at which the American steam-boats are
capable of being propelled, were made during a pas-
sage in the " Rochester," which serves as a further mo-
tive for particularly describing her construction.
The " Rochester" measures 209 feet ten inches in
length on her deck. This measurement applies also
to the length of her keel, her stern-post and cut-water
being perpendicular, as shewn in Plate II. The
maximum breadth of beam is 24 feet. The projection
of that part of the deck called the wheel-guards,
* The lines of the steamers in Plates II. and III. were laid down
by my friend Mr Andrew Murray, of Messrs Fairbairne and Murray,
from models which I brought from New York.
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shewn in dotted lines in Fig. 2, beyond the hull
of the vessel, is 13 feet on each side. The maxi-
mum breadth of the vessel, measured to the outside
of the paddle-wheels, is 47 feet. The depth of hold
is 8 feet 6 inches. The draught of water, with an
averagenumber of passengers, is fourfeet. Thediameter
of the paddle-wheels is 24 feet. The length of the
float-boards, which are twenty-four in number, is 10
feet. The dip of the float-boards is 2 feet 6 inches.
This vessel is propelled by one engine, having a cy-
linder of 43 inches in diameter, and the length of
stroke 10 feet. The engine condenses the steam
which works expansively, and is cut off at half stroke.
The great competition that exists in the navigation
of the Hudson produces constant racing between
boats belonging to different companies; and this is
not unfrequently attended with serious accidents.
When the Rochester" is pitched against another ves-
sel, and at her full speed, the steam is often carried
as high as forty-five pounds on the square inch of the
boiler ; and the piston makes twenty-seven double
strokes, or, in other words, moves through a space of
540 feet per minute, or 6.13 miles per hour. In this
case the circumference of the paddle-wheels moves at
the rate of 23.13 miles per hour. In ordinary circum-
stances, however, the engine is worked by steam of
from twenty-five to thirty pounds pressure on the
square inch ; and in this case the piston makes about
twenty-five double strokes per minute, moving through
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
a space of 500 feet per minute, or 5.68 miles per hour;
and the circumference of the paddle-wheel moves at
the rate of 21.42 miles per hour. The rate at which
the pistons of marine engines in this country move,
seldom exceeds 210 feet- per minute. The pistons
of locomotive engines generally move at the rate of
about 300 feet per minute ; but both of their speeds
are very far short of the velocity of the 'Rochester's"
piston.
The hulls of almost all the American steam-boats,
especially those which ply on the rivers, carrying no
freight excepting the luggage belonging to passengers,
are constructed in a very light and superficial man-
ner. They are built perfectly flat in the bottom, and
perpendicular in the sides ; a cross section in the mid-
dle of the vessel, having the form of a parallelogram,
with its lower corners rounded off, as shewn by the
eross sections in Plate II. This construction of hull
is well adapted to a navigation where the depth of
water is small, and the attainment of great speed is
an object of importance, as it insures a smaller
draught of water, and consequently affords less resist-
ance to the motion of the vessel than any other mould
which has an equal area of cross section below the
water line ; but vessels built in this way, without a
deep keel, having no hold of the water, are not well
adapted for making sea-voyages, as they cannot resist
the effect of the wind, which causes them to make
lee-way. It is only the great breadth of the paddle-
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wheels and power of the engines whieh enables the
American boats to move steadily through the water.
The breadth of the paddle-wheels is, in fact, SQ much
additional breadth added to the beam of the vessel ;
for the reaction of the float-boards striking the water
tends, in some measure, to counteract any tendency
that the vessel may have to roll, which would other-
wise be very apt to take place in the American steamers,
where the machinery and boilers are placed above the
level of the deck. There is no rolling motion felt
in these fast boats. The rectilineal motion, however,
is by no means regular. Every stroke of the engine
produces a momentary acceleration in the speed, giving
rise to a see-saw motion, resembling that of a row-
boat, in which the impulse produced by every stroke
of the oars is distinctly felt.
In the American steamers the keel generally pro-
jects from two to six inches from the bottom of the
hull, and is level from stem to stern. Its principal
service, when the projection is so small, consists in
strengthening the hull. The deck-lines of the hull,
in general, begin to fall in at a distance of a few feet
from the middle of the vessel. They approach each
other with a gentle curve, as shewn in Plate II. Fig.
2, towards the stern and bow, where they meet, and
are connected by the stern-post and cutwater of the
vessel. The cutwater is generally perpendicular, and
the sides of the vessel, diverging from it, present
a very acute angle to meet the resistance offered by
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the water. The angle formed by the sides of the " Ro-
chester" is about twenty degrees at the level of the
water, and decreases to about ten degrees at the level
of the keel.
The engine and paddle-wheels are placed in a frame-
work of wood, to which they are attached by strong
fixtures. This frame-work is generally a specimen of
substantial and excellent workmanship. The timbers
of which it is composed are arranged so as to form the
frustum of a pyramid. The apex of the framing
is elevated above the deck and paddle-wheels, and
supports the walking-beam of the engine, while its
base rests on the flooring timbers of the hull. In
this way the weight of the machinery is distributed
over a large surface of the bottom, the weak construc-
tion of that part of the vessel rendering such an ar-
rangement absolutely indispensable to her safety. Iron
rods, fastened to the timbers of the vessel, extend fore
and aft from the upper part of the beams forming the
engine framing. These iron ties give support to the
bow and stern, which invariably sink or settle down
in the course of a few months, owing to the slim built
and great length of the hull, if not braced up in the
manner described. Screws and nuts are generally
provided, by which the ties can be tightened up,
should any yielding take place in the wood-work of
the vessel.
At the height of about five feet above the surface
of the water the hull is covered with a deck. It is
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generally made somewhat in the form of an ellipse,
as shewn by the dotted lines in Plate II. Its ver-
tices rest on the stern-post and cutwater of the ves-
sel, while its sides, expanding beyond the hull, over-
hang the water, and the bulwarks of the vessel are
erected on its circumference. The part of the deck
overhanging the water is called the wheel-guards, and
in some vessels it has a projection of 18 or 20 feet
from the sides. In the " Rochester," the projection, as
I have already said, is 13 feet. The wheel-guards are
formed so as to inclose the paddle-wheels, which work
in spaces left in them for that purpose, marked b
in Plates II. and III. The inner plumber-blocks and
paddle-wheel axles rest on the timbers of the vessel,
and the exterior ones on the outer edges of the guards.
A large cabin, serving the double purpose of the
gentlemen's sleeping apartment and the public dining-
room, is formed in the hull of the vessel. It is en-
tered by a stair leading from the first deck. It ge-
nerally extends nearly from stem to stern, and is
elegantly fitted up. The ladies' cabin is on a level
with the first deck, from which it enters. This deck
is covered with a roof extending from the paddle-
wheels to the stern of the vessel, the top of which
forms a higher deck, raised about sixteen feet above
the level of the water, called the promenade-deck.
The general arrangement of these vessels will be best
understood by referring to Plate IV., which is a per-
spective view of the steam-boat " Swallow.'
I
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
The vessels propelled by two engines carry two
boilers and four funnels, and have a very extraordi-
nary appearance. The vessels of modern construc-
tion, however, have generally only one engine, with
two boilers and two smoke tubes, as shewn in the Plate
of the " Swallow." The boilers are on a level with
the lower deck, and rest on the wheel-guards, one be-
ing placed on each side of the vessel. The cylinder,
which also stands on a level with the first deck, is
placed in the centre of the vessel, between the two
boilers. The condenser and pumps are situate in the
hull of the vessel, in the middle of the large cabin,
from which, they are separated by a wooden partition.
Engines working with side-rods, connected by a
cross-head, which is attached to the end of the piston-
rod, and moves in vertical slides, are occasionally em-
ployed in the steam-boats which navigate the Eastern
Waters. The beam-engine is, however, much more
generally used. The length of stroke adopted by the
Americans for their marine engines, is very much
greater than I have ever found in Europe. This
renders it necessary that the main centres of the en-
gine, or the pivots on which the beam performs its
motion, should be placed at a considerable elevation
above the promenade deck. The walking beam, there-
fore, is quite exposed, and is elevated above every
other part of the vessel, excepting the tops of the
smoke-tubes, as is shewn in Plate IV., forming one of
the most prominent and striking parts of an American
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131
steam-boat, and presenting, as may naturally be sup-
posed, a strange effect in the eyes of those accustomed
to see European steam-boats only, in which no part
of the machinery is visible even from the deck of the
vessel. The beams are constructed wholly of malleable
iron, in the manner shewn in the following diagram-
c
b
in which a is the main centre, and b and c the points
to which the piston and connecting rods are attached.
This construction combines lightness with strength
and rigidity, and is found to act very well.
The arrangement of the decks and machinery which
I have just described, and which is represented in Plates
IV. and V., renders the vessel's course, when she is un-
der weigh, quite invisible from her stern, and, conse-
quently, itis impossible to steer herfrom that part of the
ship ; but the wheel by which the rudder is moved is
placed in a wheel-house, erected for the pilot on the fore
part of the promenade-deck, and in some instances at a
distance of nearly 200 feet from the stern of the boat.
The steersman, by this arrangement, stands so far for-
ward in the vessel, and in so elevated a situation, that
he cannot easily discover when the vessel swerves from
12
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
her course, without the assistance of a tall perpendi-
cular pole, placed at the bow, in the manner shewn in
the plates. On this he keeps his eye, and, by nar-
rowly observing its position in relation to some fixed
object at a distance, he readily detects the smallest
deviation from the course.
The motion produced by moving the wheel is com-
municated to the rudder by ropes working in a series
of grooved pulleys. The application of ropes for this
purpose has, on several occasions, in cases of fire, been
attended with most unhappy results. During my stay
in America, a steam-boat on the Mississippi, called
the " Ben Sherod," took fire, and upwards of one
hundred lives were lost, in consequence of the vessel's
becoming unmanageable owing to the rudder ropes
being burned. Iron rods and chains have lately been
introduced instead of ropes, and will, doubtless, soon
come into general use.
The rudder in general measures about 6 feet in
depth, and 8 feet in length. It moves on pivots,
which work in gudgeons fixed to the stern of the ves-
sel, and thus far resembles the rudder used in all sea-
vessels. The ropes, however, by which it is put in
motion are made fast to the outer
extremity of the rudder, in the man-
ner shewn in the annexed diagram ;
and in this way the tiller, which
takes up much room, is altogether
dispensed with.
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This mode of steering in an elevated situation, near
the bow of the vessel, is peculiarly well adapted for
steamers navigating narrow rivers, such as the Thames
and Clyde in this country, which are crowded with
craft of all kinds. On the suggestion of Captain Basil
Hall, it has been introduced, a short time ago, on the
Thames, in the steamer " Adelaide." It is singular that
it is not in general use on such a river as the Thames,
on which serious accidents, from the collision of ves-
sels, are of so frequent occurrence, and where it is ut-
terly impossible that a steersman, placed at the stern,
can direct the vessel properly.
The foregoing remarks regarding the construction
of the steamers refer particularly to those vessels na-
vigating the rivers on the eastern coast of the United
States. Those used on the bays and sounds, called
sea-boats by the Americans, are somewhat different in
their construction, their hulls and machinery being
more strongly made, and their draught of water con-
siderably greater. The river-boats draw from four to
six feet of water, and the sea-boats from five feet six
inches to nine feet ; but still the machinery and boil-
ers, as well as a great part of the cabin-accommoda-
tion in that class of steamers, is elevated above the
level of the deck ; an arrangement which seems very
ill adapted for vessels exposed to the heavy gales
and rough seas of the ocean. The best specimens
of the American sea-boats are those which ply be-
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
tween New York and the ports of Providence and
Charleston.
The finest of these sea-boats, and indeed the finest
steamer which I saw in the United States, is the " Nar-
ragansett," plying between New York and Providence,
which is shewn in Plate III. Fig. 1. is an elevation of
the hull; Fig. 2. a plan ; and Fig. 3. shews her wa-
ter-lines. It could hardly be credited, from a mere
examination of the drawings, that this vessel plies re-
gularly from New York to Providence. By inspecting
the map, it will be seen that, during the fifty miles of
this voyage, extending between New London and
Newport, she is quite exposed to the roll of the At-
lantic Ocean ; and, notwithstanding this, she makes
hér passages with great speed and regularity.
The " Narragansett" measures 210 feet in length of
keel, and 26 feet in maximum breadth of beam. The
depth of her hold is 10 feet 7 inches, and her draught of
water is 4 feet 6 inches without the keel, and 5 feet
with the keel, when she has her average load on board.
She is built entirely of oak, and is strengthened by dia-
gonal straps or ties of iron which connect her timbers.
The vessel is propelled by one condensing engine, which
works expansively, cutting off the steam at half stroke.
The condensation of the steam in this engine, as well as
in most of the American marine engines, is produced by
the injection of a jet of cold water into the condenser.
She carries two boilers, in which an aggregate amount
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135
of 3000 square feet of surface is exposed to the fire,
and works with steam of a pressure varying, accord-
ing to circumstances, from twenty to twenty-five
pounds on the square inch. The cylinder is placed
horizontally, and is 56 inches in diameter; the length
of the stroke is 11 feet 6 inches, and the piston makes
twenty-four double strokes per minute, so that its ave-
rage motion in the cylinder is at the rate of no less than
6.27 miles per hour. The diameter of the paddle-wheels
is 25 feet, and, as they perform twenty-four revolu-
tions in the minute, the motion of the periphery is at
the rate of 21.4 miles per hour. The breadth of the
" Narragansett's" paddle-wheels is 11 feet, and their
dip 2 feet 2 inches. The diameter of the paddle-wheel
axle on which they are keyed is 13 inches.
The cabins of the sea-steamers are of great size,
and their accommodation for passengers is excellent.
In most of them about four hundred berths are pro-
vided. The principal cabin in the " Massachusetts," a
vessel running on the line between New York and
Providence, is 160 feet in length, about 22 feet in
maximum breadth, and 12 feet in height ; and, what
adds greatly to its convenience and capacity, it is
entirely unbroken by pillars or any other obstruc-
tion throughout its whole area. I have dined with
175 persons in this cabin ; and, notwithstanding this
numerous assembly, the tables, which were arranged
in two parallel rows extending from one end of the
cabin to the other, were far from being fully oc-
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
cupied ; the attendance was good, and every thing
was conducted with perfect regularity and order.
There are 112 fixed berths ranged round this cabin,
and about 100 temporary berths can be erected in the
middle of the floor. Besides these, there are 60 fixed
berths in the ladies' cabin, and several temporary
sleeping-places can be erected in it also. The cabin of
the " Massachusetts" is by no means the largest in the
United States ; some steamers have cabins upwards of
175 feet in length. Those large saloons are lighted
by argand lamps suspended from the ceiling, and their
appearance, when brilliantly lighted up and filled with
company, is very remarkable. The passengers gene-
rally arrange themselves in parties at the numerous
small tables (into which the large tables are converted
after dinner), and engage in different amusements.
The scene resembles much more the coffee-room of
some great hotel than the cabin of a floating vessel.
I found no variety in the construction of the paddle-
wheels of the different American steam-boats. They
are all made in the manner represented in the follow-
ing diagram. The spokes are made of wood, and
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137
bolted into cast-iron flanges which are keyed to the
axle of the paddle-wheel ; their outer ends are con-
nected together by bands of iron encircling the cir-
cumference of the wheel. The float-boards, which are
formed of hardwood, are attached to the spokes sim-
ply by bolts. The float-boards do not extend across
the whole breadth of the paddle-wheel, as is always
the case in this country. They are divided into two
and sometimes three compartments, and the wheel is
furnished with three and sometimes four sets of spokes
arranged in parallel planes. This construction was
introduced by Mr Stevens of New York, and may be
described," says Dr Renwick, " by supposing a com-
mon paddle-wheel to be sawn into three parts in planes
perpendicular to its axis. Each of the two additional
wheels that are thus formed, is then moved back, until
their paddles divide the interval of the paddles on the
original wheel into three equal parts.
" In this form the shock of each paddle is dimi-
nished to one-third of what it is in the usual shape
of the wheel ; they are separated by less intervals of
time, and hence approach more nearly to a constant
resistance ; while each paddle following the wake of
those belonging to its own system strikes upon water
that has been but little disturbed."
The large diameter of the American paddle-wheels
renders unnecessary the use of the cycloidal paddle of
* Treatise on the Steam-Engine by James Renwick, LL.D., New
York 1830.
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
Mr Galloway, or the eccentric paddle of Mr Morgan,
now frequently adopted in this country to obviate
the evils arising from indirect impulse and backwater,
which affect SO powerfully the action of paddle-wheels
of small diameter. In some of the Western Water
boats, which are often very deeply laden, the paddle-
wheels are constructed with moveable float-boards,
so that their dip may be increased or diminished to
suit the draught of water ; but this construction, so
far as I know, is not in use in any other part of the
country.
The American steamers are generally propelled only
by one engine, and a counter-balance attached to the
paddle-wheels is in some cases found necessary, to
enable the engine to turn its centres. The great
length of the stroke, however, allows time for a de-
gree of momentum to be generated, which is sufficient
in most cases to carry the engine past its centres, and
failing this, the paddle-wheels, from their large dia-
meter, become good generators of momentum, and
act in the same way as the fly-wheels of land engines
in regulating their motion. Even in those vessels
where two engines are employed, their connecting-
rods are not attached to the same axle ; each engine
works quite independently of the other, and drives
only one of the paddle-wheels ; whereas in this country
the connecting-rods of both engines are attached to
the same axle, by cranks placed at right angles to
each other, so that one engine is exerting its full
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139
power at the very moment when the other is expend-
ing none of its force, and the power is thus employed
in the most advantageous manner for keeping up the
speed. The short stroke and comparatively small dia-
meter of the paddle-wheels in European boats, ren-
ders this construction necessary to enable engines to
pass their centres.
The general construction of the boilers, and the
arrangement of the flues, in the steam-boats on the
Eastern Waters, resemble in a great measure those of
European steamers. The flame and smoke genera-
ted in the fire-place by the combustion of the fuel,
pass through flues in the interior of the boiler, and
are afterwards discharged into the smoke-tube. The
boilers are strengthened in the usual manner, by
means of iron braces or ties, arranged so as to form a
strong connection between the interior surfaces, and
thus render them more capable of resisting the ex-
pansive force of the steam, which. has a tendency to
tear them asunder. Copper was, until lately, very
generally employed in America for the construction
of the boilers of vessels navigating the sea, this metal
being less liable than iron to be acted on by the saline
deposits. By means of some improvements which have
lately been introduced, these deposits are prevented
from collecting in iron boilers to any dangerous ex-
tent, and the difference of expense is so much in fa-
vour of iron, that it has now been adopted instead of
copper, in the sea, as well as in the river boats. The
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
means used in America for checking the deposit which
takes place in boilers from the use of salt-water, is
the same as that generally employed in this country,
namely, by " Blowing off," an operation which is
performed every two or three hours, while the boat
is running, without stopping her progress. A valve
in the bottom of the boiler being opened, part of the
water is permitted to escape, which, in its rush from
the boiler, disturbs any deposit that may have taken
place on its bottom, and generally carries it off.
The speed of the American steam-boats has excited
considerable wonder in this country ; and some people
have been inclined to doubt the accuracy of the state-
ments that have frequently been made regarding the
extraordinary feats performed by them. Fast sailing
is a property which is not possessed by all American
steam-boats ; but that a few of those navigating the
River Hudson and Long Island Sound perform their
voyages safely and regularly, at a speed which far
surpasses that of any European steamer hitherto built,
every impartial person, who has had an opportunity
of seeing the performances of the vessels in both
countries, must be ready to admit.
Some difficulties at present exist, which preclude
the attainment of more than an approximation in as-
certaining the maximum rate at which the steam-
boats on the Hudson are capable of being propelled
in still water. One of these is caused by the currents
of the flowing and ebbing tide, which are felt as far
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141
as Albany, and whose velocity has never been accu-
rately ascertained, and the other by the doubt that
exists as to the actual distance of the route between
New York and Albany, which has been variously
stated at from 145 to 160 -miles. The road between
these towns runs nearly parallel to the river, and is
said to be 162 miles in length. In the American
Almanac for 1837, the town-house of New York is
stated to be in north latitude 40° 42' 40", and
west longitude (from Greenwich) 74° l' 8", and that
of Albany in north latitude 42° 39' 3", and west
longitude 73° 44' 49", which makes the distance be-
tween the two places, as the crow flies, 134.5 statute
miles. The navigable channel of the Hudson, how-
ever, is by no means straight its direction ranges over
fifteen points of the compass, from West to E.N.E.,
including an angle of 157° 30. Mr Redfield of New
York, who has bestowed much attention on the sub-
ject of steam navigation, is of opinion that the length
of the steam-boat route is 150 miles, being 15.5 miles
greater than the distance measured by a straight line
drawn between the two places.* This may be re-
garded as a near approximation to the truth. The
same difficulties occur regarding the length of the
routes performed by the boats navigating Long Island
Sound, and the strength of the tidal currents encoun-
tered by them. It is quite evident that until these
facts are accurately ascertained, it is impossible, with-
* Professor Silliman's Journal, vol. xxiii. p. 312.
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
out a series of experiments made solely with that ob-
ject in view, to discover what is the actual speed ge-
nerally attained by American steam-boats. A very
general opinion exists in America on this subject,
in which many persons possessing the best means of
information concur, that the fast steam-boats in that
country can be propelled at the rate of eighteen miles
an hour in still water, a feat which it is said has
of late been often performed. I cannot vouch for
the accuracy of this statement, however, from per-
sonal experience or observation ; but this I can state
positively, that the average length of time occupied
by the steamers in making the voyage from New
York to Albany, is ten hours, exclusive of time lost
in making stoppages, which, taking the distance at
150 miles, gives fifteen miles an hour as their average
rate of motion.
The " Rochester" and the " Swallow" were said to
be the two swiftest boats running on the Hudson in
1837. I made a trip from Albany to New York in the
" Rochester," on the 14th of June, on which occasion,
with a view to test the vessel's speed, I carefully noted
the hour of departure from Albany, the times of
touching at the several towns and landing places on
the river, with the reputed distances between them,
the number of minutes lost at each place, and the
hour of arrival at New York. Thirteen stoppages,
which I found to average three minutes each, were
made to land and take on board passengers. The
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"Rochester" performed the voyage in ten hours
and forty minutes. From this, thirty-nine minutes
must be deducted for the time lost in making the thir-
teen stoppages, which leaves ten hours and one minute
as the time during which the vessel was actually occu-
pied in running from Albany to New York Assuming.
the distance between those places to be 150 miles, the
average speed of the vessel throughout the trip was
14.97 miles per hour, but even if we assume the dis-
tance to be only 145 miles (the shortest distance I
have ever heard stated), which there is every reason
to believe is too small, the average rate is still 14.47
miles per hour, the difference of five miles in the
length of the route, producing a diminution in the
vessel's average rate of sailing of but half a mile per
hour. The current was in the " Rochester's" favour
during the first part of the voyage, but the Overslaugh
shoals, and the contracted and narrow state of the na-
vigable channel of the river for about thirty miles be-
low Albany, checked her progress very much ; and,
consequently, for the first twenty-seven miles her
speed was only 12.36 miles per hour. This was her
average rate of sailing during the part of her course
when her speed was slowest. After the first thirty
miles the river expanded, affording a better navigable
channel, when her speed gradually increased, and be-
fore the flowing tide checked her progress the vessel
attained the maximum velocity indicated by my ob-
servations, which, between two of the stopping places,
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was 16.55 miles per hour. When going at this speed
it is possible that she was influenced by some slight
degree of current in her favour, although it was quite
imperceptible to the eye, as the flow of the tide ap-
peared to produce a stagnation in the water of the
river. At West Point we encountered the flood
tide, as was very distinctly proved by the swing-
ing of the vessels which lay at anchor in the river.
After this we had an adverse current all the way to
New York, a distance of about fifty miles, and the
vessel's speed during this part of the voyage averaged
14.22 miles an hour. About one half of the voyage
was thus performed with a favourable current, and
the other half was performed under unfavourable cir-
cumstances, owing partly to the shallowness of the
water and the narrowness of the channel in. the upper
part of the river, and partly to an adverse tide in the
lower part of it. When the Rochester is pitched against
another vessel and going at her full speed, her piston, as
formerly stated, makes twenty-seven double strokes per
minute. On the voyage above alluded to, however, the
piston, on an average, made about twenty-five double
strokes per minute, so that the speed of 14.97 miles
per hour, which she attained on that occasion, cannot
be taken as her greatest ordinary rate of sailing.
During the time, however, at which her speed was
16.55 miles per hour, her piston was making twenty-
seven double strokes per minute, and at that time the
vessel could not be far from having attained the maxi-
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mum speed at which her engines are capable of pro-
pelling her through the water.
The rate of sixteen and a half miles an hour is very
great, but perhaps not more than is due to the form of
the vessels, and the power of the engines by which
they are propelled. The "Rochester" draws only
four feet of water, but the power of her engine is
greater than that of any steamer in this country. The
construction of the American marine engines is SO
different from that adopted in Europe, that it is
doubtful if the same rule for calculating the power is
applicable in both cases. In the following calculations,
the deductions for the friction and for the difference
between the pressure exerted by the steam in the
boiler and in the cylinder, as well as the advantage
that is derived from the use of a condenser, are in ac-
cordance with what has been stated by American
engineers, who are best able to judge of the power of
their own engines.* The diameter of the Roches-
ter's piston is 43 inches, and its area is 1452.2 square
inches. The pressure of the steam in the boiler is
45 lb. on the square inch ; and the engine works ex-
pansively, and cuts off the steam at half stroke. The
half of that pressure, or 22.5 lb., is assumed as the
pressure acting on the square inch of the piston.
To this, 10 lb. is added as the pressure of the at-
mosphere obtained by the use of the condenser, making
the whole effective pressure on every square inch of
* Professor Silliman's Journal, vol. xxiii. p. 315.
K
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
the piston's area 32.5 lb. The length of the stroke is
10 feet, and, when going at full speed, the piston makes
27 double strokes, or, in other words, moves through
the space of 540 feet every minute. Estimating the
power of a horse as equal to that exerted in raising
33,000 lb. 1 foot per minute, the power of the engine
is obtained by the following expression :
1452.2 33000 X 32.5 X 540 = 25486110 33000 = 772.3
From this it appears, that a force is exerted upon the
engine equal to that of 772.3 horses ; but one-third of
this power is supposed to be expended in working the
pumps and overcoming the friction of the machinery,
and a power of 514.8 horses remains as the true force
exerted in propelling the vessel. The " Narragansett,"
as formerly noticed, draws five feet of water, and the
power of her engine, calculated on the same principles,
and with the same deductions, is equal to that of 618
horses. If the calculation generally adopted in this
country were applied to those engines, and only one-
fourth of the power deducted, which appears to be an
ample allowance for engines of that construction, the
power of the Rochester" would be equal to 748, and
that of the " Narragansett" to no less than 772 horses.
The power of the " Great Western," plying between
Bristol and New York, which is the largest steamer
in this country, is said to be equal to that of 450
horses.
The disturbance created by the passage of the fast
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American steamers through the water, is exceedingly
small. The water, at the distance of twelve inches in
front of their bows, presents a perfectly smooth and
untroubled surface. A thin sheet of spray, composed
of small globules of water, from a sixteenth to an
eighteenth of an inch in diameter, rises nearly perpen-
dicularly in front of the cut-water to the height of
three, and, in some cases which I have observed as
much as four feet, and falls again into the water on
each side of the vessel. There is little or no commo-
tion at the stern ; and the diverging waves which
invariably follow the steamers in this country, and
break on the banks of our rivers with considerable
violence, are not produced by the fast boats in Ame-
rica. The waves in their wake are very slight, and,
as far as I could judge, seem to be nearly parallel ; and
the marks of the vessel's course cannot be traced to
any great distance. These facts are quite in accord-
ance with the result of some of Mr Russell's experi-
ments, by which he was led to conclude that 'the com-
motion produced in a fluid by a vessel moving through
it, is much greater at velocities less than the velocity of
the wave" (which is proportioned to the depth of the
water), " than at velocities which are greater than it.
Steam-boats were first introduced on the Mississippi
in the year 1811, and in 1831 no less than 348 steam-
* Researches on Hydrodynamics, from the Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh for 1837. By John Scott Russell, Esq.
K 2
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148
STEAM NAVIGATION.
ers had been built for the Western Water navigation,
198 of which were then in actual operation. Since that
time their number has rapidly increased, with the in-
creasing population and trade of the country, and is
now said to be between 350 and 400 ; but, so far as
I know, no official statement regarding the Western
Water navigation has appeared since the publication of
the following table, which is taken from the American
Almanac for 1832, and contains a list of steamers up
to that date, specifying those which have been worn
out and have been lost to the service.
WHOLE NUMBER OF STEAM-BOATS BUILT ON THE WESTERN
WATERS.
When
Whole
Now
Lost or
built.
Number.
running.
worn out.
1811
1
1
1814
4
4
1815
3
3
1816
2
2
1817
9
9
1818
23
23
1819
27
27
1820
7
1
6
1821
6
1
5
1822
7
7
1823
13
1
12
1824
13
1
12
1825
31
19
12
1826
52
36
16
1827
25
19
6
1828
31
28
3
1829
53
53
1830
30
30
1831
9
9
348
198
150
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
149
Of the boats now running,
68 were built at Cincinnati.
68
Pittsburg.
2
Louisville.
12
New Albany.
7
Marietta.
2
Zanesville.
1
Fredericksburg.
1
Westport.
1
Silver Creek.
1
Brush Creek.
2
Wheeling.
1
Nashville.
2
Frankfort.
]
Smithland.
1
Economy.
6
Brownsville.
3
Portsmouth.
2
Steubenville.
2
Beaver.
1
St Louis.
3
New York.
1
Philadelphia.
10
(Not known where.)
198
Of the whole number, 111 were built at Cincinnati, 68 of which
were running in 1831.
Of the 150 lost or worn out, there were---------------------
Worn out,
63
Lost by snags,
36
Burned,
14
Lost by collision,
3
By other accidents not ascertained,
34
Total,
150
Most of the vessels at present employed have been
built on the banks of the Ohio, and a few at St Louis,
on the upper part of the Mississippi, but, according to
the above list, the building-yards which have pro-
duced the greatest number are those of Pittsburg and
Cincinnati, on the Ohio. Pittsburg, although about
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
2000 miles from the Gulf of Mexico, is a place of
great trade. Its population is 30,000 persons, a great
part of whom are employed in the construction and
management of steam-boats, and some idea may be
formed of the extent of their trade, when I state, that
I have counted no less than thirty-eight steam-boats
moored opposite the town in the Monongahela, all of
which were engaged in plying to and from the port.
The vast number of vessels on the Western Waters,
the peculiarity of their construction, and the singular
nature of the navigation in which they are employed,
make them objects of considerable interest to the tra-
veller. We must not expect to find, however, in that
class of vessels, the same display of good workman-
ship, and the attainment of the high velocities, which
characterise the vessels on the Eastern Waters. These
qualifications may be very easily dispensed with, and
the want of them is by no means the worst feature in
the western navigation; but, what is of far more im-
portance, too many of the vessels are decidedly un-
safe ; and, in addition to this, their management is
intrusted to men whose recklessness of human life and
property, is equalled only by their ignorance and want
of civilization.
Economy would indeed seem to be the only object
which the constructors of these boats have in view,
and therefore, with the exception of the finery which
the cabins generally display, little care is expended in
their construction, and much of the workmanship con-
nected with them is of a most superficial and insuffi-
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WESTERN WATER STEAM BOAT.
PLATE V.
Drawn by James Andrews, from a sketch made on the River Ohio, by David Stevenson
Geo. Aikman, Sculpt
Published by John Weale, 59, High Holborn, 1838.
Stevenson's
Shatch
STEAM NAVIGATION.
151
cient kind. When the crews of these frail fabrics,
therefore, engage in brisk competition with other ves-
sels, and urge the machinery to the utmost extent of
its power, it is not to be wondered at that their ex-
ertions are often suddenly terminated by the vessel
taking fire, and going to the bottom, or by an explo-
sion of the steam-boilers. Such accidents are frequently
attended with an appalling loss of life, and are of so
common occurrence, that they generally excite little or
no attention. During my stay in North America, a
steamer called the " Ben Sherrod," as already men-
tioned, was burnt on the Mississippi, when 120 per-
sons were reported to have lost their lives. I am
happy in being able to add, that there is reason to be-
lieve that, in consequence of this accident, the Govern-
ment of the United States have resolved to take some
measures to insure the better regulation of this navi-
gation, which has been too long neglected by them.
The vessels on the Western Waters vary from 100
to 700 tons burden, and are generally of a heavy
built, to enable them to carry goods. They have a
most singular appearance, and are no less remarkable
as regards their machinery. Plate V. is a perspective
view of one of them, taken from a sketch which I made
on the Ohio. They are built flat in the bottom, and
generally draw from six to eight feet of water. The
hull is covered with a deck at the level of about five
feet above the water, and below this deck is the
hold, in which the heavy part of the cargo is car-
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
ried. The whole of the machinery rests on the first
deck ; the engines being placed near the middle of
the vessel, and the boilers under the two smoke chim-
neys, as shewn in the drawings. The fire-doors open
towards the bow, and the bright glare of light thrown
out by the wood fires, along with the puffing of the
steam from the escapement pipe, produce a most singu-
lar effect at night, and serve the useful purpose of an-
nouncing the approach of the vessel when it is still at a
great distance. The chief object in placing the boilers
in the manner described, is to produce"a strong draught
in the fire-place. The other end of the lower deck,
which is covered in, and occupied by the crew of the ves-
sel and the deck passengers, generally presents a scene
of filth and wretchedness that baffles all description.
A stair-case leads from the front of the paddle-boxes
on each side of the vessel, to an upper gallery about
three feet in breadth. This surrounds the whole after-
part of the vessel, and is the promenade of the in-
habitants of the second deck. Several doors lead from
the gallery into the great cabin, which extends from
the funnels to within about thirty or forty feet of the
stern of the vessel ; the aftermost space is separated
from the great cabin by a partition, and is occupied
by the ladies. The large cabin contains the gentle-
men's sleeping berths, and is also used as the dining-
room. This part of the western steamers is often
fitted up in a gorgeous style the berths are large, and
the numerous windows by which the cabin is sur-
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
153
rounded give abundance of light, and, what is of great
consequence in that scorching climate, admit a plen-
tiful supply of fresh air.
From the gallery surrounding the chief cabin, two
flights of steps lead to the hurricane deck, which, in
many of the steamers, is at least thirty feet above the
level of the water. The wheel-house, in which the
steersman is placed, is erected on the forepart of this
deck, and the motion is communicated to the helm by
means of ropes or iron rods, in the manner already
described in speaking of the Eastern steamers.
The first cabin of a Mississippi steam-boat is
strangely contrasted with the scenes of wretchedness
in- the lower deck, and its splendour serves in some
measure to distract the attention of its unthinking in-
mates from the dangers which lie below them. But
no one who is at all acquainted with the steam-engine,
can examine the machinery of one of those vessels,
and the manner in which it is managed, without
shuddering at the idea of the great risk to which all.
on board are at every moment exposed.
The Western Water steamers are propelled some-
times by one and sometimes by two engines. When
two engines are used, the ends of the piston-rods
work in slides, and the connecting-rods are both at-
tached to cranks on the paddle-wheel axle, placed at
right angles to each other, as is the case in most of
the steamers in this country. When only one en-
gine is used, which is more generally the case, a large
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
fly-wheel, from ten to fifteen feet in diameter, is fixed
on the paddle-wheel shaft, and serves to regulate the
motion of the engine, and enable it to turn its centres.
The cylinders are invariably placed horizontally, and
the engines are always constructed on the high-pres-
sure principle.
The engines are generally very small in proportion
to the size of the vessel which they propel, and, to
make up for their deficiency in volume, they are work-
ed by steam of great elasticity. The " Rufus Put-
nam," for example, a pretty large vessel drawing six
feet of water, which plies between Pittsburg on the
Ohio and St Louis on the Mississippi, is propelled by
a single engine having a cylinder 16 inches diameter,
and 5 feet 6 inches in length of stroke, but this en-
gine is worked by steam of a most dangerously great
elasticity. The captain of the vessel informed me
that, under ordinary circumstances, the safety-valves
were loaded with a pressure equal to 138 lb. on the
square inch of surface, but that the steam was occa-
sionally raised as high as 150 lb. to enable the vessel
to pass parts of the river in which there is a strong
current ; and he added, by way of consolation, that
this amount of pressure was never exceeded except
on extraordinary occasions ! I made a short voyage
on the Ohio in this vessel, but after receiving this in-
formation, I resolved to leave her on the first oppor-
tunity that presented itself.
The " St Louis," one of the newest boats on the
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
155
Mississippi, is 230 feet in length of deck, and 28 feet
in breadth of beam. She draws 8 feet of water, and
carries about 1000 tons. This vessel is propelled by
two engines, with cylinders 30 inches in diameter, and
10 feet in length of stroke, worked by steam having a
pressure of 100 lb. on the square inch of the boiler.
Explosions, as may naturally be supposed, are of
very frequent occurrence; and, with a view to cure
this evil, several attempts have, at different periods,
been made to introduce low-pressure engines on the
Western Waters, but the cheapness of high-pressure
engines, and the great simplicity of their parts, which
require comparatively little fine finishing and good fit-
ting, certainly afford reasons for preferring them to
low-pressure engines, in a part of the country where
good workmen are scarce, and where the value of la-
bour and materials is very great. It must also be re-
collected, that a condensing or low-pressure engine
takes up a great deal more space than one constructed
on the high-pressure principle. I do not apprehend,
however, that the number of accidents would be dimi-
nished by the simple adoption of low-pressure boilers,
without the strict enforcement of judicious regula-
tions; and if those regulations were properly applied
to high-pressure boilers, they would not fail to render
them perhaps quite as safe as those boilers which are
generally made for engines working on the low-pres-
sure principle. One very obvious improvement on the
present hazardous state of the Mississippi navigation,
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
would be the enactment of a law that the pressure of
the steam should in no case exceed perhaps 50 lb. on
the square inch.
The boilers of these steamers are all tubular, and
have circular flues in them, which permit the passage
of the flame through the body of the boiler. Those
of the St Louis are nine in number. They are 42
inches in diameter, and 24 feet in length. Two
circular flues 16 inches in diameter pass through the
interior. The whole of the flues and outer coating of
the boiler are made of sheet-iron three-sixteenths of an
inch in thickness, and the end plates are formed of ma-
terials of greater strength. The boiler is strengthened
by numerous internal ties, and is calculated to sustain
a pressure of 100 lb. on the square inch of surface. The
only protection which the boilers have from the atmo-
sphere is a layer of clay, with which they are in all
cases covered to prevent the radiation of heat.
The steamers make many stoppages to take in
goods and passengers, and also supplies of wood for
fuel. The liberty which they take with their vessels
on these occasions is somewhat amusing, and not a
little hazardous. I had a good example of this on
board of a large vessel called the " Ontario." She was
sheered close inshore among stones and stumps of
trees, where she lay for some hours taking in goods.
The additional weight increased her draught of wa-
ter, and caused her to heel a good deal, and when
her engines were put in motion, she actually crawled
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
157
into the deep water on her paddle-wheels. The steam
had been got up to an enormous pressure to enable her
to get off, and the volumes of steam discharged from
the escapement pipe at every half stroke of the piston
made a sharp sound almost like the discharge of fire-
arms, while every timber in the vessel seemed to
tremble, and the whole structure actually groaned un-
der the shocks.
During these stoppages, it is necessary to keep up
a proper supply of water to prevent explosion, and the
manner in which this is effected on the Mississippi is
very simple. The paddle-wheel axle is so construct-
ed, that the portions of it projecting over the hull of
the vessel to which the wheels are fixed can be thrown
out of gear at pleasure by means of a clutch on each
side of the vessel, which slides on the intermediate
part of the axle, and is acted on by a lever. When
the vessel is stopped, the paddle-wheels are simply
thrown out of gear, and the engine continues to work.
The necessary supply of water is thus pumped into
the boiler. during the whole time that the vessel may
be at rest, and when she is required to get under
weigh, the wheels are again thrown into gear, and re-
volve with the paddle-wheel shaft. The fly-wheel,
formerly noticed, is useful in regulating the motion of
the engine, which otherwise might be apt to suffer da-
mage from the increase and diminution in the resist-
ance offered to the motion of the pistons, by suddenly
throwing the paddle-wheels into and out of gear, The
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
water for the supply of the engine is first pumped into
a heater, in which its temperature is raised, and is
then injected into the boiler.
I saw several vessels on the Ohio which were pro-
pelled by one large paddle-wheel placed at the stern
of the vessel, but it is doubtful whether this arrange-
ment is advantageous, as the action of the paddle-
wheel, when placed in that situation, must be impeded
by the floatboards impinging on water which has been
disturbed by the passage of the vessel through it.
The Mississippi steamers carry a captain, a clerk,
two engineers, and two pilots, one of whom is always
at the helm. The firemen and the crew are people of
colour, and generally slaves. The passage from New
Orleans to Pittsburg, against the current of the river,
is generally performed in from fifteen to twenty days,
and from Pittsburg to New Orleans in about ten
days. The distance is rather more than 2000 miles,
and the cabin-passage, including all expenses, is about
L.10.
The third class of vessels to which I have alluded,
are those which navigate the Lakes and the River St
Lawrence. They differ very materially from those I
have already described, being more like the steamers
of this country; both in their construction and appear-
ance. Steam-boats were first used on the St Law-
rence in 1812, and it is probable that they were also
introduced on the Lakes about the same time. The
Lake steamers are strongly built vessels, furnished with
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
159
masts and sails, and propelled by powerful engines,
some of which act on the high-pressure and some on
the low-pressure principle.
The largest steamer on the Lakes in 1837 was the
"James Madison." She measures 181 feet in length
on the deck, 30 feet in breadth of beam, and 12 feet
6 inches in depth of hold. She carries about 700 tons
of goods, and draws about 10 feet of water. This
vessel plies between Buffalo on Lake Erie and Chi-
cago on Lake Michigan, a distance of 950 miles. The
hulls of the vessels are built in the ports on the shores
of the Lakes, and the engines are generally made at
Pittsburg. It is somewhat curious to find such vessels
engaged in inland navigation; but their dimensions and
strength are rendered necessary by the severe storms
and formidable waves encountered on the Lakes, to
which I have already particularly alluded, in the chap-
ter on Lake Navigation.
Some of the St Lawrence steam-boats, all of which
are owned by her Majesty's subjects resident in Ca-
nada, are fine powerful vessels. The machinery of
most of them is made at Montreal. The " John
Bull" is the largest of these vessels, and measures 210
feet in length of deck, 33 feet 6 inches in breadth of
beam, and draws 10 feet of water. She is propelled
by two condensing engines, having cylinders 60 inches
in diameter, and 8 feet in length of stroke. This
steamer is principally employed in towing vessels ; and
of her performance in this way I have already spoken
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
at page 88. She has a small engine of about 3 horses
power for pumping water into the boilers while the
vessel is at rest.
The vapour contained in the boiler of a steam-en-
gine is liable to have its volume increased or diminish-
ed to a dangerous extent by sudden variations of tem-
perature, and the application of an apparatus capable of
counteracting the tendency of such changes of tempe-
rature to produce rupture, is absolutely indispensable
to the safe operation of the boiler. The want of the or-
dinary precautions necessary for insuring safety, or the
inefficient manner in which these are applied, together
with the very high pressure at which the vapour is
used for propelling the engines of many of the Ame-
rican steam-boats, and the recklessness of the engineers
employed on some navigations, have occasioned many
disastrous accidents in that country from the explosion
of steam-boilers. These, however, as already stated,
are now happily, in a great measure, confined to the ves-
sels employed on the Western Waters. The frequent
occurrence of these accidents, and the melancholy con-
sequences attending them, induced the Government
of the United States in 1832, to institute an inquiry
into " the causes of steam-boat explosions, and the best
means of preventing them." At that period a list of
the explosions which had taken place was made up by
Mr Redfield of New York, which I shall give at full
length, as the best means of affording an idea of their
extent and serious nature.
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
161
LIST OF STEAM-BOAT EXPLOSIONS WHICH HAVE OCCURRED IN THE UNITED
STATES, BY W. C. REDFIELD.
When
Names.
Place of Explosion.
Killed.
Wounded.
exploded.
1817
Constitution,
Mississippi,
13
0
...
General Robinson,
Do.
9
0
...
Yankee,
Do.
4
0
Heriot,
Do.
1
0
HIGH PRESSURE.
1824
Etna,
New York Bay,
13
0
1828
Grampus,
Mississippi,
unknown
0
Barnet,
Long Island Sound,
1
0
1830
Helen Macgregor,
Mississippi,
33
14
...
Caledonia,
Do.
11
11
...
Car of Commerce,
Ohio River,
28
29
...
Huntress,
Mississippi,
unknown
0
Fair Star,
...
Alabama,
2
0
Porpoise,
Mississippi,
unknown
0
115
54
Previous
to
1825
{
Enterprise, copper
boiler,
}
Charleston, S. C.
9
4
Paragon, do.
Hudson River,
1
1
Alabama,
Mississippi,
4
0
Feliciana,
Do.
2
0
Arkansas,
Red River,
4
0
Fidelity, copperboiler,
New York Harbour,
2
0
Patent,
do.
Do.
5
2
Atalanta, do.
Do.
2
0
Bellona, do.
Do.
2
0
Maid of Orleans, do.
Savannah River,
6
0
Raritan, unknown,
Raritan,
1
0
..
Eagle,
do.
Chesapeake,
:
Low PRESSURE.
2
several
Bristol,
Delaware River,
0
1
Powhatan, cop. boiler,
Norfolk,
2
0
1824
Jersey,
do.
Jersey City,
2
0
1825
Tesch,
Mississippi,
several
0
Constitution,
Hudson River,
3
0
Legislator,
New York Harbour,
5
2
1826
Hudson,
East River,
0
1
...
Franklin,
Hudson River,
1
0
...
Ramapo, in January,
New Orleans,
5
2
Do. in March,
Do.
1
1
1827
Oliver Ellsworth,
Long Island Sound,
3
0
1830
Carolina,
New York Harbour,
1
0
{
C.J. Marshal, cop-
per boiler,
}
Hudson River,
11
2
United States,
:
Long Island Sound,
9
0
1831
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
12
General Jackson,
Hudson River,
(supposed)
}
13
95
29
L
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
N.B.-Of the above low-pressure explosions, ten were copper-
boilers, from which were
killed 42, wounded 7
8 iron-boilers,
do. 35, do. 3
9 boilers, metal unknown (probably iron),
do.
18,
do.
19
The number of copper-boilers in use is now very small compared
with those of iron.
CHARACTER OF ENGINES NOT SPECIFIED.
When
exploded.
Names,
Place of Explosion.
Killed.
Wounded.
Cotton Plant,
Mobile,
Unknown.
Unknown.
1816
Washington (high p.)
Ohio River,
7
9
1826
Macon,
South Carolina,
4
0
1827
Hornet (low p.),
Alabama,
2
2
1826
Susquehannah,
Susquehannah,
2
0
1827
Union (high p.),
Ohio River,
4
7
1830
W. Peacock,
Buffalo,
15
0
Tallyho (high p.),
Cumberland River,
0
0
Kenhawa (low p.),
Ohio River,
8
4
Atlas,
Mississippi,
1
0
Andrew Jackson,
Savannah River,
2
0
1831
Tri-color (low p.),
Ohio River,
8
8
46[53?]
21 [30?]
RECAPITULATION.
Killed.
Wounded.
13 High-pressure accidents,
115
54
27 Low-pressure do.
95
29
12 Character of engines unknown, supposed to
be chiefly high pressure,
46
21
52
Total,
256
104
" In some of the principal accidents comprised in
the foregoing list, the number of killed includes all
who did not recover from their wounds. In other
cases, the number killed are as given in the newspa-
pers of the day, and some of the wounded should per-
haps be added. In some few instances no list has been
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
163
obtained, and possibly in some no loss of life occurred.
The accounts of some of the minor accidents may
have been lost sight of. In making an approximate
estimate of the whole number of lives which have been
lost in the United States by these accidents, I should
fix it at 300."
In order to lessen the chances of explosions from
the expansive power of the steam, properly construct-
ed boilers are provided with safety-valves, which are
loaded with a weight proportioned to the pressure of
steam which the boiler is capable of resisting. So long
as one of the safety-valves is locked up so as to be in-
accessible to the engineers, no danger is to be appre-
hended from their being overloaded, a practice too fre-
quently resorted to by the ignorant men to whom the
managementof steam-engines is occasionally entrusted.
The best constructed safety-valves, however, may
get deranged from rust or other causes, and by re-
maining closed after the steam has attained the pres-
sure at which it should be permitted to escape, may
fail in performing their duty. A mercurial gauge is
generally applied to the boiler, by an examination of
which the engineer may at any moment ascertain the
expansive power of the steam.
The safety-valves and steam-gauge perform a most
important office, and operate chiefly when the engine
ceases to work, as, for example, when a steamer stops
to land passengers. The volume of vapour which is
no longer withdrawn for the supply of the engine, is
L 2
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
permitted to escape by the opening of the valves ;
while the steam-gauge, by indicating any increase of
pressure, gives timely warning of danger, and calls
the attention of those in charge to such measures as
may arrest too rapid accumulation of steam within the
boiler. Thus far the safety-valves and steam-gauge
have the effect of insuring the safety of the boiler, but
unfortunately they have no control over the accidents
arising from a deficiency in the supply of water, to
which circumstance almost all the explosions which
now take place may be traced.
The heat to which the flues and bottom of a steam-
boiler are exposed may be very intense, but the metal
of which they are formed will preserve a comparative-
ly low degree of temperature, so long as its interior
surface is kept in contact with the water. If the level
of the water be permitted to sink, however, so as to
uncover or lay bare part of the flues or bottom, the ac-
tion of the fire immediately renders the parts SO ex-
posed red hot. When this state of things occurs, a boil-
er, as we shall presently see, is placed in a most critical
situation. Deficiency of water may occur when a ves-
sel is in motion, from derangement of the apparatus
for its supply, but it is most apt to arise when a ves-
sel stops for the purpose of taking in goods or landing
passengers. On such occasions the working of the en-
gine is stopped, and at the same time the pump for
supplying the boiler with water must cease to act.
Meanwhile, the fire is kept briskly burning, and if the
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
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stoppage is of long duration, the level of the water,
from the evaporation which is going on, falls consider-
ably, and occasionally to such an extent that the flues
become exposed and are quickly rendered red hot.
When the vessel is about to proceed on her voyage
the engine is set in motion, and the pump, which has
till then remained inactive, injects heated water into
the boiler. This water comes in contact with the por-
tions of its surface which have been uncovered and
rendered red hot, and is instantaneously converted into
vapour. So rapid is this change, resembling in effect
the ignition of gunpowder, that the safety-valves, in
most instances, are too small to give vent to the im-
mense volume of vapour which is suddenly created,
and an explosion of the boiler is the unavoidable con-
sequence.
A proper uninterrupted supply of water is the only
safe-guard against the occurrence of such explosions,
which, from their nature, are equally apt to occur to
low-pressure and high-pressure boilers. Some engines
have self-acting pumps for the supply of water, and
in others the injection-cock is under the control of
the engineer, who by opening or shutting it, regu-
lates the supply. The latter plan is adopted in all
locomotive engines, and in most of the American
steam-boats. It is of the greatest consequence that
the water-pump should be so arranged as to work
while the engine is at rest. The steam-boats on the
eastern part of the United States, are not SQ con-
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166
STEAM NAVIGATION.
structed ; but in the steam-boats on the Mississippi
and the St Lawrence, as formerly noticed, I found
apparatus for effecting this important object. A gauge
is applied to almost every boiler, for indicating the
height at which the water stands in its interior, and
if this is carefully observed and tried from time to
time by the engineer, it forms a great means of
preventing accident. Some ingenious applications
have been proposed to render the safety of the
boiler less dependent on the attention of the work-
men. One of these is a valve of larger dimensions
than the common safety-valve, which is intended
to be acted on by the expansive force of a rod of
iron, when heated beyond a certain temperature.
The introduction of plates into the sides of the boiler,
composed of an easily fusible metal, which would
melt before the contained steam had attained a dan-
gerously high temperature, and form large vents for its
escape, is another method not unworthy of attention.
The collapse of the large boilers of weak con-
struction, which are sometimes employed for gene-
rating low-pressure steam, is another casualty to which
steam-vessels are liable. It is occasioned by the fire
getting low, and the surface of the boiler becoming
cool. This produces condensation of the steam, and
the formation of a partial vacuum in the interior of
the boiler, the form of which is generally so ill calcu-
lated for resisting external pressure, that it yields to
the weight of the atmosphere. A spring valve SO con-
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
167
structed as to be opened by external pressure alone, is
oceasionally applied in this country. When a vacuum
is formed in the boiler, the valve is opened by the
weight of the atmosphere on its exterior surface, and
the air rushing in, restores the equilibrium, and in-
sures the safety of the boiler. The exposed situation
in which the boilers of all the American steam-boats
are placed, renders them very liable to collapse, which
has been of very frequent occurrence, and has on some
occasions been attended with serious consequences.
Of the several adaptations for reducing the chances
of accident which I have mentioned, I found in use in
the American steam-boats the single safety-valve, the
steam-gauge, and the water-gauge, and in a few ves-
sels the apparatus for continuing the supply of water
while the vessel is at rest.
It appears from Mr Redfield's list of accidents, that
there have been nearly four explosions every year for
the last fourteen years, and an annual loss of twenty-
one lives from these accidents. Of the forty cases
regarding which definite information had been ob-
tained, twenty-seven were low-pressure engines, and
only thirteen high pressure. The average loss of lives
by each low-pressure accident, is only three and a half,
but the loss by high-pressure accidents averages nine
on each occasion. This may be accounted for by the
great elasticity of the steam in all the high-pressure en-
gines in America, which in its escape causes propor-
tionally greater mischief.
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STEAM NAVIGATION.
The following table, containing the dimensions of
several of the best steamers plying in America in 1837,
was compiled partly from actual measurement of the
vessels, and partly from the report of the engineers in
charge of them. To Mr Alfred Stillman of New
York, I am indebted for much assistance in obtaining
the information contained in it.
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DIMENSIONS of AMERICAN STEAM-BOATS plying in 1837.
NAMES.
Length of Deck.
Breadth of Beam.
Depth of Hold.
No. of Engines.
Length of Stroke.
Diam. of Piston.
Diameter of Pad-
dle-wheels.
Breadth of do.
Dip of do.
Draft of Water.
At what part of
Stroke cuts off the
Steam.
No. of Double
Strokes + minute.
REMARKS.
Ft. In.
Ft. In.
Ft. In.
Ft.
In.
Ft. In.
Ft.
In.
Ft.
& from
Dewit Clinton,
235 0
28 0
9 0
1
10
66
22 0
14
6
bottom of
An old boat, plying between New York
28
...
cylinder.
and Albany.
An old boat, plying between New York
Providence,
180 0
27 0
]
10
65
9
and Providence.
Two fine vessels, plying between New
Champlain,
180 o
28 o
9 0
2
10
42
22 0
141
30
1
26
York & Albany, having 4 boilers placed
Erie,
180 0
28 0
9 0
2
10
44
22 0
14}
30
1
26
on the guards, 2 on each side; they burn
35 or 40 cords of wood per trip.
North America,
200 o
26 o
8 0
2
8
44
Plying between New York and Albany.
Independence,
148 0
26 0
1
10
44
Do.
do.
STEAM NAVIGATION.
Albany,
212 0
26 0
9 0
1
10
65
24 4
14
30
19
Lexington,
207 0
21 0
11 0
1
11
48
23 0
9
30
24
Do. New York and Providence.
R. L. Stevens,
175 0
24 0
]
10
36
22 0
11
Bunkerhill,
24 0
9 0
1
11
41
211 0
11
24
26
Do. New York and Hartford.
Highlander,
175 0
24 0
8 0
1
10
41
20 0
9
29
1
29
Do. New York and Newburgh.
Narragansett,
210 0
26 0
10 7
1
111
56
25 0
11
26
5
-
24
Do. New York and Providence.
Massachusetts,
200 0
30 0
12 0
2
9
44
211 0
Do.
do.
Rhode Island,
210 0
26 0
1
11
60
24 0
11
30
61
21
Do.
do.
Swallow,
224 0
22 0
81 0
1
10
46
221 0
Do. New York and Albany.
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Rochester,
209 10
24 0
81 0
1
10
43
24 0
10
30
4
1
27
Do.
do.
Giraffe,
175 0
26 0
71 0
1
11
44
26 0
9
4
Do. New Orleans and Mobile.
Utica,
180 0
211 0
1
10
39
22 0
10
Do. New York and Albany.
Winoosky,
135 0
21 0
1
7
33
19 0
7
22
41
1
22
Plying on Lake Champlain.
New York,
228 0
22 8
1
10
50
241 0
12
30
4
1
22
Plying between New York & Newhaven.
169
( 170 )
CHAPTER V.
FUEL AND MATERIALS.
Fuel used in Steam-Engines and for domestic purposes-Wood-
Bituminous Coal-Anthracite Coal-Pennsylvanian Coal-mines
-Boilers for the combustion of Anthracite Coal-Building Ma-
terials-Brick-Marble-Marble-quarries of New England and
Pennsylvania-Granite-Timber-Mode of conducting the "Tim-
ber Trade"-" Booms"-Rafts on the St Lawrence, and on the
Rhine-Woods chiefly used in America-Live Oak-White Oak
-Cedar-Locust-Pine-Shingles"-Dimensions of Americau -Cedar-Locust-Pine-
Forest Trees.
I NEED scarcely mention, that wood is very much
used as fuel throughout the greater part of the United
States and the British dominions in America, both for
domestic purposes and for steam-engines, excepting in
the neighbourhood of most of the large towns, where,
the surrounding country having been cleared and
brought into cultivation, it has now become very scarce,
and much too valuable to be made use of in that way.
In such situations coal has of course been substituted
in its place. Still, however, throughout a large part
of the territory of the United States, the forest is
looked to for the great supply of fuel. The firewood
is cut into pieces about four feet long, and twelve
inches in girth, and is sold in piles four feet square,
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
171
and eight feet in length, containing each 128 cubic
feet, a measure called by the Americans, a " cord."
It varies in price in different parts of the country.
In New York, a cord of wood costs about 20s. ; in
Albany, 14s. ;' on Lake Champlain, the average price
is 9s. ; on the St Lawrence, 7s. 3d. ; and on Lake
Ontario, 5s. ; its value gradually decreasing as the
country becomes less populous. On the Mississippi
and Ohio, the price of wood is from 5s. to 8s. a
cord. Many experiments have been made in America
to ascertain the relative values of wood and coal as fuel
for steam-engines; the result of which is, that about
two and three-fourth cords of wood, and one ton of coal,
generate, in well-constructed boilers, an equal quan-
tity of steam. Pine timber is considered to be the.
best fuel : its texture is more open, and its combustion
is more perfect than hardwood, the heart or interior
of which, being less affected by the heat, is often left
unconsumed.
An abundant supply of fresh air, and a capacions
fire-place, are the great objects to be attained in boil-
ers intended for the combustion of wood. To insure
the first of these desiderata, the boilers of the improved
steam-boats, as formerly mentioned, are placed on the
guards of the vessel. No ash-pit is placed below the
fire-grate ; and the ashes and charcoal which come
from the fire fall directly into the water, while a co-
pious stream of fresh air, constantly ascending through
the fire-bars, affords a large supply of oxygen for the
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
combustion of the fuel. The most advantageous
depth of the fire-grate, or the space left between the
fire-bars and the bottom of the boiler for the reception
of the wood, has been found in practice to be about
three feet.
Bituminous coal occurs in large quantities on the
western side of the Alleghany Mountains, and has
been extensively worked in the neighbourhood of
Pittsburg, where it is much used in the manufacture
of iron. This coal occurs in other parts of the United
States, particularly in New England and in Rhode
Island. In the British dominions of Nova Scotia, a
vein has also been opened at the Albion coal-mines,
which is said to be fifty feet in thickness. The steam-
boats on the Ohio, and also on the St Lawrence, oc-
casionally burn bituminous coal ; but the fire-places
are all too large for coal, having been constructed for
the combustion of wood.
Anthracite coal has been more extensively worked,
and is much more generally used in the United States
for domestic purposes, than bituminous coal. The
most extensive anthracite coal-fields occur in the State
of Pennsylvania, on the courses of the rivers Schuyl-
kill and Lehigh, the navigation of which has been im-
proved at a great expense, to facilitate the carriage of
the coal from the mines to the sea for shipment. It
has also been found on the banks of the Merrimac,
in New England.
The Schuylkill and Lehigh coal-fields lie between
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
173
a mountain called the Blue Ridge and the river Sus-
quehanna, and are situate about 100 miles north-
east of Philadelphia, the port from which the coal is
shipped. The most extensive workings are at Potts-
ville, on the Schuylkill, and Mauch Chunk, on the
Lehigh. At Pottsville, the strata of coal dip from
N.E. to S.W., at an angle of about 45°, and at
Mauch Chunk they are nearly horizontal. They are
in general worked by level drifts, carried into the face
of a long range of rising ground, which is entirely com-
posed of one vast bed of coal. The quantity of
coal brought from the Pennsylvanian mines to Dela-
ware Bay during the year 1836, was no less than
696,526 tons.
The anthracite coal of North America has a strong
resemblance to that found in some parts of Wales,
and also in Ireland. It is exceedingly close-grained,
has a bright lustre, and, when broken, the fracture pre-
sents a great variety of fine colours, from which cir-
cumstance it has received in America the name of
"peacock-tail" coal. It requires a very high tempera-
ture for its combustion, and in order to obtain this, it
is necessary that the fire-places in which it is used
should be lined with a good non-conducting substance.
It has been several times tried in the boilers com-
monly used in steam-boats, but in the fire-places of
the common construction it was found that the coal
was brought too closely into contact with the bottom
of the boiler and flues, and the caloric being too sud-
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
denly withdrawn from it, the fire burned languidly
and was occasionally extinguished. Dr Nott of New
York has bestowed much labour and time in con-
structing a boiler and fire-place suited for anthracite
coal. These have been introduced in one or two steam-
boats, and particularly in some of the ferry-boats ply-
ing in the bay of New York. This kind of coal is
also burned in the locomotive engines on the Balti-
more and Washington railway ; but its application to
the purpose of generating steam, cannot yet be said to
have assumed a more permanent character than that
of an experiment.
The principle on which the anthracite boilers are
constructed is sufficiently simple. The combustion
of the fuel is carried on in a chamber lined with a non-
conducting substance, which is quite detached from
the boiler, and the heated air only is allowed to pass
through the flues, SO that the disadvantages arising from
the rapid abstraction of caloric from the fuel, which
takes place in fire-places constructed for the combus-
tion of bituminous coal or wood, are in this boiler com-
pletely obviated. The coal is also broken into small
pieces about the size of a hen's egg, and in this way
a great surface is exposed to the atmospheric air, and
a thorough combustion of the fuel is produced.
The anthracite coal is much used for domestic
purposes in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and
Washington. It is burned sometimes in stoves, and
sometimes in an open fire-place. The heat given out
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
175
by it, when burned in either way, being very dry,
evaporating pans are generally used to produce that
degree of moisture in the apartments which is requi-
site to counteract the disagreeable effects produced by
breathing a dry and close atmosphere.
Brick is the building material uniformly used for
dwelling-houses in the large towns in the United
States, in most of which wooden structures are not
now permitted to be erected. The public edifices,
however, are generally built of marble, which is found
in great abundance in different parts of the country.*
Several marble quarries have been opened in Mas-
sachusetts and in Vermont, which produce good ma-
terials for ordinary building purposes. The City Hall
at New York, and the State House at Albany, have
been built of the stone produced by these quarries.
This marble has a white ground with blue streaks, but
its colour lies in irregular patches, and its effect in a
building is not good. The finest marble is found in
the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, where several quar-
ries have been opened, and are at present extensively
worked. This stone, laid down at Philadelphia, costs
from 4s. to 7s. per cubic foot, according to its quality.
The Bank of the United States, the Philadelphia
Bank, the Mint, the Exchange, and many other public
edifices in Philadelphia, are built from these quarries,
* I am indebted to Mr Struthers of Philadelphia for some interest-
ing and valuable information regarding the marbles of the United
States.
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176
FUEL AND MATERIALS.
which produce pure white marble of very good quality.
The public buildings in Philadelphia, most of which
were designed by Mr Strickland, architect in that
city, present by far the finest specimens of architectu-
ral design which are to be met with in the United
States, and the extreme purity of the marble of which
they are built adds greatly to their general effect.
The new Girard College at Philadelphia, designed by
Mr Walter, architect, is at present in an advanced
state of progress, and promises, when completed, to
be a magnificent building. The marble of the Uni-
ted States is rather coarse in the grain, and not very
suitable for forming the finely wrought capitals of co-
lumns; and the materials of those parts of all the pil-
lars of the public buildings in Philadelphia, were there-
fore brought from Italy.
I visited some of the quarries in the neighbourhood
of Philadelphia, in which the beds of marble dipped
from north to south at an inclination of 60° with the
horizon. In one of them the quarriers were working
a bed fourteen feet in thickness, at a depth of one
hundred and twenty feet below the surface. The
blocks of marble, some of which weighed twelve tons,
are raised to the surface of the ground by means of a
horse-gin. A thick layer of common limestone rests
on the marble ; this is blasted off with gunpowder, and
burned for making mortar.
Grey coloured granite, of excellent quality, occurs
at Quincy in Massachusetts, and Singsing on the
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
177
Hudson. The only hydraulic works in which it has
been used are the graving-docks at Boston and Nor-
folk, which have been already noticed ; but it has also
been used a good deal in New York for door-lintels
and stairs, and latterly it has been introduced for pub-
lic buildings. The Astor Hotel, the Gaol, and some
others, are formed of it.
It is much to be regretted that there are no build-
ing materials in the neighbourhood of New York.
On examining the ground laid open in some of the
railway cuttings in the vicinity of the town, I found
it to consist of a stratum of gravel from ten to fifteen
feet in depth, with boulder-stones of granite, mica-
slate, greenstone, and red sandstone below this, mica-
slate occurs, dipping from north to south at an angle
of 45° : but it is not fit for building purposes. This
formation occurs on the island of Manhattan, on which
the town of New York stands, and also on Long
Island, which protects its harbour.
The fine timber which the country produces is much
employed in all the public works, and, while it serves
in some degree to compensate for the want of stone, it
also affords great advantages for ship-building and car-
pentry, which have been brought to high perfection in
America. The lumber trade, as it is called in Ame-
rica, that is to say, the trade in wood, is carried on to
a greater or less extent on almost all the American
rivers ; but on the Mississippi and the St Lawrence it
affords employment to a vast number of persons. The
M
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
chief raftsmen, under whose directions the timber ex-
peditions are conducted, are generally persons of very
great intelligence, and often of considerable wealth.
Sometimes these men, for the purpose of obtaining
wood, purchase a piece of land, which they sell after
it has been cleared, but more generally they purchase
only the timber from the proprietors of the land on
which it grows. The chief raftsman, and his detach-
ment of workmen, repair to the forest about the month
of November, and are occupied during the whole of the
winter months in felling trees, dressing them into logs,
and dragging them with teams of oxen on the har-
dened snow, with which the country is then covered,
to the nearest stream. They live during this period
in huts formed of logs. Throughout the whole of the
newly cleared districts of America, the houses are
built of rough logs. The logs are arranged so as to
form the four sides of the hut, and their ends are half-
checked into each other in such a manner as to allow
of their coming into contact nearly throughout their
whole length, and the small interstices which remain
are filled up with clay. About the month of May,
when the ice leaves the rivers, the logs of timber that
have been prepared, and hauled down during winter,
are launched into the numerous small streams in the
neighbourhood of which they have been cut, and float-
ed down to the larger rivers, where their progress is
stopped by what is called a "boom." The boom
consists of a line of logs, extending across the whole
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
179
breadth of the river. These are connected by iron links,
and attached to stone piers built at suitable distances
in the bed of the stream.
The boom is erected for the purpose of stopping
the progress of the logs, which must remain within it
till all the timber has left the forest. After this,
every raftsman searches out his own timber, which he
recognises by the mark he puts on it, and, having
formed it into a raft, floats it down the river to its
destination.
The boom is generally owned by private individuals,
who levy a toll on all the wood collected by it. The
toll on the Penobscot river is at the rate of three per
cent. on the value of the timber ; and the income
derived from the boom is about L.300 per annum.
The rafts into which the timber is formed, pre-
vious to being floated down the large rivers, are
strongly put together. They are furnished with
masts and sails, and are steered by means of long oars,
which project in front as well as behind them.
Wooden houses are built on them for the accommoda-
tion of the crew and their families. I have counted
upwards of thirty persons working the steering oars of
a raft on the St Lawrence; from this some idea may
be formed of the number of their inhabitants.
The most hazardous part of the lumberer's business
is that of bringing the rafts of wood down the large
rivers. If not managed with great skill, they are apt
to go to pieces in descending the rapids ; and it not un-
M 2
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180
FUEL AND MATERIALS.
frequently happens, that the whole labour of one, and
sometimes two years, is in this way lost in a moment.
An old raftsman, with whom I had some conversation
on board of one of the steamers on the St Lawrence,
informed me that each of the rafts brought down that
river contains from L.3000 to L.5000 worth of tim-
ber, and that he, on one occasion, lost L.2500 by one
raft, which grounded in descending a rapid, and broke
up. The safest size for a raft, he said, was from
40,000 to 50,000 square feet of surface ; and rafts of
that size require about five men to manage them.
Some rafts are made, however, which have an area of
no less than 300,000 square feet. Rafts are brought
to Quebec in great numbers from distances varying
from one to twelve hundred miles ; and it often hap-
pens that six months are occupied in making the pas-
sage. They are broken up at Quebec, where the tim-
ber is cut up for exportation into planks, deals, or bat-
tens, at the numerous saw-mills with which the banks
of the St Lawrence are studded for many miles, in
the neighbourhood of the town. Sometimes the tim-
ber is shipped in the form of logs. The timber-rafts
of the Rhine are, perhaps, the only ones in Europe
that can be compared to those of the American rivers ;.
but none of those which I have seen on the Rhine were
nearly SO large as the rafts on the St Lawrence, al-
though some of them were navigated by a greater num-
ber of hands, a precaution rendered necessary perhaps,
by the more intricate navigation of the river.
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
181
The woods exported from the St Lawrence are
white oak (Quercus alba), the average price of which
is 15d. a cubic foot ; white pine (Pinus strobus),
43d. ; red pine (Pinus resinosa), 10½d. ; elm (Ulmus
Americana), 4½d. ; and white ash (Fraxinus acu-
minata), 10d. These, according to the information
I received, are the average prices at which the wood
sells at Quebec.
The woods used for ship-building in the United
States are live-oak (Quercus virens), white oak
(Quercus alba), white cedar (Cupressus thyoides),
locust (Robinia pseud-acacia), yellow pine (Pinus
variabilis), and long-leaved pine (Pinus palustris,
or australis of Michaux).
The live-oak, SO called because it is an evergreen,
grows only in the Southern States. This valuable
wood is too heavy to be applied to a great extent in
ship-building, its specific gravity being greater than
that of water, and it is generally used along with
white oak and cedar for the principal timbers only.
"The climate becomes mild enough for its growth
near Norfolk, in Virginia, though at that place it is
less multiplied and less vigorous than in a more south-
ern latitude. From Norfolk it spreads along the coast
for a distance of fifteen or eighteen hundred miles, ex-
tending beyond the mouth of the Mississippi. The
sea air seems essential to its existence, for it is rarely
found in the forests upon the mainland, and never
more than fifteen or twenty miles from the shore. It
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
is most abundant, most fully developed, and of the
best quality, about the bays and creeks, and on the
fertile islands which in great numbers lie scattered for
several hundred miles along the coast. The live oak is
commonly forty or fifty feet in height, and from one
to two feet in diameter, but it is sometimes much
larger."*
White cedar is considered the most durable wood
in use in America. It grows in the Northern States
to the height of forty-five or fifty feet, and is some-
times more than ten feet in circumference. The wood
is reddish, and somewhat odorous. It is much used in
fences, and also for railway sleepers. It does not
exist in a natural state in Canada ; but the arbor vitæ,
which is there called white cedar, is put to all those
purposes to which white cedar is applied in the United
States. Locust is a hard and durable wood, and is
used for treenails. It grows most abundantly in the
Southern States ; but it is pretty generally diffused
throughout the whole country. It sometimes exceeds
four feet in diameter, and seventy feet in height.
The locust is one of the very few trees that are planted
by the Americans. They are often seen forming
hedge-rows in the cultivated parts of Pennsylvania.
The yellow pine is chiefly confined to the western
countries and the range of the Alleghany mountains ;
and the long-leaved pine is entirely confined to the
*
The Sylva Americana. By J. D. Browne, Boston, 1832.
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
183
Southern States. These pines are generally employed
for the masts and spars of vessels.
Timber is employed in great quantities in the con-
struction of quays, railways, canal locks, aqueducts,
bridges, roofing of houses, and, in short, for every
purpose to which it can possibly be applied. The
wood used for roofing is formed into pieces called
shingles, which measure eighteen inches in length,
four inches in breadth, and one-third of an inch in
thickness. They are nailed on the rafters of the house,
and arranged in the same manner as the slates used in
this country. Six inches of each shingle is left exposed
to the weather, and as each piece of wood is eighteen
inches in length, every part of the roof has three thick-
nesses of wood, or, in other words, is one inch in thick-
ness. The shingles are generally made of white pine,
cedar, or arbor vitæ. They are split with a single
blow of the axe, and afterwards smoothed with an
instrument resembling a spoke-shave. They cost 8s.
per thousand.
The American forests are particularly interesting
to the traveller in that country. According to Mr
Browne, whose work I have already quoted, there are
no less than 140 species of forest-trees indigenous to
the United States which exceed 30 feet in height. In
*
I would refer such of my readers as desire information regarding
the American forest-trees to an excellent paper in the Agricultural
Journal for 1835, on the local distribution of trees in the native fo-
rests of America, by Mr James Macnab of Edinburgh, who lately made
an extensive botanical tour in the United States and Canada.
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FUEL AND MATERIALS.
France there are about thirty, and in Great Britain
nearly the same number. One may travel a great way
in America without finding a single tree of very large
dimensions, but the average size of the trees is far above
what is to be met with in this country. The largest tree
which I measured was a buttonwood-tree (Platanus oc-
cidentalis) on the banks of Lake Erie, which I found to
be 21 feet in circumference ; but I measured very many
varying from 15 to 20 feet. M. Michaux mentions, that
on a small island in the Ohio, fifteen miles above the
mouth of the Muskingum, there was a buttonwood-tree,
which, at five feet from the ground, measured 40 feet 4
inches in circumference, giving a diameter of about 13
feet. He mentions another on the right bank of the
Ohio, thirty-six miles above Marietta, whose base was
swollen in an extraordinary manner ; at four feet from
the ground it was 47 feet in circumference. This tree
ramified at the height of 20 feet from the ground. A
buttonwood-tree of equal size is mentioned as existing
in Genessee. M. Michaux also measured two trunks
of white pine on the river Kennebec, one of which was
154 feet long, and 54 inches in diameter, and the
other was 142 feet long, and 44 inches in diameter at
three feet from the ground. He also measured one
which was 6 feet in diameter, and had reached the
greatest height attained by the species, its top being
about 180 feet from the ground.
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CHAPTER VI.
CANALS.
Internal Improvements of North America-Great extent of the Canals
and Railways-Introduction of Canals into the United States
and Canada-Great length of the American Canals-Small area
of their Cross Sections-North Holland Ship Canal-Difference
between American and British works-Use of wood very gene-
ral in America-Wooden Canal-Locks, Aqueducts, &c.-Arti-
ficial navigation of the country stopped by ice-Tolls levied,
and mode of travelling on the American Canals-Means used in
America for forming water-communications-Slackwater navi-
gation on the River Schuylkill, &c.-Construction of Dams,
Canals-Locks-Erie Canal-Canal Basin at Albany-Morris
Canal-Inclined Planes for Canal lifts, &c.
THE Americans have not rested satisfied with the
natural inland navigation afforded by their rivers and
lakes, nor made the bounty of Nature a plea for idle-
ness or want of energy ; but, on the contrary, they
have been zealously engaged in the work of internal
improvement ; and their country now numbers, among
its many wonderful artificial lines of communication,
a mountain railway, which, in boldness of design and
difficulty of execution, I can compare to no modern
works I have ever seen, excepting, perhaps, the passes
of the Simplon, and Mont Cenis in Sardinia ; but even
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CANALS.
these remarkable passes, viewed as engineering works,
did not strike me as being more wonderful than the
Alleghany Railway in the United States.
The objects to which that enterprising people have
chiefly directed their exertions for the advancement of
their country in the scale of civilization, are the remo-
val of obstructions in navigable rivers ; the junction of
different tracts of natural navigation ; the connection
of large towns, and the formation of lines of communi-
cation from the Atlantic Ocean to the great lakes, and
the valleys of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio. The
number and extent of canals and railways which they
have executed in effecting these important objects,
sufficiently prove that their exertions, during the short
time they have been SO engaged, have been neither
small nor ill directed. The aggregate length of the
canals at present in operation in the United Statesalone,
amounts to upwards of two thousand seven hundred
miles, and that of the railways already completed to
sixteen hundred miles. Nor are the labours of the
people at an end, for even now there are no fewer than
thirty- three railways in an unfinished state, whose
aggregate length, when completed, will amount to
upwards of two thousand five hundred miles.
The zeal with which the Americans undertake, and
the rapidity with which they carry on every enterprise,
which has the enlargement of their trade for its object,
cannot fail to strike all who visit the United States as a
characteristic of the nation. Forty years ago, that
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country was almost without a lighthouse, and now no
fewer than two hundred are nightly exhibited on its
coast ; thirty years ago, it had but one steamer and
one short canal, and now its rivers and lakes are navi-
gated by between five and six hundred steamers, and
its canals are upwards of two thousand seven hundred
miles in length ; ten years ago, there were but three
miles of railway in the country, and now there are no less
than sixteen hundred miles in operation. These facts
appear much more wonderful when it is considered, that
many of these great lines of communication are carried
for miles in a trough, as it were, cut through thick and
almost impenetrable forests, where it is no uncommon
occurrence to travel for a whole day without encounter-
ing a village, or even a house, excepting perhaps a few
log-huts inhabited by persons connected with the works.
The routes of the principal canals and railroads in
North America, which are delineated in the accom-
panying map, are not wholly confined to the seaward
and more thickly peopled States, but extend far into
the interior. The stupendous canals which have
already been executed enable vessels, suited to the
inland navigation of the country, to pass from the
Gulf of St Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico, and also
from the city of New York to Quebec on the St Law-
rence, or to New Orleans on the Mississippi, without
encountering the dangers of the Atlantic Ocean. But,
that the reader may be able fully to understand the
nature of lines of inland navigation SO enormous, I
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CANALS.
shall give in detail the route from New York to New
Orleans, which is constantly made by persons travelling
between those places.
Miles.
From New York to Albany by the River Hudson, the dis-
tance is,
150
Albany to Buffalo by the Erie Canal,
363
Buffalo to Cleveland by Lake Erie,
210
Cleveland to Portsmouth by the Ohio Canal,
309
Portsmouth to New Orleans by the Ohio and Missis-
sippi Rivers,
1670
Total distance,
2702
This extraordinary inland journey of no less than
2702 miles, is performed entirely by means of water-
communication; 672 miles of the journey are per-
formed on canals, and the remaining 2030 miles of
the route is river and lake navigation.
The internal improvements of the United States
are placed under the management either of the Le-
gislature of the States in which the works are situate,
or of joint-stock companies. The works constructed
by the Legislatures of the States are called State-
works, and are conducted by commissioners chosen
from the different Legislatures, who publish annual
reports on the works committed to their charge. The
joint-stock companies, on the other hand, are compo-
sed of private individuals, who receive a charter from
the Government, investing them with power to exe-
cute the work, and afterwards to conduct the affairs
and transact the business of the company. The pub-
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lic works in the British dominions in North America
have been executed partly at the expense, and under
the direction of the British Government, and partly
by companies of private individuals.
It is believed that canals, which were, until very
lately, the only mode of conveyance employed in North
America, were in use in Egypt, China, Ceylon, Italy,
and Holland, before the Christian era ; but the period
at which the first artificial water-communication was
formed, and the country in which the construction of
a canal was first attempted, are equally unknown. The
earliest canal constructed in France was the Langue-
doc, connecting the Bay of Biscay with the Mediter-
ranean Sea, which was completed in the year 1681 ;
and the first formed in Great Britain was that of
Sankey Brook in Lancashire completed in 1760. Se-
veral short canals were made for improving the river
navigation in the United States about the end of the
last century ; but the first work of any importance in
that country was the Santee Canal, in the State of
South Carolina, which was opened in the year 1802 ;
and the first in the British dominions in America was
the Lachine Canal in Lower Canada, opened in the
year 1821. At the end of this chapter, I have given a
table of the principal canals in the United States ; and
their routes, as formerly noticed, are shewn in the map.
The table, which is compiled from the American al-
manacs and the annual reports of the canal commis-
sioners, contains the names of all the canals of any
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CANALS.
importance now in operation in the country ; together
with such information, regarding their size and ex-
pense, as these documents contain.
The great length of many of the American canals
is one remarkable feature in these astonishing works.
In this respect they far surpass any thing of the kind
hitherto constructed in Europe. The longest canal
in Europe is the Languedoc, which has a course of
148 miles ; and the most extensive in the United
States is the Erie Canal, which is no less than 363
miles in length. But the cross-sectional area of the
American canals is by no means so great as that of
many in Europe. The North Holland Ship Canal,
for example, between the Zuyder Zee, at Amsterdam,
and the Helder, which I lately visited, has a larger
cross-sectional area than any other European work of
the same description. It measures 124 feet 6 inches
at the water-line, and affords sufficient breadth to allow
large vessels to pass each other with perfect ease. It
is 56 feet in breadth at the bottom, and has a depth
of water of no less than 21 feet. This remarkable
canal, which is nearly fifty miles in length, undoubt-
edly ranks as one of the greatest works of the kind
that has ever been executed. It was constructed for
the purpose of facilitating the passage of vessels to and
from the port of Amsterdam ; and, by means of the
sheltered inland passage which it affords, the intricate
and dangerous navigation of the Zuyder Zee is avoided.
At the time when canals were introduced into Ame-
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rica, however, the trade of the country was small, and
did not warrant the expenditure of large sums of
money in their construction, the chief object being to
form a communication with as little loss of time, or
outlay of capital, as might be consistent with a due
regard for the safety and stability of the work. It is
not to be expected, therefore, that the American
works, although on an extensive scale, should be con-
structed in the same spacious style as those of older
and more opulent countries. The dimensions of many
of the canals in the United States are now found
to be inconveniently small for the increased traffic
which they have to support and the great Erie Canal,
as well as some others, is at present undergoing ex-
tensive alterations, by which its breadth will be in-
creased from 40 to 70 feet, and its depth from 4 to 7
feet. It is doubtful whether the increased depth will,
on the whole, prove advantageous, especially for quick
transport. According to Mr Russell, the velocity of
the wave due to a depth of 4 feet, making allowance
for the sloping sides of the canal, is about seven miles
an hour ; and if the boat is dragged in the top of the
wave, the horses must travel at somewhat more than
this rate, in order to keep before it. If, on the other
hand, the depth- of the canal be 7 feet, the velocity of
the wave will be about nine miles an hour; a speed
which it would be difficult for horses regularly to keep
up. The boat would, consequently, travel at a less
speed than the wave, which is shewn by Mr Russell, in
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CANALS.
his Researches in Hydrodynamics, to be very disad-
vantageous.
English and American engineers are guided by the
same principles in designing their works ; but the dif-
ferent nature of the materials employed in their con-
struction, and the climates and circumstances of the
two countries, naturally produce a considerable dissi-
milarity in the practice of civil-engineers in England
and America. At the first view, one is struck with
the temporary and apparently unfinished state of
many of the American works, and is very apt, be-
fore inquiring into the subject, to impute to want of
ability what turns out, on investigation, to be a judi-
cious and ingenious arrangement to suit the circum-
stances of a new country, of which the climate is severe,
-a country where stone is scarce and wood is plenti-
ful, and where manual labour is very expensive. It is
vain to look to the American works for the finish that
characterises those of France, or the stability for which
those of Britain are famed. Undressed slopes of cut-
tings and embankments, roughly built rubble arches,
stone parapet-walls coped with timber, and canal-locks
wholly constructed of that material, every where
offend the eye accustomed to view European work-
manship. But it must not be supposed that this arises
from want of knowledge of the principles of engineer-
ing, or of skill to do them justice in the execution.
The use of wood, for example, which may be considered
by many as wholly inapplicable to the construction of
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canal-locks, where it must not only encounter the tear
and wear occasioned by the lockage of vessels, but must
be subject to the destructive consequences of alternate
immersion in water and exposure to the atmosphere,
is yet the result of deliberate judgment. The Ame-
ricans have, in many cases, been induced to use the
material of the country, ill adapted though it be in
some respects to the purposes to which it is applied, in
order to meet the .wants of a rising community, by
speedily and perhaps superficially completing a work of
importance, which would otherwise be delayed, from a
want of the means to execute it in a more substantial
manner ; and although the works are wanting in
finish, and even in solidity, they do not fail for many
years to serve the purposes for which they were con-
structed, as efficiently as works of a more lasting de-
scription.
When the wooden locks on any of the canals begin
to shew symptoms of decay, stone structures are ge-
nerally substituted, and materials suitable for their
erection are with ease and expedition conveyed from
the part of the country where they are most abundant,
by means of the canal itself to which they are to
be applied ; and thus the less substantial work ulti-
mately becomes the means of facilitating its own im-
provement, by affording a more easy, cheap, and
speedy transport of those durable and expensive ma-
terials, without the use of which, perfection is unat-
tainable.
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CANALS.
One of the most important advantages of construct-
ing the locks of canals, in new countries such as Ame-
rica, of wood, unquestionably is, that in proportion
as improvement advances and greater dimensions or
other changes are required, they can be introduced at
little cost, and without the mortification of destroying
expensive and substantial works of masonry. Some
of the locks on the great Erie canal are formed of
stone, but had they all been made of wood, it would
in all probability have been converted into a ship-canal
long ago.
But the locks are not the only parts of the Ameri-
can canals in which wood is used. Aqueducts over
ravines or rivers are generally formed of large wooden
troughs resting on stone pillars, and even more tem-
porary expedients have been chosen, the ingenuity of
which can hardly fail to please those who view them
as the means of carrying on improvements, which, but
for such contrivances, might be stopped by the want
of funds necessary to complete them.
Mr M Taggart, the resident engineer for the Ri-
deau canal in Canada, gave a good example of the ex-
traordinary expedients often resorted to, by suggest-
ing a very novel scheme for carrying that work across
a thickly wooded ravine situate in a part of the coun-
try where materials for forming an embankment, or
stone for building the piers of an aqueduct, could not
be obtained but at a great expense. The plan consist-
ed of cutting across the large trees in the line of the
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works, at the level of the bottom of the canal, so as to
render them fit for supporting a platform on their
trunks, and on this platform the trough containing
the water of the canal was intended to rest. I am not
aware whether this plan was carried into effect, but it
is not more extraordinary than many of the schemes
to which the Americans have resorted in constructing
their public works ; and the great traffic sustained by
many of them, notwithstanding the temporary and hur-
ried manner in which they are finished, is truly won-
derful. The number of boats navigating the Erie
Canal in 1836 was no less than 3167, and the ave-
rage number of lockages 118 per day ; facts which
clearly prove the efficiency as well as the utility of the
work.
With the exception of some few works in the most
southern states of the Union, the artificial navigation
of North America, as well as that of the northern ri-
vers and lakes, is completely suspended during a pe-
riod of from three to five months every year. During
that time the water is always withdrawn from the ca-
nals and feeders. This precaution is absolutely neces-
sary, as the intense frost with which the country is
then visited very soon proves destructive to the locks
and aqueducts, by the expansion of the water, which,
if permitted to remain in them, is speedily converted
into a mass of ice.
The rate of travelling which has been adopted on
the American canals, the charges for the conveyance
N 2
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CANALS.
of passengers and goods, and the general laws for re-
gulating canal transport, are fixed by the commissioners
who have charge of the different works, and are not
exactly the same in every State. The following ob-
servations, however, regarding the mode of travelling
on the Pennsylvania State canals, are generally appli-
cable to all others in the country.
The tolls paid to the State, by the persons who have
boats on these canals, are three halfpence per mile for
each boat, and three farthings per mile for each pas-
senger conveyed in them. The passenger-boats vary
from twelve to fifteen feet in breadth, and are eighty
feet in length ; the large-sized boats weigh about
twenty tons and cost L.250 each, and when loaded
with a full complement of passengers draw twelve
inches of water. They are dragged by three horses
at once, which run ten-mile stages. The length of
the tow-line generally used is about 150 feet, and the
rate of travelling is from four to four and a half miles
per hour.
The canal travelling in many parts of America is
conducted with SO little regard to the comfort of pas-
sengers as to render it a very objectionable convey-
ance. The Americans place themselves entirely in
the power and at the command of the captains of the
canal-boats, who often use little discretion or civility
in giving their orders, and strangers who are unac-
customed to such usage, and would willingly rebel
against their tyranny, are in such cases compelled to
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be guided by the majority of voices, and quietly to
submit to all that takes place, however disagreeable it
may be. About eight o'clock in the evening, every
one is turned out of the cabin by the captain and his
crew, who are occupied for some time after the cabin is
cleared, in suspending two rows of cots or hammocks
from the ceiling, arranged in three tiers one above
another. At nine the whole company is ordered be-
low, when the captain calls the names of the passen-
gers from the way-bill, and at the same time assigns
to each his bed, which must immediately be taken pos-
session of by its rightful owner on pain of his being ob-
liged to occupy a place on the floor, should the number
of passengers exceed the number of beds, a circum-
stance of very common occurrence in that loeomotive
land. I have spent several successive nights in this
way, in a cabin only 40 feet long by 11 feet broad,
with no less than forty passengers; while the deaf-
ening chorus produced by the croaking of the num-
berless bull-frogs that frequent the American swamps
was so great, as to render it often difficult to make
one's-self heard in conversation, and, of course, nearly
impossible to sleep. The distribution of the beds ap-
pears to be generally regulated by the size of the
passengers ; those that are heaviest being placed in
the berths next the floor. The object of this arrange-
ment is partly to. ballast the boat properly, and
partly, in the event of a breakdown, to render the
consequence less disagreeable and dangerous to the
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CANALS.
unhappy beings in the lower pens. At five o'clock
in the morning, all hands are turned out in the same
abrupt and discourteous style, and forced to remain
on deck in the cold morning air while the ham-
mocks are removed and breakfast is in preparation.
This interval is occupied in the duties of the toilette,
which is not the least amusing part of the arrange-
ment. A tin vessel is placed at the stern of the
boat, which every one washes and fills for his own
use from the water of the canal, with a gigantic spoon
formed of the same metal ; a towel, a brush, and a
comb, intended for the general service, hang at the
cabin door, the use of which, however, is fortunately
quite optional. The breakfast is served between six
and seven o'clock, dinner at eleven, and tea at five.
The American canal travelling certainly forms a
great contrast to that of Holland and Belgium. The
boat in which I was conveyed on the canal between
Ghent and Bruges, for example, was commodiously
fitted up with separate state rooms, containing one
berth in each, and was, in other respects, a most
comfortable and agreeable conveyance. But I trust
the reader will not form an estimate of American
travelling from what has just been said, nor take
this single specimen of it as a criterion of the
whole. In the eastern and earlier settled districts
of the country, no such grievances have to be suf-
fered, and there are many hundreds of persons in
that part of the United States who hardly believe in
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their existence. So long as-the traveller keeps on the
east of the Alleghany Mountains, all goes on smoothly,
but if he attempts to cross their summits, and pene-
trate into the far west," he must look for treatment
such as I have described. There is indeed as great a
difference in this respect between the seaward and in-
terior States of North America, as there is between
the counties of Kent and Caithness.
But I return from these petty troubles to the con-
sideration of a subject of more importance, namely,
the works which have been employed in forming the
inland lines of water communication in America.
These are of two kinds, called Slackwater navigation
and Canals. The Slackwater navigation is the more
simple of these operations, and can generally be exe-
cuted at less expense. It consists in improving the
navigation of a river by the erection of dams or mounds
built in the stream, which have the effect of damming
up the water, and increasing its depth. If there be
not a great fall in the bed of the river, a single dam
often produces a stagnation in the run of the water,
extending for many miles up the river and forming a
spacious navigable canal. The tow-path is formed
along the margin of the river, and is elevated above
the reach of flood-water. The dams are passed by
means of locks, such as are used in Canals. This
method of forming water communication has been
extensively and successfully introduced in America,
where limited means and abundance of rivers rendered
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CANALS
it peculiarly applicable. One of the most extensive
works on this principle in the country was constructed
by the Schuylkill Navigation Company, in the State
of Pennsylvania, and consisted in damming up the
water of the river Schuylkill. It extends from Phi-
ladelphia to Reading, and is situate in the heart of
a country abounding in coal, from the transport of
which the Company derives its chief revenue. It is
108 miles in length, and its construction cost about
L.500,000. This line of navigation is formed by
thirty-four dams thrown across the stream, with
twenty-nine locks, which overcome a fall of 610 feet.
It is navigated by boats of from fifty to sixty tons
burden. These dams are constructed somewhat on
the same principle as that erected on the Schuylkill
at Fairmount water-works, near Philadelphia. A
detailed description of this dam is given in the chap-
ter which treats of water-works.
One great objection to this mode of forming inland
navigation, is the necessity of constructing works of
great strength, sufficient to enable them to withstand
the floods and ice to which they are exposed, and by
which they are very apt to be damaged, or even car-
ried away. Accidents of this kind, however, may be
in a great measure guarded against by making a
judicious selection of situations for the dams and
locks, and placing them in such a manner in the bed
of the river, that the current may act on them in the
direction least detrimental to their stability, as has
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been done in the dam at Fairmount water-works
just alluded to.
The number of boats which passed through the locks
of the Schuylkill navigation in 1836, was 24,470, the
tolls on which amounted to L.14,043. The various
articles taken up the river during that year, weighed
61,079 tons, and those brought towards the sea
570,094 tons, of which 432,045 tons were anthra-
cite coal, from the State of Pennsylvania.
Slackwater navigation also occurs at intervals on
many of the great lines of canal. About 78 miles of
the Rideau Canal, in Canada, as formerly noticed, are
formed in this way, and in the United States it is met
with on the Erie, Oswego, Pennsylvania, Frankston,
Lycoming, and Lehigh Canals. The works which
have been executed in forming most of the water com-
munications in America, however, are not generally
of the Slackwater kind, but resemble the canals
in use in Europe, being, in fact, artificial trenches or
troughs, with locks to enable vessels to pass from one
level to another. The locks are furnished with boom-
gates, which are opened and shut by a long lever fixed
to the tops of the quoin and mitre posts. The sluices
by which the water is admitted into the locks, are
placed in the lower part of the gates. They are in
general common hinge-sluices, opened by means of a
rod extending to the top of the gates, and worked by
a crank handle.
The canals of this construction in the United States,
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CANALS.
are SO very numerous, and resemble each other so much,
that I do not consider it necessary to give a detailed
description of the various works which have been exe-
cuted on all of them, but shall content myself with
giving a brief sketch of the Erie Canal, which was the
first in America on which the conveyance of passen-
gers was attempted, and. is the longest canal in the
world regarding which we possess accurate information.
The Erie Canal was commenced in 1817, and com-
pleted in 1825. The main lime leading from Albany,
on the Hudson, to Buffalo, on Lake Erie, measures
363 miles in length, and cost about L.1,400,000
Sterling. The Champlain, Oswego, Chemung, Ca-
yuga and Crooked Lake Canals, and some others, join
the main line, and, including these branch canals, it
measures 543 miles in length, and cost upwards of
L.2,300,000. This canal is forty feet in breadth
at the water line, twenty-eight feet at the bottom,
and four feet in depth. Its dimensions have proved
too small for the extensive trade which it has to sup-
port, and workmen are now employed in raising its
banks, so as to increase the depth of water to seven
feet, and the extreme breadth of the canal to sixty
feet. The country through which it passes is ad-
mirably suited for canal navigation, and there are
only eighty-four locks on the main line. These locks
are each ninety feet in length, and fifteen in breadth,
and have an average lift of eight feet two inches.
The total rise and fall is 692 feet. The tow-path
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is elevated four feet above the level of the water,
and is ten feet in breadth. The Erie Canal begins
at Buffalo, on Lake Erie, and extends for a dis-
tance of about ten miles along the banks of Lake
Erie and the river Niagara, as far as Tonewanta
Creek. By means of the Slackwater navigation for-
merly described, the channel of the Tonewanta is
rendered navigable for the distance of twelve miles,
and the canal is then carried through a deep cut-
ting, extending seven and a half miles, to Lockport.
Here it descends sixty feet by means of five locks exca-
vated in solid rock, and afterwards proceeds on an uni-
form level for a distance of sixty-three miles to Genessee
River, over which it is carried on an aqueduct having
nine arches of fifty feet span each. Eight and a half
miles from this point it passes over the Cayuga marsh,
on an embankment two miles in length, and in some
places seventy feet in height. It then passes through
Lakeport and Syracuse, and at this place the " long
level" commences, which extends for a distance of no
less than sixty-nine and a half miles to Frankfort,
without an intervening lock. After leaving Frank-
fort, the canal crosses the river Mohawk, first by an
aqueduct of 748 feet in length, supported on six-
teen piers, elevated twenty-five feet above the sur-
face of the river, and afterwards by another aqueduct
1188 feet in length, and at last reaches the town of
Albany.
Albany is the capital of the State of New York,
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and contains a population of about 30,000. It is si-
tuate on the west, or right bank of the Hudson, at
the head of the natural navigation of the river ; but
some improvements have been made, which enable
vessels of small burden to ascend as far as Waterford,
thirteen miles above Albany. One of these improve-
ments has been effected by the erection of a dam across
the Hudson 1100 feet in length and 9 feet in height,
at a cost of upwards of L.18,000. The lock connect-
ed with this dam measures 114 feet in length and 30
feet in breadth. Albany, however, may be said to
monopolize the trade of the river, and, in addition to
the interest it possesses as a place of great commerce, it
is important from its position at the outlet of the Erie
Canal, and as the seat of a large basin or depôt for
the accommodation of the boats navigating it. This
basin, which has an area of thirty-two acres, is formed
by an enormous mound, placed lengthwise with the
stream of the River Hudson, and enclosing a part of
its surface. The mound is composed chiefly of earth,
and is 4300 feet in length and 80 feet in breadth, and
being completely covered with large warehouses, it now
forms a part of the town of Albany, with which it is
connected by means of numerous drawbridges. The
place has, in consequence, very much the same appear-
ance as many of the Dutch towns. The lower extre-
mity of the mound is unconnected with the shore, a
large passage being left for the ingress and egress of
vessels, but its upper end is separated from the bank
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CANALS.
205
of the river by a smaller opening, which is closed,
when necessary, to prevent ice from injuring the craft
lying in the basin. A stream of water is generally
allowed to enter at the upper end, which, flowing
through the basin, acts as a scour, and prevents it
from silting up. The mound is surrounded by a
wooden wharf like those of New York and Bos-
ton, at which vessels discharge and load their cargoes.
This admirable basin forms a part of the Erie Canal
works, and cost about L. 26,000.
According to the Report of the Canal Commission-
ers, dated March 1837, the number of boats registered
in the Comptroller's office, as navigating the Erie Canal
and its branches, was,-
In 1834,
2,585
1835,
2,914
Increase, 329
1836,
3,167
253
The total number of clearances or trips made du-
ring the same years was,-
In 1834,
64,794
1835,
69,767
1836,
67,270
The average number of lockages per day at each
lock was,-
In 1834,
951
1835,
112
1836,
118
The whole tonnage transported on the canal during
the year 1836 was 1,310,807 tons, the value of which
amounted to 67,643,343 dollars, or L.13,526,868.
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206
CANALS.
The proportion between the weight of freight convey-
ed from the Hudson to the interior of the country,
and that conveyed from the interior of the country to
the Hudson, was in the ratio of one to five. The tolls
collected in 1836, for the conveyance of goods and
passengers, amounted to L.322,867. The rates of
charge, according to which the tolls are collected, are
annually changed, to suit the circumstances of the
trade, and are not the same throughout the whole line
of the canal, which renders it difficult to give a view
of them. In 1836, the passage-money from Albany
to Buffalo in the packet-boat was L.3, 3s., being at the
rate of nearly 2d. per mile ; and in a line-boat, which
is an inferior conveyance, L.1, 18s., being at the rate
of one penny and two-tenths per mile. The expen-
diture for keeping the canal and its branches in
repair during 1836 was 410,236 dollars, or about
L.82,047, which, taking the whole length at 543
miles, gives an average of L.151 per mile. The
average cost of repairs for the six preceding years
amounted to L.136 per mile.
Before leaving the subject of canals, I must not
omit to mention the Morris Canal, in the State of
New Jersey, which I visited in company with Mr
Douglass, the engineer for that work, to whom I am
essentially indebted for the information and attention
which I received from him during my stay in Ame-
rica. This canal leads from Jersey on the Hudson
to Easton on the Delaware, and connects these two
Digitized by Google
Digitized by Google
Stevenson's Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America.
PLATE 1%
Fig. 1.
a
a
x
Fig. 2.
a
a
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HIM,
a
a
lumes Andrews. Dd'
Boat car used on the indined planes at the Morris Canal.
tiro. Aikman. Sculp!
CANALS.
207
rivers. The breadth at the water-line is thirty-two, and
at the bottom sixteen feet, and the depth is four feet.
It is 101 miles in length, and is said to have cost
about L.600,000. It is peculiar as being the only
canal in America in which the boats are moved
from different levels by means of inclined planes in-
stead of locks ; a construction which was first in-
troduced on the Duke of Bridgewater's Canal, in
England. The whole rise and fall on the Morris
Canal is 1557 feet, of which 223 feet are overcome by
locks, and the remaining 1334 feet by means of
twenty-three inclined planes, having an average lift
of 58 feet each. The boats which navigate this
canal are 81 feet in breadth of beam, from 60 to 80
feet in length, and from twenty-five to thirty tons
burden. The greatest weight ever drawn up the
planes is about fifty tons. Plate VI. is a drawing of
one of the boat-cars used on this canal. Fig. 1 is an
elevation, in which the boat is shewn in dotted lines ;
and fig. 2 is a plan of the car. It consists of a strongly
made wooden crib or cradle, marked letter a, on which
the boat rests, supported on two iron waggons running
on four wheels. When the car is wholly supported
on the inclined plane, or is resting on a level, the
four axles of the waggons, bbbb, are all in the same
plane, as shewn by the dotted line x y ; but when one
of the waggons rests on the inclined plane, and the
other on the level surface, their axles no longer re-
main in the same plane, and their change of position
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208
CANALS.
produces a tendency to rack the cradle, and the boat
which it supports ; but this has been guarded against
in the construction of the boat-cars on the Morris
Canal, by introducing two axles, shewn at letters c c,
on which the whole weight of the crib and boat are
supported. and on which the waggons turn as a centre.
The cars run on plate-rails laid on the inclined
planes, and are raised and lowered by means of ma-
chinery driven by water-wheels. I examined several of
the planes on this canal near Newark, which appeared
to operate remarkably well. The railway, on which
the car runs, extends for a short distance from the
lower extremity of the plane along the bottom of
the canal ; when a boat is to be raised, the car is
lowered into the water, and the boat being floated
over it, is made fast to the part of the framework
which projects above the gunwale, as shewn in the
drawing at letter d. The machinery is then put in mo-
tion ; and the car bearing the boat, is drawn by a chain
to the top of the inclined plane, at which there is a
lock for its reception. The lock is furnished with gates
at both extremities; after the car has entered it, the
gates next the top of the inclined plane are closed,
and, those next the canal being opened, the water
flows in and floats the boat off the car, when she pro-
ceeds on her way. Her place is supplied by a boat
travelling in the opposite direction, which enters the
lock, and the gates next the canal being closed, and the
water run off, she grounds on the car. The gates next
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CANALS.
209
the plane are then opened, the car is gently lowered to
the bottom when it enters the water, and the boat is
again floated. Theprincipal objection urged against the
use of inclined planes in canal navigation, for moving
boats from different levels, is founded on the injury
which the boats are apt to sustain in supporting great
weights while resting on the cradle during its pas-
sage over the planes. It can hardly be supposed that
a slimly built canal boat, measuring from sixty to
eighty feet in length, and loaded with a weight of
twenty or thirty tons, can be grounded even on a
smooth surface, without straining and injuring her
timbers; a circumstance which is a decided objection
to this mode of construction, and has operated power-
fully in preventing its introduction in many situations
both in this country and in America. But, notwith-
standing this objection, the twenty-three inclined
planes on the Morris Canal are in full operation, and
act exceedingly well. No pains have been spared to
render the machinery connected with them as perfect
as possible, and the greatest credit is due to the en-
gineer for the success which has hitherto attended
their operation.
The Lachine, the Rideau, the Grenville, and the
Welland Canals, and the St Lawrence Canal, at pre-
sent in progress, are the only artificial water commu-
nications in British America; but as I have already
noticed these works in the chapters on River and Lake
Navigation, it is unnecessary again to allude to them.
0
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TABLE of the Principal Canals and Lines of Slackwater Navigation constructed in the United States up to the year 1836
inclusive. Compiled from the Reports of the Canal Companies, the American Almanac, and other sources.
210
The Canals marked thus . are State Canals, the others have been executed by Joint Stock Companies.
The Canals marked thus + are shewn on the map.
Whole
Number
REMARKS.
of Locks.
Height of
When
Length
Whole
NAMES OF CANALS.
Lockage
Opened.
in
length
Reported
Miles.
in each
Cost.
in Feet.
State.
MAINE.
Cumberland and Oxford,
From Portland to Sebago Pond,
26
1829
201
Songo River,
:
-Slackwater navigation,
1829
29.
}
£50,000
50
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Merrimac,
+To obviate Falls, on the Merrimac, four in number,
23
121
1812
11
28,400
11
CANALS.
MASSACHUSETTS.
Middlesex,
{
+ Boston Harbour to River Merrimac; breadth at
20
136
1808
27
surface 30 feet, at bottom 20 feet, depth 3 feet,
105,600
Blackstone,
+ Worcestor to Providence,
1828
45
120,000
Hampshire and Hampden,
FFarmington Canal to Northampton,
22
South Hadley,
To obviate Falls on the River Connecticut,
1792
2
Digitized by Google
Montague,
Do.
do.
do.
3
99
CONNECTICUT.
Farmington,
Newhaven to the Hampshire and Hampden Canal,
1831
54
600,000
Enfield,
To obviate Falls on the River Connecticut,
51
59h
Carry forward
219}
Whole
Number
Height of
Length
Whole
NAMES OF THE CANALS
REMARKS.
of Locks.
Opened.
in
length
Reported
Lockage
Miles.
in each
Cost.
in Feet.
State.
Brought forward,
NEW YORK.
2191
Erie,
Albany to Buffalo,
84
1825
363
£1,428,757
Champlain,
Albany to Whitehall (with Feeder),
34
1824
76
235,994
Oswego,
Syracuse and Oswego (one-half Canal and one-half
14
1828
38
Slackwater navigation),
113,087
Cayuga and Seneca,
Geneva on Seneca Lake to Montezuma on the
11
1828
21
Erie Canal,
47,361
Chemung,
+Seneca Lake to Chemung River (with Feeder),
53
1833
39
66,338
Crooked Lake,
Connects Crooked Lake and Seneca Lake,
27
1833
8
Chenango,
Erie Canal and Susquehanna River,
109
97
Delaware and Hudson,
{
Connects the Hudson and Delaware, and extends
}
110
1073
1828
109
392,091
up the Delaware and Lackawaxen Rivers,
Chittenango,
Chittenango to the Erie Canal,
4
11
446,364
7521
New JERSEY.
Morris,
tJersey to Easton,
1557
1836
101
600,000
CANALS.
Delaware and Raritan,
*Bordentown to New Brunswick (with Feeder),
1834
67
500,000
Salem,
Salem Creek to Delaware,
4
172
PENNSYLVANIA.
*Delaware Division of the Penn-
o
sylvania Canal,
}
Bristol to Easton,
164
1830
594
247,605
2
Central ditto,
Columbia to Hollidaysburg,
111
585
1830
172
918,829
'Western ditto.
Johnstown to Pittsburg,
64
470
1830
105
560,000
"Susquehanna ditto,
Duncan's Island to Northumberland,
86
1831
39
207,851
"North Branch,
Northumberland to Lackawannock,
111
1830
73
279,682
"West Branch,
Northumberland to Dunnstown,
131
1830
72
316,070
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"Beaver,
Ohio River to Newcastle,
132
25
96,256
"Franklin Line,
{
+Alleghany River to French Creek (17 miles slack-
water navigation),
}
128
22
88,511
Carry forward.
5674
1144
211
Whole
Whole
Number
When
Length
Height of
length
Reported
212
NAMES OF THE CANALS.
REMARKS.
of
Lockage
Opened.
in
in each
Cost.
Locks.
Miles.
in Feet.
State.
Brought forward,
5674
1144
PENNSYLVANIA-continued.
"French Creek Feeder,
Bemis Dam to Conneaut Lake,
23
£ 58,420
Union,
Connecting the rivers Susquehanna and Schuylkill,
91
1827
80
400,000
Schuylkill,
Philadelphia to Reading (slackwater navigation),
129
610
108
500,035
Lehigh,
{
Delaware River to Stoddartsville (9) miles slack-
}
53
46}
311,600
water navigation),
River Susquehanna to Lancaster,
9
16
13,708
Conestoga,
Codorus,
9
111
Conewaga,
To obviate Falls on the Susquehanna,
9
21
8551
DELAWARE.
{
Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay (66 feet
Chesapeake and Delaware,
}
1829
14
440,000
broad at water line, and 10 feet deep),
14
CANALS.
MARYLAND.
81
Chesapeake and Ohio,
Finished from Baltimore to Harper's Ferry,
10
Port Deposit,
To obviate Rapids on the Susquehanna,
Potomac,
To obviate the Falls of the Potomac,
21
931
VIRGINIA.
Digitized by Google
Chesapeake Bay and Albemarle Sound,
23
175,973
Dismal Swamp,
James River,
To obviate Falls on James River,
91
32½
NORTH CAROLINA.
North-West Canal,
North-West River and Dismal Swamp,
6
Weldon,
To obviate Falls of the Roanoke,
12
Lake Drummond Canal,
5
23
Carry forward,
21621
Whole
REMARKS:
Number
Whole
NAMES OF THE CANALS.
Height of
When
Length
of Locks.
in
length
Reported
Lockage
Opened.
in each
Cost.
in Feet.
Miles.
State.
Brought forward,
21624
SOUTH CAROLINA.
Santee Canal,
+Santee River and Charleston Harbour,
1802
22
£130,133
Wingaw,
+Santee River and Wingaw Bay,
10
Dreln,
To obviate Fall on Saluda River,
It
Lockhart's,
Shoals on Broad River,
23
Saluda,
Saluda Shoals,
6
Lorricks,
On Broad River,
1
Catawha,
To obviate Falls on Catawha River,
111
GEORGIA.
541
Savannah and Ogeetchee,
+From Savannah to River Ogeetchee,
1829
16
33,000
ALABAMA.
16
Huntsville Canal,
+Triana on the Tennessee to Huntsville,
16
CANALS.
LOUISIANA.
16
Carondelet,
+Bayou St John to New Orleans,
1805
6
Lafourche,
+Navigable only in times of high water,
85
Lake Veret,
La Fourche Canal to Lake Veret,
8
KENTUCKY.
99
Louisville and Portland,
To obviate Rapids of the Ohio,
4
24
1830
2
OHHo.
2
Ohio Canal,
+Lake Erie and Ohio,
152
1205
1832
309
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Miami,
+Cincinnati to Dayton,
32
296
1830
65
149,200
374
Total length,
27231
213
TABLE of the CANALS which are not yet finished, or are proposed to be constructed in the UNITED STATES.
214
Length
NAMES.
REMARKS.
in
Estimated Cost.
Miles.
NEW YORK.
Genesee and Alleghany,
From the Erie Canal to the Alleghany River,
122}
£378,123
Black River,
From Erie Canal to Black River (begun),
75
Haerlem,
Across Manhatten Island (begun),
3
110,000
Sodus,
From Seneca River to Lake Ontario,
25
40,000
Scottsville,
From Scottsville to Genesee River,
3,000
Oneida Lake,
From Oneida Lake to Erie Canal (begun),
81
8,000
Auburn and Owasco,
From Owasco Lake to Auburn,
3
20,000
PENNSYLVANIA.
Pittsburg and Erie,
From the Ohio to Lake Erie (begun),
73}
Chesapeake and Ohio,
{
From Chesapeake Bay to the River Ohio, (one Tunnel required through the
Alleghany Mountains, four miles and eighty yards long, begun),
}
341¥
1,869,481
LOUISIANA.
New Orleans Ship Canal,
...
8
...
...
70,000
CANALS.
INDIANA.
Wabash and Erie,
Maumee River to Lake Erie (begun),
187
Central,
:
From Wabash Canal to the Ohio River (begun),
290
Whitewater,
76
Digitized by Google
Terrehaute and Eel River,
From Wabash Canal to the Central Canal (begun),
40}
125,926
ILLINOIS.
Illinois and Michigan,
From Chicago to Illinois River (begun),
95
1,400,000
ALABAMA.
Florence,
To overcome the mussel shoals on the Tennessee River (begun),
37
OHio.
Mahoning and Beaver,
Newcastle to the Ohio Canal (begun),
88
152,874
Sandy Creek,
From the River Ohio to Bolivar (begun).
Total length,
14734
( 215 )
CHAPTER VII.
ROADS.
Roads not suitable as a means of communication in America-Con-
dition of the American Roads— Corduroy Roads"-Road from
Pittsburg to Erie-New England Roads-The " National Road"
-The " Macadamized Road"-City Roads-Causewaying or
Pitching-Brick Pavements-Macadamizing-Tesselated wooden
Pavements used in New York and in St Petersburgh.
ROAD-MAKING is a branch of engineering which
has been very little cultivated in America, and it was
not until the introduction of railways that the Ameri-
cans entertained the idea of transporting heavy goods
by any other means than those afforded by canals and
slackwater navigation. Their objection to paved or
Macadamized roads such as are used in Europe is
founded on the prejudicial effects exerted upon works
of that description by the severe and protracted win-
ters by which the country is visited, and also the dif-
ficulty and expense of obtaining materials suitable for
their construction, and for keeping them in a state of
proper repair. Stone fitted for the purposes of road-
making is by no means plentiful in America; and as
the number of workmen is small in proportion to the
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216
ROADS.
quantity of work which is generally going forward
in the country, manual labour is very expensive.
Under these circumstances, it is evident that roads
would have been a very costly means of communication,
and as they are not suitable for the transport of heavy
goods, the Americans, in commencing their internal
improvements, directed their whole attention to the
construction of canals, as being much better adapted
to supply their wants.
The roads throughout the United States and Ca-
nada, are, from these causes, not very numerous, and
most of those by which I travelled were in so neglected
and wretched a condition, as hardly to deserve the
name of highways, being quite unfit for any vehicle
but an American stage, and any pilot but an Ameri-
can driver. In many parts of the country, the ope-
ration of cutting a track through the forests of a suf-
ficient width to allow vehicles to pass each other, is
all that has been done towards the formation of a road.
The roots of the felled trees are often not removed,
and in marshes, where the ground is wet and soft, the
trees themselves are cut in lengths of about ten or
twelve feet, and laid close to each other across the road,
to prevent vehicles from sinking, forming what is
called in America a Corduroy road," over which the
coach advances by a series of leaps and starts, par-
ticularly trying to those accustomed to the comforts
of European travelling. The following diagram re-
presents the manner in which these roads are formed,
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ROADS.
217
Fig. 1 being a plan, and Fig. 2 a view of the ends
of the logs.
Fig. 1.
Fig.2.
On the road leading from Pittsburg on the Ohio
to the town of Erie on the lake of that name, I saw
all the varieties of forest road-making in great per-
fection. Sometimes our way lay for miles through
extensive marshes, which we erossed by corduroy-
roads, formed in the manner shewn above; at others
the coach stuck fast in mud, from which it could be
extricated only by the combined efforts of the coach-
man and passengers ; and at one place we travelled
for upwards of a quarter of a mile through a forest
flooded with water, which stood to the height of seve-
ral feet on many of the trees, and occasionally covered
the naves of the coach-wheels. The distance of the
route from Pittsburg to Erie is 128 miles, which was
accomplished in forty-six hours, being at the very
slow rate of about two miles and three quarters an
hour, although the conveyance by which I travelled
carried the mail, and stopped only for breakfast, din-
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218
ROADS.
ner, and tea, but there was considerable delay caused by
the coach being once upset and several times "mired."
The best roads in the United States are those of
New England, where, in the year 1796, the first
American turnpike-act was granted. These roads
are made of gravel ; a material which, by the way, is
much used for road-making in Ireland. The surface
of the New England roads is very smooth ; but as no
attention has been paid to forming or draining them,
it is only for a few months during summer that they
possess any superiority, or are, in fact, at all tolerable.
In Virginia and all the States lying to the south,
as well as throughout the whole country to the west-
ward of the Alleghany Mountains, the roads, I be-
lieve, are, generally speaking, of the same description
as the one already mentioned between Pittsburg and
Erie, affording very little comfort or facility to those who
have the misfortune to be obliged to travel upon them.
But on the construction of one or two lines of road,
the Americans have bestowed a little more attention.
The most remarkable of them is that called the
" National Road," stretching across the country from
Baltimore to the State of Illinois, a distance of no
less than 700 miles, an arduous and extensive work,
which was constructed at the expense of the govern-
ment of the United States. The narrow tract of
land from which it was necessary to remove the tim-
ber and brushwood for the passage of the road, mea-
sures eighty feet in breadth ; but the breadth of the
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ROADS.
219
road itself is only thirty feet. The line of the
" National Road" is laid down on the accompanying
map. Commencing at Baltimore, it passes through
part of the State of Maryland, and entering that of
Pennsylvania, crosses the range of the Alleghany
Mountains, after which, it passes through the States
of Virginia, Ohio and Indiana, to Illinois. It is in
contemplation to produce this line of road to the
Mississippi at St Louis, where, the river being crossed
by a ferry-boat stationed at that place, the road is
ultimately to be extended into the State of Missouri,
which lies to the west of the Mississippi.
The " Macadamized road," as it is called, leading
from Albany to Troy, is another line which has been
formed at some cost, and with some degree of care.
This road, as its name implies, is constructed with
stone broken, according to Macadam's principle. It is
six miles in length, and has been formed of a suffi-
cient breadth to allow three carriages to stand abreast
on it at once. It belongs to an incorporated company,
who are said to have expended about L.20,000 in
constructing and upholding it.
Some interesting experiments have lately been set
on foot at New York, for the purpose of obtaining a
permanent and durable City Road, for streets over
which there is a great thoroughfare. The place chosen
for the trial was the Broadway, in which the traffic is
constant and extensive.
The specimen of road-making first put to the test
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220
ROADS.
was a species of causewaying or pitching ; but the
materials employed are round water-worn stones, of
small size ; and their only recommendation for such a
work appears to be their great abundance in the neigh-
bourhood of the town. The most of the streets in
New York, and indeed in all the American towns, are
paved with stones of this description ; but, owing to
their small size and round form, they easily yield to
the pressure of carriages passing over them, and pro-
duce the large ruts and holes for which American
thoroughfares are famed. To form a smooth and du-
rable pavement, the pitching-stones should have a
considerable depth, and their opposite sides ought to
be as nearly parallel as possible, or, in other words,
the stones should have very little taper. The foot-
paths in most of the towns are paved with bricks set
on edge, and bedded in sand, similar to the " clinkers,"
or small hard-burned bricks so generally used for road-
making in Holland.
The second specimen was formed with broken
stones, but the materials, owing chiefly no doubt to
the high rate of wages, are not broken sufficiently
small to entitle it to the name of a " Macadamized
Road." It is, however, a wonderful improvement on
the ordinary pitched pavement of the country, and the
only objections to its general introduction, as already
noticed, are the prejudicial effects produced on it by
the very intense frost with which the country is visit-
ed, and the expense of keeping it in repair.
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ROADS.
221
The third specimen is rather of an original descrip-
tion. It consists of a species of tesselated pavement,
formed of hexagonal billets of pine wood measuring
six inches on each side, and twelve inches in depth,
arranged as shewn in the following cut, in which Fig. 3
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
is a view of part of the surface of the pavement, and
Fig. 4 is one of the billets of wood of which it is
composed, shewn on a larger scale. From the manner
in which the timber is arranged, the pressure falls on
it parallel to the direction in which its fibres lie, so
that the tendency to wear is very small. The blocks
are coated with pitch or tar, and are set in sand, form-
ing a smooth surface for carriages, which pass easily
and noiselessly over it. There can be no doubt of the
suitableness of wood for forming a roadway ; and such
an improvement is certainly much wanted in all Ame-
rican towns, and in none of them more than in New
York. Some, however, have expressed a fear that
great difficulty would be experienced in keeping pave-
ments constructed in this manner in a clean state, and
that during damp weather a vapour might arise from
the timber, which, if it were brought into general use,
would prove hurtful to the salubrity of large towns.
In the northern parts of Germany and also in Rus-
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222
ROADS.
sia, wooden pavements are a good deal used. My friend
Dr D. B. Reid informs me, that at St Petersburgh a
wooden causeway has been tried with considerable suc-
cess. The billets of wood are hexagonal, and are ar-
ranged in the manner represented in the diagram of
the American pavement. At first they were simply
imbedded in the ground, but a great improvement
has been introduced by placing them on a flooring of
planks laid horizontally, so as to prevent them from
sinking unequally. This has not, so far as I know,
been done in America.
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CHAPTER VIII.
BRIDGES.
Great Extent of many of the American Bridges-Different Construc-
tions adopted in America-Bridges over the Delaware at Tren-
ton, the Schuylkill at Philadelphia, the Susquehanna at Colum-
bia, the Rapids at the Falls of Niagara, &c.-Town's " Patent
Lattice Bridge"-Long's " Patent Truss Bridge."
THE vast rivers, lakes and arms of the sea, span-
ned by many of the American bridges, are on a scale
which far surpasses the comparatively insignificant
streams of this country, and, but for the facilities af-
forded for bridge-building by the great abundance of
timber, the only communication across most of the
American waters must still have been by means of a
ferry or a ford. The bridge over the river Susque-
hanna at Columbia, and that over the Potomac at
Washington, for example, are each one mile and a
quarter in length ; and in the neighbourhood of Bos-
ton there are no less than seven bridges, varying from
1500 feet to one mile and a half in length. The
bridge over Lake Cayuga is one mile, and those at
Kingston on Lake Ontario, and at St John's on Lake
Champlain, are each more than one-third of a mile in
length.
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BRIDGES.
The American bridges are in general constructed
entirely of wood. Although good building materials
had been plentiful in every part of the country, the
consumption of time and money attending the con-
struction of stone-bridges of so great extent must, if
not in all, at least in most cases, have proved too con-
siderable to warrant their erection. Many of those
recently built, however, consist of a wooden super-
structure resting on stone-piers, and in general exhibit
specimens of good carpentry, and not unfrequently of
good engineering. In those bridges which are of con-
siderable extent and importance, the roadway, and the
timbers by which it is supported, are generally pro-
tected by a roof or covering to preserve the wood from
decay, in the manner shewn in Platè VIII., in which
one-half of the bridge is represented as covered in, and
the other half as left exposed, in order to shew the
timbers. The roadway is lighted by windows, formed
at convenient distances in the covering, as shewn in
the drawings. The wooden bridges in Switzerland
and Germany are generally covered in the same man-
ner as those in America ; and by adopting this plan,
the objections to wood as a building material, arising
from its tendency to decay by exposure to the atmo-
sphere, are in some degree palliated. The planking or
flooring of the American bridges is never covered with
any composition, as is generally the case in this country,
but is left quite bare.
The simplest method of constructing wooden bridges
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Bridge over the Schuylkill, all Philadelphia.
PLATE VIII.
Fig. 1.
Water Line.
Scale of Feet.
200
Fig. 2.
Digitized by Google
Fig. 3.
Stevenson's Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America.
Water
Line
James Andrews. Delt
Geo. Aikman Sculpt
Published by. John Weale, 59. High Holborn, 1838.
Digitized by Google
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LATE VII.
a
1. 100% 11116 ******** ann .... am
1111111 .000
160 Feet.
180 Feet.
Fig. 2.
a
Geo Aikman, Sculpt
James Andrews, Delt
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BRIDGES.
225
is to form the roadway on horizontal beams, supported
on a series of piles driven into the ground, and where
the nature of the situation admits of this construction,
it is very generally adopted in America. But in span-
ning rivers, where it is of consequence to preserve a
large water way for the passage of ice, or on railways,
where it is often necessary that the surface of the rails
should have a considerable elevation above the level of
the water or ravine over which they are to pass, the
use of horizontal beams supported on piles is often
wholly impracticable, and in such situations other con-
structions have been resorted to for forming communi-
cations, some of which I shall briefly notice.
Plate VII. is the bridge over the river Delaware at
Trenton, about thirty miles from Philadelphia. This
bridge consists of five wooden arches, three of 200, one
of 180, and one of 160 feet span, supported on four
stone piers.* Fig. 1 is an elevation of the bridge,
Fig. 2 is a plan of one of the arches, and Fig. 3 is a
cross section ; Fig. 4 is an enlarged view, shewing one
of the piers, and a part of two of the arches. The road-
way of each span or opening, is suspended by iron rods,
from five wooden arcs, represented by the letter a in
Figs. 3 and 4, on the same principle as the iron bridge
over the river Aire at Leeds in Yorkshire. The wooden
arcs in the three largest openings are 200 feet in span,
and have a versed sine of 27 feet. The arcs and sus-
*
The dimensions of this bridge are not from measurements made
by myself.
P
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226
BRIDGES.
pending rods divide the roadway into four compart-
ments, as shewn in Fig. 3, forming two carriage-ways
in the middle of the bridge, each of which is nine feet
ten inches in the clear, and a footpath at each side
four feet ten inches in the clear. The entire breadth
of the bridge, measured over the outer suspending arcs,
is thirty-three feet eight inches. The whole is cover-
ed with a roof, in the manner shewn in the drawing.
The suspending arcs, marked letter a Fig. 4, butt
against strong oak planks, as shewn at letter x, which
extend throughout the whole breadth of the stone-
piers. They are supported at each pier by struts
marked letter c in Figs. 2 and 3, and are connected at
the top by a series of diagonal beams, represented by
the dotted lines in Fig. 2. These extend only about
half-way down the arcs on each side of the crown, SO
that they do not interfere with the height of the road-
way. The suspending arcs are composed of eight
thicknesses of pine plank, and measure two feet eight
inches in depth, and one foot one inch in breadth.
The planks of which they are made measure one foot
one inch in breadth, four inches in thickness, and from
thirty to fifty feet in length, and are arranged SO as to
break joint. The wooden braces, marked letter c,
Fig. 4, are for the purpose of stiffening the roadway.
They are fixed at the points, e, to the suspending
arcs, and at f to the longitudinal bearing beams of the
roadway by straps of iron. The suspending rods, d,
are formed of malleable iron, and occur at every six-
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BRIDGES.
227
teen feet in the two exterior arcs, and at every eight
feet in the three inner ones, which support the car-
riage-way.
The bridge over the Susquehanna at Columbia is
constructed somewhat on the same principles as the one
at Trenton which I have just described. The wooden
suspending arcs, however, do not spring from the level-
of the roadway, but from a point about eight feet be-
low it. In each span of the bridge, therefore, that
part of the roadway which is next the springings is
supported upon the arcs ; and the centre part of it is
suspended from them by a framing of wood. This
bridge, which was begun in 1832, and completed in
1834, is perhaps the most extensive arched bridge in
the world. It is certainly a magnificent work, and
its architectural effect is particularly striking. It con-
sists of no less than twenty-nine arches of 200 feet
span, supported on two abutments, and twenty-eight
piers of masonry, which are founded on rock, at an
average depth of six feet below the surface of the
water. The water-way of the bridge is 5800 feet ;
and its whole length, including piers and abutments,
is about one mile and a quarter. The bridge is sup-
ported by three wooden arcs, forming a double road-
way, which is adapted for the passage both of road
and railway carriages. There are also two footpaths ;
which make the whole breadth of the bridge thirty feet.
The arcs are formed in two pieces, each measuring
seven inches broad by fourteen inches in depth. These
P 2
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228
BRIDGES.
are placed nine inches asunder ; and the beams com-
posing the wooden framing, by which the roadway is
suspended, are placed between them, and fixed by iron
bolts passing through the whole.
Plate VIII. is the " Market Street Bridge," over
the Schuylkill at Philadelphia. Fig. 1 is an eleva-
tion, fig. 2 a plan, and fig. 3 a cross section. It con-
sists of three arches. The span of the centre arch is
194 feet ten inches, and the versed sine is twelve feet.
The other two arches are 150 feet in span, and have
versed sines of ten feet. The breadth of the road-
way is 35 feet. The piers were built with cofferdams,
one of them at the depth of 41, and the other at the
depth of 21 feet below the surface of the river at
high water. The work was commenced in 1801, and
completed in 1805 ; and the expense, which amounted
to L.60,000, was defrayed by a company of private
individuals. There is another bridge over the Schuyl-
kill at Philadelphia, consisting of a single arch of no
less than 320 feet span, having a versed sine of about
38 feet. This bridge has a breadth of roadway of
about 30 feet. It has been erected for several years,
and is still in good repair and constant use. I regret,
however, that I was unable to procure drawings of the
wooden ribs or frames of which it is composed, suffi-
ciently detailed and accurate to enable me to lay them
before the public.
The bridge across the rapids of the river Niagara
is placed only two or three hundred yards from the
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BRIDGES.
229
edge of the great falls. It extends from the Ameri-
can bank of the river to Goat Island, which separates
what is called the " American" from the " British
fall." The superstructure of the bridge is formed of
timber. It is 396 feet in length, and is supported on
six piers, formed partly of stone and partly of wood.
When I visited the Falls of Niagara in the month of
May, the ice carried down from Lake Erie by the rapids
of the river, was rushing past the piers of this bridge
with a degree of violence that was quite terrific, and
seemed every moment to threaten their destruction.
The following very interesting account of this work
is given by Captain Hall.*
" The erection of such a bridge at such a place is
a wonderful effort of boldness and skill, and does the
projector and architect, Judge Porter, the highest
honour as an engineer. This is the second bridge of
the kind ; but the first being built in the still water
at the top of the rapids, the enormous sheets of ice,
drifted from Lake Erie, soon demolished the work,
and carried it over the falls. Judge Porter, however,
having observed that the ice in passing along the
rapids was speedily broken into small pieces, fixed his
second bridge much lower down, at a situation never
reached by the large masses of ice.
The essential difficulty was to establish a founda-
tion for his piers on the bed of a river covered with
* Forty Etchings, from sketches made in North America, with the
Camera Lucida, by Captain Basil Hall. Edinburgh, 1830,
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230
BRIDGES.
huge blocks of stone, and over which a torrent was
dashing at the rate of six or seven miles an hour. He
first placed two long beams, extending from the shore
horizontally forty or fifty feet over the rapids, at the
height of six or eight feet, and counter-balanced by a
load at the inner ends. These were about two yards
asunder ; but light planks being laid across, men were
enabled to walk along them in safety. Their extre-
mities were next supported by upright bars passed
through holes in the ends, and resting on the ground.
A strong open frame-work of timber, not unlike a wild
beast's cage, but open at top and bottom, was then
placed in the water immediately under the ends of
the beams. This being loaded with stones, was gra-
dually sunk till some one part of it-no matter which
-touched the rocks lying on the bottom. As soon
as it was ascertained that this had taken place, the
sinking operation was arrested, and a series of strong
planks, three inches in thickness, were placed, one
after the other, in the river, in an upright position, and
touching the inner sides of the frame-work. These
planks, or upright posts, were now thrust downwards
till they obtained a firm lodgement among the stones
at the bottom of the river ; and, being then securely
bolted to the upper part of the frame-work, might be
considered parts of it. As each plank reached to the
ground, it acted as a leg, and gave the whole consider-
able stability, while the water flowed freely through
openings about a foot wide, left between the planks.
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Town's Patent Lattice Bridge.
PLATE IX.
Fig. 1.
a
a
Span 78 Feet.
Scale of Feet to Figures 1,3,4 &5.
I
10
5
0
10
20
30
Digitized b Google
Thomas Stevenson, Delt.
Published by John Weale, 59, High Holborn, 1838.
Stevenson's Sketch of the Covil Engineering of North America.
BRIDGES.
231
" This great frame or box, being then filled with
large stones tumbled in from above, served the pur-
pose of a nucleus to a larger pier built round it, of
much stronger timbers firmly bolted together, and SD
arranged as to form an outer case, distant from the
first pier about three feet on all its four sides. The
intermediate space between the two frames was then
filled up by large masses of rock. This constituted
the first pier.
"A second pier was easily built in the same way,
by projecting beams from the first one, as had been
previously done from the shore ; and so on, step by
step, till the bridge reached Goat Island. Such is the
solidity of these structures, that none of them has ever
moved since it was first erected, several years before
we saw it."
Plate IX. is a drawing of " Town's Patent Lattice
Bridge," which is much employed on the American
railways. This construction is sometimes used for
bridges of SO large a span as 150 feet, and it exerts no
lateral thrust tending to overturn the piers on which it
rests. A small quantity of materials of very small
scantling arranged in the manner shewn in the plate,
possesses a great degree of strength and rigidity.
For this drawing I am indebted to Mr Robinson of
Philadelphia, who is constructing many large bridges
on this principle on the Philadelphia and Reading
railway, several of which I examined both in their fi-
nished and unfinished state.
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232
BRIDGES.
Fig. 1 is an elevation, and Fig. 2 a cross section on
an enlarged scale of the frame-work of the bridge. The
surface of the railway is indicated by letter a in both
figures. The lattice framing or ribs of which the bridge
is formed are composed entirely of pine planks, marked
b, measuring twelve inches in breadth, and three
inches in thickness. The planks are arranged at right
angles to each other, so as to form a fabric resembling
lattice work, as shewn in the drawing ; and from this
circumstance the bridge derives its name. They are
fixed at the points of their intersection by oak tree-
nails, one inch and a half in diameter, passing through
them. The horizontal runners, marked c, are formed
of planks of the same scantling, and extend through-
out the whole length of the bridge. They are also
fixed at the points where they intersect the planks b,
by oak treenails passing through the whole, as shewn
by the dotted lines at letter f, in Fig. 2. The depth
of the lattice work is proportioned to the span of the
bridge. The span shewn in the drawing is seventy-
eight feet, and the depth of the ribs is nine feet six
inches. In a bridge of larger span, the planks b would
be made of greater length, and another square or dia-
mond added to the lattice-work.
There were only two ribs or frames of lattice-work
in all of the bridges constructed on this principle which
I examined. One of these was placed under each side
of the roadway, as shewn in the cross section Fig. 2,
by the letters bb. The ribs are connected together
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BRIDGES.
233
at the bottom by cross beams marked e, at every
twelve feet. At the top they are connected in a similar
manner by beams marked d, at every six feet. On
these, the longitudinal beams g are supported, to
which the planking of the roadway is spiked. To
prevent the ribs from twisting or warping, they are
braced at every twelve feet by diagonal beams arran-
ged in vertical planes, as shewn at letter h in fig. 2.
Fig. 3 is a plan of the wood-work directly under the
roadway. In this figure the beams d, are those on
which the planking of the roadway is spiked, and the
diagonal braces m arranged in horizontal planes are
introduced to render the structure rigid. For the
same reason the braces i are introduced, as represent-
ed in Fig. 4, which is a plan of the wood-work con-
necting the lower part of the lattice frames. The dia-
gonal braces are all fixed in the same manner.-
One of the extremities rests in a seat cut for it in the
beam against which it butts, and wedges of hardwood
are inserted at the other end, by which the brace can
be nicely adjusted, and afterwards tightened up, should
the vibration of passing trains, or the effects of the at-
mosphere, cause any yielding of the timber to take
place.
The lattice-frames have a rest of about five feet, in
checks formed in the stone abutments for their recep-
tion, as shewn in dotted lines in the elevation Fig. 1
and in Fig. 5, which is a plan of one of the abutments.
If the bridge is of greater extent than can be included
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234
BRIDGES.
in one span, it is simply rested on a thin pier, in the
manner shewn in the elevation, without any other sup-
port. A covering of light boarding, extending from
the level of the roadway to the bottom of the ribs, is
spiked on the outside of the lattice-work to preserve
the timber.
The largest lattice-bridge which I met with, was
constructed by Mr Robinson on the Philadelphia and
Reading Railroad. It measures 1100 feet in length.
The lattice-frames of which it is formed extend
throughout the whole distance between the two abut-
ments without a break, and are supported on ten stone-
piers, in the manner shewn in the plate. On the
New York and Haerlem Railway, there is a lattice-
bridge 736 feet in length, supported in the same man-
ner on four stone-piers.
Plate X. is a drawing of " Long's patent frame
bridge," which is also much employed on the different
lines of railway in the United States.
Fig. 1. is an elevation ; Fig. 2. a plan ; and Fig. 3.
a cross section of this bridge, which contains a small
quantity of materials, and exerts no lateral thrust.
Bridges constructed on this principle, having spans of
from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet, are
very commonly met with. That shewn in the draw-
ing is 110 feet in span, and the depth of the truss-
frame is 15 feet. The level of the railway is indi-
cated by letter a in the Plate ; letter b represents the
* A Description of Long's Bridge. Concord, 1836.
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Long's Patent Frame Bridge.
PLATE X.
Stevenson's Sketch of the Gvil Engineering of North America.
Fig. 1.
e
d,
d
d
e
d
e
c
c
c
c
a
y
Fig. 6.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
c
b
b
d
9
c
Fig. 7.
b
f
e
c
d
c
b
.9
Scale of Feet to Figures 1,2 & 3.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 2.
10
5
o
10
20
30
b
b
x
x
y
y
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a
a
y
y
x
x
b
b
Plan of Top of Frame.
Plan of Bottom of Frame.
James Andrews.Delt
Published by John Weale, 59, High Holborn, 1838.
Geo.Aikman,Sailpt
BRIDGES.
235
"string-pieces," as they are called in America ; c the
"posts; ;'' d the "main-braces ;'' and e the " counter-
braces."
The string-pieces are formed of three beams, in the
manner shewn in the plan and cross section. The
posts and main-braces are in two pieces, and the coun-
ter-beams are formed of a single beam. Figs. 4, 5,
6, and 7, illustrate the manner in which the joining
is formed, at the points where the posts and braces are
attached to the string-pieces. This joining is effect-
ed without the use of bolts or spikes, a construction
which admits of the bridge being very easily repaired,
when decay of the materials or other causes render it
necessary. Figs. 4. and 5. are enlarged diagrams,
shewing the manner in which the posts are fixed to
the strings. In Fig. 4. the strings are shewn in sec-
tion at letter b, and the posts passing between them
at c. In Fig. 5. the posts are shewn in section at c,
and the strings at b. Fig. 6. shews the manner of
fixing the main and counter braces to the upper string-
piece. In this diagram b is the string, c the post, d
the main-brace, e the counter-brace, and g is a wedge
of hardwood, by which the whole woodwork is tight-
ened up. Fig. 7 shews the manner of fixing em-
ployed at the lower string. In this diagram b is the
string, c the post, d the mainbrace, e the counter-
brace, g a wedge of hard-wood, and f a block on which
the counter-brace rests. The frames are connected at
the top by cross beams, x, and at the bottom by the
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236
BRIDGES.
beams marked letter y, which support the planking of
the roadway.
I met with Long's Bridge in many parts of the
country, but the best specimens I saw were those
erected on some of the railways in the neighbourhood
of Boston, under the direction of Mr Fessenden the
engineer.
The timbers of which Town's and Long's bridges
are composed, are fitted together on the ground pre-
vious to their erection on the piers. They are again
taken asunder, and each beam is put up separately in
the place which it is to occupy, by means of a scaffold-
ing or centering of timber.
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)
CHAPTER IX.
RAILWAYS.
European Railways-Introduction of Railways into the United States
-The European construction of Railways unsuitable for Ame-
rica-Attempts of the American Engineers to construct a Rail-
way not likely to be affected by frost-Constructions of the Bos-
ton and Lowell, New York and Paterson, Saratoga and Sche-
nectady, Newcastle and Frenchtown, Philadelphia and Colum-
bia, Boston and Providence, Philadelphia and Norristown, New
York and Haerlem, Buffalo and Niagara, Camden and Amboy,
Brooklyn and Jamaica, and the Charleston and Augusta, Rail-
roads-Rails, Chairs, Blocks, and Sleepers, used in the United
States-Original Cost of American Railways-Expense of up-
holding them-Power employed on the American Railways-
Horse-power-Locomotive Engines-Locomotive Engine Works
in the United States-Construction of the Engines-Guard used
in America-Fuel-Engine for burning Anthracite Coal-Sta-
tionary Engines-Description of the Stationary Engines, Inclined
Planes, and other works on the Alleghany Railway-Railway
from Lake Champlain to the St Lawrence in Canada.
WITHIN a very few years, a wonderful change has
been effected in land communication throughout Great
Britain and America, where railways have been more
extensively and successfully introduced than in any
other parts of the world. As early as the sixteenth
century, wooden tram-roads were used in the neigh-
bourhood of many of the collieries of Great Britain.
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RAILWAYS.
In the year 1767, cast-iron rails were introduced at
Colebrookdale, in Shropshire. In 1811, malleable-
iron rails were for the first time used in Cumberland,
and the locomotive engine, on an improved construc-
tion, was successfully introduced on the Liverpool and
Manchester line in 1830. Little progress has hitherto
been made in the formation of railways on the Con-
tinent of Europe. A small one has been in existence
for some time in the neighbourhood of Lyons, but the
only railroad, constructed in France, for the conveyance
of passengers by locomotive power, is that from Paris
to St Germains, which was opened only in 1837. In
Bohemia, the Chevalier Gerstner, about eight years ago,
constructed a railway of eighty miles in length, leading
from the river Muldau to the Danube. In Belgium,
the railway from Antwerp to Ghent has been in use
for some time ; and some lines are at present being
constructed in Holland and Russia. But my present
purpose is to describe the state of this wonderful im-
provement in communication, in the United States.
The Quincy Railroad in Massachusetts was the first
constructed in America. It was intended for the con-
veyance of stone from the Quincy granite quarries to
a shipping port on the river Neponsett, a distance of
about four miles. At the end of this chapter I have
given a tabular list of the principal railroads which are
already finished, and also of those that have been be-
gun in the United States, which shew the rapid increase
of these works since 1827, the date at which the
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RAILWAYS.
239
Quincy Railroad was completed. From these tables
it appears that, in 1837, there were no fewer than
fifty-seven railways completed and in full operation,
whose aggregate length amounts to upwards of 1600
miles ; and also that thirty-three railways were then
in progress, which, when completed, will amount to
about 2800 miles. In addition to this, upwards of
one hundred and fifty railway companies have been
incorporated ; and the works of many of them will, in
all probability, be very soon commenced.
The early American railroads consisted of iron rails
and chairs resting on stone blocks, and were con-
structed on the same principles as those in this coun-
try. But the American engineers soon discovered that
this construction of road, although it had been to a
certain extent successfully applied in England, was not
at all capable of withstanding the rigours of an Ameri-
can winter. The intense frost, with which the north-
ern part of the country is visited, was found to split
the stone blocks and to affect the ground in which they
were embedded, to such a degree, that their positions
were materially altered, and the rails were in many
cases so much twisted and deranged as to be quite un-
fit for the passage of carriages. The consequence was,
that most of the railroads constructed in the United
States after the English system, had actually to be re-
laid at the close of every winter, and during the conti-
nuance of the frost could only be travelled on at a de-
creased speed. The Americans have put numerous
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RAILWAYS.
plans to the test of actual experiment, in their endea-
vours to form a structure for supporting the rails, adapt-
ed to the climate and circumstances of the country.
There are hardly two railways in the United States
which are made exactly in the same way, and few of
them are constructed throughout their whole extent on
the same principles ; but although great improvements
have undoubtedly been effected, it is doubtful whether
a structure perfectly proof against the detrimental ef-
fects of frost has yet been produced. An enumera-
tion of the various schemes which have been pro-
posed for the construction of railways in America,
would not be very useful, even if it were possible. I
shall, therefore, only mention those constructions which
came under my own observation, some of which are
found to be very suitable.
The Boston and Lowell Railway in Massachusetts
is twenty-six miles in length, and is laid with a
double line of rails. The breadth between the rails,
which is four feet eight and a half inches, is the same
in all the American railroads, and the breadth between
the tracks is six feet.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 5.
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RAILWAYS.
241
Fig. 1 is a transverse section, and Fig. 2 a side
view of one of the tracks, in which a are granite
blocks six feet in length, and about eighteen inches
square. These are placed transversely, at distances of
three feet apart from centre to centre, each block
giving support to both of the rails. This construc-
tion, as formerly noticed by me in some communica-
tions made to the Society of Arts for Scotland,* was
first introduced in the Dublin and Kingstown Rail-
way, in Ireland, but was found to produce SO rigid a
road, that great difficulty was experienced in securing
the fixtures of the chairs. From the difficulty, also,
of procuring a solid bed for stones of SO great dimen-
sions, most of them, after being subjected for a short
time to the traffic of the railway, were found to be split.
The blocks on the Boston and Lowell Railway were
affected in the same manner, and are besides found to
be very troublesome during frost.
Fig. 3 is an enlarged view of the rail and chair used
on this line. The rails are of the kind called fish-
bellied. They weigh 40 lb. per lineal yard, and rest
in cast-iron chairs, weighing 16 lb. each. The form
of the rails and chairs resembles that at first used on
the Liverpool and Manchester Railway.
Figs. 4 and 5 represent another construction which
has been tried on this line. In these views a are
longitudinal trenches, two feet six inches square, and
Transactions of the Society of Arts for Scotland, Edinburgh New
Philosophical Journal for April 1835 and April 1836.
Q
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RAILWAYS.
Fig.4.
Fig.5.
ANGIPA
four feet eight and a half inches apart from centre to
centre, formed in the ground, and filled with broken
stone, hard punned down with a wooden beater, as a
foundation for the stone blocks b on which the rails
rest. These blocks measure two feet square, and
a foot in thickness, and c isa transverse sleeper of
wood, two feet eight inches and a half in length, one
foot in breadth, and eight inches in thickness, which
is placed between the blocks to prevent them from
moving.
The plan of resting the railway on a foundation of
broken stone, shewn in the last and some of the fol-
lowing figures, was adopted in the expectation that it
might be sunk to a sufficient depth below the surface
of the ground, to prevent the frost from affecting it ;
but it has failed to produce the desired effect, as sub-
sequent experience has shewn that many of those
railways whose construction was more superficial have
resisted the effects of frost much better.
The New York and Paterson Railway is sixteen
and a half miles in length, and extends along a
marshy tract of ground. Its construction is shewn in
Figs. 6 and 7. The foundation of the road consists
of a line of pits under each rail, eighteen inches square,
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Fig. 6.
Fig.7.
and three feet in depth. They are placed three feet
apart from centre to centre, and filled with broken
stones. On this foundation transverse wooden sleepers,
b, measuring eight inches square, and seven feet in
length, are firmly bedded, on which rest the longitu-
dinal sleepers marked c, measuring eight inches by
six. To these, plate-rails of malleable iron, two and
a half inches wide, and half an inch thick, weighing
about 13 lb per lineal yard, are fixed by iron spikes.
Fig. 8.
Fig.9.
Figs. 8 and 9 are a cross section and side view
of the Saratoga and Schenectady Railway. The
parallel trenches marked a, are eighteen inches square,
and four feet eight and a half inches apart from centre
to centre. They extend throughout the whole line of
the railway, and are firmly punned full of broken
stones. Longitudinal sleepers of wood, marked b, mea-
suring eight by five inches, are placed on these trenches,
which support the transverse wooden sleepers, marked
c, measuring six inches square, and placed three feet
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RAILWAYS.
apart from centre to centre. Longitudinal runners,
marked d, measuring six inches square, are firmly
spiked to the transverse sleepers, and the whole is
surmounted by a plate-rail half an inch thick, and two
and a half inches wide, weighing about 13 lb. per
lineal yard.
The Newcastle and Frenchtown Railway, which is
sixteen miles in length, and forms part of the route
from Philadelphia to Baltimore, is constructed in the
same way as that between Schenectady and Saratoga,
excepting that the plate-rail is two and a half inches
broad, and five-eighths of an inch thick, and weighs
nearly 16 lb. per lineal yard. The Baltimore and
Washington Railway is also constructed in the same
way as regards the foundation and arrangement of
the timbers, but edge-rails are employed on that line
three and a half inches in breadth at the base, and
two inches in height.
Fig.10.
Fig .11.
Several experiments have been made on the Co-
lumbia Railroad, in Pennsylvania, which is eighty-two
miles in length, and is under the management of the
State. Part of the road is constructed in accordance
with Figs. 10 and 11, which are a transverse section
and side view of one of the tracks. The trenches
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marked a, measuring two feet six inches in breadth, and
two feet in depth, are excavated in the ground, and
filled with broken metal ; in these, the stone-blocks,
b, two feet square, and a foot in thickness, are im-
bedded at distances of three feet apart, to which the
chairs and rails are spiked in the ordinary manner.
The rails on each side of the track are connected to-
gether by an iron bar, marked c in Fig. 10. This
attachment is rendered absolutely necessary on many
parts of the Columbia Railroad, by the sharpness of
the curves, which, at the time when the work was
laid out, were not considered so prejudicial on a rail-
way as experience has shewn them to be.
Fig.12.
Fig.13.
Another plan tried on this line is shewn in Figs. 12
and 13, which are a transverse section and side view.
In this arrangement a continuous line of stone curb,
one foot square, marked a, resting on a stratum of
broken stone, is substituted for the isolated stone-
blocks, shewn in Figs. 10 and 11. A plate-rail, half
an inch thick, and two and a half inches broad, is
spiked down to treenails of oak, or locust wood, driven
into jumper-holes bored in the stone curb.
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RAILWAYS.
Fig.14.
Fig. 15.
Figs. 14 and 15 represent the construction of the
Boston and Providence Railway, which is forty-one
miles in length. Pits, measuring eighteen inches
square, and one foot in depth, marked a, are exca-
vated under each line of rail, at intervals of four feet
apart. They are filled with broken stone, and form a
foundation for the transverse sleepers, marked b,
measuring eight inches square, on which the chairs
and rails are fixed in the usual manner.
Fig.16.
Fig.17.
Fig.18.
The construction shewn in Figs. 16 and 17, which
are a cross section and side view of one of the tracks,
is in very general use in America. I met with it on
the Philadelphia and Norristown, the New York and
Haerlem, and the Buffalo and Niagara railroads ; and
I believe it has been introduced on many others. It
consists of two lines of longitudinal wooden runners,
marked a, measuring one foot in breadth, and from
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247
three to four inches in thickness, bedded on broken
stone or gravel. On these runners, transverse sleepers,
b, are placed, formed of round timber with the bark
left on, measuring about six inches in diameter, and
squared at the ends, to give them a proper rest. Longi-
tudinal sleepers, c, for supporting the rails, are notched
into the transverse sleepers, as shewn in the diagram.
Fig. 18 is an enlarged view of the plate-rail and
longitudinal sleeper used for railways of this construc-
tion. The rail is made of wrought-iron, and varies in
weight from 10 to 15 lb. per lineal yard. It is fixed
down to the sleepers at every fifteen or eighteen inches,
by spikes four or five inches in length, the heads of
which are countersunk in the rail.
Fig.19.
Fig.20.
Figs. 19 and 20 are the rails used on the Cam-
den and Amboy Railway, which is sixty-one miles in
length. They are parallel edge-rails, and are spiked to
transverse sleepers of wood, and, in some places, to
wood treenails driven into stone blocks. Their breadth
is three and a half inches at the base, and two and a
half at the top, and their height is four inches. They
are formed in lengths of fifteen feet, and secured at the
joints by an iron plate on each side, with two screw-
bolts passing through the plates and rails, as shewn in
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RAILWAYS.
the diagram. On the Philadelphia and Reading Rail-
road, rails of the same form have been adopted.
Fig. 21.
Fig. 22.
Figs. 21 and 22 shew another construction, which I
observed on several of the railroads. It was proposed
with a view to counteract the effects of frost. Round
piles of timber, marked a, about twelve inches in dia-
meter, are driven into the ground as far as they will
go, at the distance of three feet apart from centre to
centre. The tops are cross-cut, and the rails are
spiked to them in the same way as in the Camden and
Amboy Railway, which is shewn in Figs. 19 and 20.
The heads of the piles are furnished with an iron
strap, to prevent them from splitting ; and the rails
are connected together at every five feet by an iron
bar.
Fig.23.
Fig.24.
Fig.25.
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Figs. 23 and 24 are a transverse section and side
view of the present structure of the Brooklyn and
Jamaica Railroad, on which Mr Douglass, the engi-
neer for that work, has made several experiments.
The road, represented in the cut, is exceedingly
smooth, and is said to resist the effects of frost very
successfully. It consists of transverse sleepers, mea-
suring eight by six inches, marked a, supported on
slabs of pavement, two feet square, and six inches
thick, marked b. The wooden runner, marked c, is
spiked on the inside of the chairs to render them firm.
An enlarged view of the rail is shewn at Fig. 25.
This rail rests on the cheeks or sides of the chair, and
not on the bottom, as is generally the case.
Fig.26,
Fig 27.
d
a
d
b
b
The railroad between Charleston and Augusta, and
many others in the southern States, where there is a
scarcity of materials for forming embankments, are
carried over low lying tracts of marshy ground, eleva-
ted on structures of wooden truss-work, such as is
shewn in Figs. 26 and 27. The framing in Fig. 27
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railways.
is used in situations where the level of the rails does
not require to be raised more than ten or twelve feet
above the surface of the ground. Piles from ten
to fifteeu inches in diameter, marked a, are driven
into the ground by a piling engine, and, in places
where the soil is soft, their extremities are not pointed
but are left square, which makes them less liable to
sink under the pressure of the carriages. The struts
marked b are attached to the tops of the piles, and
are also fixed to dwarf piles driven into the ground.
Their effect is to prevent lateral motion. Fig. 26 is
a truss-work which is used for greater elevations, and
is sometimes carried even to the height of fifteen or
twenty feet. Piles marked a are driven into the
ground, and connected by the transverse beam c.
Above these the superstructure formed of the beams d
is raised, and upon it, the rails are placed. It is evi-
dent, however, that these structures are by no means
suitable or safe for bearing the weight of locomotive
engines or carriages, and, as may naturally be expect-
ed, very serious accidents have occasionally occurred
on them. They are besides generally left quite ex-
posed, and in some situations, when they are even so
much as twenty feet high, no room is left for pedestri-
ans, who, if overtaken by the engine, can save them-
selves only by making a leap to the ground.
These varieties of construction were all in use when
I visited the United States in 1837, but the Ameri-
can engineers had not at that time come to any defi-
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251
nite conclusion as to which of them constituted the
best railway. It seemed to be generally admitted,
however, that the wooden structures were in most situa-
tions more economical than those formed of stone, and
were also less liable to be affected by the frost. Struc-
tures of wood also possess a great advantage over those
of stone, from the much greater ease with which the
rails supported by them are kept in repair. Wooden
railroads are more elastic, and bend under great
weights, while the rigid and unyielding nature of the
railroads laid on stone blocks causes the impulses pro-
duced by the rapid motion of locomotive carriages, or
heavily loaded waggons, over the surface, to be much
more severely felt both by the machinery of the en-
gine and by the rails themselves. Experience, both
in this country and in America, has shewn the truth
of these remarks. On the Liverpool and Manches-
ter Railway, for example, on which a large sum is
annually expended in keeping the rails in order, the
part of the road which requires least repair is that
extending over Chat Moss, where the rails are laid
on wooden sleepers, and the weight of passing trains
of loaded waggons produces a sensible undulation in
the surface of the railway, which at this place actually
floats on the moss. These considerations are worthy
of attention ; and since the introduction of Kyan's pa-
tent anti dry-rot preparation, wood is beginning to be
more generally employed for the construction of rail-
ways in this country. The rails of the Dublin and
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railways.
Kingstown road are now laid on wood, and it has also
been extensively employed on the Great Western
Railway now in progress.
The rails used in the United States are of British ma-
nufacture. They are often taken to America as ballast ;
and the Government of the United States having re-
moved the duty from iron imported for the purpose of
forming railways, the rails are laid down on the quays
of New York nearly at the same cost as in any of
the ports of Great Britain. Those of the Brooklyn
and Jamaica road, which are in lengths of fifteen feet,
and weigh 39 lb. per lineal yard, are of British manu-
facture, and cost at New York when they were landed,
in 1836, L.8 per ton ; the cast-iron chairs, which are
also of British manufacture, weigh about 15 lb. each,
and cost L.9 per ton. There is a great abundance
of iron-ore in America, and some of the veins in the
neighbourhood of Pittsburg are at present pretty ex-
tensively worked but the Americans know that it
would be bad economy to attempt to manufacture
rails, so long as those made at Merthyr Tydvil Iron-
works, in Wales, can be laid down at their sea-ports
at the present small cost. In some of the iron-works
which I visited, the workmen were rolling plate-rails,
which is the only kind they ever attempt to make;
but even these can be got, if not at less cost, at all
events of much better quality, from Britain.
The stone blocks in use on some of the railways
are made of granite, which, as already noticed, is
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found in several parts of the United States. Yellow
pine is generally employed for the longitudinal sleep-
ers, and cedar, locust, or white-oak, for the trans-
verse sleepers on which the rails rest; cedar, how-
ever, if it can be obtained, is generally preferred for
the transverse sleepers, because it is not liable to be
split by the heat of the sun, and is less affected than
perhaps any other timber, by dampness and exposure
to the atmosphere. The cedar sleepers used on the
Brooklyn and Jamaica Railway, measuring six inches
by five, and seven feet in length, notched and in readi-
ness to receive the rails, cost 2s. 31d. each, laid down
at Brooklyn. It is a costly timber, and is not very
plentiful in the United States ; it has also risen greatly
in value since the introduction of railways, for the
construction of which it is peculiarly applicable. For
all treenails, locust-wood is universally employed.
The American railroads are much more cheaply
constructed than those in this country, which is owing
chiefly to three causes ; first, they are exempted from
the heavy expenses often incurred in the construction
of English railways, by the purchase of land and
compensation for damages ; second, the works are
not executed in SO substantial and costly a style ;
and, third, wood, which is the principal material
used in their construction, is got at a very small
cost. The first six miles of the Baltimore and Ohio
Railroad, which is formed " in an expensive man-
ner, on a very difficult route," has cost, on an ave-
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railways.
rage, about L.12,000 per mile. The railroads in
Pennsylvania cost about L.5000 per mile ; the Al-
bany and Schenectady Railroad upwards of L.6000
per mile ; the Schenectady and Saratoga Railway
L.1800 per mile ; and the Charleston and Augusta
Railroad about the same.* Mr Moncure Robinson,
in a report relative to the Philipsburg and Juniata
Railroad, states, that the first ten miles of the Dan-
ville and Pottsville Railroad, formed for a double
track, but on which a single track only was laid, cost
on an average L. 4400 per mile, and that the Hones-
dale and Carbondale Railroad, 16} miles in length,
laid with a single track, and executed for a consider-
able portion of its length on truss-work, is understood,
with machinery, to have averaged L.3600 per mile.
The average cost of these railways, constructed in dif-
ferent parts of the United States, is L.4942 per mile.
This contrasts strongly with the cost of the rail-
ways constructed in this country. The Liverpool and
Manchester Railway cost L.30,000 per mile ; the Dub-
lin and Kingstown L.40,000 ; and the railway between
Liverpool and London is expected to cost upwards of
L.25,000.
The following extract, embodying an estimate from
Mr Robinson's Report, will give some idea of the
cheapness with which many of the American works
are constructed :-
# Facts and suggestions relative to the New York and Albany
Railway. New York, 1833.
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" The following plan," says Mr Robinson, " is
proposed for the superstructure of the Philipsburg and
Juniata Railroad.
" Sills of white or post oak, seven feet ten inches
long, and twelve inches in diameter, flattened to a
width of nine inches, are to be laid across the road at a
distance of five feet apart from centre to centre. In
notches formed in these sills, rails of white oak or heart
pine, five inches wide by nine inches in depth, are to
be secured, four feet seven inches apart, measured with-
in the rails. On the inner edges of these rails, plates
of rolled iron, two inches wide by half an inch thick,
resting at their points of junction on plates of sheet iron,
one-twelfth of an inch thick and four and a half inches
long, are to be spiked, with five-inch wrought iron spikes.
The inner edges of the wooden rails to be trimmed
slightly levelling, but flush at the point of contact
with the iron rail, and to be adzed down outside the
iron to pass off rain-water.
"Such a superstructure as that above described
would be entirely adequate to the use of locomotive
engines of from fifteen to twenty horses power, con-
structed without surplus weight, or similar to those
now in use on the little Schuylkill Railroad in this
state (Pennsylvania), or the Petersburg Railroad in
Virginia; and it will be observed that only the sills,
which constitute but a very slight item in its cost, are
much exposed to the action of those causes which in-
duce decay in timber. It is particularly recommend-
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RAILWAYS.
ed for the Philipsburg and Juniata Railroad, by the
great abundance of good materials along the line of
the improvement, for its construction, and the conse-
quent economy with which it may be made.
" The following may be deemed an average esti-
mate of the cost of a mile of superstructure as above
described.
Dollars.
1056 trenches 8 feet long, 12 inches wide, and 14 inches
deep, filled with broken stone, at 25 cents each,
264
Same number of sills, hewn, notched, and embedded, at
50 cents each,
528
10,912 lineal feet of rails (allowing 33} per cent. for
waste), at 4 cents per lineal foot, delivered,
436.48
2112 keys at 21 cents each,
52.80
10,560 lineal feet of plate rails, 2 inches by 1/8" inch,
weight 3} lb. per foot, 15131 tons, delivered at 50
dollars (L.10) per ton,
785.50
1509 lb. of 5-inch spikes, at 9 cents per pound,
135.81
Sheet iron under ends of rails,
30.21
Placing and dressing wood, and spiking down iron rails,
280
Filling between sills with stone, or horse-path,
180
2692.80
2692 dollars, or about L.540.
I found it rather difficult to obtain much satisfac-
tory information regarding the expense of upholding
the American railways. It is stated in a report made
by the Directors of the Boston and Worcester Rail-
road, that Mr Fessenden, their engineer, to whom I am
indebted for much kind attention and valuable infor-
mation, estimates the annual expenditure for repairing
the road, carriages, and engines, and providing fuel
and necessary attendance for forty-three and a half
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miles of railway at L.6829 per annum, which is at the
rate of L.157 per mile. The expense of the repairs
on the Utica and Schenectady Railroad, which is about
seventy-seven miles in length, amounts to L.28,000
per annum, being at the rate of about L.363 per mile.
These sums for keeping railroads in repair are ex-
ceedingly small, compared with the amount expended
in this country for the same purpose. On the Liver-
pool and Manchester Railway, for example, the ex-
pense annually incurred in keeping the engines in
a working state and the railway in repair, amounts
to upwards of L.30,000 or L.1000 per mile. This
difference in the cost arises in a great measure from
the comparatively slow speed at which the engines
working on the American railways are propelled,
which, in the course of my own observation, never
exceeded the average rate of fifteen miles per hour.
On the State railways, and also on many of those
under the management of incorporated companies, fif-
teen miles an hour is the rate of travelling fixed by
the administration of the railway, and this speed is
seldom exceeded.
On some of the American railways, where the line
is short or the traffic small, horse power is em-
ployed, but locomotive engines for transporting goods
and passengers are in much more general use. In
New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and
other places which have lines of railway leading from
them, the depôt or station for the locomotive en-
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RAILWAYS.
gines is generally placed at the outskirts, but the
rails are continued through the streets to the heart
of the town, and the carriages are dragged over this
part of the line by horses, to avoid the inconvenience
and danger attending the passage of locomotive en-
gines through crowded thoroughfares. I travelled by
horse power on the Mohawk and Hudson Railway,
from Schenectady to Albany, a distance of sixteen
miles, and the journey was performed in sixty-five
minutes, being at the astonishing rate of fifteen miles
an hour. The car by which I was conveyed carried
twelve passengers, and was drawn by two horses which
ran stages of five miles.
The first locomotive engines used in America were
of British manufacture, but several very large workshops
have lately been established in the country for the con-
struction of these machines, which are now manufac-
tured in great numbers. The largest locomotive en-
gine-works are those of Mr Baldwin, Mr Norris, Mr
Long, and Messrs Grant and Eastrick, all in Phila-
delphia, and the Lowell Engine-work at Lowell.
When I visited the work of Mr Baldwin, to whom
I am indebted for much attention and information,
I found no less than twelve locomotive carriages in
different states of progress, and all of substantial
and good workmanship. Those parts of the engine,
such as the cylinder, piston, valves, journals, and
slides, in which good fitting and fine workmanship are
indispensable to the efficient action of the machine,
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259
were very highly finished, but the external parts, such
as the connecting rods, cranks, framing, and wheels,
were left in a much coarser state than in engines of
British manufacture. The American engines with
their boilers filled, weigh from twelve to fifteen tons,
and cost about L.1400 or L.1500, including the
tender. This is not much more than the cost of
an engine of the same weight in this country. They
have six wheels. These are arranged in the following
manner, SO as to allow the engine to travel on rails
having a great curvature ; the driving wheels, which
are five feet in diameter, are placed in the posterior
part of the engine close to the fire-box, and the fore
part of the engine rests on a truck running on four
wheels of about two feet six inches in diameter : a
series of friction-rollers, arranged in a circular form, is
placed on the top of the truck, and in the centre, stands
a vertical pivot which works in a socket in the fram-
ing of the engine. The whole weight of the cylinders
and the fore part of the boiler rests on the friction rol-
lers, and the truck turning on the pivot as a centre, has
freedom to describe a small arc of a circle ; so that when
the engine is not running upon a perfectly straight
road, its wheels adapt themselves to the curvature of
the rails, while the relative positions which the body
of the engine, the connecting rods, and other parts of
the machinery bear to each other, remain unaltered.*
* I believe an attempt was made to apply Avery's Rotatory Engine
to propel a locomotive carriage, on one of the American railways, but
R 2
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RAILWAYS.
From the unprotected state of most of the railways,
which are seldom fenced, cattle often stray upon the
line, and are run down by the engines, which are in
some cases thrown off the rails by the concussion, pro-
ducing very serious consequences. To obviate this,
and render railway travelling more safe, an apparatus
called a guard" has been very generally introduced,
a drawing of which is given in Plate XI. Fig. 1. is
a side view of a locomotive engine, with the guard at-
tached to it; and Fig. 2. is a plan of the guard and
the two front wheels of the engine. The guard con-
sists of a strong framework of wood, marked a, fixed
to the fore-axle of the locomotive carriage at the point
b, and supported on two small wheels c, about two
feet in diameter, which run on the rails about three
feet in advance of the engine. The outer extremity
of the framework, d, is shod with iron slightly bent
up, and comes to within an inch of the top of the
rails. The upper part of the surface of the guard,
as shewn in Fig. 2, is covered with wood, and the
lower part with an iron-grating. The apparatus af-
fords a complete protection to the wheels of the engine.
I could not obtain satisfactory information either as to the particulars
of the experiment, or the part of the country in which it was made.
Avery's engines are, I believe, a good deal used in the northern parts
of the United States, for driving small mills. They are generally
of from 6 to 12 horses power. In New York I saw three of them at
work, one in the Astor Hotel, which was employed to pump water,
grind coffee, &c. one in a saw-mill in Attorney Street, and the third
working a printing press ; these were the only engines constructed on
the rotatory principle, which I saw in actual use in the country.
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Guard used on the American Railways.
PLATE 1%
Fig. 2.
Fore axle of
b
b
Locomotive Engine
a
a
Elevation of a Locomotive Engine
with the guard attached to it.
Fig. 1.
Plan of
the Guard.
c
c
?
a
a
d
d
c
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a
d
Scale of Feet.
12
B
0
1
2
$
4
6
9
10
Gas Aikman, Sculp!
James Andrews Del!
Published by John Weale, 59, High Holborn, 1838.
Stevenson's Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America.
Digitized by
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PLATE XII.
Locomotive Engine used on the Washington and Baltimore Railway:
Constructed for the combustion of Anthracite Coal.
0
O
o
.
o
0
o
0
o
0
0
0
o
0
O
O
o
0
o
o
O
O
o
0
0
o
O
o
0
o
O
0
O
Stevenson's Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America.
James Andrews, Delt
Published by John Weale, 59, High Holborn, 1838. Google Geo. Albman Sup:
railways.
261
I experienced the good effects of it upon one occasion
on the Camden and Amboy Railway. The train in
which I travelled, while moving with considerable ra-
pidity, came in contact with a large waggon loaded
with firewood, which was literally shivered to atoms
by the concussion. The fragments of the broken
waggon, and the wood with which it was loaded, were
distributed on each side of the railway, but the guard
prevented any part of them from falling before the
engine-wheels, and thus obviated what might in that
case have proved a very serious accident. This appa-
ratus might be introduced with much advantage on
the railways in this country, on which accidents, at-
tended with the loss of several lives, have happened
from similar causes.
The fuel used on most of the railways is wood, but
the sparks vomited out by the chimney are a source
of constant annoyance to the passengers, and occa-
sionally set fire to the wooden bridges on the line and
the houses in the neighbourhood. Anthracite coal, as
formerly noticed, has been tried, but the same diffi-
culties which attend its use in steam-boat furnaces are
experienced to an equal extent in locomotive engines.
Plate XII. is a drawing of a locomotive carriage used
on the Baltimore and Washington Railway, construct-
ed by Gillingham and Winans at Baltimore, which is
adapted to the use of anthracite coal. It has vertical
cylinders, with a vertical tubular boiler, and weighs
about eight tons.
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railways.
In situations where the summit level of a railway
cannot be attained by an ascent sufficiently gentle for
the employment of locomotive engines, or where the
formation of such inclinations, though perfectly prac-
ticable, would be attended with an unreasonably large
outlay, transit is generally effected by means of in-
clined planes, worked by stationary engines. This
system has been introduced on the Portage Railway
over the Alleghany Mountains in America, on a more
extensive scale than in any other part of the world.
The Portage, or Alleghany Railway, forms one of the
links of the great Pennsylvania canal and railroad com-
munication from Philadelphia to Pittsburg,-a work
of so difficult and vast a nature, and so peculiar, both
as regards its situation and details, that it cannot fail
to be interesting to every engineer, and I shall, there-
fore, state at some length the facts which I have been
able to collect regarding it.
This communication consists of four great divisions,
the Columbia Railroad, the Eastern Division of the
Pennsylvania Canal, the Portage or Alleghany Rail-
road, and the Western Division of the Pennsylvania
Canal. These works form a continuous line of com-
munication from Philadelphia on the Schuylkill to
Pittsburg on the Ohio, a distance of no less than 395
miles.
Commencing at Philadelphia, the first Division of
this stupendous work is the Philadelphia and Colum-
bia Railroad, which was opened in the year 1834. It
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is eighty-two miles in length, and was executed at a
cost of about L.666,025, being at the rate of L.8122
per mile. There are several viaducts of considerable
extent on this railway, and two inclined planes work-
ed by stationary engines. One of these inclined
planes is at the Philadelphia end of the line. It rises
at the rate of one in 14.6 for 2714 feet, overcoming
an elevation of 185 feet. The other plane which is
at Columbia rises at the rate of one in 21.2 for a dis-
tance of 1914 feet, and overcomes an elevation of
90 feet. A very large sum is incurred in upholding
the inclined planes, and surveys have lately been made
with a view to avoid them. The cost of maintaining
the stationary power, and superintendence of the Phi-
ladelphia inclined plane, is said to be about L.8000
per annum, and that of the Columbia plane about
L.3498 per annum. Locomotive engines are used
between the tops of the inclined planes. The steepest
gradient on that part of the line is at the rate of
one in 117 ; but the curves are numerous, and many
of them very sharp, the minimum radius being so
small as 350 feet. This line of railway was surveyed
and laid out before the application of locomotive power
to railway conveyance had attained its present ad-
vanced state,-at a period when sharp curves and
steep gradients were not considered so detrimental to
the success of railways as experience has since shewn
them to be.
The passenger carriages on the Columbia Railroad
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RAILWAYS.
are extremely large and commodious. They are seat-
ed for sixty passengers, and are made so high in the
roof, that the tallest person may stand upright in them
without inconvenience. There is a passage between the
seats, extending from end to end, with a door at both
extremities and the coupling of the carriages is so ar-
ranged, that the passengers may walk from end to end
of a whole train without obstruction. In winter they
are heated by stoves. The body of each of these car-
riages measures from fifty to sixty feet in length, and
is supported on two four-wheeled trucks, furnished
with friction-rollers, and moving on a vertical pivot, in
the manner formerly alluded to in describing the con-
struction of the locomotive engines. The flooring of
the carriages is laid on longitudinal beams of wood,
strengthened with suspension-rods of iron.
At the termination of the railway at Columbia, is
the commencement of the Eastern Division of the
Pennsylvania Canal, which extends to Hollidaysburg,
a town situate at the foot of the Alleghany Moun-
tains. This canal is rather more than 172 miles in
length, and was executed at an expense of L.918,829,
being at the rate of L.5342 per mile. There are 33
aqueducts, and 111 locks on the line, and the whole
height of lockage is 585.8 feet. A considerable part of
this canal is slackwater navigation, formed by dam-
ming the streams of the Juniata, and Susquehanna.
The canal crosses the Susquehanna at its junction with
the Juniata, at which point it attains a considerable
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265
breadth. A dam has been erected in the Susque-
hanna at this place, and the boats are dragged across
the river by horses, which walk on a tow-path attached
to the outside of a wooden bridge, at a level of about
thirty feet above the surface of the water. I regret that
I passed through this part of the canal after sunset,
and had only a very superficial view of the works at this
place, which are of an extensive and curious nature.
Hollidaysburg is the western termination of the
Eastern Division of the Pennsylvania Canal. The
town stands at the base of the Alleghany Mountains,
which extend in a south-westerly direction, from New
Brunswick, to the State of Alabama, a distance of up-
wards of 1100 miles, presenting a formidable barrier
to communication between the eastern and western
parts of the United States. The breadth of the
Alleghany range varies from a hundred to a hun-
dred and fifty miles, but the peaks of the mountains
do not attain a greater height than 4000 feet above
the medium level of the sea. They rise with a
gentle slope, and are thickly wooded to their summits.
" The Alleghany Mountains present what must be
considered their scarp or steepest side to the east,
where granite, gneiss, and other primitive rocks are
seen. Upon these repose first, a thin formation of
transition rocks dipping to the westward, and next a
series of secondary rocks, including a very extensive
coal formation."* The National Road, which has
* Encyclopædia Brit., article America.
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RAILWAYS.
already been noticed, was the first line of communica-
tion formed by the Americans over this range ; and in
the year 1831, an Act was passed for connecting the
Eastern and Western Divisions of the Pennsylvania
Canal by means of a railroad. This important and
arduous work, which cost about L. 526,871, was
commenced within the same year in which the Act
for its construction was granted, and the first train
passed over it on the 26th of November 1833, but
it was not till the year 1835, that both the tracks
were completed, and the railway came into full ope-
ration.
The railway crosses the mountains by a pass called
" Blair's Gap," where it attains its summit level, which
is elevated 2326 feet above the mean level of the At-
lantic Ocean. Mr Robinson surveyed a line of rail-
way from Philipsburg to the river Juniata, which is
intended to cross the Alleghany Mountains by the
pass called " Emigh's Gap." The summit level of
this line is stated, in a report by the directors, to be
292 feet lower than that of the Portage railway.
The preliminary operation of clearing a track for
the passage of the railway from a hundred to a hun-
dred and fifty feet in breadth, through the thick pine
forests with which the mountains are clad, was one in
which no small difficulties were encountered. This
operation, which is called grubbing, is little known in
the practice of engineering in this country, and is es-
timated by the American engineers, in their various
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267
railway and canal reports, at from L.40 to L.80 per
mile, according to the size and quantity of the tim-
ber to be removed ; an estimate which, from the ap-
pearance of American forests, I should think must in
many instances be much too low. The timber re-
moved from the line of the Alleghany railway was
chiefly spruce and hemlock pine of very large growth.
I passed over the Alleghany Mountains on the 11th
of May, at which time the trees were thickly covered
with foliage, and formed a wall on each side of the
railway, which completely intercepted the view of the
surrounding country during the greater part of the
journey. An extensive view was occasionally obtained
from the tops of the inclined planes, when nothing but
a dense black forest was visible, stretching in all direc-
tions as far as the eye could reach.
The line is laid with a double track, or four single
lines of rails, and is twenty-five feet in breadth. For
a considerable distance the railway is formed by side-
cutting along steep sloping ground, composed of
clay-slate, bituminous coal and clay, part of the
breadth of the road being obtained by cutting into
the hill, and part by raising embankments protected
by retaining walls of masonry. The railway is con-
sequently liable to be deluged, or even entirely swept
away, by mountain torrents, and the thorough drain-
age of its surface has been attended with great ex-
pense and difficulty. The retaining walls by which
the embankments are supported, are in some places
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RAILWAYS.
not less than a hundred feet in height; they are built
of dry-stone masonry, and have a batter of about one-
half to one, or six inches horizontal to twelve inches
perpendicular. There are no parapet or fence walls
on the railway, and on many parts of the line, espe-
cially at the tops of several of the inclined planes,
the trains pass within three feet of precipitous rocky
faces, several hundred feet high, from which the large
trees growing in the ravines below, almost resemble
brushwood. One hundred and fifty-three drains and
culverts, and four viaducts, have been built on the rail-
way. One of the viaducts crosses the river Conemaugh
at an elevation of seventy feet above the surface of the
water. There is also a tunnel on the line 900 feet in
length, twenty feet in breadth, and nineteen feet in
height.
The inclined planes are, however, the most remark-
able works which occur on this line. The railway
extends from Hollidaysburg on the eastern base, to
Johnstown on the western base of the Alleghany
Mountains, a distance of thirty-six miles ; and the
total rise and fall on the whole length of the line is
2571.19 feet. Of this height, 2007.02 feet are over-
come by means of ten inclined planes, and 564.17
feet by the slight inclinations given to the parts of
the railway which extend between these planes. The
distance from Hollidaysburg to the summit-level is
about ten miles, and the height is 1398.31 feet. The
distance from Johnstown to the same point is about
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twenty-six miles, and the height 1172.88 feet. The
height of the summit-level of the railway above the
mean level of the Atlantic is 2326 feet.
The following are the lengths, gradients, and ele-
vations overcome by the several inclined planes, five
of which are placed on each side of the summit-
level :-
No. of Plane.
Length in Feet.
Gradient.
Height overcome.
Plane No. 1.
1607.74
One in 10.71
150
feet.
2.
1760.43
...
13.29
132.40
3.
1480.25
11.34
130.50
4.
2195.94
11.68
187.86
5.
2628.60
...
13.03
201.64
6.
2713.85
...
10.18
266.50
7.
2655.01
...
10.19
260.50
8.
3116.92
... 10.13
307.60
9.
2720.80
14.35
189.50
10.
2295.61
12.71
180.52
The following table shews the length of each sec-
tion of the railway between the inclined planes, and
the elevation overcome on it :-
Length
in
Gradient.
Height
miles.
evercome.
From Johnstown to foot of plane No. 1,
...
4.13
1 in 214.92
101.46
- head of plane No. 1 to foot of plane No. 2,
13.06
- 363.73
189.58
-
do.
No. 2 to
do.
No. 3,
1.43
- 477.87
15.80
-
do.
No. 3 to
do.
No. 4,
1.90
- 533.61
18.80
-
do.
No. 4 to
do.
No. 5,
2.56
-
523.90
25.80
-
do.
No. 5 to head of plane No. 6,
1.62
- 449.24
19.04
level
-
foot of plane No. 6 to head of plane No. 7,
0.15
-
do.
No. 7 to
do.
No. 8,
0.61
- 596.44
5.40
-
do.
No. 8 to
do.
No. 9,
1.18
- 519.20
12.00
-
do.
No. 9 to
do.
No. 10,
1.70
- 303.44
29.58
-
do.
No. 10 to Hollidaysburg,
3.72
- 133.88
146.71
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RAILWAYS.
The machinery by which the inclined planes are
worked consists of an endless rope passing round ho-
rizontal grooved wheels placed at the head and foot of
the planes, which are furnished with a powerful break
for retarding the descent of the trains. The ropes
were originally made 71 inches in circumference, but
they have lately been increased to 8 inches, to prevent
a tendency which they formerly had to slip in the
grooved wheels, occasioned by their circumference be-
ing too small for the size of the groove or hollow in the
wheel. Two stationary engines of twenty-five horses'
power each are placed at the head of the inclined
planes, one of which is in constant use in giving mo-
tion to the horizontal wheels round which the rope
moves while the trains are passing the inclined planes.
Two engines have been placed at each station, that the
traffic of the railway may not be stopped should any
accident occur to the machinery of that which is in
operation ; and they are used alternately for a week
at a time. Water for supplying the boilers has been
conveyed at a great expense to many of the stations
in wooden pipes upwards of a mile in length.
The planes are laid with a double track of rails, and
an ascending and a descending train are always at-
tached to the rope at the same time. Many experi-
ments have been made to procure an efficient safety
car to prevent the trains from running to the foot of
the inclined plane, in the event of the fixtures by
which they are attached to the endless rope giving
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way. Several of these safety-cars are in use, and are
found to be a great security. The trains are attached
to the endless rope simply by two ropes of smaller size
made fast to the couplings of the first and last wag-
gons of the train, and to the endless rope by a hitch
or knot, formed SO as to prevent it from slipping.
Locomotive engines are used on the parts of the road
between the inclined planes.
The following extract from the Report of the Penn-
sylvania Canal Commissioners for 1836, affords the
best proof of the traffic which the road is capable of
sustaining.
" The Portage Railway, however complicated in its
operations, and limited in capacity by inclined planes,
as canals are by locks, is nevertheless adequate to the
transaction of a vast amount of business. Occupying
as it does, a nearly central position on the main line
between Columbia and Pittsburg, the capacity of the
planes ought to be equal to that of the canal locks on
those Divisions. Many suppose the planes fall very
far short of that limit, and that their full capacity is
nearly reached.
" It is, however, due to our commercial interest and
the public at large, to state that the maximum of that
limit is very far from being attained. The length of
the longest plane is about 3000 feet ; the time occu-
pied in moving up or down it is five minutes ; the
time occupied in attaching is two and a half mi-
nutes, making seven and a half minutes, or eight
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railways.
drafts per hour of three loaded cars, carrying three tons
each, making twenty-four cars, or seventy-two tons
per hour.
" It will be observed by the Report of the Superin-
tendent, that the number of cars weighed at Hollidays-
burg and transported from east to west, from April
1st to October 31st, is 14,300, making a transit of a
number not exceeding a hundred per day ; but, in-
stead of this number, when the trade demands it,
twenty-four cars can be passed up and the same num-
ber down the longest plane in each hour, making two
hundred and eighty-eight cars in the day of twelve
hours, or five hundred and seventy-six in one direction
in twenty-four hours; this can be accomplished by
using the road day and night, by means of a double
set of hands. This is the true limit of the capacity
of the road."
From the same report it appears, that from the 1st
of April to the 31st of October, the time during which
the railway was open in the year 1836, 19,171 pas-
sengers were conveyed along the line ; and the follow-
ing is a statement of the merchandise weighed at the
weigh-scales at Hollidaysburg during the same pe-
riod, amounting to 37,081 tons, conveyed in 14,300
waggons.
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Number of
Months.
Merchandise.
Iron.
Coal.
Lumber.
Cars.
April,
7,192,310
1,863,170
673,060
315,435
1,323
May,
13,262,218
1,654,495
2,335,390
258,940
3,208
June,
5,146,415
3,389,160
2,384,735
367,045
1,947
July,
4,724,830
1,843,760
1,019,070
63,310
1,335
August,
8,124,370
2,076,820
2,094,300
347,950
2,183
Sept.
7,132,345
2,063,645
3,645,660
86,620
2,324
October,
5,899,050
1,938,710
2,899,730
260,140
1,980
51,481,538
!
14,829,760
15,051,945
1,699,440
14,300
The travelling on this railway is very slow. The
train by which I was conveyed left Hollidaysburg at
nine in the morning, reached the summit at twelve,
where it stopped an hour for dinner, and arrived at
Johnstown at five in the evening, seven hours having
been occupied in travelling thirty-six miles, being
only at the rate of about five miles an hour. Much
time is lost in ascending and descending the inclined
planes, and an hour is generally spent for dinner
at an inn on the summit, which is the only house
unconnected with the works which is met with on the
whole journey.
The fourth division of this grand work is the West-
ern Division of the Pennsylvania Canal, which extends
from the termination of the Portage Railway at Johns-
town to Pittsburg. It has 64 locks, 16 aqueducts,
64 culverts, 152 bridges, and a tunnel upwards of 1000
feet in length. This canal traverses the valleys of the
Conemaugh, Kiskiminetas, and Alleghany Rivers,
measures 105 miles in length, and cost L.560,000,
being at the rate of L.5333 per mile.
S
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RAILWAYS.
The whole distance of the Pennsylvania canal and
railroad communication, extending from Philadelphia
to Pittsburg, is 395 miles. I travelled this distance
in ninety-one hours, exclusively of the time lost in
stopping at Columbia, Harrisburg, and other places of
interest on the route. The average rate of travelling
was therefore 4.34 miles per hour. One hundred and
eighteen miles of this extraordinary journey were per-
formed on railroads, and the remaining 277 miles on
canals. The charge made for each passenger conveyed
the whole distance was L.3, being at the rate of nearly
2d. per mile.
There is only one railway in the British dominions
in North America. It extends from St John's on
Lake Champlain to the village of La Prairie on the
St Lawrence, and was made by a company of private
individuals, called the Champlain and St Lawrence
Railroad Company, who obtained their act of Parlia-
ment in 1832. The railway is sixteen miles in length,
and consists of plate-rails laid on wooden sleepers.
There are no works of importance connected with it,
as the line passes through an extensive prairie of low
lying level land very favourable for its construction.
Two locomotive engines are used on the railway, one
of which was made in England and the other in the
United States.
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TABLE of the Principal Railways in operation in the United States
in 1837.
Whole
When
Length
length
Name.
Course.
in
opened.
in each
Miles.
State.
MAINE.
Bangor and Orono,
From Bangor to Orona,
1836
10
10
MASSACHUSETTS.
Quincy,
{
Quincy Quarries to Neponset
1827
4
River,
Boston and Lowell,
Boston to Lowell,
1835
26
Boston and Providence,
Boston to Providence,
1835
41
Boston and Providence Rail-
Dedham Branch,
1835
2
road to Dedham,
Boston and Worcester,
Boston to Worcester,
1835
44
Andover to the Boston and
Andover and Wilmington,
1836
Lowell Railroad,
74
Boston and Providence Rail-
Taunton Branch,
1836
11
road and Taunton,
Andover and Haverhill,
Andover to Haverhill,
1837
10
Providence & Stonington,
Providence to Stonington,
1837
47
1924
NEW YORK.
{
Between the Rivers Mohawk
Mohawk and Hudson,
1832
16
and Hudson,
Saratoga & Schenectady,
Saratoga to Schenectady,
1832
22
Rochester,
Rochester to Carthage,
1833
3
Ithica and Olwego,
Ithica to Oswego,
1834
29
Rensselaer and Saratoga,
Troy to Ballston,
1835
24}
Utica and Schenectady,
Utica to Schenectady,
1836
77
Buffalo and Niagara,
Buffalo to Niagara Falls,
1837
21
Haerlem,
New York to Haerlem,
1837
7
Lockport and Niagara,
Lockport to Niagara Falls,
1837
24
Brooklyn and Jamaica,
Brooklyn to Jamaica,
1837
12
2351
New JERSEY.
Camden and Amboy,
Camden to Amboy,
1832
61
Paterson,
Paterson to Jersey,
1834
16}
New Jersey,
Jersey City to New Brunswick,
1836
31
108}
PENNSYLVANIA.
Columbia,
Philadelphia to Columbia,
82
Hollidaysburg to Johnstown,
Alleghany,
36
over the Alleghanv Mts.
Mauch Chunk to the Coal-
Mauch Chunk,
1828
5
mines,
Room Run,
Mauch Chunk to Coal-mines,
5)
Mount Carbon,
Mount Carbon to Coal-mines,
1830
71
Schuylkill Valley,
Port Carbon to Tuscarora,
with numerous branches,
}
30
Schuylkill,
13
Mill Creek,
Port Carbon to Mill Creek,
7
Minehill and Schuylkill,
20
Pine-grove,
Pine-grove to Coal-mines,
4
Little Schuylkill,
Port Clinton to Tamaqua,
1831
23
Lackawaxen,
{
Lackawaxen Canal to the
River Lackawaxen,
}
16}
Carry forward,
249/
5462
S 2
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RAILWAYS.
Whole
Name.
Course.
When
Length
in
length
opened.
in each
Miles.
State.
Brought forward,
2491
546¥
PENNSYLVANIA continued.
Westchester to Columbia
Westchester,
1832
9
Railroad,
Philadelphia and Trenton,
Philadelphia to Trenton,
1833
261
Philadelphia & Norristown,
Philadelphia to Norristown,
1837
19
Central Railway,
Pottsville to Danville,
51 ₫
355
DELAWARE.
Newcastle & Frenchtown,
Newcastle to Frenchtown,
1832
16
16
MARYLAND.
Baltimore and Ohio,
Completed to Harper's Ferry,
1835
with branches,
86
Winchester,
Harper's Ferry to Winchester,
30
Baltimore & Port-Deposit,
Baltimore to Port-Deposit,
341
Baltimore & Washington,
Baltimore to Washington,
1835
40
Baltimore & Susquehanna,
Baltimore to York,
1837
591
2493
VIRGINIA.
Richmond to Chesterfield
Chesterfield,
Coal-mines,
13
Petersburg and Roanoke,
Petersburg to Blakely on the
Roanoke,
59
Winchester and Potomac,
Winchester to Harper's Ferry,
30
Portsmouth and Roanoke,
Portsmouth to Weldon,
771
Richmond, Fredricks-
burg, and Potomac,
}
Richmond to Fredricksburg,
58
Manchester,
Richmond to Coal-mines,
13
SOUTH CAROLINA.
250}
S. Carolina Railroad,
Charleston to Hamburg on
the Savannah,
}
1833
136
136
GEORGIA.
Alatamaba & Brunswick,
Alatamaba to Brunswick,
12
12
ALABAMA.
Tuscumbia and Decatur,
Mussel-Shoals, Tenessee River,
46
46
Louisiana.
{
New Orleans to Lake Pont-
Pontchartrain,
chartrain,
}
1831
5
Carolton,
New Orleans to Carolton,
6
11
KENTUCKY.
Lexington and Ohio,
Lexington to Frankfort,
29
29
Total length in miles,
1652}
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LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL RAILWAY WORKS NOW IN PROGRESS IN THE
UNITED STATES.
NAME.
Course.
Length
in
Miles.
New HAMPSHIRE
Nashua and Lowell,
Nashua to Lowell,
15
MASSACHUSETTS.
Eastern Railroad,
Boston to Portsmouth,
50
Worcester and Norwich,
Worcester to Norwich,
58
Western Railway,
Worcester to Springfield,
35
CONNECTICUT.
Hartford and Newhaven,
Hartford to Newhaven,
35
New YORK.
Auburn and Syracuse,
Auburn to Syracuse,
26
Catskill and Canajoharie,
Catskill to Canajoharie,
68
Hudson and Berkshire,
Hudson to the Boundary of Massachusetts,
30
Long Island,
Jamaica to Greenport,
50
New York and Erie,
New York to Lake Erie,
505
Saratoga and Washington,
Saratoga to Whitehall,
41
Tonawanta,
Rochester to Attica,
45
NEW JERSEY.
Elisabethtown & Belvidere,
Elisabethtown to Belvidere,
60
Burlington & Mount Holly,
Burlington to Mount Holly,
7
Morris and Essex,
Morristown to Newark,
20
PENNSYLVANIA.
Philadelphia and Reading,
Philadelphia to Reading,
401
Oxford,
Columbia Railroad to Port Deposit,
38
Philadelphia and Baltimore,
Philadelphia to Baltimore,
93
Tioga,
Chemung Canal to Tioga Coal-Mines,
40
VIRGINIA.
Greensvill and Roanoke,
18
S. CAROLINA.
Augusta and Athens,
Augusta to Athens,
100
Charleston and Cincinnatti,
Charleston to Cincinnati,
500
GEORGIA.
Macon and Forsyth,
Macon to Forsyth,
25
Central Railroad,
Savannah to Macon,
200
ALABAMA.
Montgomery and Chatta-
hoochee,
}
90
MISSISSIPPI.
Mississippi Railroad,
Natchez to Canton,
150
KENTUCKY.
Frankfort and Louisville,
Frankfort to Louisville,
50
Bowling Green & Barren
River,
}
Bowling-Green to Barren River,
1}
OHIO.
Mud River and Lake Erie,
Dayton to Sandusky,
153
Sandusky and Monroeville,
Sandusky to Monroeville,
16
MICHIGAN.
Detroit and St Joseph,
Detroit to the River St Joseph,
200
Total length,
2760
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CHAPTER X.
WATER-WORKS.
Fairmount Water-works at Philadelphia-Construction of the Dam
over the River Schuylkill-Pumps and Water-wheels-Reser-
voirs, &c.-The Water-works of Richmond in Virginia-Pitts-
burg-Montreal-Cincinnatti-Albany-Troy-Wells : for sup-
plying New York and Boston-Plan for improving the supply of
Water for New York, &c.
THE Fairmount Water-works are situate on the
east bank of the river Schuylkill, about one mile and
a half from the town of Philadelphia. They are re-
markable for their efficiency and simplicity, as well as
their great extent, being the largest water-works in
North America. They were commenced in 1819,
and were in a working state in 1822. According to
the Water Company's report for the year 1836, the
whole sum expended in their execution, up to that
date, was L.276,206.*
The water of the river Schuylkill, with which the
town of Philadelphia is supplied, is raised by water-
* Annual Reports of the Watering Committee to the Select and
Common Councils of the City of Philadelphia.
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Stevenson's Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America.
PLATE XIII.
Dam
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2
72
PLAN
2
of the
Fair mount Water Works,
at
PHILADELPHIA.
Thomas Stevenson, Delt
Published by John Weale. 5.9. High Holborn, 1838.
Geo. Aikman, Sculp!
WATER-WORKS.
279
power into four large reservoirs, placed on a rocky
eminence near the bank of the river ; and after pass-
ing through gravel filter-beds, it is conveyed in two
large mains to the outskirts of the town, and thence
led into the various streets by smaller mains and
branch-pipes.
Plate XIII. is a ground plan of the water-works,
including part of the river Schuylkill and the adjoin-
ing country. Letters a b c represent a dam which has
been thrown across the river in order to obtain a fall
of water for driving the water-wheels. Letter d is the
mill-race, e e the buildings in which the water-wheels
and force-pumps are placed, and fff are the filters
and reservoirs for the reception of the water.
The erection of the dam across the river was the
first and most arduous part of this work. It measures
about sixteen hundred feet in length from bank to
bank, and creates a stagnation in the flow of the
stream, which extends about six miles up the river.
The greatest depth of water in the line of the dam
at low water of spring tides is twenty-four feet, and
the rise of tide is six feet. From c to b the bottom
of the river consists of rock covered with a deposit
of mud about eleven feet in depth, and from b to a
the bottom is entirely composed of bare rock, part
of which, at the western side of the river, is ex-
posed during low water, as shewn in the plate. The
line of the dam forms an angle of about 45 degrees
with the direction of the stream. In this way a large
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WATER-WORKS.
overfall is formed for the water, and its perpendicular
rise above the top of the dam, when the river is in a
flooded state, is not SO great as it would have been
had the dam been placed at right angles to the stream.
By adopting this direction the strength of the struc-
ture is also considerably increased, for the mass of the
dam opposed to any given section of the stream is
greater directly as the cosine, or inversely, as the sine
of the angle formed by the line of the dam and the
direction of the stream inpinging on it.
The part of the dam which was first formed is that
which is founded on the mud bottom extending from
c to b. It consists of a large mound composed of
rubble stones and earth thrown into the river. It
measures 270 feet in length, 150 feet in breadth at the
base, and 12 feet at the top, and its upper slope or face,
which is exposed to the wash of the river, is cased with
rough pitching formed of large stones. The termina-
tion of the dam at the point b, is protected by a cut-
stone pier, measuring twenty-eight feet by twenty-
three feet, which is founded on rock, and built in wa-
ter twenty-eight feet in depth.
The part extending from b to a is the overfall dam.
It measures 1204 feet in length, and is founded on a
rocky bottom, which rises pretty regularly from b,
where there is a depth of twenty-four feet during the
lowest tides, towards a, where the rock is uncovered
at low water.
The current of the river being strong, it was found
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Stevenson's Sketch of the Civil Engineering of North America.
Fig. 1.
PLATE XIV.
Level of
High water.
Level of
Low water.
Fig. 2.
Level of High water.
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Level of Low water.
2
Thomas Stevenson Delt
Elevation and cross section of part of the dam erected in the River Schuylkill, at Fair mount Water works.
Geo Aikman, Sculp!
P. "shed by John Wanle 59 High Holborn. 1838
WATER-WORKS.
281
impóssible to form this part of the dam by construct-
ing a mound of rubble on the rocky bottom, according
to the plan followed in founding the first part of the
structure, on a bottom composed of mud. The expe-
dient resorted to for retaining the stones on the shelv-
ing rock, was. extremely ingenious, and has proved
very effective.
The overfall dam consists of a strong wooden frame-
work or crib, which was formed in separate compart-
ments, and sunk in small portions in the line of the
dam, by filling it with stones. Plate XIV. is a draw-
ing of the dam, in which Fig. 1 is an elevation of a
part of its lower front or face, and Fig. 2 is a cross
section. These views shew the wooden frames or cribs
of which the dam is composed, and also the rubble-
stone hearting which prevents them from floating. The
cribs are formed of logs of wood, measuring eighteen
by twenty inches, connected together by strong dove-
tailing, notched three inches deep, in the manner
shewn in the drawing. The size of the wooden frame-
work, measured in the direction of the stream, is
seventy-two feet, and the separate compartments of
which it was formed measured twenty feet in breadth.
The part of the dam over which the water flows
marked a a, and also the posterior part of it, a b, are
covered with planking six inches in thickness. In
forming the dam, the cribs were floated one after an-
other to the site which they were to occupy, and large
stones being thrown into them, they gradually sank,
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WATER-WORKS.
until at last they rested on the bottom of the river.
The upper parts of the several cribs, or those portions
of them which stood above the level of low water, were
then firmly connected together, so as to form one con-
tinuous frame-work, behind which a large mass of rub-
ble hearting and earth was placed, in the manner
shewn in the drawing, to give the whole structure
weight and stability, and to prevent leakage.
This mode of forming dams is very generally prac-
tised in America in forming lines of slackwater navi-
gation, and has been found to stand remarkably well.
The dam just alluded to, at the Fairmount water-
works, withstood a great flood which occurred at the
breaking up of the ice, on the 21st February 1832,
without sustaining the smallest injury. On that oc-
casion the water of the Schuylkill flowed over the top
of the dam in a solid body no less than eight feet
eleven inches in depth. As the erection of the dam
impeded the navigation of the river, the Water Com-
pany had to compensate the Schuylkill Navigation
Company by forming a canal, marked h h in Plate
XIII., for the passage of their coal barges. This
canal is about 900 feet in length. It has two locks
of six feet lift each, and one guard-lock at the upper
extremity.
The water is admitted into the mill-race d, by three
archways at c, which have a water-way sixty-eight feet
in breadth, and, when the river is in its ordinary state,
admit a body of water six feet in depth. These arch-
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WATER-WORKS.
283
ways can be shut by means of gates, and the whole of
the water can be drawn off from the mill-race, if re-
quired, by opening a sluice. communicating with the
part of the river below the dam. The mill-race, which
is excavated in solid rock, was a most laborious and
expensive work. It is 419 feet in length, and 140
feet in breadth ; its depth varies from sixteen to sixty
feet.
From d, the water flowing through the wheel-houses
e e, drives the water-wheels, and afterwards makes its
escape into the Schuylkill. The wheel-houses have
been built of a sufficient size to admit of eight wheels
and eight force-pumps being employed to raise the
water. In 1837 only six of the wheels and six force-
pumps had been put up. The average daily quantity
of water raised by each pump during the last year,
was 530,000 gallons, and the whole quantity of water
distributed from the reservoirs per day, to 19,678
householders, was 3,122,664 gallons. It has been
calculated that thirty gallons of water, acting on the
wheel, raised one gallon into the reservoir.
The water-wheels vary from fifteen to sixteen feet
in diameter. They are fifteen feet in breadth, and
make thirteen revolutions per minute. The spokes,
rims, and buckets are formed of wood, but they revolve
on cast-iron axles, weighing five tons each. The
working of the wheels is impeded during spring tides,
by the water rising upon them ; but it has been found
that their motion is not affected until the back-water
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WATER-WORKS.
rises about sixteen inches on the wheel. They are
stopped, however, on an average, about sixty-four
hours every month from this cause.
The pumps are common double-acting force-pumps,
having a stroke of six feet, worked by cranks attached
to the axles of the paddle-wheels. The height to
which the water is forced, is no less than ninety-two
feet, and the most substantial work is necessary to in-
sure the stability of the pumping apparatus, under the
pressure of a column of water of so great a height.
A cast-iron main, sixteen inches in diameter, leads
from each of the force-pumps to the reservoirs. The
communication between the force-pumps and the re-
servoirs, can be cut off by a stop-cock, placed on the
main, so that, when the pumps are not in motion,
they can be relieved from the pressure of the co-
lumn of water. The shortest main is 284 feet in
length.
The reservoirs for containing the water are placed
at an elevation of 102 feet above the level of low
water, and fifty-six feet above the highest part of the
streets of Philadelphia. There are four reservoirs, the
aggregate area of which is about six acres. The re-
servoirs are founded on an elevated rock, but the
water is retained by means of artificial walls and em-
bankments. The side walls of the reservoirs are built
with stone, behind which there is a backing of clay
puddle, two feet in thickness, and the whole is sur-
rounded towards the outside, by an embankment of
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WATER-WORKS.
285
earth, sloping at the rate of one perpendicular to one
horizontal, and coverèd with grass sods. The reser-
voirs are paved with bricks, laid with lime-mortar, on
a layer of clay-puddle, and well grouted, to prevent
leakage. The depth of water in the reservoirs is twelve
feet three inches, and when filled, they contain upwards
of twenty-two millions of gallons of water. There is a
considerable advantage in having four reservoirs. The
water, after being discharged from the force-pumps
into one of them, passes through all the other reser-
voirs, between each of which there is a filter, so that
any impurities in the water are extracted during its
passage from one cistern to another, and prevented
from entering the pipes, which distribute it to the
town.
The water is conveyed from the reservoirs, and dis-
tributed through the town, in 983 miles of cast-iron
pipes. About one-half of these pipes was cast in
America, and the remainder were imported from this
country. The two mains leading from the reservoirs
to the town, measure twenty-two inches in diameter.
The small mains and pipes which have been laid in
the streets, measure from three to twelve inches in
diameter. The pipes are formed in the usual manner,
and the different lengths are connected by spigot and
faucet joints. The average cost of the whole of the
pipes and mains laid down, was 7s. 1½d. per lineal
foot.
The very small cost at which the town is now sup-
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286
WATER-WORKS.
plied, is an ample ground for having substituted, even
at considerable outlay in the first instance, the system
of raising by means of water, instead of steam power ;
steam having been used at the Fairmount works pre-
vious to the year 1822. The expenditure, including
repairs and salaries connected with the works, for dis-
tributing a daily supply of 3,122,664 gallons of water,
was, in 1836, L.2800. The following information re-
garding the details of this most interesting and efficient
work, are drawn up by Mr Graffe, the superintendent,
and printed in the Water Company's annual report
for the year 1836 :-
Gallons.
Gallons.
The Reservoir No. 1. was finished in 1815, and
contains,
3,917,659
The Reservoir No. 2. was finished in 1821, and
contains,
3,296,434
The Reservoir No. 3. was finished in 1827, and
contains,
2,707,295
Containing,
9,921,388
The first section of Reservoir No. 4. was finish-
ed in 1835, and contains,
3,658,016
The second section of Reservoir No. 4. was fi-
nished in 1836, and contains,
4,381,322
The third section of Reservoir No. 4. was finish-
ed in 1836, and contains,
4,071,250
12,110,588
The Reservoirs contain together,
22,031,976
Reservoir No. 1. cost,
D.32,508.52
Reservoir No. 2. cost,
9,579.47
Reservoir No. 3. cost,
24,521.75
First, second, and third sections of Reservoir No. 4. cost,
67,214.68
Total,
D.133,824.42
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WATER-WORKS.
287
The whole expense of the reservoirs amounted to
133,824 dollars, which is equal to about L.26,765.
" The water of the reservoirs covers a surface ex-
ceeding six acres. The reservoirs are each 12 feet 3
inches deep, and are elevated above the water in the
dam 96 feet perpendicular.
" The water flowing from the reservoirs for the sup-
ply of the city and districts, per day, at different pe-
riods of the year 1836, was as follows :-
Gallons.
From February 1st to the 21st, in very cold weather,
1,769,800
February 21st to March 20th,
2,113,257
March 20th to June 3d,
3,046,120
June 3d to July 22d,
3,942,643
July 22d to September 9th,
4,152,917
September 9th to October 28th,
3,679,800
October 28th to December 31st,
3,154,114
" The average daily supply, in 1836, was 3,122,664
gallons. The above supply of water is distributed to
16,678 tenants by private pipes, and to 3000 families
by public pumps, making the total number of families
supplied 19,678.
" The quantity of iron pipes laid for the distribu-
tion of the water is as follows :-
Miles.
In the city,
58
In the district of Spring Gardens,
11g
In Southwark,
104
In the Northern Liberties,
12]
In Moyamensing,
2§
In Kensington,
3
Together,
984
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WATER-WORKS.
" The water rents collected for the year 1837 are
as follows :-
In the city,
D.57,080.50
Including rents on the Girard estate, and rents due
by H. J. Williams and others at Fairmount,
1,048.50
In Spring Gardens,
13,674.25
In Southwark,
10,517.50
In the Northern Liberties,
20,009.37
In Moyamensing,
1,956.00
In Kensington,
2,146.25
Total,
D.106,432.37
Amounting, in all, to about 106,432 dollars, which is
equal to about L.21,286.
" The expenses for the water-power works connected with the ap-
plicable parts of the former steam-works, were, December
31. 1831,
D.1,138,323.54
Add the expenses for reservoirs, iron pipes, &c. in
1832,
65,195.58
Do.
Do.
in 1833,
37,354.06
Do.
Do.
in 1834,
65,163.36
Do.
Do.
in 1835,
73,288.38
Do.
Do.
in 1836,
71,706.51
D.1,451,031.43
From which deduct for the support of working
machinery, materials, salaries, &c. 14,000.00 dol-
lars per annum for the last five years,
70,000.00
Leaves the expenditure for the permanent works,
up to 31st December 1836,
D.1,381,031.43
The expenditure for permanent works, therefore,
amounts to 1,381,031 dollars, which is equal to about
L.276,206.
The supply of water for the town of Richmond in
Virginia, is procured from the James River, in the
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WATER-WORKS.
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sàme manner as at Philadélphia ; but the works are
on a much smaller scale. The water is raised 160
feet by two water-wheels into two reservoirs, mea-
suring 194 feet in length, 104 feet in breadth, and
ten feet eight inches in depth, which are capable of
containing upwards of two millions of gallons of water.
Before leaving the reservoirs, the water is purified by
passing through two gravel filters. The water-wheels
are eighteen feet in diameter, and ten feet in breadth,
and the fall is ten feet. The barrels of the two force-
pumps are nine inches in diameter, and six feet in
length of stroke, and, in the ordinary state of work-
ing, when only one wheel is in operation, raise about
400,000 gallons of water in twenty-four hours.
The cast-iron main which leads from the pumps to
the reservoir is eight inches in diameter and about
2400 feet in length. Mr Stein was engineer for the
work, which is said to have cost about L.20,000.
Pittsburg, on the Ohio in the State of Pennsylva-
nia, is supplied with water from the river Alleghany.
It is raised by a steam-engine of 84 horses power into
a reservoir capable of containing 1,000,000 gallons of
water, and elevated 116 feet above the level of the
river. The main leading from the pumps to the re-
servoir is fifteen inches in diameter, and the pump
raises 1,500,000 gallons in twenty-four hours.
Montreal also is supplied in the same manner from
the water of the St Lawrence, which is raised by
T
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WATER-WORKS.
steam power to an elevated reservoir, and then distri-
buted through the town.
The following account of the water-works which
have lately been established at Cincinnati, on the Ohio
in the State of Ohio, is given by Mr Davies the Su-
perintendent.
"The Cincinnati water-works were constructed in
1820. The water was taken from the Ohio river, by
a common force-pump, worked by horse-power, placed
upon the bank of the river, sufficiently near low water-
mark to be within the usual atmospheric pressure, and
thrown from that point to the reservoir, 160 feet above
low water-mark, from which it was conveyed to the
town in wooden pipes. The town at that time af-
forded no inducement for a larger supply of water than
could be brought through wooden pipes of three inches
and a half in diameter, consequently the works at the
river were only calculated to supply a pipe of that
size. Only a short time, however, was necessary, to
prove the necessity of an increase, and a change from
horse power to steam.
"The works now consist of two engines, one pro-
pelling a double force-pump of ten inches in diameter,
and four feet stroke, throwing into the reservoir about
1000 gallons a minute ; the other propelling a pump
of twenty inches in diameter, eight feet stroke, and
discharging about 1200 gallons per minute. The re-
servoirs are built of common limestone; the walls are
from three to six feet thick, and grouted. The water
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WATER-WORKS.
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is conveyed immediately to the town, without being
permitted to stand or filter. Iron pipes of eight inches
in diameter convey it through the heart of the town,
from which it branches in wooden pipes of from one
and a half to three and a half inches in diameter.
From these it is conveyed into private dwellings in
leaden pipes at the expense of the inhabitants, who
pay from eight to twelve dollars* per annum, accord-
ing to the purposes for which. it is used. Each fa-
mily, of course, use any quantity they choose, their
hydrants communicating freely with the main-pipes.
The iron-pipes are made in lengths of nine feet each,
and connected together by the spigot and faucet joint
run with lead, which occupies a space round the pipe
of three-eighths or half an inch in thickness."
Albany on the Hudson is principally supplied with
water procured in the high ground in the neighbour-
hood, and conveyed in a six-inch pipe for a distance
of about three miles to a reservoir near the town.
Troy, on the eastern or left bank of the Hudson,
about fourteen miles above Albany, is also abundantly
supplied with good water collected in the high ground
in the neighbourhood. The reservoir stands about
one-third of a mile from the town, and is seventy feet
above the level of the streets. It is capable of con-
taining 1,900,000 gallons, and the water is conveyed
from it to the town in a main twelve inches in diame-
*
From about L.1, 12s. to L.2, 8s.
T 2
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WATER-WORKS.
ter. The works are said to have cost L.23,000. The
annual expense of conducting them is L.160.
The only supply of water which the inhabitants of
New York at present enjoy is obtained from wells
sunk in different parts of the town. The water is
raised from these wells by steam-power to elevated
reservoirs, and thence distributed in pipes to different
parts of the town. Some of the wells in New York
belong to the Manhatten Water Company, and some
to the corporation. One well, belonging to the cor-
poration, is 113 feet in depth. For the purpose of
collecting water, there are three horizontal passages
leading from the bottom of the well, which measure
four feet in width, and six feet in height ; two of them
are seventy-five, and the third is one hundred feet in
length. This well cost about L.11,500, and yields
21,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. There are
many other wells in the town, some of which are
said to produce 120,000 gallons in twenty-four hours.
This mode of collecting water in subterraneous galle-
ries has been successfully practised in this country, on
a great scale, at the water-works of Liverpool, by Mr
Grahame, the engineer to the Harrington Water Com-
pany. The supply at New York is far from being
adequate to the wants of the inhabitants ; and the
water in most of the wells being hard and brackish, is
not suitable for domestic purposes.
New York is built on a flat island, which is nearly
surrounded by salt water, so that the method that has
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been resorted to for the supply of Philadelphia and
most other towns in the United States is altogether
impracticable in that situation. Many plans have
been proposed, and, among others, that of throwing
a dam across the Hudson, so as to exclude the salt
water ; but as a free passage, by means of locks, must
be preserved for the numerous vessels which navigate
the river, the success of such a plan seems very
doubtful.
Many engineers in the United States, of great repu-
tation, have made surveys of the country in the neigh-
bourhood of New York, in order to devise a plan for
the supply of the city with water, and they have pro-
posed to effect this object, so important to its inhabi-
tants, by conveying the water of the river Croton in a
tunnel to New York. The point from which the
water is intended to be withdrawn, is about thirty
miles distant from the city. The estimate for the
entire execution of the work, is upwards of one million
Sterling.
The situation of Boston is somewhat like that of
New York. It is surrounded by the sea, and the
supply of good water is far from being sufficient for
the inhabitants. Mr Baldwin, civil-engineer, has made
a survey and plan for the supply of the town, in which
he contemplates bringing water from some springs in
the neighbourhood.*
* Report on introducing pure water into the City of Boston. By
Loammi Baldwin, C. E. Boston, 1835.
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WATER-WORKS.
At present the town is supplied chiefly from wells.
According to Mr Baldwin's report, there are no less
than 2767 wells in Boston, thirty-three of which are
Artesian. Only seven, however, out of the whole
number, produce soft water ; and of these, two are
Artesian.
Great difficulty has been experienced in forming
many of the wells on the peninsula of Boston, in some
of which, on tapping the lower strata, the water is said
to have risen to seventy-five, or eighty feet above the
level of the sea. #
The following very interesting remarks regarding
two of these wells, are quoted by Mr Storrow in his
Treatise on Water-works.
" Dr Lathrop gives the following history of a well
dug near Boston Neck.+ 6 Where the ground was
opened, the elevation is not more than one foot, or one
foot and a half above the sea at high water. The well
was made very large. After digging about 22 feet in
a body of clay, the workmen prepared for boring. At
the depth of 108 or 110 feet the augur was impeded
by a hard substance ; this was no sooner broken
through and the augur taken out, than the water was
forced up with a loud noise, and rose to the top of the
well. After the first effort of the long confined elas-
tic air was expended, the water subsided about six feet
* A Treatise on Water-works. By Charles S. Storrow. Boston,
1835.
+
Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 3.
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from the surface, and there, remains at all seasons ebb-
ing and flowing a little with the tides.'
"Dr Lathrop observes, that the proprietors of this
well were led to exercise great caution in carrying on
the work, by an accident which had happened in their
immediate neighbourhood. ' A few years before, an
attempt was made to dig a well a few rods (16} feet)
to the east near the sea. Having dug about 60 feet
in a body of clay without finding water, preparation
was made in the usual way for boring ; and, after pas-
sing about 40 feet in the same body of clay, the augur
was impeded by stone. A few strokes with a drill
broke through the slate covering, and the water gush-
ed out with such rapidity and force, that the work-
men with difficulty were saved from death. The wa-
ter rose to the top of the well and ran over for some
time. The force was such as to bring up a large quan-
tity of fine sand, by which the well was filled up many
feet. The workmen left behind all their tools, which
were buried in the sand, and all their labour was lost.
The body of water which is constantly passing under
the immense body of clay, which is found in all the
low parts of the peninsula, and which forms the basin
of the harbour, must have its source in the interior,
and is pushed on with great force from ponds and lakes
in the elevated parts of the country. Whenever vent
is given to any of those subterranean currents, the wa-
ter will rise, if it have opportunity, to the level of its
source."
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CHAPTER XI.
LIGHTHOUSES.
Parts of the United States in which Lighthouses have been erected-
Great extent of coast under the superintendence of the Light-
house Establishment-The uncultivated state of a great part of
the country, and the attacks of Indians a bar to the establish-
ment of Lights on the coast-Introduction of Sea Lights in Ame-
rica-Description of the present establishment-Number of
Lighthouses, Floating Lights, and Buoys-Annual Expenditure-
Management - Superintendents - Light-Keepers -Supplies of
Stores, &c.-Lighting Apparatus-Distinctions of Lights-Com-
munication on the subject from Stephen Pleasonton, Esq., Fifth
Auditor of the Treasury.
THE parts of the territory of the United States on
which lights have been erected under the management
of the General Lighthouse Establishment, are, First,
The eastern coast of the country from Passamaquoddy
Bay, the boundary between the American and British
dominions, to the State of Texas, in the Gulf of
Mexico, a stretch of coast extending to upwards of
3000 miles, exposed to the Atlantic Ocean. Second,
The courses of the rivers Mississippi and Ohio, ex-
tending to about 1250 miles. Third, The southern
shores of Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Michigan,
including a line of coast of not less than 1200 miles
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in extent. In addition to these great outlines, lights
have also been placed on some of the smaller rivers
and lakes, for the purpose of facilitating their navi-
gation.
The western coast of the country, which is washed
by the Pacific Ocean, is entirely cut off from any com-
munication with the inhabitants of the United States
by a great tract of uncultivated and unexplored land,
stretching from the northern to the southern extremity,
and flanked by the rugged ridges of the Rocky Moun-
tains. The United States of America, therefore, are
quite unapproachable from the Pacific. The western
coast of the country (a great part of which has never
been explored), is still far removed from the limits of
civilization, and is inhabited only by tribes of wander-
ing Indians.
The whole extent of coast under the jurisdiction of
the American Lighthouse Establishment embraces
the three compartments which have been enumerated,
and is not less than 5450 miles, while the coast of
Great Britain and Ireland may be stated at 2800
miles, and that of France at 1100 miles. The unin-
habited and desolate condition of a large part of the
coast proves a great bar to the regular and efficient
establishment of lighthouses. This fact has been
strikingly exemplified, and its consequences severely
felt, in the State of Florida, which is said to be the
most dangerous coast in the United States of North
America. The country in this State is almost wholly
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uncultivated. It is still in many places peopled only
by remnants of Indian tribes, who have shewn their
hostility to the introduction of any thing like civi-
lization, by opposing the erection of lighthouses on
the coast, and in some places, by burning the light-
house towers, and even murdering the keepers. In
one instance, a light-keeper on the coast of Flo-
rida, after defending himself for a considerable time
against an attack made by a body of Indians, was at
last forced to take refuge in the balcony of the light-
house, where he was shot by the arrows of the assailants.
The following extract, taken from a letter addressed
by the Fifth Auditor, to the Secretary of the Treasury
of the United States, shews the difficulty that is often
encountered in transacting the business of the light-
house establishment :- A contract was made in the
month of July last, for rebuilding the lighthouse at
Cape Florida, and the contractor proceeded to that
place with materials and men to execute the work ;
but finding that hostile Indians were in the neigh-
bourhood, he returned to Boston (a distance of about
1300 miles) without effecting his object. When the
contract was made, there was just reason to believe
that the Indian war was at an end, and that the work
could be done with safety."
The fact of a lighthouse system having been ex-
tended to the remotest corners of so extensive a coast,
under circumstances so inauspicious and unfavourable,
is what could hardly have been looked for, and is
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certainly highly creditable to the government of the
United States and to the officers of the Lighthouse
Establishment. Even the most superficial observer
cannot fail to discover that there is a striking contrast
between the regulation of that establishment and the
efficient and admirable systems pursued by the Light-
house Boards of Great Britain and France ; but a
candid enquirer will rather be disposed to admire the
activity and zeal which have extended the benefit of
lighthouses to remote and unhospitable regions, of
difficult access, than to wonder at the defects of the
system which has been established for the purpose of
carrying that important object into effect.
The period at which lighthouses were first used for
facilitating navigation is not correctly known. The
Pharos of Alexandria seems to have existed as early
as 300 B.C. In England they were in use in the
reign of Henry VIII. ;-in Scotland in the reign of
James VI. ; and in Ireland in the reign of George
II. We are perhaps indebted to France for the in-
troduction of a more perfect system of management,
the Government of that country having first placed
the management of the lighthouses under the charge
of Engineers.
The date at which the first sea light was exhibited
on the coast of America is not exactly known ; but
the management of the lighthouses appears to have
been undertaken by the Government of the United
States, and a system for conducting them regularly
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organized in the year 1791, at which period they were
only ten in number. These appear to have been
erected in the States of Massachusetts, New York, and
Virginia, which were the earliest settlements in the
country. The whole number of lighthouses, includ-
ing harbour lights (which are also under the control
of the General Lighthouse Board), in 1837, was 202.
Of these about 172 are situated on the sea coast, and
the remaining 30 are on the great lakes and rivers.
There are also 26 floating light ships, which are
moored in the vicinity of particular dangers on the
coast, and vary in size from 50 to 225 tons register,
according to their position and importance. Their
lights are exhibited in the usual manner from lanterns
suspended at the mast-heads of the vessels. In addi-
tion to the duties connected with the management of
the lights, the Board has also the charge of upwards
of 600 buoys and beacons placed on different parts of
the coast.
The total expenditure connected with the light-
house establishment of America for the year 1837 was
356,863 dollars, which is equal to about L.71,352.
Of this outlay the sum of L.19,652 was expended in
paying the " salaries of principal officers, superinten-
dents, and light-keepers ; L.17,720 in the purchase
of oil and other stores for the lights, and in repairing
lamps ; L.7000 in supporting the buoys ; L.13,000
in keeping the light ships in repair, and L.13,980 in
repairing lighthouse towers and executing new works.
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The business of the Lighthouse Establishment, as
has already been noticed, is under the immediate con-
trol and management of the Government. The official
person to whom the duties of this department have been
specially assigned, is the Fifth Auditor of the Trea-
sury, who superintends the building and maintenance
of the various lighthouses, floating-light ships and
buoys on the coast, and the general expenditure con-
nected with the establishment. He resides at Wash-
ington, the seat of Government of the United States,
and does not himself visit the lighthouse stations, but
conducts the business with the assistance of superin-
tendents. This vast stretch of shore is divided into
forty-one districts, over each of which a superintend-
ent is placed, for the discharge of the coast duty.
The person chosen to fill this office is generally resi-
dent in the part of the country where his duty lies.
Some of these superintendents have as many as twenty-
four lighthouses, while others, in parts of the country
where the lights are few in number and widely sepa-
rated, have proportionally fewer under their charge.
The duty of the superintendent consists in visiting
and inspecting the lighthouses of his district, re-
porting the repairs required on them, and seeing the
same executed, and in receiving from the keepers of
the lighthouses quarterly returns of the quantity of
the stores expended. These he transmits to the Fifth
Auditor of the Treasury. The superintendent also
makes an annual report on the general state of the
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lighthouses, and the conduct of the light-keepers un-
der his charge. This officer is paid for his services
at the rate of two and a half per cent. on the amount
of his annual disbursements, a mode of remuneration
which appears to be of very questionable propriety.
One keeper only is appointed to the charge of each
lighthouse, who, as before noticed, makes a quar-
terly return to the superintendent of the qu at ity
of stores expended, but keeps no journal of the times
at which the lamps are lighted and extinguished, and
no register of the weather. The keepers' salaries range
from L.50 to L.120 per annum, according to the fa-
vourable or unfavourable nature of the situation at
which they are placed, and keepers of the floating-
light ships are paid at nearly the same rate. The
desolate and uninhabited state of many of the situa-
tions in which the lights are placed, as well as the fact
of there being only one responsible person at each sta-
tion, render it difficult to conceive how the duties of
the light-keepers can be efficiently performed ; while
the imperfect nature of their periodical reports, and
the remote intervals at which they are made, afford
very little security for, or at all events satisfactory evi-
dence of, the fulfilment of the important duties com-
mitted to them, on the faithful discharge of which,
the lives and fortunes of many individuals must con-
stantly depend.
The furnishing of oil and other stores, and the re-
pairs necessary for keeping the lamps in a proper work-
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ing state, as well as the delivery of the supplies at the
different stations, are let at a gross sum by contract
for five years at a time. In 1837, this contract was
executed at 35 dollars 87 cents, or L.7 : 9 : 5 per
lamp per annum, a sum which, taking into considera-
tion the actual value of the oil and supplies consumed,
and the difficulty and expense of delivering them,
seems quite inadequate. The contractor is also ex-
pressly bound, on landing the supplies, to examine
the state of the several lighthouses, and send an an-
nual report to the Fifth Auditor of the Treasury, spe-
cifying the repairs on the light-towers or dwelling-
houses, which he considers necessary for maintaining
the efficiency of the lights. This arrangement is un-
derstood to have been adopted as a check on the con-
duct of the superintendents.
The apparatus used in illuminating the American
lighthouses is in general constructed on the catoptric
principle. The reflectors in use are made of polished
tin-plate, and measure from nine to eighteen inches
in diameter. They are inferior to those employed on
the coasts of Great Britain and France, which are
of much larger dimensions, and made of copper plated
with silver, and highly polished. The common argand
lamp, similar to that in use in British lighthouses, but
of a smaller size, is employed in illuminating the reflec-
tors. Spermaceti oil, the produce of their South Sea
fishery, is burned in all the lighthouses. Some expe-
riments have lately been made with oil produced from
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cotton-seed, which have been considered satisfactory,
and it is expected that ere long this description of oil
will be generally adopted for lighting the American
coast. Common crown-glass is used for the windows
of the lighthouses, while in this country polished
plate-glass, which, from its greater strength and
purity, is much better suited for the purpose, is uni-
versally employed. The characteristics used in the
American lighthouses, for the distinction of one light
from another, are the stationary, revolving, red, and
double lights. On the British coasts, seven differ-
ent distinctive lights have been introduced, with
much success, in those lighthouses which are illumi-
nated on the catoptric principle.
These seven distinctions are called stationary, re-
volving white, revolving red and white, Aashing, in-
termittent, double, and leading lights. The first ex-
hibits a steady and uniform appearance, and the re-
flectors used for it are of smaller dimensions than
those employed in lights which revolve. This is ne-
cessary in order to permit them to be ranged round the
circular frame, with their axes inclined at such an
angle as shall enable them to illuminate every point
of the horizon. The revolving light is produced by
the motion of a frame with three or four faces, having
reflectors placed on each of its sides ; and as the revo-
lution exhibits a light gradually increasing to full
strength, and in the same gradual manner diminish-
ing to total darkness, its appearance is extremely
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marked and obvious to the mariner. The alternation
of red and white lights, is produced by the revolution
of a frame, whose alternate faces present red and white
lights. The flashing light is produced in the same
manner as the revolving light, but owing to a different
construction of the frame, and the greater quickness
of the revolution, a totally different and very splendid
distinction is obtained. The lightest and darkest
periods being but momentary, this light is characte-
rized by a rapid succession of bright flashes, from which
it gets its name. The intermittent light is distin-
guished by its bursting suddenly on the view, and
continuing steady for a short time, after which it is
suddenly eclipsed for half a minute. This striking ap-
pearance is produced by the perpendicular motion of
circular shades in front of the reflectors, by which the
light is alternately hid and displayed. The double
light consists of two lights exhibited from the same
tower, the one raised above the other. The leading
lights are exhibited from two towers, one higher than
the other, and when seen in one line, they form a di-
rection for the course of shipping.
To those acquainted with the British lighthouse
system, the remarks that have been made regarding
the general management and the details of the Ame-
rican lighthouses, will shew that much may still be
done in improving this important class of public works
in that country ; and it is to be hoped that when the
hour of improvement arrives, a rapid stride will be
U
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made, so as at once to bring into force all the best at-
tainments which have been effected in Europe. The
dioptric instruments of Fresnel are now generally ac-
knowledged, under certain circumstances, to increase
the power, while they lessen the expense of illumina-
ting lighthouses, and have lately been introduced into
this country, under the directions of the Commissioners
of the Northern Lights, by Mr Alan Stevenson. The
last work of this kind is the employment, at the fixed
light of the Isle of May, of refractors formed into a cy-
lindric zone or belt, instead of the polygon used in lights
of the first order in France. This is, in fact, merely
the extension of the dioptric zones of Fresnel's har-
bour-light apparatus, to the scale of a great cylinder
six feet in diameter. It is to be hoped the Americans
will at once adopt the dioptric system, at least in all
lighthouses whose situation is such as to insure a con-
stant and efficient superintendence of the duty and
conduct of the light-keepers. This limitation of this
admirable system seems necessary, from the greater
care required in watching a dioptric light, which is
illuminated by means of a mechanical lamp, somewhat
delicate in its movements, and easily deranged ; so
that wherever the light-keepers are left for a long time
without an inquiry into the manner in which they dis-
charge their duty, perhaps the catoptric system in its
most improved state is best calculated to insure, if not
entire efficiency, at least greater confidence in the light.
Since writing the foregoing pages, I had the honour
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to receive the following communication from Stephen
Pleasonton, Esq., in answer to some inquiries made
by me relative to the revenue by which the American
lights are supported.
" Treasury Department, Fifth Auditor's Office,
May 1. 1838.
" DEAR SIR,-I had the honour to receive your
letter of the 22d March, yesterday ; and it is with
great pleasure that I now furnish the information
desired in relation to our Light House Establishment.
" The lighthouses of the United States are built,
fitted up, and kept in operation, by appropriations
made by Congress from the general funds of the go-
vernment. There is no tax imposed upon commerce,
upon the States, or upon individuals, for this purpose.
The whole expense is paid from the revenue provided
for the support of the Government generally.
"After lighthouses are built, for which special appro-
priations are made, appropriations are annually made
for supporting the establishment.
" That for the year 1838 is as follows :-
Dollars.
" For the support of lighthouses, floating lights, beacons,
and buoys, supplying lighthouses with oil, tube-glasses,
buff-skins and whiting, and keeping the apparatus in
repair, viz. : 2215 lamps (351°c dollars per lamp),
88,600
Salaries of 202 keepers of lighthouses,
80,113
Salaries of 27 keepers of floating lights,
14,150
Weighing, mooring, cleansing, repairing, and supplying
the loss of beacons, buoys, chains, and sinkers,
35,000
Incidental expenses, repairs and improvements to light-
houses and the buildings connected therewith,
70,000
Carry forward,
287,863
U 2
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LIGHTHOUSES.
Dollars.
Brought forward,
287,863
Incidental expenses, seamen's wages, repairs and supplies
to floating lights,
65,000
Expenses of a Board of officers in examining and report-
ing the conditions of all the lighthouses annually,
4,000
356,863
(356,863 dollars, or about L.71,352.)
" The lighthouses of this country are supplied by
contract, to continue in force for five years at a time,
with oil, tube-glasses, buff-skins, whiting, diamonds
for cutting glass, and every other thing necessary to
keep them lit, the contractor also keeping all the
apparatus in complete repair, for the sum of 35187 dol-
lars (L.7 : 9 : 5) per lamp, annually. If the oil is
found not to be good on trial (for we have found no
other way of testing it), he takes that away, and sup-
plies that which is good.
"The repairs of the buildings are a separate charge,
and are made by direction of this office.
"Besides thedistinctions of fixedand revolving lights,
we have two other modes of distinguishing our light-
houses from each other. The one is by producing a
deep red light, which is done by employing red tube-
glasses ; and the other is by placing one light above
another in the same tower, leaving a space of several
feet between them.
" I have the honour to be, very respectfully, Sir,
your obedient Servant,
S. PLEASONTON,
Fifth Auditor of the Treasury,
and Acting Commissioner of the Revenue.
" David Stevenson, Esq. Civil Engineer, Edinburgh."
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CHAPTER XII.
HOUSE-MOVING.
THE lowest wages in the United States for labour-
ers employed at railways or canals, in 1837, were one
dollar or about 4s. 2d. a-day, while the same class of
workmen in this country receive 2s. per day. In con-
sequence of the great value of labour, the Americans
adopt, with a view to economy, many mechanical ex-
pedients, which, in the eyes of British engineers, seem
very extraordinary.
Perhaps the most curious of these, is the operation
of moving houses, which is often practised in New
York. Most of the old streets in that town are very
narrow and tortuous, and in the course of improving
them, many of the old houses were found to in-
terfere with the new lines of street, but instead of
taking down and rebuilding those tenements, the in-
genious inhabitants have recourse to the more simple
method of moving the whole en masse, to a new
site. This was, at first, only attempted with houses
formed of wooden framework, but now the same li-
berty is taken with those built of brick. I saw the
operation put in practice on a brick house, at No. 130
Chatham Street, New York, and was SO much inte-
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HOUSE-MOVING.
rested in the success of this hazardous process, that I
delayed my departure from New York for three days, in
order to see it completed. The house measured fifty
feet in depth by twenty-five feet in breadth of front,
and consisted of four storeys, two above the ground-
floor, and a garret-storey at the top, the whole being
surmounted by large chimney stacks. This house, in
order to make room for a new line of street, was
moved back fourteen feet six inches from the line
which the front wall of the house originally occupied,
and as the operation was curious, and exceedingly in-
teresting in an engineering point of view, I shall en-
deavour, by referring to the accompanying diagrams,
to describe the manner in which it was accomplished.
Fig. 1 is an elevation of the gable, and Fig. 2 an
elevation of the front of the house.
Fig.1.
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Fig.2.
b
b
The first step in the process is to prepare a foun-
dation for the walls on the new site which the house
is intended to occupy. A trench is next cut round
the outside of the house, and the lower floor being
removed, the earth is excavated from the interior, so
as to expose or lay bare the foundations of the side
walls and gables, which are represented in the cuts
by a. Horizontal beams of wood, marked b, mea-
suring about twelve inches square, are then arranged
at distances of three feet apart from centre to centre,
at right angles to the direction in which the house is
to be moved, their ends being allowed to project about
three feet each beyond the building, through holes
drifted in the gables for their reception, as shewn at b b
in Fig. 2. A series of powerful screw-jacks, marked c,
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HOUSE-MOVING.
amounting perhaps to fifty in number, are then placed
under the projecting ends of the horizontal beams, b.
The screw-jacks, as shewn in the diagrams, generally
rest on a beam of wood bedded in the ground, but in
some cases they are placed on a foundation of stone.
They are carefully ranced or fixed, so as to prevent
them from kanting or twisting on the application of
pressure.
When the process has reached this stage, the screw-
jacks are worked so as to bring the upper sides of the
horizontal beams b, into close contact with the gables,
through which they pass, and the intermediate por-
tions of the walls, between the several points of sup-
port, being carefully removed, the whole pressure of
the gables is brought to bear on the horizontal beams
b, which rest on the screw-jacks c. Two strong beams,
which are represented by letters d e in the diagrams,
are placed, one resting above the other, under each
gable, (a part of which is removed for their reception)
at right angles to the horizontal beams b ; the lower
beam e, rests on the old foundation of the house,
which is levelled for its reception, and the upper beam
d, is firmly fixed, by means of cleats of wood and spikes,
to the horizontal beams b, passing through the house.
The lower beams form the road, as it were, on which
the upper ones, supporting the house, slide. The lower
beams are accordingly extended, as shewn at e, Fig. 1,
by means of similar beams, resting on a firm foundation,
to the new site of the house. After the beams, d e, have
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been securely placed close under the horizontal beams,
b, the screw-jacks are unscrewed, and the whole weight
of the gables is again made to bear on the foundations.
Holes, at distances of about three feet apart from
centre to centre, are next drifted in the front and
back walls of the house, through which logs, marked
f, are inserted, in the same way as formerly described
in the gables. The ends of these logs project about
three feet beyond the faces of the walls, and are sup-
ported by cross beams, shewn at gg, Fig. 1, the ends
of which, rest upon the beams, d, under the gables.
The intermediate portions of the front and back
walls, between the supporting beams, being removed
in the same manner as the gables, the whole weight
of the building rests on the lower beams, d and e, on
which the motion is to take place. A very power-
ful screw-jack, shewn at h, Fig. 1, is fixed, in a hori-
zontal position, to each of the beams, e, on which
the house is to move. The ends of the screw-jacks
butt against the upper beams, d; and when they are
worked, the upper beams, bearing the whole weight
of the house, slide smoothly along on the lower
beams, e. The two beams are well greased ; and a
groove in the upper, and a corresponding feather on
the surface of the lower one, insure a motion in the
direction of their length. The length of the screws
in the screw-jacks, h, is about two feet i so that if the
house has to be removed to a greater distance than
that included in their range, they are unfastened, and
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HOUSE-MOVING.
again fixed to the beam, e, when the house is then
propelled other two feet. In this way, by prolonging
the beams e, and removing the screw-jacks, the house
may be moved to an indefinite distance.
When the house has been brought directly over the
foundation which was prepared for it, and which we
shall now suppose to be represented by a in the cuts,
the spaces between the beams f and the foundation a,
in the front and back walls of the house, are built up,
and also the intermediate spaces between the several
beams f. Screw-jacks, as shewn at c and i, are then
ranged all round the house under the ends of the pro-
jecting beams; they are now, as formerly, placed on
firm foundations, and properly braced, to prevent them
from twisting or kanting. These screw-jacks are then
all worked, and the weight of the house is transferred
to them from the beams d, e, g, which are carefully
removed. The space between a a, Fig. 1, and the
horizontal beams b, which was occupied by the beams
d, e, is now built up, and also the intermediate spaces
between the beams b. The screw-jacks c are then
slackened one after another, and the beams b with-
drawn, the space which each occupied being carefully
built up before another screw-jack is removed. The
same process is performed with the beams f, and the
house then rests on its new foundation a, which, in the
case I saw in -New York, was fourteen feet six inches
from the spot on which the house was built.
The operation I have attempted to describe is at-
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tended with very great risk, and much caution is ne-
cessary to prevent accidents. Its success depends
chiefly upon getting a solid and unyielding base for
supporting the screw-jacks c i, and for the prolonga-
tion of the beam e to the new site which the house
is to occupy. It is further of the utmost importance
that in working the screws their motion should be
simultaneous, which in a range of 40 or 50 screw-
jacks is not very easily attained. The operation of
drifting the holes through the walls also requires
caution, as well as that of removing the intermediate
pieces between the beams b and f, which pass through
both walls. The space between the beams is only two
feet, and the place of the materials removed, is, if ne-
cessary, supplied while the house is in the act of mov-
ing, by a block of wood which rests on the beams d.
The screw-jacks h, by which the motion is produced,
require also to be worked with the greatest caution,
as the cracking of the walls would be the inevitable
consequence of their advancing unequally.
Notwithstanding the great difficulty attending the
successful performance of this operation, it is prac-
tised in New York without creating the least alarm in
the inhabitants of the houses, who, in some cases, do
not even remove their furniture while the process is
going forward. The lower part of the house which I
saw moved was occupied as a carver and gilder's shop ;
and on Mr Brown, under whose directions the ope-
ration was proceeding, conducting me to the upper
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HOUSE-MOVING.
storey, that he might convince me that there were
no rents in the walls or ceilings of the rooms, I was as-
tonished to find one of them filled with picture frames
and plates of mirror glass, which had never been re-
moved from the house. The value of the mirror
glass, according to Mr Brown, was not less than 1500
dollars, which is equal to about L.300 Sterling ; and so
much confidence did the owner of the house place in
the success and safety of the operation, that he did not
take the trouble of removing his fragile property. I
understood from Mr Brown that the whole operation of
removing this house, from the time of itscommencement
till its completion, would occupy about five weeks, but
the time employed in actually moving the house four-
teen feet and a half was seven hours. The sum for
which he had contracted to complete the operation
was 1000 dollars, which is equal to about L.200 Ster-
ling. Mr Brown mentioned that he and his father,
who was the first person who attempted to perform
the operation, had followed the business of " house-
movers" for fourteen years, and had removed up-
wards of a hundred houses, without any accident,
many of which, as in the case of the one I saw, were
made entirely of brick. I also visited a church in
" Sixth" Street, capable, I should think, of holding
from 600 to 1000 persons, with galleries and a spire,
which was moved 1100 feet, but this building was com-
posed entirely of wood, which rendered the operation
much less hazardous.
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NOTE ON THE MANUFACTORIES AT LOWELL.
THE manufactures of the United States are be-
coming every day more important. The largest fac-
tories in that country have been established at Lowell,
on the banks of the Merrimac, in the State of Massa-
chusetts. The following statistical table, relative to
the works at that place, may perhaps be useful to
those interested in that subject. The first mill built
at Lowell was opened in 1822 ; and in 1837, there
were twenty-seven mills in the town, which employed
no fewer than 7912 persons. The machinery in all
the mills which I had an opportunity of visiting at
Lowell, was excellent. In the cotton-mills, in parti-
cular, the carding-machines and spinning-frames were
very highly finished ; and the dressing-machines were
more simple, and apparently quite as effective as any
I have ever seen in this country. With the excep-
tion of the works of Mr Smith at Deanston, I have
seen no establishment in which the beneficial effects
of good machinery and excellent regulation were more
obvious than at the Lowell works in the United
States.
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318
LOWELL MANUFACTORIES.
Pittsburg is also entirely a manufacturing town ;
and, in addition to several cotton-mills which have
been built in it, there are several glass-works and iron-
foundries. The sandstone from which the glass is made
is found on the banks of the Alleghany river, about
100 miles from Pittsburg ; the ironstone is got on the
banks of the Juniata and Susquehanna rivers, and
brought to the town on the Pennsylvania Canal. I
visited some of the glass and ironworks in Pittsburg,
which are similar to those of this country ; but the
goods manufactured are decidedly inferior in quality.
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STATISTICS OF LOWELL MANUFACTURES, JANUARY 1. 1837.
COMPILED FROM AUTHENTIC SOURCES.
Locks and
Boott Cot-
CORPORATIONS.
Canals.
Merrimack.
Hamilton.
Appleton.
Lowell.
Suffolk.
Tremont.
Lawrence.
Middlesex.
ton Mills.
Total.
Capital Stock,
600,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
500,000
450,000
500,000
1,500,000
500,000
1,000,000
8,050,000
4, two in ope-
2 shops and a
5 and Print
3 and Print
Cotton & Car-
5, another or
ration, and 2
27, exclusive
Number of Mills,
2
smithy.
Works.
Works.
pet Mill, 1
2
2
bleachery pre-
2 and Dye-
going into
of Print-
building.
paring.
House.
operation the
Works, &c.
next season.
Spindles,
5000 cotton be-
35,704
21,228
11,776
sides woollen.
11,264
11,520
31,000
4620
14,016
146,128
Looms,
1253
144 cotton
38 broadcloth,
620
380
70 carpet.
352
404
910
92 cassimere.
404
4667
Females employed,
1400
860
470
375
470
460
1250
350
450
6085
Males,
500
437
230
65
200
70
70
200
185
70
1827
2500 carpet,
6300 cassimere,
Yards made per week,
186,000
110,000
100,000
150 Rugs,
90,000
125,800
200,000
1500 broad-
73,000
950,250
55,000.
cloth.
1250 tons
Bales Cotton used in do.
wrought and
120
100
95
76
86
90
180
None.
60
807
cast iron yearly
600,000 lb.
Pounds Cotton wrought
in do.
44,000
39,000
33,000
30,000
32,000
34,000
64,000
wool per ann.
and 3,000,000
21,000
297,000
teasels.
Yards dyed and printed do.
165,000
70,000
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
235,000
Printing
Machinery,
Prints and
Kinds of Goods made,
Prints and
Sheetings and
Carpets, Rugs,
Sheetings and
Cloths, Sheet-
Broadcloths
Drillings, No.
Cars and En-
Sheetings, No.
Drillings, No.
Shirtings,
and Negro
Drillings,
Shirtings,
ings, & Shirt-
and
14 Shirtings,
LOWELL MANUFACTORIES.
gines for Rail-
22 to 40.
14 to 40.
No. 14.
Cloth.
No. 14.
No. 14.
ings, No.
Cassimeres.
No. 40.
roads.
14 to 30.
Tons Anthracite Coal per
200 chaldrons
smith's coal
annum,
5200
2800
300
350
330
329
650
500
300
200 tons hard
10,759
coal.
Cords of Wood per annum,
300
1500
1250
500
70
60
60
1000
70
4510
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Gallons of Oil,
2300
8700
6500
3375
Olive, 4000.
Olive, 11,000
Sperm. 4000.
3840
3692
8217
3500
Sperm. 2500
59,324
Diameter of Water Wheels,
13
30
13
13
13
13
13
17
17 and 12
17
Length of do. for each mill,
14
24
42
42
60
42
42
60
46 and 21
60
Incorporated,
1792
1822
1825
1828
1828
1830
1830
1830
1830
1835
Commenced operations,
1822
1823
1825
1828
1828
1832
1832
1833-4
1830
1836
Wakefield
Hot Air Fur-
Hot Air Fur-
Hot Air Fur-
How warmed,
Hot Air.
Hot Air Fur-
Hot Air Fur-
Hot Air Fur-
nace.
nace.
nace.
Steam.
Furnace and
Hot Air.
nace.
nace.
nace.
Steam.
319
320
LOWELL MANUFACTORIES.
REMARKS TO THE FOREGOING TABLE.
Yards of cloth made per annum,
49,413,000
Pounds of cotton consumed,
15,444,000
Assuming half to be Upland, and half New Orleans and
Alabama, the consumption in bales, averaging 361 lb.
each, is
41,964
A pound of cotton averaging
yards.
100 pounds of cotton will produce 89 pounds of cloth.
As regards the health of persons employed, great numbers have
been interrogated, and the result shews, that six of the females out
of ten enjoy better health than before being employed in the mills,-
of males, one-half derive the same advantage.
As regards their moral condition and character, they are not infe-
rior to any portion of the community.
Average wages of females, clear of board,
2.00 dirs. per week.
of males, clear of board,
80 cts. per day.
Medium produce of a loom on No. 14, yarn, 38 to 49 yds. per day.
No. 30,
25 to 30
Average per spindle,
111½ yds. per day.
Persons employed by the companies are paid at the close of each
month.
The average amount of wages paid per month, 106,000 dollars.
A very considerable portion of the wages is deposited in the
savings bank.
Consumption of starch per annum,
510,000 lb.
Consumption of flour for starch in the mills, print-works
and bleachery, per annum,
3,800 bushels.
Consumption of charcoal, per annum,
500,000 bushels.
To the above-named principal establishments may be added the
extensive Powder Mills of Oliver M. Whipple, Esq. ; the Lowell
Bleachery ; Flannel Mills ; Card and Whip Factory ; Planeing Ma-
chine ; Reed Machine ; Grist and Saw Mills ;-together employing
about 300 hands, and a capital of about 300,000 dollars ; and in the
immediate vicinity, Glass-Works, and a Furnace supplying every
description of Castings.
The Locks and Canals Machine Shop, included among the twenty-
seven mills, can furnish machinery complete for a mill of 5000
spindles in four months, and lumber and materials are always at
command, with which to build or rebuild a mill in that time, if re-
quired. When building mills, the Locks and Canals Company em-
ploy directly and indirectly from 1000 to 1200 hands.
FINIS.
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JOHN WEALE,
ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, No. 59, HIGH HOLBORN,
HAS JUST PUBLISHED THE TWO FOLLOWING NATIONAL WORKS ON
Cibil and Mechanical Engineering.
Export Orders Executed.
TREDGOLD
ON THE
STEAM ENGINE,
AND
ON STEAM NAVIGATION,
Is now before the public. These very important and interesting Volumes, comprising
118 very elaborate and beautifully engraved Plates, are, in Sections, Elevations, Plans,
Details, &c., of the highest utility to the Engineer and Student, to Manufacturers of
Marine, Locomotive, and Land Engines; its comprehensiveness, its science and pur-
pose, made manifest by elucidation and explanation, assisted by the most eminent
Practical Men of Britain. The Work is in Two 4to. Vols., Price £3 3s., and is
entitled
THE STEAM ENGINE,
Comprising an Account of its Invention and Progressive Improvement, with an
INVESTIGATION of its PRINCIPLES, and the PROPORTIONS of its PARTS, for EFFICIENCY
and STRENGTH; detailing also its Application to NAVIGATION, MINING, IMPELLING
MACHINES, &c., and the Result in numerous Tables for Practical Use, with Notes, Cor-
rections, and New Examples, relating to Locomotive and other Engines.
By W.S.B. WOOLHOUSE, EsQ., F.R.A.S.
The Algebraic Parts transformed into easy Practical Rules, accompanied by Ex-
amples familiarly explained for the Working Engineer, with an ample
APPENDIX ON STEAM NAVIGATION,
Its Present and Progressive State, by Illustration of the various Examples of Engines
constructed for Sea, War, and Packet Vessels, and River Boats, by the most Eminent
Makers of England and Scotland, drawn out in Plans, Elevations, Sections, and
Details, with a Scientific Account of each, and on
STEAM NAVAL ARCHITECTURE,
Showing, by existing and the latest Examples, the Construction of War, Sea, and
Packet Vessels; their Naval Architecture, as applied to the Impelling Power of
Steam for Sea and River purposes. This portion of the Work is edited by four very
eminent Shipbuilders-
OLIVER LANG, Esq., of H.M. Dockyard, Woolwich,
J. FINCHAM, Esq., H.M. Dockyard, Sheerness,
T.J. DITCHBURN, Esq., Union Dock, Limehouse,
And JOHN WOOD, Esq., Port Glasgow.
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2
TREDGOLD-continued.
CONTRIBUTORS, BESIDE THOSE BEFORE NAMED.
J. DINNEN, Esq., Assistant Engineer H.M. Dockyard, Woolwich.
THOMAS BALDOCK, Esq., K.T.S., Lieut. R.N.
P. W. BARLOW, Esq., C.E.
CAPTAIN OLIVER, R.N., Commodore of Bombay War Steam Flotilla.
A. A. MORNAY, Esq., C.E.
PROFESSOR RENWICK, Colombia College, New York.
W..S. B. WOOLHOUSE, Esq., F.R.A.S.
J. HANN, Esq., King's College.
JOHN MACNEILL, Esq., C.E.
CAPTAIN AUSTEN, R.N., late Commander of H.M.S.S. Medea.
GEORGE PEACOCK, Esq., late Master of the Medea.
ALEXANDER GORDON, Esq., C.E.
C. DAVY, Esq., C.E.
SAMUEL HALL, Esq., C.E.
F. HUMPHRIES, Esq., C.E.
R. AYRES, Esq., C.E., Newcastle.
ROBERT STEPHENSON, Esq., C.E.
GEORGE BIDDER, Esq., C.E.
CHEV. DE BENKHAUSEN, H.I.M. Consul General.
J. BEALE, Esq., C.E.
J. SIMPSON, Esq., C.E.
Some of the new subjects in this Edition consist of the Works of
Messrs. Boulton and Watt.
The Butterley Company.
Messrs. Maudslay, Son, and Field.
Messrs. Seaward.
Robert Napier, Esq., Glasgow.
Messrs. Fairbairn and Murray.
William Morgan, Esq.
Messrs. Hall, Dartford.
Messrs. Hague.
Messrs. Claude, Girdwoord, and Co.
LIST OF PLATES.
Plate.
1 to 20. The same subjects as in the previous Edition, with several Corrections.
NEW PLATES.
10 B. The several Orders of Parallel Motion.
21. Mr. Kingston's Valves, as fitted on board Sea-going Steam-vessels for Blow-off,
Injection, and Hand Pump Sea Valyes.
22. Boilers of H.M. Steam Vessel of War African.
23. Boilers of H.M. Steam Vessel of War Medea.
24. Morgan's Paddle Wheel-Seaward's Paddle Wheel.
25. Positions of a Float of a Radiating Paddle Wheel in a Vessel in Motion-Posi-
tions of a Float of a Vertically Acting Wheel in a Vessel in Motion.
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3
Plate.
TREDGOLD-continied.
26. Cycloidal Paddle Wheel fitted to the Great Western Steam Vessel, by Messrs.
Maudslay, Field and Co. Position of a Float of a Cycloidal Paddle Wheel.
27. Captain Oliver's, R.N., Five Points from Courses of Sailing a Steam Vessel.
28. Her Majesty's Steam Ship of War sailing at Different Points in the Wind. 4 views.
29. Trial at sailing her Majesty's Steam Ship of War Medea against the Caledonia,
Vanguard, and Asia.
30. Engine of the Red Rover, Side Elevation, and Plan.
31, Longitudinal Section of ditto.
32. Cross Sections ditto, with Paddles.
33. Side Elevation of the Engine of the Pasha of Egypt's Steam Ship Nile.
34. Plan of ditto, with Paddles.
35. Cross Sections ditto, showing Boilers and Furnace.
36. Section at Paddle Wheel ditto.
37. Plan of Engine of her Majesty's Steam Ship of War Phoenix.
38. Side Elevation of ditto.
39. Cross Section of ditto, showing Paddles and Construction of Ship.
40. Engine of the Ruby Steam Vessel (Gravesend Packet). Plan and Elevation.
41. Section of one of the Engines of the Don Juan, Peninsular Company Packet.
42. Boilers of her Majesty's Ships Hermes, Spitfire, and Firefly.
43. Plan of the Engines of the Imperial Russian Steam Ships Jason and Colehis.
44. Section of ditto.
45. Longitudinal Section of dittó.
46. Section at the Shaft, Section abaft Boilers, ditto.
47. Elevation of Mr. Samuel Hall's Patent Condensing Engines.
48. Section of ditto.
49. Elevation of the Engine of her Majesty's Steam Ship Megaera, fitted with
Messrs. Seaward's Engines and Mr. Samuel Hall's Condenser.
50. Section of ditto.
51. Messrs. Hall's, of Dartford, Engines of the William Wilberforce, Hull and
London Packet, fitted with Mr. Samuel Hall's Condensers. Plan.
52. Elevation of ditto.
53. Cross Section of ditto.
54. Longitudinal Section of dittd.
55 A. Messrs. Hall's, of Dartford, Patent Engines, fitted in the Steam Packet Dartford.
55 B. Ditto, Plan. Elevation ditto.
56 A. Cross Section ditto. Longitudinal Section ditto.
56 B.
Ditto.
Ditto.
57. Messrs. Fairbairn and Murray's Engine of Twenty Horse Power. Plan.
58. Ditto Section.
59. Ditto Front Elevation and Back Elevation.
60. Messrs. Fairbairn and Co.'s Ten Horse Power Engine. Elevation.
61. Plan. Sectional Plan.
62. Sectional Elevation.
63. Cross Sectional Elevation.
64. Elevation of a Locomotive Engine, manufactured by Messrs. Stephenson, of
Newcastle, for the Stanhope and Tyne Railway.
65. Longitudinal Section of ditto.
66. Spring and Balance Safety Valves.
67 A. Cylinder Cover and Connecting Rods.
67 B. Piston and Cylinder.
68. Boiler Seating of 20-horse Engine, at the manufactory of Messrs. Whitworth
and Co., Manchester.
69. Messrs. Hague's Double Acting Cylinder, Slides, Sections, &c,
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Plate.
TREDGOLD-continsed.
70 A. Side Elevation of the Engine made by Mr. Napier, of Glasgow, for the Berenice,
Hon. East India Company's Armed Steamer.
70 B. Cross Section ditto.
71. Mr. Beale's Rotary Engine, Elevations.
72. Ditto, Sections.
73. Ayre's Contrivance for Preventing a Locomotive Engine from Running off a
Railway.
74 to 83 A., 83 B., 83 C. Very elaborate Diagrams, Sections of Paddle Wheels of
various Inventions and Uses. The subject much amplified, and described by
A. A. MORNAY, Esq. The Plates are drawn out to a large Scale.
84. Messrs. Maudslay and Field's 65-inch Cylinder Engine, erected at Chelsea
Water-works, Elevation.
85. Plan, Section ditto.
86. Sections ditto.
87. Boilers of ditto.
88. Details ditto.
89. A very elaborately Shaded Elevation of a Locomotive Engine, made by Messrs.
Stephenson, of Newcastle, for the London and Birmingham Railway.
90. Longitudinal Section ditto.
91. Cross Sections ditto.
92. Plan, Details ditto.
STEAM NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
93. The Comet, the first Steam-boat in Europe, constructed by Mr. Henry Bell, of
Glasgow, for the Clyde River.
94. View of the Pasha's Steam Vessel of War, the Nile, at Sea-in the Nile.
95. View of the Hon. East India Company's Steam Vessel Berenice, at Sea, off.
Bombay.
96. Sheer Draught and Lines of Bottom of ditto.
97. The Draught of the Forbes Steamer, constructed at Calcutta by Alexander Hen-
derson, Esq.-Chinese Rigged.
98. Herne Bay Steam Packet Red Rover-Draught, Bottom, and Plan of Deck.
99. Diamond Company's Gravesend Steam Packet Ruby-Draught, Bottom, Plan of
Deck, and Profile.
100. Draught, Profile, and Bottom of her Majesty's Steam Vessel of War the Medea.
101. Upper and Lower Decks of ditto.
102. Sections of ditto.
103. View of ditto at Sea, off Athens.
104. Draught, Bottom, and Profile of Steam Vessel of War (Egyptian) the Nile.
105. Decks of ditto.
106. Sections of ditto.
107. Sections, Details of ditto.
108. Draught, Bottom, and Profile of his Imperial Majesty's Armed Steam Vessels
Colchis and Jason.
109. Decks of ditto.
110. Views of ditto at Sea.
111. Decks of the Admiralty Yacht the Firebrand, from the Drawing of James H.
Lang, Esq.
112. Draught of ditto, by ditto.
113. Portrait of the late Mr. Watt.
114. Portrait of the late Mr. "Tredgold.
In all 126 plates, in sizes of single, double, treble, and quadruple of the book.
AMERICAN STEAM NAVIGATION.
115. Thirty horse power, low pressure (Edward Anthony, 1838) Engine for я Boat.
116. Draught of the Water lines of the United States' Steam Frigate of War, Fulton.
117. Section through of the United States' Mail Boat, showing Engine, accommo-
dation, &c.
118. View of ditto.
Such persons as prefer the Plates printed on Atlas size, can have them upon
application, by paying the extra cost.
Digitized by Google
5
PUBLIC WORKS
OF
GREAT BRITAIN,
CONSISTING OF
Railways, Rails, Chairs, Blocks, Cuttings, Embankments, Tunnels, Oblique Arches,
Viaducts, Bridges, Stations, Locomotive Engines, &c. Cast-Iron Bridges, Iron and
Gas Works, Canals, Lock-gates, Centering, Masonry and Brickwork for Canal
Tunnels, Canal Boats, the London and Liverpool Docks, Plans and Dimensions,
Dock-gates, Walls, Quays, and their Masonry, Mooring-chains, Plan of the Harbour
and Port of London, and other important Engineering Works, with Descriptions and
Specifications the whole rendered of the utmost utility to the Civil Engineer and to
the Nobility and Gentry, as Monuments of the useful Arts in this Country, and as
Examples to the Foreign Engineer.
Edited by F. W. SIMMS, C.E.
153 Plates, engraved in the best style of art, half-bound, very neat, price 41. 4s.
This Work is on an Imperial Folio size, the Drawings and Engravings have been
executed by eminent- Artists, and no Expense has been spared in rendering it highly
essential to the Civil Engineer and Student; also, as an ornamental Volume of
Practical Representations of important Engineering Works in several Parts of the
Kingdom. The Work is bound in half-morocco. There are some Plates in the
Volume that may be preferred in Colours, viz., the elaborate subject of the Blisworth
Cuttings, in the Birmingham Rail Line, 18 Plates, geologically coloured; Glasgow
and Gairnkirk Railway Cutting through Moss, geologically coloured the Plan and
Map of the Port of London, showing its Docks, Wharfs, Manufactories, Steam
Engines, and Iron Works, &c., making 21 Plates, to be carefully coloured, and for
which an additional 11. will be charged.
THE FOLLOWING IS A NUMERICAL LIST OF THE PLATES,
And comprise the Engineering Works of
Brindley
Jessop
Rhodes
Brunel
Landmann
Telford
Buck
M'Adam
Thomas
George and Robert Stephenson
Palmer
Tierney Clark
Hartley
Rennie
Walker
Hosking
LONDON AND BIRMINGHAM RAILWAY.
ROBERT STEPHENSON, Esq., C.E.
Plate.
1. London Entrance to Primrose-hill Tunnel.
2. Engine Station for Hot Water, Watford.
3. Chimneys at Camden-town.-Fixed Engine Station.
4. Grand Entrance, Euston-square.
5. Plan of Euston-square Station.
6. Under-Ground Work and Chimneys, Camden-town.
7. Passenger Roof, Euston Station.
8. Stanhope-place and Park-street Bridges.
9. Iron Bridge over Regent's Canal.
10. Details of ditto.
11. Bridge-View of Harrow in the Distance.
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Plate.
PUBLIC WORKS-continued.
12. Bridge near Watford.
13. Bridge over Railroad at Watford.
14. Viaduct over Colne, near Watford.
15. Bridge over Excavation, South of Watford Tunnel.
16. Boxmoor Skew Bridge.
17 and 18. Sections of Primrose-hill and North Church Tutinels.
19. Architectural Front of Further Entrance.
20 to 29. Working Sections of Embankments and Cuttings on the Line near Blisworth.
30 and 31. Undersetting Rock at Blisworth (Large Scale).
32 and 33. Retaining Walls, Details, &c., ditto.
34 and 35. Undersetting ditto.
36 and 37. West End of Blisworth Cutting.
38. Kilsby Tunnel-Elevation of Entrance.
39. Ditto Section, Details, &c.
40 to 47. Ditto, ditto, ditto.
48. Rails, fifty pounds weight.
49. Ditto, sixty-five pounds weight.
50. Mr. Buck's Chairs.
51. Plans of Crossings from one Line to another.
52. Turnrails.
53. First Class Carriages.
GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY.
J. K. BRUNEL, Esq., C.E.
54 to 56. Brent Viaduet.
57 and 58, Maidenhead Bridge.
SOUTHAMPTON RAILWAY.
G. Lock, Esq., C.E.
59. Occupation Bridge over Railway.
60 and 61. Ditto Bridge under ditto.
62. Embankment.
63. Bridge under Railway.
64. Earth and Timber Waggons.
GREENWICH RAILWAY.
CoL. LANDMANN, C.E.
65. Neckinger Viaduct.
66. Section of ditto.
67. Spa Road Viaduct.
68. Section of ditto.
69 and 70. Viaducts and Oblique Arches.
CROYDON RAILWAY.
Jos. GIBBS, Esq. C.E.
71 and 72. New Cross Bridge-Section of Rails, and Continuous Bearing-Embank-
ments, Earth Carriage, and Details.
THAMES AND BRISTOL JUNCTION RAILWAY.
W. Hoskine, Esq., C.E.
73 and 74. Tunnels, Bridges, Rails, Chairs, Details, Foundations, &c.
GLASGOW AND GAIRNHIRK.
Messrs. MILLER and GRAINGER, Edinburgh, C.E.
75. Transverse Section at Robroyston, Moss, &c.
76. Comparison of Rails of different Railways.
77. Comet, Locomotive Engine, on Newcastle and Carliale Railway.
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7
Plate.
PUBLIC. WORKS-continued.
78. Stephenson's Engine, Harvey Combe, on Birmingham Railway.
79. Waggon.
80. Flat Rails.
81. Losh, Wilson, and Bell's Rail.
82. Ditto Hetton Rail.
83. Sidelings.
CANALS.
W. T. CLARK, Esq., C.E.
84. Section Thames and Medway Canal.
85. Transit Instruments for ditto.
86. Tunnel Entrance and Cross Section ditto.
87. Tide Locks ditto.
88. Gates, &c., ditto.
89. Centering ditto.
90. Passing Place ditto.
91. Perspective View ditto.
92. Harecastle Tunnel.
93. Montgomeryshire Canal. G. Buck, Esq., C.E.
94. Gloucester and Berkeley Canal. T. Telford, Esq., C.E.
95 to 97. Fishmongers' Hall Wharf. Sir J. Rennie, C.E.
98. Deptford Pier.
99 to 101. High Bridge (cast-iron), Staffordshire.
102. Double-turning Bridge. R. Walker, Esq., C.E.
103 and 104. Road Bridges.
105. Birmingham and Liverpool Canal.
106. Lock with Single Gate ditto.
107. Gates and Valves ditto.
108. Racks and Pinions ditto.
109. Double Valve ditto.
110. Lever Valve, Rochdale Canal.
111. Mersey and Irwell Boats.
112. Grand Trunk Boat.
113 and 114. Highgate Road. J. Macneill, Esq., C.E.
115. Geese Bridge Valley.
116, 117, and 118. Roads, Culverts, &c.
119. Coke Ovens.
120. Coking Coal.
121 and 122. Blast Furnace.
123. Lift Hammer.
124 to 127. Steel Furnaces.
128. Mine ditto.
129 and 130. Gas Works. William Richardson, Esq., C.E., Dudley.
131. Liverpool Docks.
PORT OF LONDON.
132. Plan of Port and Harbour.
133. Hemisphere, showing the Position of London as the Centre of the World.
134. London Bridge.
135. Plan of St. Katharine Docks.
136. Gates of ditto.
137. Plan of Gates ditto.
138. Anchor for the Collar of Heel Post and Lock Gates ditto.
139. Cast Iron Swivel Bridge, St. Katharine Docks.
140. Plan of London Docks.
141. Front Elevation of Lock Gates, London Docks.
142. Back ditto ditto.
I43. Details ditto ditto.
144. Plan of West India Docks.
145. Plan of East India ditto.
146. Entrance of Lock-gate ditto.
147. Plan of Commercial Docks.
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Plate.
PUBLIC WORKS-continued.
148. New Mooring Chain Lighter.
149. Plan of the Moorings, Deptford Reach.
150. Plan of Mooring Chain-18 Links, I Swivel, and 2 Shackles, &c.
151. Mooring Ships.
152. Section of River.
153. Coffer-dams.
THE HARBOUR AND PORT OF LONDON,
SCIENTIFICALLY, COMMERCIALLY, AND HISTORICALLY DESCRIBED,
Containing Accounts of the History, Privileges, Functions, and Government
thereof; of its Extent, Divisions, and Jurisdictions, Municipal and Commercial; of
its Docks, Piers, Quays, Embankments, Moorings, and other Engineering Works;
Tidal and other Observations, and every other necessary Information relative thereto,
accompanied by Charts of the Port and its Dependencies, its Shoals and Soundings,
surveyed by Order of the Port of London Improvement Committee; Plans of Docks,
Gates, Piers, Swivel Bridges, Methods of Mooring Vessels, &c., as directed by the
Corporation By-Laws, &c., &c., &c.
By JAMES ELMES,
Architect and Civil Engineer, Surveyor of the Port of London.
22 Plates, large Folio, bound, price 11. 1s.
Second Edition, with Additional Corrections, in 8vo., with a fine Frontispiece of a
Locomotive Engine, price 8s.
ANALYSIS OF RAILWAYS,
Consisting of Reports of RAILWAYS projected in England and Wales; to which.
are added, a Table of Distances from the proposed London Terminus to Eight well-
known Places in the Metropolis, with a copious GLOSSARY, and several Useful
Tables.
By FRANCIS WHISHAW, C.E., M.Inst.C.E.
SECTIO-PLANOGRAPHY.
A DESCRIPTION OF MR. MACNEILL'S METHOD OF LAYING DOWN
RAILWAY SECTIONS AND PLANS IN JUXTA-POSITION,
As adopted by the Standing Order Committee of the House of Commons, 1837.
By FRED. W. SIMMS, Civil Engineer.
With folding Plates, in 4to., price 3s.
COLE AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, CRANE-COURT, FLEET-STREET.
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