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Google This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project to make the world's books discoverable online. It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover. Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the publisher to a library and finally to you. Usage guidelines Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. 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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web athttp://books.google.com/ STA STANFO VERRITY STANFORD FORD LIBRARY Digitized by Google Digitized by Google Digitized by Google Digitized by Google Digitized by Google 365- 20412 Digitized by Google LA <020 CONESTOGA WAGON TRANSPORTATION. FROM A PAINTING BY N. M. TROTTER FOR H. H. HOUSTON. WES CANAL MOVEME Digitized by Google ent Systems States : leading features of advancement, water channels, roads, turnpikes, and locomotives; the cost of laces, by the different methods; nical, governmental and en; and notable incidents ction and operation. Witl dreds of Typical Objects BY INGWALT THE RAILWAY WORLD RARY VERSITY HILADELPHIA HED BY THE .LD OFFICE, 420 } 1888 Digitized by Google Development of Transportation Systems in the United States Comprising a comprehensive description of the leading features of advancement, from the colonial era to the present time, in water channels, roads, turnpikes, canals, railways, vessels, vehicles, cars and locomotives; the cost of transportation at various periods and places, by the different methods; the financial, engineering, mechanical, governmental and popular questions that have arisen; and notable incidents in railway history, construction and operation. With Illustrations of Hundreds of Typical Objects BY J. L. RINGWALT EDITOR OF THE RAILWAY WORLD LIBRARY STANFORD UNIVERSITY PHILADELPHIA PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR RAILWAY WORLD OFFICE, 420 LIBRARY STREET 1888 s Digitized by Google LIBRARY OF THE LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY. A.209 Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1888, BY J. L. RINGWALT, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. УЯАЯСЫ ЯОМИС III УПЕЯЗИИИ Digitized by Googl INTRODUCTION T RANSPORTATION is the act of carrying persons or property from one place to another. The extent to which convenient facilities for such movements are furnished affects, in a large degree, the physical welfare of every human being. All progressive nations, therefore, desire to secure the advantages derived from superior systems of transportation. In accomplishing that object expensive and complicated labors must be performed. This necessity arises from the fact that while transportation may be con- ducted on land or water, the best results are not attainable unless large outlays are made for the improvement of roads and water-ways. The conditions under which the sums necessary to perfect these improve- ments are procured, and the characteristics of the improvements existing at different periods and in different sections, are so diversified that grave questions have arisen in regard to the selection of methods. All improvements substantially hinge on advances in the condition of the land- or water-ways used, the vehicles or vessels employed, and the nature of the propelling or motive power adopted. This country has been prolific in variety of experiments tried, in the rapidity of beneficial progress, and in useful results achieved. As the entire system is still in a transition state, and as every important expedient hitherto adopted is in practical use in some portion of the broad national domain, any veritable account of the past may furnish instructive illustrations of changes now progressing, and suggestions for the future guidance of individuals, corporations, communities, and public authorities. It is the object of this work to explain leading characteristics of the successive steps by which the canoe has been supplanted by the steamer, the trail by the T-rail, the pack-horse by the locomotive; and to furnish a comprehensive compendium of instructive transportation literature accumulated while railway mileage was expanding to its present huge proportions. Digitized by Google CONTENTS PAGE PAGE PAGE BEFORE RAILWAYS. Physical Progress during the Fifth Decade 132 Influence of Railways on the Grain and Indian System of Transportation 5 Improvements in Locomotives 134 Provision Trade 261 First European Settlements 8 Bridges, New Inventions and Gauges 135 Popular Complaints Against Railways 263 Navigation of Interior Water Routes 9 Progress of Steam Navigation from 1840 Railway Regulation by Law and Com- Arks and Rafts 12 to 1860 136 missions 265 Ascending Navigation 13 Atlantic Coast Improvements of Water False Principles of Railway Legislation 270 Unsuccessful Early Steamboat Experiments 15 Craft 139 Railway Confederations, or Pooling Ar- Early Successful Steamboat Operations 17 rangements 272 RAILWAY YOUTH. Primitive Land Movements 18 Practical Effects of Confederations 278 The Pack Horse or Horseback Era Railway Construction in the Sixth Decade 140 Steamship Development 284 19 Common or Country Roads 22 The First Railway Panics Mechanical Advances and Increase of 145 Defective American Roads 24 Railway Statistics of 1855 149 Efficiency 288 Common Road Improvements 26 Competition for Through Traffic 152 Steamships in Coasting Trade, etc., and Economic Effect of Road Improvements Increase of National Wealth Steamboats 27 154 290 Commencement of the Turnpike and Changes in Permanent Way 156 Improvements of Physical Condition of Bridge Era 29 Bridge-Building Progress 158 Railways 295 Characteristics of Turnpike Development 31 Construction of Railway Tunnels Condition of Road-Bed 159 296 Cost of Transportation on Turnpikes 33 Improvements of Locomotives and Cars 161 Rail-Joints and Rails 298 Ferries and Bridges 34 Railway Supplies-Shops and Telegraphic Switches and Signals 299 Importance of Public Road Improvements 38 Service 163 Bridges and Culverts 301 Methods of Road Construction 40 Tonnage and Rates in the Sixth Decade 165 Notable New Bridges 305 Early Canal Projects 41 Miscellaneous Transportation Develop- Stations and Terminal Facilities 306 Early History of American Canals 166 Grain Elevators 42 ments 309 Early Canal Financiering 43 Improvement of National Water-ways 168 Facilities for Handling Coal, Live Stock, Effect of the Completion of the Erie Canal 45 Light-Houses, Light-Ships and Buoys 169 etc. 310 Cost of Canal Transportation 47 Light-Houses and Lighting Apparatus 172 Railway Shops 312 Passenger Traffic of the Canals 50 The Coast Survey 173 Improvements in Locomotives 316 Utility of the Canals 51 Railway Construction from 1860 to 1869 174 Increased Size and Capacity of Freight Causes of Canal Failures Effects of the Civil War on Railways Locomotives 52 178 318 Improvement of Vehicles used on Roads 54 New Construction in Various Sections 180 Increased Speed of Passenger Locomo- Railway Operations from 1860 to 1870 181 tives Freight and Passenger Wagons-Light 320 Vehicles 56 Miscellaneous Statistics 184 Improvements in Details of Locomotive Consolidation of Connecting Lines Construction Springs and other Improvements 58 185 324 Transportation of Passengers in Stages 60 Operations of the Trunk Lines 189 Steam Generating and Steam Controlling Fast Freight Lines Functions 192 326 RAILWAY INFANCY. Operations of the Anthracite Coal Roads 194 General Locomotive Improvements 329 64 Northwestern or Granger Roads 196 Improvements of Cars 332. Early American Railway Projects Substitution of Steel Rails for Iron Rails 198 Increase of Varieties of Cars 333 Colliery and Quarry Railroads 68 Production of American Steel Rails 200 Freight Cars 334 Knowledge of Railways in 1825 70 Bridge Construction 202 Increase of the Capacity of Freight Cars 336 Railway Progress from 1825 to 1830 71 Bridging the Ohio, Mississippi and Mis- Details of Car Construction 337 Railway Construction from 1830 to 1840 73 The Battle of the Brakes souri Progress in Various Sections 203 340 76 Improvements of Locomotives Car Wheels and Axles 206 343 Early Railway Financiering 79 82 Improvements of Cars Details of Car Trucks 207 346 Physical Characteristics (of Railways) Miscellaneous Mechanical Peculiarities Increase of Railway Mileage from 1880 Early Rails, Sills and Stone Blocks 83 and Advances to 1887, inclusive Tunnels and Bridges 87 209 347 New Construction in Groups East of the Inclined Planes 90 RAILWAY MANHOOD. Mississippi 351 Railways as Public Highways 91 New Construction West of the Missis- Early Locomotives 93 Railway Construction from 1870 to 1879 211 sippi 354 Notable Improvements of the Locomotive 98 Characteristics of New Railway Mileage 222 Relative Rank of Rail and Water Carriers 359 Cars of the Early Lines 100 Land Grant Railways 225 Personnel of Railways 361 Novel Incidents on Early Railways 103 Railway Panic of September, 1873 227 Systems of Railway Organization 362 Economic Results of Early Railways 106 Granger Legislation-Railway Commis- Railway Presidents 364 Cost of Early Freight Movements 109 sions 229 General Office Labors 366 Rivalry between Land and Water Routes III River and Harbor Improvements 233 Traffic Departments 368 Progress of Steamboat Development from Western River Improvements 235 Legal Departments 37° 1830 to 1841 114 Utility of Water-way Improvements 239 Operating Departments 37% Railroad Construction from 1840 to 1850 115 Leading Influences of the Eighth Decade 240 Labors on Railway Tracks 373 Importance of Interior Water Routes in Magnitude of Railway Operations 241 Train Movements 374 1850 120 Reductions of Railway Rates 243 General Rules Governing Train Service 377 Statistical Position of the Competing Freight Reductions on Various Classes of Railway Associations and Organizations 380 Systems 122 Roads 248 Economic Effect of Advances from the Railway Financiering 124 Relation between Through and Local Trail to the T-Rail 382 Financial Results of Railway Operations 126 Rates 251 Lessons of Transportation Development 384 Effect and Extent of Reductions of Cost Passenger Rates and Accommodations 255 Index of Railways 387 of Overland Transportation 129 Cost of Railway Transportation 258 General Index 39' FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS Typical Methods of Transportation. Early English Tramways. Map of Principal Trunk Lines in United Indian System of Transportation. Methods of Constructing the Columbia and States in 1876. Early Water Craft used by European Settlers. Philadelphia Railway in 1828. Map of Principal Transportation Lines West Arks and Rafts. Early Railway Bridge over the Schuylkill. of Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans in 1878. Steamboats of Fitch and Fulton. Black Rock Tunnel. Map of Principal Lines going West from Pack-mule and Burro Movements. Early Locomotives. Boston, New York. Philadelphia and Various Styles of Bad Roads. Early American Locomotives. / : Baltimore in 1878. Turnpike Movements. Early Railway Cars. Diagrams of Coal Tows and Government The Dangerous Ford, Tardy Ferry and Primi- Steamboats Running from 1824 to 1837. Snag Boat. tive Bridge. Progress of Railway Construction. Signatures to Trunk Line Contract of Novem- Types of Early Bridges. Improvements of Locomotives. ber, 1885. Profiles of Canals. Early American Truss Bridges. Standard Rail Patterns. Canal Boat Movements. Improvements in Steam Navigation. Typical Railway Bridges. Sleds in Progressive Development. Wooden Trestle Work. Typical Railway Stations. Wagons in Progressive Development. Railway Appliances of 1851. Railway Terminal Facilities. Stages and Light Vehicles. Railway Appliances of 1857. Fast Passenger Locomotives. Portraits of Evans, Stevens, Fulton and do do do Heavy Freight Locomotives. Stephenson. Light Houses. Passenger Cars. George Stephenson's Locomotive of 1825. Bridges over the Ohio, Mississippi and Missouri. Freight Cars. Digitized by Google Dug-out. Bark Camoe. Burden Strap. Snow-shoe. Travail. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google INDIAN SYSTEM OF TRANSPORTATION. I NDIAN traditions, and the best light attainable in regard to Georgia were the first to discover the existence of gold mines their antecedents, indicate that within a comparatively in Colorado. Records abound in which the services of the brief period before the discovery of America by Columbus their aborigines to parties of inland explorers, surveyors of proposed ancestors had journeyed from the Pacific to the Atlantic coast, new roads or routes, and to soldiers, is noted, but due recogni- or over a large portion of the intermediate distance, thus ac- tion of their talent as pathfinders has often been neglected. quiring a familiarity with the topographical features of the con- Despite all modern improvements many of the land and tinent; and their continuance in the hunter state, and frequent water routes which now furnish favorite avenues of internal wars, compelled such numerous movements that they were commerce, were traversed for centuries by savage predecessors, necessarily a migratory race. Even those who built structures, their trails carving out lines of our common roads, turnpikes, which they usually occupied during a portion of each year, and railways, and their light canoes being supplanted on the sent forth hunting parties, who roamed over large districts or rivers and lakes by our steamboats. organized expeditions by which favorite fishing grounds were visited during appropriate seasons. The savages of the plains CANOES-THE DUG-OUT, BIRCH-BARK, AND CORACLE. followed the buffalo, which furnished their chief subsistence, in The abundance and length of rivers, lakes, and other navi- the northward movements he made in the spring and his south- gable waters made the canoe an adjunct of incalculable im- ward movements in the autumn of each year. A rough esti- portance to the savages. In it they could make long journeys mate of the extent of the routes occasionally traversed by the in almost every direction, by occasionally transporting their warriors of some of the tribes may be based on the state- frail barks overland around falls or rapids, or between distinct ment made in reference to the Six Nations, by De Witt Clin- water systems. The amateur voyages sometimes made at the ton, the famous Governor of New York. In an oration, de- present day in paper boats, such as descending the Delaware, livered in 1811, he said that "their military excursions extended Missouri, or Mississippi, from their head waters to their mouths, as far north as the Hudson bay. The Mississippi did not form found their counterparts in many realistic movements of the their western limits. Their power was felt in the most south- aborigines. The canoe was to nearly all the tribes what the ern and eastern extremities of the United States. For horse is to the Arab. The scope for water wanderings, under a nearly a century and a half they maintained a war against the system which provides for the voyageur carrying his boat on French possessions in Louisiana and Canada." his back when such a resort is necessary or desirable, is practi- Whether the warlike operations in which the savages fre- cally illimitable in the United States. The entire country from quently engaged were successful or unsuccessful, they necessi- north to south, and many of its districts, can be traversed by tated long journeys. The penalty of a terrible defeat was the following the course of the Mississippi and the Missouri, and banishment of the survivors to a remote region. One of the the continent can be crossed, from east to west, by following most important aids to victory was the ability to march over a the line of the St. Lawrence, the great lakes, some of their wide expanse of territory so secretly that the enemy to be as- north-western tributaries, the upper Missouri, and the Columbia sailed was surprised. When:peace prevailed, long and frequent and its tributaries, by intermingling a few comparatively short journeys, in some of which entire tribes participated, were oc- overland marches with many miles of continuous sailing. casionally necessitated by the movements of game and fish, Similar facilities exist within each important section, and the sometimes by the desire to gratify a savage taste for change of Indians availed themselves very freely of these local or second- scene analogous to the impulse which now sends many dwellers ary channels, because they could commonly be used by the in towns and cities to country and seaside resorts every sum- members of the respective tribes within the limits of their rude mer, and sometimes by the wish to witness contests or combats territorial divisions, in comparative safety. between representatives of friendly but rival tribes, or to par- A marked feature of the policy of the Iroquois, which was ticipate in revelries, which the savages were as ready to invent probably adopted by many other natives, was the avoidance of and as anxious to enjoy as their civilized successors. river boundaries. If a tribe had rights on a river, they were of Such tastes, necessities, and requirements necessarily made equal validity on both its banks. One band might thus monopo- the Indians pre-eminently a traveling people. One of the first lize the Delaware, another the Susquehanna, another the Hud- effects of civilization seems to be of a directly opposite charac- son, and another portions of the Ohio, until every important ter. Giving mankind fixed homes, and furnishing occupations natural channel fell under exclusive ownership. The general followed at established farms or workshops, has a tendency to course of pioneer settlement among many nations has been on check freedom of movement, until some persons become al- banks of rivers, and the custom of converting them into bound- most as deeply rooted as surrounding forests in the immediate aries between distinct governments was not followed here until vicinity of the soil where they were born and have lived. Sav- colonies and states were marked out by old-world methods; and age life, on the contrary, abounds with incitements to migra- the savages, by avoiding water lines, or substituting for them a tions, analogous to those made by birds, beasts, and fish. wide area of hunting grounds, materially increased their chances Under these conditions, the aborigines of the United States of combining the successful pursuit of fish and game with an acquired great expertness in moving between distant points. avoidance of unnecessary conflicts, and the power of speedily Their readiness to plunge into an impenetrable wilderness, and concentrating their scattered warriors and families. By living their ability to serve as proficient guides of expeditions which on both sides of a river, and near its banks, they could all reach explored long distances, are explained by the severe training a common point in canoes at short notice. imposed by hunting over large districts, and by going on the The size of the canoe varied with the facilities for procuring war-path to attack remote enemies. Few white men have ever materials and the uses to which it was to be applied. The bark equaled them in the knowledge of what might be termed natu- canoes of the Iroquois were from twelve feet in le ral geography, or the skill to observe the signs by which an ob- sufficient capacity to carry two men, to forty feet, wi scure but direct and available pathway may be found between for thirty men. One writer speaks of a canoe cape any two points. ing fifty men. The standard which seems to hav It is part of our modern history that Cherokee Indians of closely approached by tribes that built Digitized by Google Digitized by Google INDIAN SYSTEM OF TRANSPORTATION. 7 ing and gouging would hollow it out, reducing the sides and himself into the waters, still or foaming, unless at the time he bottom to the utmost thinness consistent with buoyancy and swamped the canoe with a valuable cargo." security." Some of the captives who were compelled to accompany In- LAND MOVEMENTS OF THE INDIANS. dians to distant homes speak of the readiness with which they Aside from their skill in making and managing canoes, the constructed log rafts when deep waters were to be crossed. aborigines had comparatively few contrivances for facilitating There are accounts of canoes being found at desirable places transportation. They were not wholly destitute of aids for land for crossing rivers or lakes, which were presumably kept at movements, however. The burden straps formed an important those points for general accommodation. Among some of the adjunct for those who were compelled to carry heavy loads from important tribes there were considerable variations in the mode point to point, or over portages. The burden strap was com- of constructing canoes, arising from the nature of the exigen- monly worn around the forehead and lashed to a litter borne cies to which they were subjected, and the character of the ma- on the back. It was usually about fifteen feet in length and terials available at given periods. There are extant specimens braided into a belt in the centre, three or four inches wide. of savage war canoes in some of the museums, which indicate, The Indian system of carrying burdens upon their backs or by their magnitude and the care taken in their construction dragging them is 80 primitive and wearisome that of all and decoration, that when the energies of an entire band were methods of transportation it combines the greatest amount of concentrated on these structures they could in some instances human effort with the least practical effect. It was, however, be rendered as formidable and capacious in the eyes of their very extensively used, in moving fuel or food, over short dis- builders as iron-plated war steamers seem to be from the stand- tances and in journeys over portages or the connecting links point of modern civilization. between two water courses or channels. The fact that for On the north Atlantic coast canoes were built by the Indians many purposes no other method was available formed one of of both the birch-bark and dug-out types. In Maine they the most serious of the numerous privations and discomforts were usually made of the bark of birch trees, sewed on ribs of of savage life. ash wood, and 80 light that a savage could readily carry one, CARRYING DISABLED PERSONS. capable of holding eight or ten persons, on his head. Of canoes made in Massachusetts, Wood, writing in 1634, says: "Their There was an Indian method of carrying disabled persons cannows be made either of pine trees, which, before they were overland, but it was 80 cumbersome that it could only be em- acquainted with Ennglish tooles, they burned hollow, scraping ployed in cases where the motive for extraordinary exertion them smooth with clam shels and oyster shels, cutting their was unusually strong. When Champlain helped the Hurons in outsides with stone hatchets. These boats be not above a foot an attack upon the Iroquois, soon after 1600, and was wounded and a halfe or two feet wide and twenty foote long. Their other and unable to walk, he was placed by them in a basket of cannows be made of thinne birch rines, close ribbed on the in- wicker work, and 80 doubled up and fastened with cords that side with broad, thinne hoopes, like the hoopes of a tub. These he could scarcely move. Thus bound he was carried by the are made very light. A man may carry one of them a mile, being Indians, on their backs, for several days. made purposely to carry from river to river and from bay to bay SLEDGES AND SNOW-SHOES. to shorten land passages. In these cockling fly-boats, wherein an Englishman can scarce sit without a fearfull tottering, they In winter primitive sledges helped to solve some transporta- will venture to sea, where one English shallop dare not beare a tion problems which perplexed the savages. Dogs were used knot of sayle, scudding over the overgrowne waves as fast as a in some sections. The northern tribes showed much dexterity wind-driven ship, being driven by their paddles. Being much in the use of the snow-shoe as an instrument for facilitating like battledores, if a cross wave (as is seldom) turne her keel winter journeys. Morgan described the snow-shoe of the Iro- upside down, they by swimming free her, and scramble into her quois as follows: "The snow-shoe is nearly three feet in length, againe." by about sixteen inches in width. A rim of hickory, bent Of canoe building in Rhode Island, Roger Williams says: "I round with an arching front, and brought to a point at the heel, have seen a native go into the woods with his hatchet, carrying constituted the frame, with the addition of cross pieces to de- only a basket of corn with him, and stones to strike fire. When termine its spread. Within the area, with the exception of an he had felled his tree, being a chestnut, he made a little house opening for the toe, was woven a network of deer-strings, with or shed of the bark of it. He puts fire, and follows the burning interstices about an inch square. The ball of the foot was of it in the midst in many places. His corn he boils, and hath lashed at the edge of this opening with thongs, which passed the brook by him, and sometimes angles for a little fish. But around the heel for the support of the foot. The heel was left so he continues burning and hewing until he hath within ten free to work up and down, and the opening was designed to al- or twelve days, lying there at his work alone, finished, and, get- low the toes of the foot to descend below the surface of the shoe, ting hands, launched his boat, with which afterwards he ven- as the heel is raised in the act of walking. It is a very simple tures out to fish in the ocean." invention, but exactly adapted to its uses. A person familiar George E. Ellis, in the Red and the White Man, says that with the snow-shoe can walk as rapidly upon the snow as with- "the Indian canoe seemed to need an Indian for its most facile out it upon the ground. The Senecas affirm that they can use and its safest guidance. The best position for the occupant walk fifty miles per day upon the snow-shoe, and with much was to lie flat on his back if he trusted to floating, or to rest greater rapidity than without it, in consequence of the length still on bended knees if he plied the single paddle with strokes on and uniformity of the step." Other tribes made snow-shoes of either side. All uneasy, restless motions, all jerks and sidelings varied forms and sizes, and a female snow-shoe was extensively were at the risk of passenger, canoe, and freight. Count Fronte- used in some regions. nac, when first, as Governor of Canada for Louis XIV, he began As with the other aids of locomotion devised by the savages, his experience as a voyageur with the natives, expressed in considerable skill was required to render the snow-shoe service- strong terms his disgust at the cramped and listless position to able. To tyros it was a hindrance or an instrument of torture. which he was confined in the birch canoe; and the Jesuit mis- Journals of white adventurers or captives who traveled with sionaries, the most patient and heroic of all Europeans, as they the Indians on winter expeditions complain bitterly of its met every cross and hardship, were very slowly wonted to it. annoyances. Ellis says that "the alternative was before them They gave us many piteous narrative touches of the constant either of giving over in the tramp, or suffering sharply till they risks and the need of steady eye and of a stiff uniformity of had 'caught the hang' of the snow-shoe. Chillblains were but position in the buoyant but ticklish vehicle of transport. When the slightest part of the infliction. The constant friction of the needed they had in it their own precious sacramental vessels, tie over the instep and of the loops over the toes galled the requiring an ever nervous watchfulness against disaster. Till the flesh, and the oozing and freezing blood were sorry concomit- ' ed to adapt themselves to the exacting ants for the traveler. Glad was he when the stint appointed and anxiety furnished a constant for the day's journey was ended, and resting in the camp, their native pilots. The mer- though roofless and with a cordon of snow, he could soothe ing when the passenger tipped and dress his stinging extremities." Digitized by Google 8 FIRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. USE OF HORSES BY THE INDIANS. service, the advance in mechanic arts has not been sufficient to The Indian appliances for transportation heretofore described secure the use of wheeled vehicles, or even of convenient sleds, relate to those used by them before they were brought into and it forms the most primitive of the devices for using the direct or indirect contact with the white race. After European horse as a draught animal. settlements had commenced, the principal change that occurred It required only a comparatively small amount of experience arose from the introduction of the horse on this continent, and to enable the Indians to become very expert in capturing and the gradual acquisition of horses by the Indians on the plains, taming or training wild horses, in stealing the horses of settlers western prairies, and the north-west, mainly by the capture of or hostile tribes, and they readily devised rude saddles and sub- wild animals descended from horses taken to Mexico by the stitutes for bridles. Spaniards. A comparatively small number of horses were also To the savages of the plains the horse became a paramount obtained by savages living east of the Mississippi, as they were necessity, and he was so highly prized that he formed the prin- receding westward, either by barter, by finding estrayed animals, cipal object of avaricious longings and the type of native wealth. or by raids upon frontier settlements. The Indians had a great He rendered infinitely more genuine service to them than any natural fondness for the horse, and their readiness in adapting other physical boon they indirectly derived from the introduc- him to their uses affords a remarkable illustration of their tion of the white race on this continent, and it is a curious capacity to realize benefits from such concomitants of civiliza- fact that the conferring of this boon was wholly an involun- tion as accorded with their tastes and antecedent training. tary and unpremeditated act on the part of the Europeans. In East of the Mississippi the horse was used to a limited extent other words, while nearly all their voluntary and premeditated as they saw him used by traders, in carrying burdens, but west intercourse with the savages redounded to the injury of the of that river, and especially on the plains, he became of great latter, the principal real benefit conferred grew out of the abil- service in peace and war, partly as a beast to be ridden, but ity of the Indians to capture wild horses and steal tame ones. also largely as a carrier and drawer of freight. In connection The Indian system of transportation, as an entirety, including with the last-mentioned class of the uses to which he was ap- the devices used subsequent to the introduction of the horse, plied the general method adopted, especially when an entire was as complete as any other portion of their native provision tribe changed its location, was to fasten to his back the tent for the wants of life. For the water movements which formed poles of their lodges, which were left to trail behind him, and a large proportion, probably nine-tenths, of all their extensive 80 arranged as to furnish a support for the skins which formed journeys and transfers of freight, they devised canoes of var- the tent or lodge, other baggage, and sometimes even for ious styles, including some that were very ingenious and skill- children or women. This contrivance is designated by some ful. To aid their land movements they had the burden strap; writers a travail. Something similar has been adopted in in northern latitudes the snow-shoe, and, to a limited extent, various countries, where, after the horse has been pressed into sledges and dogs; and, after horses became available, the travail. FIRST EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. THEIR DEPENDENCE UPON WATER CHANNELS. THE pione amall es they a arrived in the new world in ships Connecticut river, which had been ascended by Dutch navi- in contrast with the gigantic gators, who had planted trading forts on its banks. The early steamers of the present day, were marvels of size, speed, and New York settlements were on Manhattan Island, Long Island, capacity in the eyes of savages. The ocean always afforded a and on the banks of the Hudson. New Jersey is 80 liberally possible avenue for retreating or returning to the old world. endowed with aquatic surroundings that there was special pro- The early forts, towns, and farms were generally established priety in her early name of New Netherlands, and the name of either on islands or at points which combined ease of access to New England, by which the Eastern states are still generally the ocean with the convenient use of navigable streams, on known, was probably founded on the character of her coast, which boats, canoes, shallops, or other small vessels could be and the abundance of navigable waters extending into interior dispatched to every point it was desirable to reach. A water points. The early Virginia settlements are described as the solution of the transportation problem was a prime necessity. colonies on the Chesapeake bay, and the extent to which the Even the advance immigration movement up such magnifi- navigable rivers of the Old Dominion were skirted by fertile cent waters as the lower Delaware and the Hudson was very lands, from which produce could be economically transported, tardy. The early grants of land on the lower Delaware were is one of the chief causes of the prominence she gained in all along its shores, and the first legal regulations affecting wealth and population during the colonial era. Maryland en- transportation relate to boats, canoes, and landings. Although joyed analogous advantages, and her soil was included in one Swedish settlements had existed in Pennsylvania for some years of the early grants which defined the boundaries of Virginia. before William Penn arrived at Philadelphia, no provision for The early discoverers of North Carolina were charmed with its roads had then been made. Land travel was usually con- inlets, islands, and sounds. South Carolina was rich in mari- ducted on horseback, the Indian trails being used as bridle time endowments. The early Georgia settlements were on the paths, and the rivers were either forded, or in cases where they banks of the Savannah. Many other pioneer movements on were too deep for fording, Indians were induced to carry pas- the banks of the gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi, and the Ohio sengers in their canoes, while the horses were compelled to were in accordance with the general law or overriding neces- swim the rivers. A long period elapsed, after most of the early sity, which required water channels of communication, because settlements were made, before the natural water-courses, with only a modicum of the comforts and blessings of civilization avenues leading to the ocean, ceased to furnish the main re- could be obtained at places remote from facilities for naviga- liance for all extensive movements of persons or property. It tion; and long periods elapsed before serious and earnest efforts required much time to fairly begin any genuine system of in- were made to penetrate the bowels of the land, where most of ternal development, extending materially beyond these water- its true wealth was to be eventually found, and to establish con- courses. venient avenues by which the productive interior districts could The French settlements closely hugged the north Atlantic be reached. coast, the St. Lawrence, the lakes, the Mississippi. The Span- Each of the thirteen original colonies had one or more sea- iards founded St. Augustine under the impression that Florida ports, and the main current of trade existing during the entire was an island. The home of the Puritans was long known as colonial era, and in some respects up to much later periods, the settlements of Massachusetts bay. The original Rhode was between these ports and the interior districts of the colo- Island (but not the present state) was, as its name indicates, an nies in which they were, respectively, located, on the one hand, island, possessing superior facilities for water communication. and the outer world, via the ocean, on the other. Commerce The early settlements in Connecticut were on the banks of the between the colonies was of limited magnitude, and originally, Digitized by Google Ancient Shallop. Ketch of 1692. Boat. Top-sail Sloop. Okio River Flat Boat, 115 tons. Coul Boat or Broad Horn, 950 tons. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google NAVIGATION OF INTERIOR WATER ROUTES. 9 nearly all the movements made from one colony to another manner, in the census report on the ship-building industry of were conducted in shallops, sloops, schooners, or other sea- the United States for 1880, by Henry Hall, special agent. In going vessels. For some purposes corresponding movements the progressive stages leading from slow- to swift-moving vessels along the Atlantic coast have been continued in water channels and from small to large craft, this country held a leading posi- up to the present day. The extent to which land routes have tion for a long period, in all matters connected with wooden been substituted, and the zeal displayed in efforts designed to ship-building. This pre-eminence extended, during some eras, secure for each of the important seaports the largest attainable not only to the mechanical features and capacity of the craft, share of internal and foreign trade, form pivotal features of and to the control of our own oceanic or foreign carrying trade, many of the greatest events in the transportation development but to the attainment of a leading position in connection with of this country. the foreign carrying trade of some other countries. There have, however, been great vicissitudes in this as well PRIMITIVE WATER CRAFT ON THE ATLANTIC COAST. as all other branches of transportation. Before the Revolution The first European settlers on the Atlantic coast naturally American progress in some directions was regarded with jealous blended types of old-world vessels with the canoes built by the eyes by the British government, and development was checked Indians. For communication between Europe and the young by very harsh and arbitrary measures. colonies ships built abroad were used, almost exclusively, The magnitude that ship-building had attained a few years during a long period. But canoes were freely and generally before the Revolution is illustrated by a report to the House of employed for fishing and in collecting oysters and clams. On Commons in 1792, which contains the following statements: some points of the North Atlantic coast adjacent to the famous In 1769 the colonies built and launched 389 vessels, 113 square- fishing banks of Newfoundland, a nautical race obtained a foot- rigged and 276 sloops and schooners, of an aggregate burden of hold at an early date. It was composed of men sent across the 20,001 tons. Of these, Massachusetts provided nearly one-half, ocean by European adventurers and companies for the express New Hampshire and Rhode Island the next largest number, purpose of catching fish, and they commenced various forms while New York had only 5 square-rigged vessels, and 14 sloops of ship-building soon after they had formed permanent settle- and schooners, measuring in all 955 tons. Pennsylvania owned ments. The largest vessels of the sixteenth and seventeenth 1,344 tons; Virginia, 1,249 tons; North and South Carolina, 1,396 centuries were of comparatively small dimensions. Only a few tons, and Connecticut, 1,542 tons, while Georgia had one sloop of those employed in lengthy voyages were of more than 100 and one schooner, whose combined measure was only 50 tons. tons burthen. The waters of Maine were explored in one bark In 1769 the entrances to all the ports of the present United of 50 tons and another of 26 tons. John Smith's fleet, used in States amounted to 332,146 tons, and the clearances to 339,302 exploring the waters of territory subsequently embraced in tons, of which 99,121 tons cleared for Great Britain, 42,601 for Virginia, Maryland, and other colonies was composed of a southern Europe and Africa, 96,382 for the British and foreign pinnace or long boat of 20 tons and two vessels of 40 and 100 West Indies, and 101,198 for the continent of America and the tons respectively. A favorite style of vessel at the time boat Bahamas. The aggregate value of the whole imports amounted and ship-building was first commenced was the shallop, a term to £2,623,412, and the exports to £2,852,441. which was generally employed for many years. Out of the One of the forms of the coasting trade which first attained original shallop grew two classes of small vessels which have considerable importance was the transportation of firewood, remained in permanent use. One of these is the sloop and just as in late years the movement of coal has furnished em- another the Chebacco boat or pink. A record of craft owned ployment to a large number of vessels. Each important new or built in Massachusetts from 1674 to 1714 designates them phase in industrial development has usually been accompanied under these heads: Sloops, pinks, ketches, brigantines, barks, by a marked change in some of the characteristics of the auxil- and ships. Sloops were the most numerous, and the number iary shipping interests. Some of the most important of these of pinks, ketches, and barks was very small. changes were those originating in the rapid growth of the cot- So many changes have occurred in maritime architecture ton-planting operations of the Southern states, and in the dis- from that day to this, that it would be idle to attempt to de- covery of gold in California, the emigration movement to that scribe them in detail in any work not specially devoted to that state by oceanic routes, and the subsequent commercial trans- subject. That task has been accomplished in a very creditable actions between Pacific and Atlantic ports. NAVIGATION OF INTERIOR WATER ROUTES. TRANSITION FROM THE CANOE TO THE SKIFF OR BATTEAU. I NDEPENDENT of the vessels employed in local or coasting an agent employed by the colonial authorities of Pennsylvania trade tide-water movements, advances made into the in- to the Governor of that province, on March 15th, 1758. He terior required minor craft, adapted to shallow streams. The says: "The batteaux being almost worn out, the difficulty of Indian canoes were frequently pressed into service and for a repairing or replacing them will be very considerable. Several long period continued to be extensively used. The first addi- persons here have offered to build canoes at their own expense, tions usually made to the available water craft were skiffs, susceptible of eight or nine barrels of flour, on condition of boats, and batteaux. Accounts of military expeditions during being employed as batteaux men in the service, and an allow- the eighteenth century describe movements in which canoes ance of provisions during five or six days labor in making and batteaux were intermingled. The rule which generally them. Mr. Harris and the people best acquainted with this prevailed was to use canoes in all cases where the necessity for river (the Susquehanna) assert that canoes are in every respect relying upon Indian methods of construction was urgent, and preferable to batteaux; that they may be as capacious, or more so; to build batteaux in most of the instances in which the services are more durable; that they don't require the same repairs, nor of civilized mechanics or boat-builders could be procured. The above half the number of hands; that they are not 80 subject to relative advantages of the rival structures continued to be dis- leaks, and being more buoyant can pass the river and falls when cussed for a long period, and it is probable that the Indians re- the batteaux cannot. For these reasons I have consented that garded the batteau as inferior to the canoe, while most white two or three should be made for a trial, and they are now almost men, having due regard for their safety and convenience, pre- finished. If it is thought proper to encourage this proposal, I ferred the batteau. believe the province will be quite as well served, the dispatch An illustration of the diversity of sentiment which prevailed greater, and the expense less." among the hardy white boatmen who had become accustomed In connection with an expedition made five years later in to the management of canoes is furnished by a letter written Pennsylvania, in 1763, ten canoes were hired to transport pro- from Harris' Ferry (now Harrisburg) by Capt. Thomas Lloyd, visions and ammunition to Fort Augusta, and an official re- 2 Digitized by Google Digitized by Google INTERIOR WATER Rol TF3 nearly i the II. vements main ir.m If is another manner, in the were condinted n stable US No OS scares or other sea- the United Pain going ressels I 5 . Mr purry amount movements the progress along the AMOUNT met water channels and Is up to the passes in= T:- excess with Land routes have tion for a been substituted as: it 3+1. is And in efforts designed to secure for each of the = class sesports the largest attainable A share of internal and form trade, form pivotal features of many of the greatest events in the transportation development of this country. PRIMITIVE WATER CRAFT ON THE ATLANTIC (DAFT. The first European settlers on the Atlantic count blended types of old-world vessels with the canos Indians. For communication between Europe and colonies ships built abroad were used, almost : during a long period. But canoes were freegy L'I employed for fishing and in collecting oral L: some points of the North Atlantic creat a fishing banks of Newfoundland a DELL hold at an early date. It was /n-1- ocean by European adventures purpose of catching fi-!. and UMT of ship-building SWD after LAST La. ments. The largest centuries were of " of those empi ? 11. tons burthen. The of 50 tons and another exploring the Water Virginia. Maryann. a. pinnace or home 1912 tons respectively and ship-building which was general. original shaling 2T"T :1 remained in another 114+ Chetinee or buil: II. Massacher under the and emile of DIRE: to in streams The The battexix i min merrice And in n is and The final nibh persons here repiseing have offered 1019 paumg or , MAIN man chillo insuratible of oply or me movements Gialy expeditions III Which during luing employed 110 battenns men 111 pho ⑆ oit The Invoicing the 111 promotally ******* " 1/11% 41, Harris CODE When 11... 111.11 1. 11... 1.0ml constitution 11:10 L 1 IN instaters 111 which 1.0 'y' 1.1 11103 ........ Lr structure they " and . probable 11...1 1111.1 1111 11.1. &- ILEMING 10 the PEAR 111 their suility and of the diversity of sentimes white who 11.1.1 IL card.es is Annisted 1 3 III IIME Harmsbing) by fill Digitized by Google 10 NAVIGATION OF INTERIOR WATER ROUTES. port relating to this transaction states that two batteaux be- THE FLAT-BOAT OR BROAD HORN. longing to the province were used in connection with the Canoes and batteaux could be used either in ascending or de- canoes. In the movement of a considerable force of French scending rivers. When the yield of surplus products at points soldiers and their Indian allies, with cannon and supplies, down on or near interior rivers became of sufficient consequence to the Allegheny to Pittsburgh, about the middle of the eighteenth render improved facilities for transportation desirable, the cus- century, both batteaux and canoes were used, and in 1756 tom was established of drawing a broad line of distinction be- batteaux were used for taking supplies on the Ohio river to tween one class of rude craft intended solely for movements Fort Duquesne, and for maintaining communication between down stream, which included flat-boats, arks, and rafts, and an- that point and French settlements on the Mississippi. other class which, like canoes and batteaux, could be used In 1777 the building of batteaux on the Monongahela, under either in ascending or descending rivers. American auspices, commenced, a party of carpenters having Improvements on, the craft used for ascending streams were been sent out from Philadelphia for that purpose. made, which were known on the upper Delaware as Durham A batteau is defined by Webster as "a light boat, long in pro- boats, on the Ohio and other streams as keel-boats, and at a portion to its breadth, and wider in the middle than in the later stage, after additional improvements had been made, and ends." An approximately correct idea of the batteaux used in a roof provided, as barges. These distinctions have been per- portions of the territory now embraced in the United States sistently maintained. and one of the first expedients adopted may be derived from a description of the labors of the French by the colonists-the use of flat-boats for descending naviga- Canadian boatmen, who were the successors of the Indians in tion exclusively, with the understanding that at the end of ascending the St. Lawrence, by a traveler who made a journey each voyage they should be sold by the original owners— with them during one of the closing years of the eighteenth continues to furnish one of the methods for transportation century. movements on the Ohio and Mississippi and other rivers up to He says that "three men are found sufficient to conduct an the present day. The raft also survives in many localities. The empty batteau of about two tons burthen up the St. Lawrence, "ark" has nearly disappeared from American waters. The but if the batteau be laden more are generally allowed. They flat-boat, ark, and raft furnished the principal facilities for ascend the stream by means of poles, oars, and sails. Where conveying to market a large proportion of the bulky products the current is very strong they make use of the former, keep- of this country during a protracted period. The flat-boat was ing as close as possible to the shore, in order to avoid the cur- probably the first of these agencies to be employed in a num- rent, and to have the advantage of shallow water to pole in. ber of localities. The men set their poles all together at the same moment, and Thomas Budd, in his Account of Pennsylvania and New all work at the same side of the batteau. The stecrsman, how- Jersey, published in 1685, says of the uses then made of the ever, shifts his pole from side to side, in order to keep the ves- Delaware river: "After great rains we may bring down great sel in an even direction. The poles commonly used are about quantities of goods in flat-bottomed boats, built for the pur- eight feet in length, extremely light, and headed with iron. On pose, which will then come down by reason of the floods with coming to a deep bay or inlet, the men abandon the poles, take speed." to their oars, and strike, if possible, directly across the mouth The flat-boat was of various sizes and designated by several of the bay; but in many places the current proves so strong that names. On the Ohio and Mississippi it gained its highest devel- it is absolutely impossible to stem it by means of oars, and they opment and most protracted utility. A writer skilled in nauti- are obliged to pole entirely round the bays. Whenever the cal affairs says that "the only claim of the flat-boat or 'broad wind is favorable they set their sail, but it is only at the upper horn' to rank as a vessel was due to the fact that it floated end of the river, beyond the rapids, or on the lakes, or broad upon water and was used as a vehicle of transportation." The parts of it, where the current is not swift, that the sail by itself phrase broad horn originated in the fact that many of the flat- is sufficient to impel them forward. The exertion it requires boats were provided with large steering oars, hung on fixed to counteract the force of the stream by means of poles and pivots on the sides, by which these cumbrous contrivances oars is so great that the men are obliged to stop very frequently were managed. During the latter part of the eighteenth and to take breath. The places at which they stop are regularly the early portion of the nineteenth century nearly all the ad- ascertained. Some of them, where the current is very rapid, venturous men of the regions west of the Allegheny mountains are not more than half a mile distant one from the other; others and contiguous to the Ohio participated in flat-boat move- one or two, but none of them more than four miles apart." ments. To many it was a starting point in life to build a flat- Canoe movements were made in a similar manner by a boat, load it with merchantable produce, make a trip to New number of the pioneers who sought homes near the heads of Orleans, see the world as it was developed in the regions rivers flowing towards the places first colonized. traversed, and return by the best routes and methods that were Egle's History of Pennsylvania says: "Many of the settlers available, which were all very undesirable. on the head waters of the Susquehanna river took their fami- An important historic trip was made by Messrs. Gibson and lies and goods in canoes up that stream. These canoes were Linn, in 1776. They descended the Ohio and Mississippi, from generally managed by a steersman and a bowsman, who placed Pittsburgh to New Orleans, and brought back a cargo of 136 steel-pointed setting poles upon the bottom of the river, upon kegs of gunpowder, procured from the Spanish authorities and which they threw their whole weight and force, and thereby intended for the use of the Continental army. Although they propelled their canoes forward, and by such continued efforts probably used canoes or batteaux instead of flat-boats, it is frequently made 25 miles a day against the current, carrying stated that when they reached the falls of the Ohio, in the in their canoes from three-fourths of a ton to one ton a trip. spring of 1777, they were obliged to unload their boats and In case of low water in the streams, the boat crew would be carry the cargo around the falls. The success of their trip compelled to remove the gravel and fragments of rock from gave an impetus to the flat-boat trade, which rapidly increased the line of their course, and wade for miles at a time in the in magnitude, and which, except during a few temporary sus- stream, carrying and dragging their boats forward." pensions arising from Spanish hostility and the civil war, has In Connecticut a flat-bottomed skiff followed the canoe. continued in one form or another up to the present time. They were pointed at the bow, were as broad aft as amidships, Independent of the men who aimed at running boats of their and were flat on the floor with upright sides, having a little own down the river, or who used them to transport their fami- outward flare. At an early day they were used both for fishing lies or household goods to their new homes, many others sought and for carrying goods and passengers. and found employment as flat-boatmen, in the service of the In the census report on ship-building in the United States in owners of such craft. 1880, the only reference to batteaux is a statement that about The Indianapolis Journal, in discussing this phase of trans- seventy-five of them are built every year, on the Aroostook portation development, says that during early eras a "voyage river, in Maine, for lumbermen, and they are light or fragile from Pittsburgh to New Orleans by flat-boat was an enterprise boats, or flat-bottomed skiffs, with pointed ends and flaring of greater peril than a tour around the world is now. It was sides. They are constructed of pine boards, at a cost of from certain to be full of adventure. It required months for its ac- $10 to $25 each, and will carry about half a ton. complishment. A shot from the shore by some Indian or reck- Digitized by Google NAVIGATION OF INTERIOR WATER ROUTES. 11 less desperado might terminate abruptly the voyage and the One of the most important uses to which flat boats have been lives of the navigators in blood. A moment's neglect of the applied is steersman might wreck the unshapely craft and all the hopes THE TRANSPORTATION OF COAL. of its owners, hundred of miles from home, and in an inhospi- Until 1850 the coal exported from Pittsburgh was floated table wilderness. There was danger everywhere, in the cur- down the Ohio in large, flat-bottomed boats, which were usually rents, eddies, whirlpools, bayous, and snags of the tortuous 125 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 8 feet deep, with flat perpen- Father of Waters, but there was no less danger from the half- dicular sides, bow, and stern. Each boat of this size held about civilized dwellers on the banks. The outlawed criminals and 15,000 bushels of coal, and they were floated to their destination the desperate adventurers from civilization skulked about the lashed in pairs. The usual complement of hands for such boats shores or prowled with light canoes among the bayous and was 23 or 24. These boats could only be floated down the river creeks, watching for chances to plunder, even if murder was in the high floods that generally, from time to time, in the necessary to aid them. A flat-boat voyage down the great spring and fall of each year, swell the current of water in the river was perilous enough from natural causes, even if man's Ohio river. inhumanity to man had not increased the peril. In those days Subsequently the practice was adopted of forwarding coal the Government had not thought of snag-boats, and the Mis- from Pittsburgh in coal flats towed by a steam tow-boat and sissippi was full of half-hidden dangers. The current was con- this method, or modifications of it, is claimed to be one of the stantly changing. It was easy to be deceived into an old chan- cheapest methods of transportation ever devised. A notice of nel, from which there was no return. Bayous were often this system, in Harper's Weekly, says: "Merely as a sight worth traps-watery culs-de-sao-leading nowhere but to ruin. The seeing a Pittsburgh steamer with a tow of coal flats is a notable organized river pirates and wreckers were always on the look- object, for nothing like it can be seen anywhere else in the out for unwary voyagers, 80 that a slight mishap generally world but on our inland water-ways. These tow-boats are all ended in complete disaster. If, under such circumstances, the 'stern-wheelers.' They carry no load themselves, and, bur- flat-boatman reached his distant home, footsore and weary, but dened with nothing but their own weight, which is chiefly the penniless, months after leaving it, he was lucky. weight of their engines, their evolution has been wholly toward "In the early days of flat-boating, a safe return, even when the development to the utmost of propelling power. Many of the venture had not proved financially profitable, was a grand them draw no more than two feet of water. For this peculiar event and the occasion of tumultuous joy. The business bred boat architecture, credit is due to Pittsburgh's engineers, and a special class who sought it for its adventure and dangers as by means of it they have made the cheapest transportation much as for its profits. The river pirates met in the flat-boat- service in the world. Simple as it now seems to build wholly men of that early day, a class ready, eager, and willing for the with reference to power, and to spread out the cargo, so to fray-a class which, like the rancheros of the plains, accounted speak, over as indefinite an area as low water makes necessary, a trip tame and spiritless if unattended with danger. They this solution of the problem of cheap coal transportation was were rough and ready, careless and care free. Dreamily float- not reached until the railroads threatened to take away all ing down the Ohio they whiled away with song and dance the traffic from the rivers, as they have practically taken away all lazy hours. The boatman's horn waked the echoes from dis- travel. Pittsburgh coal can be delivered in New Orleans tant hills more musical than steamboat whistle or that ear- for about $2.60 per ton, and New Orleans is 2,000 miles away by distracting horror, the calliope. It was a romantic life, befitting river. Voyages of 4,000 miles are by no means uncommon for the grand scenery and rude time. Ninety days on a slowly- these coal carriers to take on our inland waters. Cow Island, moving flat-boat. The scenery constantly changing but ever on the upper Missouri, is 300 more than 4,000 miles from Pitts- wild. and beautiful, was a thing never to be forgotten. The burgh, and they carry coal to market there-a distance as great spice of danger in it only gave it zest. An occasional adven- as from New York to any port on the Baltic sea. Not less than ture with river sharks only relieved monotony and added in- 20,000 miles of inland navigable waters are accessible to these terest. Pennsylvania fuel peddlers. More than 160 of them are owned "It is difficult for one looking on the Ohio river to realize by Pittsburgh owners-a vast fleet, the building of which cost that once flat-boats, broad horns, and the queerest craft that hardly less than $10,000,000. The aggregate of vessels of all ever floated, did all the transportation business from the head- kinds is now more than 4,000. Of the 13,000,000 tons of coal waters to New Orleans. A flat-boat, scarce moving, with rude that were dug in 1883 in the counties near Pittsburgh, about arrangements for cooking on deck, almost under water, with 4,500,000 tons were carried to market by water." long oars awkwardly attached to the sides, is a type of its time RETURN TRIP OF FLAT-BOATMEN. almost as grotesque and odd as the Viking ship recently dug up in Norway. Perhaps one day it will excite as much archae- Of the means adopted by the men engaged in the modern ological wonder, for it already recalls a time we fail to under- flat-boat trade to return to their homes, and of some of the char- stand-a condition of society and of our country we can scarcely acteristics of lower-river life, the river reporter of the Pittsburgh appreciate. The leisure-loving, deliberate, slow-moving flat- Chronicle-Telegraph draws a picture which, it is to be feared, is boat was fast enough for its day and people. There was luck in some respects applicable to too many of the phases of water in its leisure." transportation. He says: "A volume might be written on lower river flat-boat life, and it would be full of interest. Three men THE EARLY TRADE CONDUCTED ON FLAT-BOATS generally comprise the 'crew,' and they are paid from ten to consisted largely of the movement of flour and whisky. A va- eighteen dollars a month. From New Orleans they come home riety of miscellaneous articles, however, were transported. Hon. on steamers, taking a deck passage from the Crescent City to Levi Woodbury, who made a trip down the Mississippi in 1833, St. Louis or Cincinnati, and paying for the same from three to in a letter written at Natchez, says: "At every village we find six dollars, according to the number of boats leaving, and the from ten to twenty flat-bottomed boats, which, beside corn in terms they can make with competing river steamers. A 'deck the ear, pork, bacon, flour, whisky, cattle, and fowls, have a passage' is an idyl of river life in itself, and one that the gene- great assortment of notions from Cincinnati and elsewhere. ral world has not the remotest conception of. Two thousand Among these are corn-brooms, cabinet furniture, cider, apples, miles, with a state room under the boiler battery, a dining sa- ploughs, cordage, &c. They remain in one place till all is sold loon among the mules 'back aft,' and a continual punching up out, if the demand be brisk; if not, they move further down. at midnight by the 'mud clerk,' together with the fights and After all is sold out, they dispose of their boat, and return with thievery of the semi-barbarous, double-jointed unintelligible their crews by the steamers to their homes." Voudoo roustabouts, is a feature of human existence that has At the present day (1886) flat-boats are still built on the Alle- to be experienced to be appreciated. On the lower river gheny river, loaded at Pittsburgh with corn, potatoes, hay, and its tributaries float hundreds of these flat-boats, bent on crockery, glassware, liquor, and miscellaneous articles, taken all purposes of barter and trade. Legitimate 'traders,' freighted down the river, and trading operations commenced at any with 'up-river' stuffs, 'bum boats,' peddling dry goods, station- point where they can be made profitable. Wheeling is also a ery, and everything else; 'gunboats,' loaded with the refuse of favorite starting point for similar expeditions. sad existence; whisky boats, which are floating saloons, whose Digitized by Google 12 ARKS AND RAFTS. license expires with the cutting of their ropes; photograph They all form a wonderful link in internal commerce, as won- boats, pick-ups, and 'pirates.' These last are a buccaneer fea- derful as it is unknown, and Pittsburgh is the natal place of ture of the river, about which wild tales, too often true, are told. this queer industry of western water-ways." ARKS AND RAFTS. THE other craft used extensively and exclusively in descend- that in August, 1814, the firm with which he was connected streams were arks and rafts. On some rivers the for- started off the first ark they had constructed. It was 65 feet mer preceded the latter, for the reason that original obstruc- long, 14 feet wide, with 24 tons of coal. The expenses he re- tions to navigation could be more readily surmounted by them, ports as follows:- and after these obstructions were removed the use of rafts was Expenses of the passage and hands down and returning $28 27 continued long after the construction of arks had ceased. Wages, including three pilots 47 50 Arks were favorite craft for transporting miscellaneous pro- ducts from regions in which lumber was cheap and abundant $75 77 to comparatively distant points that could be reached by river Ark (cost high, from inconvenience of building) $130 00 in Pennsylvania, New York, and on the Ohio, during a pro- Twenty-four tons coal, raising from mine 24 00 tracted period. They were used during the eighteenth century, Hauling nine miles to landing, at $4 a ton 96 00 Loading into ark 5 00 and at some places were only superseded after canals were con- structed, and the use of steamboats had become general. $330 77 Before the construction of the Erie canal, the farmers of cen- So that, in the first experiment, the coal cost about $14 a tral and western New York sent their produce to market in ton in the city. He adds: "I have been somewhat minute in arks down the Delaware and Susquehanna. giving you these details, because this ark was the pioneer, and The farmers of Pennsylvania who resided at points contiguous led off the coal trade by the Lehigh to Philadelphia, now so ex- to these rivers adopted the same method. Some of the early tensive and important. This effort of ours might be regarded shipments of anthracite coal were made in arks. Their size as the acorn from which sprang the mighty oak of the Lehigh varied with the uses to which they were applied. Some of Coal and Navigation Company." In a note he says: "The fact those used in Pennsyvania were large enough to carry 500 may not be uninteresting that we were obliged to pay $4 and barrels of flour. Of the arks used in transporting coal from for much of the coal hauled $4.50 a ton over an exceedingly the Wyoming valley it is stated that they were "rudely con- rough road of nine miles, where now, by railway, it is trans- structed craft, 90 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 4 feet deep, with a ported for twenty-five cents a ton." capacity of 60 tons. Each end terminated in an acute angle, Movements on the Ohio, in which arks were used for the with a stern post surmounted by a huge oar, some 30 feet in transportation of emigrating families, with all their live stock, length, requiring the strength of two stout men to ply it. Some are described in an account of Major Stephen H. Long's expedi- 10,000 feet of lumber was used in the construction of the ark, tion from Pittsburgh to the Rocky mountains, performed in and its total cost was $70. It took four men seven days to 1819 and 1820. It says: "The little village of Olean, on the Al- navigate it to tide-water, the cost of the trip being about $50. legheny river, has been for many years a point of embarkation, Only two-thirds of the arks started down the river reached where great numbers of families, migrating from the northern their destination, one-third generally going to pieces on the and eastern states, have exchanged their various methods of bars and rocks. It cost $181 to get 60 tons of coal to market, slow and laborious progression by land for the more conveni- or about $3 a ton. The perils of navigation increased the cost ent one of the navigation of the Ohio. From Olean downward of transportation to fully $4. Added to this were commissions the Allegheny and Ohio bear along their currents flects of rude on sales, cost of transhipment, and other expenses, bringing arks laden with cattle, horses, household furniture, agricultural the whole outlay on a ton of coal up to $5. Coal sold at $10 a implements, and numerous families having all their possessions ton at the time, leaving a profit of $5." embarked on the same bottom, and floating onward toward Of the movement down the Lehigh, of six arks of coal, which that imaginary region of happiness and contentment, which, was attempted in 1803, the following account is published: "The like the 'town of the brave and generous spirits,' the expected descent of the river, for the first 15 miles from Mauch Chunk, heaven of the aboriginal American, lies often 'beyond the place was exceedingly rapid, the fall being some 300 feet. It was a where the sun goes down.' bright and cheerful morning, after the stream had attained the "This method of transportation, though sometimes speedy usual high-water mark, that the arks were cut loose, and, each and convenient, is attended with uncertainty and danger. A equipped with six men, began at once the descent of the rapids. moderate wind, blowing up the river, produces such swells in Now the torrent roars-the waves and whirls dash madly around some parts of the Ohio as to endanger the safety of the arks, the boats; the men at the oars, with faces wild with animation and the heavy, unmanageable vessels are with difficulty 80 and excitement, and with muscles full distended, run to and fro guided in their descent as to avoid the planters, sunken logs, upon their narrow platforms; the pilot, with energetic motion and other concealed obstructions to the navigation of the Ohio. and speech, addresses the steersman-the steersman, with like We have known many instances of boats of this kind 80 sud- gesticulation and vehemence of manner, responds to the pilot- denly sunk as only to afford time for the escape of the persons and then all hands make desperate plunges at the oars! Now on board." the boat, shaking and cracking, swings its cumbersome form Good reasons for the abandonment of the ark after turnpikes around a villainous rock; now it sheers off; in a counter-current, and canals were constructed, and descriptions of some of the towards the shore, and then bending round, again dashes for- old methods of conducting transportation on the Susquehanna ward into the rolling waves, when-cr-a-sh je-boom it rises and its tributary regions are contained in the following extract securely upon a ledge of rocks half concealed beneath the sur- from a report made in 1827 by one of the early canal commis- face of the water! A moment serves to contemplate the wreck, sioners of Pennsylvania: "Since the opening of the Erie Canal and then the men, seizing oars and planks, make good their and the construction of turnpike roads, from the Susquehanna exit to the shore-leaving the broken and dismembered ark to to the valley of the Delaware, the Hudson, and the lakes, the its fate, and the cargo to the curious speculation of the catfish boats upon the Susquehanna, for the transportation of the as- and cels. Of the six which embarked, but two reached Phila- cending trade, have gradually disappeared, until not a single delphia, and even these presented a very dilapidated appear- boat is found plying upon the river above Northumberland. It ance." is found that merchandise can be transported, by wagons, from In a letter describing early efforts to transport Lehigh coal the city of Philadelphia, the city of New York, and the heads to Philadelphia, written by Mr. Charles Miner in 1833, he says of the Seneca and Cayuga lakes, with more expedition, at less Digitized by Google ASCENDING NAVIGATION. 13 expense, and less hazard, than by the river. [Here the uncer- floated down the North Branch of the Susquehanna by the vil- tainties and losses attending upon the descending navigation of lage of Catawissa. In 1840 the lumber floated down the Sus- the Susquehanna are described at length, and the writer pro- quehanna in rafts was estimated at 250,000,000 feet. ceeds to say:] The losses occasioned by accidents incident to the river navigation, exposure to the weather, &c., is estimated RAFTING LUMBER AND TIMBER. at five per cent. upon the gross amount of exports. The whole On many of the streams of the United States rafting lumber amount of property which descended the Susquehanna last has continued on an extensive scale during high-water periods, year (1826) was estimated at $4,500,000. The tonnage required and on a considerable number of streams such movements are for the transportation of those articles which could not be the only important transportation use to which those streams floated in rafts, must have amounted to more than 100,000 or rivers are applied. tons. Fifteen hundred arks arrived at Port Deposit, and it is The rafts floated on the Susquehanna in 1885 were usually 29 known that there were many, and it is fair to presume at least feet wide, 300 feet long, and composed of 120 logs or "sticks." 500, found a market for their loading, at the towns and places The logs are 30 to 40 feet long, and the entire structure contains along the river, above that place. Estimating the loss incident 11,000 cubic feet of lumber. Most of the lengthy timber has to river navigation at five per cent. which is certainly very low, been cut off, and logs now sent down are somewhat dwarfed. and the amount of exports at $4,500,000, the gross amount of From the lumber regions pilots floated rafts to Marietta for loss annually sustained, would be $225,000. Besides this, there $75 to $80 each; Marietta to Peach Bottom, 28 miles, $40 to $45 is, and must always continue to be (whatever improvements per raft; Peach Bottom to Port Deposit, 16 miles, $22.50 per may be made in the descending navigation), an enormous raft. The pilot paid his hands $3.50 and steersmen $5 per trip sacrifice in the item of arks. An ark of sufficient capacity to from Marietta to Peach Bottom; Peach Bottom to Port Deposit carry forty or fifty tons, will cost at least sixty-five dollars. It hands get $2.25 and steersmen $2.75. When the river is in good can never reascend the river; and consequently must be sold condition the run from Marietta to Port Deposit could be made for any price which can be obtained for it. The average price in eight hours. After the rafts arrived at the latter place about of the ark, at the place of destination, is fifteen dollars. The twenty of them were lashed together, and towed by tug-boats to loss, then, upon two thousand arks, the estimated number which Chesapeake canal. There rafts of sufficient number were piled descended the river last year, and which is annually increasing, upon each other, and were termed lockages. From the canal will amount to one hundred thousand dollars; which added to they were taken by water to Camden, New Brunswick, New the estimated loss by accident, exposure, &c., amounts to the York, Philadelphia, and other cities, and received by owners enormous sum of $325,000." and speculators. An illustration of the extent to which arks and rafts were Almost every rock and projection along the Susquehanna, used is furnished by the fact that a report presented to the Penn- from Marietta to Port Deposit, has a name familiar to the rafts- sylvania legislature in 1829 quoted the following statement:- men. In many instances these points received their titles from "From an accurate account, kept by a respectable citizen of the fact that rafts were once stove on them. Here are a few of Harrisburg, it appears that between the 28th of February and the odd names: "Spinning Wheel," "Sour Beer's Eddy," Blue the 23d of June, 1827, there passed that place:- Rock, "Turkey Hill," "Brothers," "Old Cow," 'Hangman's Rafts, 1,631; arks, 1,370. It is supposed that the rafts con- Rocks," "Horse Gap," "Ram's Horn," "Slow and Easy," tained, on an average, 25,000 feet of lumber, which would "Hollow Rock," "Hog Hole," "Sisters," "Old Port Bridge." amount to 40,775,000 feet. Every season, at the conclusion of rafting, "party rafts" came Two hundred of the arks were laden principally with anthra- down the river. Upon a raised platform on the logs merry lads cite coal, averaging 55 tons each, making 11,000 tons. and lasses dance as the raft floats through many miles of wild The remaining 1,170 arks were loaded principally with flour scenery on either side. and whisky for the Baltimore market, and carried, on an ave- On the Allegheny, when timber rafts are run out of the rage, 400 barrels each, making 468,000 barrels. creeks, they are made up into fleets, nine rafts being usually It is supposed that about 300 keel-bottomed boats, carrying put into one fleet, which contains from 300,000 to 500,000 feet, from 800 to 900 bushels of wheat each, descended during the linear measure. same period; say 800, makes 240,000 bushels of wheat, at 35 There is a growing tendency in connection with the lumber bushels to the ton, makes 6,857 tons." business formerly conducted on that and a number of other Annals of Luzerne county say that 30 lumber rafts passed rivers, including the upper Mississippi, which has been one of down the Susquehanna in 1796. In 1804 sawed lumber went the greatest theatres of lumber-rafting operations, to substitute down-552 rafts, with a total of 22,000,000 feet. railway for rafting movements, partly on account of the serious In six days, from May 18th to 23d, 1833, 3,480 rafts were losses sometimes arising from unexpected freshets. ASCENDING NAVIGATION. DURHAM BOATS. NoNE of the craft heretofore described were used to a con- Durham boats, which are supposed by some writers to have extent by parties who made the carrying of suggested the type of boats known as keel-boats on the Ohio freight or passengers a regular business. In most instances the and other rivers, were first built about 1750 on the Delaware men who controlled the operations of canoes, batteaux, arks, river bank by Robert Durham, the manager and engineer of or rafts, owned them, and all their movements, as a general the Durham Furnace, in the northern part of Bucks county, rule, represented the kind of independent operations typified and the boat was made nearly in the shape of an Indian canoe. by the expression "every man paddled his own canoe." That Pearce, in his Annals of Luzerne, says: "Durham boats were 60 remained, indeed, the ordinary custom in reference to a very feet long, 8 feet wide, and 2 feet deep, and when laden with 15' large proportion of all the internal transportation of the country tons drew 20 inches of water. The stern and bow were sharp, for a long period after the first colonial settlements were made. on which were erected small decks, while a running board ex- To a limited extent, however, keel boats began to be pressed tended the whole length of the boat on each side. They' into common carrier service during the latter half of the carried a mast with two sails, and were manned by a crew eighteenth century, and for many years they continued to of five men, one steering, and four pushing forward with set- furnish almost the only description of craft in which such ser- ting poles, two being on each side." In the navigation of vice was rendered on tideless rivers. They were also extensively number of eastern rivers, these boats were of much ser used by parties engaged in important freight movements which and they closely resembled the "keel-boats" used on W required that rivers should be ascended as well as descended. rivers. Digitized by Google 14 ASCENDING NAVIGATION. KEEL-BOATS AND BARGES. dangers incident to the common method hitherto adopted of The use of keel-boats began on the rivers of western Pennsyl- navigating the Ohio, and being influenced by a love of philan- vania some time before the close of the eighteenth century. thropy, and a desire of being serviceable to the public, has They were built like the hulls of modern canal boats, and would taken great pains to render the accommodations on board the carry, on an average, about 30 tons. They were propelled by boats as agreeable and convenient as they could possibly be sails, pushed by poles, or towed by horses, which walked along made. No danger need be apprehended from the enemy, as the banks, and they made voyages both up and down the every person on board will be under cover made proof to rifle streams. As they made regular trips, they were a great conve- balls, and convenient port-holes for firing out. Each of the nience in their day for passengers as well as for freight. At boats is armed with six pieces, carrying a pound ball; also, a first passengers were compelled to land every night, and they good number of muskets, and amply supplied with ammuni- lodged at the most convenient farm-house, every man's house tion, strongly manned with choice men, and the master of ap- in those days being open for the entertainment of wayfarers. proved knowledge. A separate cabin from that designed for Keel-boats were used on the Allegheny along its upper course the men is partitioned off in each boat for accommodating the long after canals connected Pittsburgh with the east. Jadies on their passage. Conveniences are constructed on A line of mail boats was established from Wheeling to Lime- board each boat, 80 as to render landing unnecessary, as it stone (Maysville), Ky., in July, 1794, to run once every two might at times be attended with danger. Rules and regula- weeks. These boats were built like whale-boats, were 24 feet tions for maintaining order on board, and for the good man- long, were steered with a rudder, and were manned by one steers- agement of the boats, and a table accurately calculated for the man and four oarsmen, who carried muskets and ammunition. rates of freightage, for passengers, and carriage of letters to and In 1794 packet-boats for passengers began to run down the from Cincinnati to Pittsburgh; also, a table of the exact time of Ohio from Pittsburgh. For protection from hostile Indians the arrival and departure to and from the different places on they were built strongly, and carried cannon and other arms. the Ohio between Cincinnati and Pittsburgh, may be seen on Passengers slept on these packets. board each boat, and at the printing office in Cincinnati. Pas- When the keel-boat was covered with a roof, lengthwise, it sengers will be supplied with provisions and liquors of all kinds, was dignified with the name of barge. In reference to their of the first quality, at the most reasonable rates possible. Per- operations a pamphlet issued by the Empire Transportation sons desirous of working their passage will be admitted, on find- Company, in 1876, says:- ing themselves subject, however, to the same order and direc- "On the Susquehanna, a tideless river,-wide, rocky, and ex- tions from the master of the boats as the rest of the working cept when flooded, extremely shallow,-long, covered barges, hands of the boat's crew. An office of insurance will be kept carrying, perhaps, a thousand bushels of grain, manned by a at Cincinnati, Limestone, and Pittsburgh, where persons de- captain and crew of eight, floated at high water from the sirous of having their property insured may apply. The rates upper valleys to Columbia. Some twenty tons of merchandise of insurance will be moderate." comprised its return cargo. It was a light task to drift south- COMMERCE BETWEEN SOUTHERN OHIO AND NEW ORLEANS. ward on the swift waters rolling seaward, but the homeward journey up the stream was insufferably tedious and laborious. A good idea of the system then prevailing on eastern as well Four of the crew on each side of the barge pushed its slow as western rivers is furnished by Judge Burnett's description of length along by a continuous thrust of iron-shod poles against the conditions under which the early settlers of southern Ohio the river bottom. About five days were consumed from conducted commercial intercourse with New Orleans. He says Williamsport to Columbia, while the round trip occupied that "no artificial roads had been made; canals had not been perhaps eighteen. The charges on grain were ten or twelve thought of; the natural impediments in the rivers of the cents per bushel, and on merchandise, about fifty cents per country rendered their navigation difficult and hazardous at hundred pounds." all times, always tedious and often impracticable; and, when- Some of the keel-boats used on the Ohio were of compara- ever the water was at its most favorable stage, the distance of tively large dimensions, being from seventy-five to one hundred the markets, the imperfect means of transportation, and the feet in length, a breadth of beam ranging from fifteen to low price of produce were such that a large portion of the twenty feet, and carrying capacity of sixty to one hundred tons. avails of a cargo was consumed by the expense of taking it to The receptacle for freight occupied a considerable portion of market. The water crafts were pirogues, flat-boats, keel-boats, the hulk, and was called a cargo box. Near the stern was a moved by oars and setting poles. The average time required small apartment that served as a cabin for passengers willing to make a trip to New Orleans and back to Cincinnati was six to pay for such accommodations. The roof of this cabin was months. The crafts made use of were necessarily small and elevated above the main deck, and from this roof the helmsman the cargo proportionally light, and when they arrived in New Orleans in flat-boats which could not be taken back, the boats directed the movements of the boat. The boat was usually pro- vided with a mast and sail, but when no wind prevailed to waft were abandoned and the hands returned by land, most gene- the craft on its voyage oars and poles were substituted, while rally on foot, through a wilderness, inhabited by Indians, of at other times the hardy boatmen had recourse to the rope, in seven or eight hundred miles. Pirogues and keel-boats re- turned loaded with such articles as the market of New Orleans which case each member of the boat's crew performed the ser- vice of a mule on the towpath of a canal. afforded. (A pirogue is defined in Knights American Mechan- ical Dictionary as a large double canoe formed of a hollowed PERILS OF OHIO PACKET-BOAT TRAVEL. trunk of a tree or of two canoes united.) Under such disad- An interesting picture of the perils to be encountered in navi- vantages the commerce of the country was nominal, and nothing gating the upper Ohio, from the savages and white desperadoes but necessity prompted the inhabitants to engage in it. The who lurked upon its borders, and of the means devised for avert- farmer had no motive to increase the products of his fields ing them, as well as of other peculiarities of the era preceding beyond the wants of his family and of immigrants, or 'new the present century, is furnished by the following advertise- comers' as they were called, who might settle in his immediate ment, printed in Cincinnati, of the first regular packet line be- neighborhood. For many years these immigrants created the tween Pittsburgh and Cincinnati, which was formed January only demand which existed in the interior settlements for the 11th, 1794, by four keel-boats of twenty tons each: "Ohio Packet surplus products of agriculture. Corn and oats rarely com- Boats-Two boats for the present will start from Cincinnati to manded more than ten or twelve cents a bushel; they were Pittsburgh and return to Cincinnati in the following manner, frequently purchased at eight cents, and wheat from thirty to viz.: First boat will leave Cincinnati this morning at 8 o'clock, forty cents. The average price of good beef was one dollar and return to Cincinnati so as to be ready to sail again in four and fifty cents per hundred, and pork from one to two dollars, weeks from this date. Second boat will leave Cincinnati on according to quality." Saturday, the 30th inst., and return as above; and 80 regularly, IMPROVED OHIO KEEL-BOATS. each boat performing the voyage to and from Cincinnati to In 1833, when the Ohio keel-boats had probably attained Pittsburgh once in every four weeks. The proprietor of these their highest development, Hon. Levi Woodbury, gave the fol- boats having maturely considered the many inconveniences and lowing description of them, in a letter written from a point on Digitized by Google UNSUCCESSFUL EARLY STEAMBOAT EXPERIMENTS. 15 the river shore of Indiana, as he was journeying down the cost was about $100 a ton for 300 miles, or 33} cents per ton river: "Keel-boats are formed in their bottom like a small per mile. Descending navigation was SO much cheaper, not- schooner, with a raised roof on deck in the centre, almost the withstanding the numerous risks and perils it involved, that it whole length, sometimes with one mast and a sail, and with was the favorite expedient wherever and whenever it was prac- small cleats or steps each side, the whole length, where the ticable. boatmen walk, and push the boat against the stream with their The relation that generally existed between it and ascending long poles;-no oar is used, except by the helmsman. They navigation, and the cost of the latter, is probably stated with are sometimes towed up by the steamboats, but it is an un- approximate accuracy in an argument made by Robert Fulton, popular innovation." in 1814, in favor of the construction of the Erie Canal, in which TEAM-BOATS. he stated that at that time "from Louisville to New Orleans, a Another species of craft pressed into common carrier service distance of 1,545 miles, the freight is $1.50 a barrel, but to come to a limited extent, principally as ferry-boats, was the team- up from New Orleans to Louisville it is $4.50 a hundred weight, boat, or boats propelled by horse-power. A similar expedient or $9 a barrel." The latter figures are at the rate of 5.8 cents per was adopted on the waters of the Mediterranean by the Romans ton per mile, while the down-river movements were made at many centuries ago. Team-boats were used at some of the the rate of about one cent per ton per mile. The charge for ferries leading from New York for about ten years, from 1814 down-stream movements, or descending navigation, did not pre- to 1824. They were of eight-horse power and crossed the rivers sent insuperable obstacles to the movement of cheap and bulky in from twelve to twenty minutes. articles over long distances. The up-river or ascending naviga- An attempt to use a team-boat in making a voyage from tion charges could be borne without serious inconvenience by New Orleans to Louisville in 1807 proved unsuccessful, as the expensive merchandise, but not by cheap products which were experiment was abandoned before the vessel arrived at Natchez. moved over long distances. A team-boat was also run at one time between Burlington and Of miscellaneous agricultural products and requirements, Bristol, on the Delaware, as appears by the following advertise- Robert Fulton, at an early day, wisely said: "Let us look at the ment:- rich productions of our interior country, wheat, flour, oats, BURLINGTON AND BRISTOL TEAM-BOAT FERRY. barley, beans, grain, and pulse of all kinds, cider, apples, and The subscribers having purchased the boat, fixtures, privileges, &c., fruit of all kinds, salt, salted beef, pork, and other meats, hides, of the Burlington and Bristol Team Boat Company, and having at a heavy expense put the boat in complete order, with satisfaction inform tallow, beeswax, cast and forged iron, pot and pearl ashes, the public. that they are enabled to cross more regularly and in much tanners' bark, tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine, hemp, flax, and less time than heretofore. wool, plaster-of-paris, 80 necessary to our agriculture, coals They will run the boat until prevented by ice, starting from Bristol and potter's earth for our manufactures, marble, lime and tim- every morning at sunrise, and crossing every half hour during the day, ber for our buildings. All of these articles are of the first ne- passengers or not. cessity, but none of them can bear the expense of the $5 the Sportsmen and others going to the grouse plains or shire, from Phila- cwt. to be transported 300 miles on roads. It is neces- delphia, Montgomery, and the lower part of Bucks county, will find sary to bind the states together by the people's interest, one of this their most eligible route. which is to enable every man to sell the produce of his labor The proprietors pledge themselves that no exertions shall be want- ing to render this ferry every way an accommodation to the public. at the best market, and purchase at the cheapest. This accords Fare for foot passengers, six and a quarter cents; for carriages, gigs, with the idea of Hume, 'that the government of a wise people wagons, horses, &c., lower than at any other ferry between Trenton would be little more than a system of civil police, for the best and Philadelphia. interest of man is industry, and a free exchange of the produce Persons crossing in the team-boats will be expected to pay their of his labor for the things which he may require.' On this hu- ferriage to the captain of the team boat, or at the bar of Mr. Bessonett mane principle, what stronger bonds of union can be invented or Shepherd. J. PHILLIPS, than those which enable each individual to transport the pro- J. BESSONETT, duce of his industry 1,200 miles for 60 cents the cwt.? Here, DOWNING & WOOD, then, is a certain method of securing the union of the states, B. SHEPHEED. and of rendering it as lasting as the continent we inhabit." Bristol, October 11. 1829. The cheap rates last mentioned were referred to as one of the P. S. Since her repairs the boat has crossed in eight minutes with principal blessings of canals. Very little aid was derived from the tide, and in fifteen minutes against it. them, or even from steamboats, however, in miscellaneous trade ECONOMIC RESULTS OF THE PRIMITIVE WATER METHODS. movements during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, The primitive water methods described constituted the prin- and until that probationary period had expired comparatively cipal reliance for all lengthy interior freight movements up to limited direct benefits were derived from many vain efforts to the period when they were superseded, to a great extent, by improve the facilities for water transportation by constructing canals and steamboats. Long land movements of bulky freight canals, and making arrangements for building a large number were rarely attempted, because on inferior roads their average of steamboats. UNSUCCESSFUL EARLY STEAMBOAT EXPERIMENTS. WHILE the serious attention of the advanced legislators PLANS TO IMPROVE UP-RIVER CRAFT. progressive minds of the United States, shortly Difficulties on eastern as well as western rivers prompted the after the close of the American Revolution, was turned rather pioneer efforts made by Dr. Benjamin Franklin, James Rumsey, to the improvement of rivers, connections between rivers, and of Virginia, and John Fitch, to improve the methods for moving water systems, than to improvements of roads, some of the water craft up rivers. inventive minds of the country began at a comparatively early In the long and bitter controversy relating to the originality period to devise mechanical contrivances for facilitating navi- of rival claims to the honor of inventing or projecting a practi- gation against the current, or up-stream. This impulse grew cable steamboat, the friends of Fitch claim that the preceding naturally out of the marked contrast between the ease with efforts of Rumsey were directed to the construction of a boat which comparatively heavy loads could be sent down rivers to that could be propelled by mechanical powers. In support of seaport cities, and the great difficulty and enormous expense this theory, they assert that a petition presented by Rumsey to involved in conveying a return cargo, or even empty boats of the assembly of Pennsylvania, in November, 1784, stated that considerable size, back to the original starting point. the boat he contemplated "was to be propelled, by the com- Such obstacles continued to be the stumbling-block of Ameri- bined influence of certain mechanical powers thereto applied, can transporters, and the chief incentive to the efforts of the the distance of between twenty-five and forty-five miles per day, early inventors. against the current of a rapid river, notwithstanding the ve- Digitized by Google 16 UNSUCCESSFUL EARLY STEAMBOAT EXPERIMENTS. locity of the water should move at the rate of five miles the was chartered. It was accidentally run aground on an island in hour, and upwards, with the burden of ten tons on board, to be the Ohio, opposite the mouth of the Muskingum, and being brought at no greater expense than of three hands." somewhat careless in the management of their affairs the entire In a pamphlet, issued by Mr. Rumsey, he says: "In the party and all their cargo were captured by a band of hostile month of September, 1784, I exhibited the model of a boat be- Indians. They were marched overland as prisoners to Detroit, fore his Excellency, General Washington, at Bath, in Berkeley and compelled to carry some of their own confiscated property county, calculated for stemming the currents of rapid rivers over this toilsome journey. only, constructed on principles very different from my present Fitch's biographer, Mr. Thompson Westcott, states that the one (1788.) Satisfied with the experiment of her making way Indians made "up the goods in bundles, graduating the weight against a rapid stream by the force of the stream, the general according to the strength of those who were to carry them. was pleased to give me a most ample certificate of efficiency." Some of the prisoners were loaded with thirty pounds, but The most vital point of this controversy, so far as it affects Fitch, who was not robust, was only burdened with a pack the main subject under consideration, is the indication afforded weighing seven or eight pounds. The Indians themselves took of attention to the problem of devising improved methods for much heavier bundles, some of which weighed as much as moving boats up stream before projects for applying steam as sixty pounds." a motive power, and constructing steamboats, had gained a ESTIMATES OF THE COST OF UP-RIVER MOVEMENTS. tangible shape. Independent of the personal perils involved in movements THE FITCH AND RUMSEY STEAMBOATS. on western waters, the cost of making them by the primitive Whether Fitch or Rumsey was the first of Americans to at- methods was enormous. Fitch discussed this subject on several tempt to construct a steamboat, it is certain that they both occasions. In an address he prepared for publication in 1787 he said:- made vigorous efforts in or shortly after 1785 to prosecute that important undertaking; and there seems to be little doubt that Where streams constantly tend one way, great advantage Rumsey had been making experimental efforts to propel boats will accrue to inland navigation; and in particular to the up-stream by labor-saving or mechanical contrivances before Mississippi and Ohio rivers, where the God of Nature knew Fitch attempted to construct a steamboat. It is a notable their banks could never be traversed with horses, and has laid in a store of fuel on their head waters sufficient to last for the circumstance that both Fitch and Rumsey, after reaching a stage of considerable advancement in the construction of latest ages, for the very purpose of navigating their waters by a practicable craft for navigating American rivers in both di- fire; an estimate of which I beg leave to make: It takes thirty men to take a boat of 30 tons burthen from New Orleans to rections, went abroad to obtain the means to complete an in- vention which was regarded as very important by their pro- the Illinois. Their wages, provisions, taffy, and other per- gressive countrymen, because repeated trials had demonstrated quisites, cannot be estimated at less than one hundred dollars that it was impossible to gain either from private individuals, per man per trip; which must cost three thousand dollars to organized companies, or public bodies, at home, the compara- transport 30 tons to and from New Orleans to the Illinois. tively trifling sum that would have probably insured their suc- Now, I say, could I be enabled to complete the experiment, I cess. This failure to obtain the requisite pecuniary assistance will obligate myself to make a boat of 60 tons burthen, with was specially notable in the case of Fitch, in view of the fact the engines and all complete for the voyage for two thousand that he had constructed a boat propelled by steam as early as dollars; and as that could work double the hours as men at 1788, which made a successful trip between Philadelphia and oars, it could go in half the time, and transport 120 tons in the Burlington, and a few years later a considerable number of same time the other would 30 tons; which at the rate they now trips were made with entire mechanical success from points on charge, would pay for itself and clear ten thousand dollars, whilst the Delaware above and below Philadelphia. one boat could make one trip-and larger boats could be made Notwithstanding this positive proof of the utility of the general to greater advantage. It would also raise the value of land in idea advanced, and the continuance of urgent appeals, by Fitch, the western territories in proportion." for means to continue his experiments, steamboats only became Another striking estimate of the advantages or profits that could be derived from the use of steamboats on the western a practical reality on American waters about twenty years later, and then mainly through the efforts of Robert Fulton, who had waters is contained in a letter, addressed by Fitch to Robert gained much useful knowledge by a protracted sojourn in Morris, on September 20th, 1790, from which we extract the France and England which afforded opportunities for becoming following: "The great embarrassments of navigating the Mis- familiar with European efforts to utilize steam in propelling sissippi have undoubtedly prevented New Orleans from flour- boats, and who had the good fortune to find an associate able ishing in proportion to the extent of the country which must and willing to advance the requisite capital. finally traffic there. It is a noticeable fact that Robert Fulton rendered a very im- "The amazing expense of transporting back the people who portant service to the transportation interests of his native state transport the produce down that river makes it truly discour- and country, by calling attention in a very pointed manner to aging to the exporter, and a natural tendency of indolence in the value of the canal and turnpike improvements of England, the planter. From the luxuriance of the soil, the number of years before he became prominently connected with American inhabitants, it ought to be supposed that New Orleans should steamboat enterprises. The troubles which beset the unfortu- be the largest city in North America, and the greatest trade nate Fitch belong to the era following the close of the Revolu- carried on there, which, was the navigation made easy, I ap- tion; and the events connected with his career forcibly illustrate prehend, would suddenly take place. In the first place, I wish the deplorable condition of all matters relating to transporta- to state the difference between the present mode of navigation tion. Nothing could well be more suggestive than his failure and navigating those waters by steam, and make an estimate of to obtain a few thousand dollars to continue his experiments one boat, for one year, of 50 tons' burthen, and to compare it and improve his appliances, after he had constructed a steam- with Dr. Flowers', Con Barber's, and Captain Wood's certificates. boat that ran for several months consecutively, at regular in- "I suppose a steamboat of 50 tons' burthen, which would tervals, on the Delaware, without serious interruption, and the make four trips in a year to Kentucky, or the Illinois, and sup- substantial abandonment for nearly a score of years of the pose the boat to be double manned, and to reckon nothing for the boats now in use on that river. I estimate the steamboat, prosecution of the great ideas he had advanced. when complete for the voyage, to cost $2,500, but sny £1,000, MISFORTUNES OF FITCH AS A TRANSPORTER. and to keep it in perpetual repair, say, it will cost £100 per year, It is also noticeable that the disastrous results of an attempt which boat transports 200 tons per year. he made in the spring of 1782 to take a cargo of flour from The interest of the money is £60 Fort Pitt (now Pittsburgh) down the Ohio and Mississippi to The repairs 100 New Orleans with the intention of returning thence to Phila- Wages of four men, say $400 150 delphia, probably helped to give a vivid idea of the benefits Engineer, say 100 which steamboats would confer upon future navigators of these Provisions and necessaries, say 100 rivers. In company with three other adventurers, a large boat In all is £510 Digitized by Google COAL AND EMIGRANT ARKS AND RAFT. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google EARLY SUCCESSFUL STEAMBOAT OPERATIONS. 17 "For transporting 200 tons, which reduces the price to less by sails, when the wind permitted, and at other times by oars than 2s. 7d per hundred weight. and setting poles, as the state of water might require. These "To transport 200 tons, according to Dr. Flowers' estimate, vessels were constructed to carry from fifty to a hundred tons. amounts to £11,850 (provincial currency), which leaves a bal- In the best seasons, if properly managed, they could make ance in favor of the steamboat of £11,340 for one boat only for two trips between Cincinnati and New Orleans in a year. The one year, and at this day I presume that less than ten or fifteen increased quantity of cargo they carried reduced the price of boats would not do the business of that river." freight, and enabled them to transport from New Orleans to Cincinnati at from five to six dollars per hundred, which was REDUCTION OF FREIGHT CHARGES EFFECTED BY BARGES. below the average charge of carriage across the mountain. From Before the use of steamboats became common on western that time, most of the groceries and other important articles waters, however, a considerable reduction in rates was effected used in the (north-western) territory were brought up the river in the movements between points where relatively large quan- by these barges, and as the price of freight was diminishing the tities of freight were concentrated. The extent and nature of quantity of produce shipped was proportionately increased. The these reductions is indicated by the following statement of introduction of this mode of navigating the Ohio and Missis- Judge Burnett:- sippi was an epoch in the history of the west. It was viewed "The improvement in the navigation of the west and her as an improvement destined to advance both her commercial commercial operations was in the introduction of barges moved and agricultural interests." EARLY SUCCESSFUL STEAMBOAT OPERATIONS. THE ingenious and persistent efforts of John Fitch to secure came the first vessel propelled by steam to brave the perils of success of his steamboat inventions, had been the ocean. 80 unfortunate in immediate results that a member of the ROBERT FULTON PUTS STEAMBOATING ON A FIRM BASIS. American Philosophical Society, Mr. Benjamin H. Latrobe, in The first decade of the nineteenth century also witnessed the replying, on behalf of that society, to the inquiry of a society complete demonstration of the practicability of steamboat navi- in Rotterdam, what improvements had been made in the con- gation, and Robert Fulton is very honorably identified with this struction of steam engines in America, said that shortly after movement. He was much more fortunate than his predecessors the Revolution "a sort of mania began to prevail, which, in- and contemporaries in securing all the elements of success, deed, has not yet entirely subsided, for impelling boats by steam which included the requisite financial support, familiarity with engines," but he closed his communication with the announce- the mechanical devices of his predecessors, and the hope of ment that he had never "heard of an instance verified by other profit created by the grant of the exclusive right of using testimony than that of the inventor, of a speedy and agreeable steamboats for twenty years on all the waters within the ter- voyage having been performed in a steamboat of any construc- ritory or jurisdiction of New York. This right or privilege tion;" but that "there are still many very respectable and in- was vested in Robert R. Livingston in 1798, and when he be- genious men who consider the application of the steam engine came Minister to France he formed the acquaintance with to the purpose of navigation as highly important, and as very Fulton which led to their continued combination of efforts practicable, especially on the rapid waters of the Mississippi; until marked success was attained. The monopoly conferred and who would feel themselves almost offended at the expres- prevented the use of the steamboat built by Col. Stevens on the sion of an opposite opinion. And, perhaps, some of the objec- waters of the Hudson, and thus gave to Fulton's early steam- tions against it may be avoided. That founded on the expense boats a prestige they might not have fully gained if free com- and weight of the fuel may not, for some years, exist on the petition had been permitted. Mississippi, where there is a redundance of wood on the banks; But after making due allowance for all these circumstances but the cutting and loading will be almost as great an evil." the fact remains that Fulton was the first to put steamboating At that time practical and profitable steamboats were much as a business on a substantial financial basis. The grant of the nearer a tangible reality than the writer of this discouraging New York legislature required that steamboats should be con- communication imagined them to bc. The labors of the structed capable of performing journeys at the rate of four pioneers in this useful field of effort were about to produce a miles an hour. This was a common rate of speed for land rich harvest. In 1804 Oliver Evans, one of the most skillful of travel on good roads, and we have heard of one instance the early inventors of the United States; who had a better ap- in which it was the habit of a Revolutionary soldier, long preciation of the efforts of Fitch and the companies with which after turnpikes had been constructed, to attempt to make that he had been identified than most of his contemporaries, com- a uniform gait in private journeys. He carefully noted the pleted a mud-scow, or machine for cleaning out and deepening milestones and his watch. If he traveled four miles in less docks, which had in it a steam engine of the power of five than an hour his horse was immediately stopped and allowed a horses. He created an extraordinary sensation in Philadelphia breathing spell until the allotted period had expired. It was, by successfully using this engine in propelling his SCOW over therefore, considered an immense success when the speed of land as well as by water. His own description of this perform- nearly five miles an hour was steadily attained in the ance is as follows: "To show that both steam carriages and steam- boats were practicable (with my steam engine), I first put wheels FIRST IMPORTANT TRIP OF THE CLERMONT, to it, and propelled it by the engine a mile and a half, and then the first boat intended for real service which was constructed into the Schuylkill, although its weight was equal to two hun- under the partnership arrangement existing between Fulton dred barrels of flour. I then fixed a paddle-wheel at the stern, and Livingston. This voyage extended from New York to Al- and propelled it by the engine down the Schuylkill and up the bany and back to the starting point. It was made in Septem- Delaware, sixteen miles, leaving all the vessels that were under ber, 1807. Fulton's own account of it in a letter dated Septem- sail full half way behind me, the wind being ahead, although ber 15th, 1807, written a few hours after the trip was finished, the application was so temporary as to produce great friction, says:- and the flat most illy prepared for sailing done in the presence "I left New York on Monday at one o'clock, and arrived at of thousands." Clermont, the seat of Chancellor Livingston, at one o'clock on In 1804 another successful steamboat experiment was made Tuesday-time, twenty-four hours; distance, one hundred and on the Hudson by Colonel John Cox Stevens, who felt 80 much ten miles. On Wednesday, I departed from the Chancellor's at encouraged by the results that he applied his devices, in 1806, nine in the morning, and arrived at Albany at five in the after- to a pirogue, 50 feet long, 12 wide, 7 deep, which attained con- noon-distance, forty miles; time, eight hours. The run is one siderable speed. He then commenced the construction of the hundred and fifty miles in thirty-two hours, equal to near five Phoenix, a side-wheel steamer, so stoutly built that she was sent miles an hour. On Thursday, at nine o'clock in the morning, to Philadelphia from New York by sea, in 1808, and thus be- I left Albany, and arrived at the Chancellor's at six in the even- 3 Digitized by Google 18 PRIMITIVE LAND MOVEMENTS. ing. I started from thence at seven, and arrived at New York June 28th. Passed the steamboat Harriet above the Grand at four in the afternoon-time, thirty hours, space run through Cut-off, with a leaky boiler. One P. M. met the steamboat Wash- one hundred and fifty miles, equal to five miles an hour." ington, Captain Shreve, 30 miles below Chickasaw Bluffs, four From that time the practicability of having boats propelled days from the falls. Four P. M. met the steamboat Vesuvius, by steam was never doubted by intelligent men who were fa- de Hart, 18 miles below the Bluffs, three days and a half from miliar with Fulton's achievements. Many improvements were the falls. subsequently made, and speed was 80 rapidly increased that July 1st. Passed the barge Independence, fifty-five days from soon more than thirteen miles was run in an hour. Fulton New Orleans, above the Devil's Race Ground; also, passed a superintended the construction of a number of steamboats, sloop barge. including several used as ferry-boats in crossing the rivers which July 6th. About New Madrid passed a sloop barge. environ the city of New York, a steamboat intended to navi- July 8th. In the Ohio, below the Three Sisters, passed the gate the lower Mississippi, which was used by the American barge Expedition. forces about the time of the battle of New Orleans, and the first July 10th. Stopped and discharged cargo at Shawneetown. steam vessel of war ever put to practical use. July 11. Stopped and discharged cargo at Henderson. THE FIRST STEAMBOAT RUN ON WESTERN WATERS July 13th. Passed the Triton Baum, in the mouth of Sinking creek, discharging cargo. was the Enterprise, subsequently called the New Orleans, which July 14th. At 4 P. M. passed sloop barge at Big Blue river. originally was a keel-boat, constructed by the keel-boat builders Arrived at Louisville. at Marietta, but fitted up at Pittsburgh with an engine and a The writer then goes on to say that "the average of speed stern wheel, under an arrangement with Robert Fulton. It against stream of a steam vessel heavily laden is about 60 miles left Pittsburgh on its trial trip October 11th, 1811, and after- a day. A considerable number of these vessels, I believe about wards ran between New Orleans and Natchez until 1814, when 25, measuring from 50 to 400 tons burden, are now plying on it was wrecked. It was between 300 and 400 tons burden, and these rivers, generally built at Pittsburgh, or their machinery cost $40,000. prepared there." It was not until 1817 that steam navigation was fairly intro- duced upon the Mississippi and its tributaries. Previous to EARLY STEAMBOAT FREIGHT CHARGES. that year there were, according to one authority, 12 steamboats upon these waters, having an aggregate carrying capacity of Much as the early steamboats did to increase the speed of 2,235 tons. This may have been an underestimate. travel and the rapidity with which merchandise was conveyed Morris Birkbeck, an English traveler, in a book printed in between different points, they did comparatively little for some London in 1818, entitled Letters from Illinois, notes, under date years after they commenced running to materially reduce the of August 9th, 1817, from Princeton, Ind., the increasing facility cost of freight movements. This fact seems to be established of upward navigation of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers by steam, by testimony sworn to, in 1836, by Jasper Lynch, in connection and copies from the log-book of the steamer Etna, in the Louis- with a claim made by heirs of Robert Fulton for damages occa- ville Courier, which he had just received, in confirmation of an sioned by the seizure of the steamboat Vesuvius, for the use of the opinion that he had expressed at Cincinnati on the 22d day of Government at the time of the invasion of New Orleans, in 1814. June preceding, that "the upward navigation of these streams Lynch was engaged in steamboating on the Mississippi for some (the Ohio and Mississippi) is already coming under the control years after 1816, and in the sworn statement referred to above of steam, an invention which promises to be of incalculable im- he says:- portance to this new world." "On my arrival at New Orleans, in 1816, I found the following The following is the "extract from the log-book of the steam- prices of freight in steamboats on the Mississippi, established, I boat Etna, de Hart, from New Orleans to Louisville:-" believe, by the legislature of Louisiana, in 1812:- 1817, June 6th. Left New Orleans. From New Orleans to Louisville, 41 cents per pound for heavy June 12th. Arrived at Natchez. Left 15th. goods. and six cents for light; averaging five cents per pound, June 18th. Passed the barge Mary Ann, bound up, above the or per ton $112 00 gulf. From New Orleans to Natchez, three-fourths of a cent per June 19th. Passed the barge Cincinnati above the Yazoo river- pound, or $1.50 per barrel; and the same rates were charged June 20th. Passed the barge General Washington below the for all the intermediate landings-Donaldsonville 75 miles, Crow's Nest. Baton Rouge 120, &c, or per ton 15 00 June 24th. In the morning, below the Arkansas, met the From New Orleans to Louisville, passage 125 00 From New Orleans to Natchez 30 00 Franklin. And half price for passage down. June 26th. Passed the steamboat Buffalo, Captain Sturges, bound up, thirty miles below the river St. Francis. At 3 P. M. These rates continued uniform. I never received less, and met the steamboat Kentucky, seven days from the falls. they were not reduced until 1819." PRIMITIVE LAND MOVEMENTS. HOW THE HORSES HELPED THE INDIANS. THE privations ands of labors imposed upon the Indians by their themselves of these equine aids shows how highly their powers overland transportation were so severe were appreciated. The horse was to the land travel of the that the greatest physical boon they ever received from civili- Indians as helpful as the canoe to their water wanderings. He zation was the horse. His importance was graphically described could be used in the hunt, in war expeditions, and in journeys in the statement of an early explorer of Virginia that if she had from point to point. He became as much of a familiar com- but horses and kine, and were inhabited with English, no realm panion and household idol to many of the western tribes as he in christendom were comparable to it." Traces of the anxiety of had been to the Arab. The superior horses were generally re- some of the tribes living near the Atlantic coast to obtain these served for the use of the warriors, while the ponies best fitted valuable animals crop out in the reports of the colonial agents for drudgery were used in dragging the tents, household equip- who visited them, but as a rule the eastern savages were too poor age, fuel, and food from point to point, thus greatly diminishing to buy horses, and they were 80 carefully guarded that they the labors of the Indian women, and giving tangible indications could not readily be stolen. From the stock of horses brought of the origin of the name by which they were often called, of to Florida, Mexico, and California by the Spaniards a race of squaw ponies. wild horses was gradually developed, and the readiness of the It is noticeable that no instructions were necessary to teach Indians of the south-western and north-western tribes to avail the Indians how to use horses. They acquired proficiency in Digitized by Google THE PACK-HORSE OR HORSEBACK ERA. 19 this branch of civilization without the aid of government agents out exception, carried their entire load by a band around the or other representatives of the white men, and even surmounted, forehead, and never attempted to steady the load or allow its in many instances, the increased difficulty of catching and train- weight to fall upon the shoulders." ing wild horses. As riders they perform feats which only the Theoretical calculations and practical experiments show that most daring of white equestrians would attempt. On the plains, the greatest amount of efficient work can be extracted from when warriors were wounded, they were sometimes transported the average man who serves as a burden bearer, by giving him on rude stretchers, supported by two horses, a method which a load of 119 pounds, which he can move eleven miles a day. prevailed in European countries before carriages were intro- At this rate it would require more than a day and a half to duced. move a net ton one mile. By obtaining horses the savages were placed upon an equality, It will probably never be known how long the Indians lived 80 far as their requirements for transportation extended, with here under the disadvantages arising from the absence of beasts a large portion of the human race, as the principal land move- of burden, but this deprivation probably had a material influ- ments of many tribes and nations have been unaided by wheeled ence in prolonging the savage or hunter state of devel vehicles, and helped only by beasts of burden. But few, if any, There was no inducement to surplus production of any import- of the tribes who formerly roamed over the territory embraced ant description, because it could not be transported for any con- within the present limits of the United States were aided in siderable distance except at a cost far exceeding its trade value. moving persons and things by any animal before European Any rude forms of commerce that may have existed must have immigration commenced. They had no horses. Dogs could been mainly in articles of very light weight, such as wampum scarcely have been utilized to any considerable extent as they belts, or the shells out of which they were made, or peculiarly are among the Esquimaux. The rcindeer could not be pressed precious furs, robes, trinkets, weapons, and products. In a into service as they were in northern Europe, and the list of region of such wide extent that it was bounded by the two great indigenous animals embraced neither the lama, the camel, the oceans, great lakes on the northward, and a great gulf on the elephant, or an available substitute. Except in the existence south, there was not a horse or other useful beast of burden, of an unusually large number of streams navigable for light not a single wheeled vehicle, not a road (the only substitute be- craft, and of a remarkable contiguity between the points from ing narrow trails), not an artificial water-course, and no mode which great river systems converged, the aborigines of this of land travel except on foot or being carried by fellow human country were unfavorably situated with reference to natural beings. aids to transportation. It is hard to conceive of a lower state of transportation facili- ties than that which existed here, in all matters except those PRACTICAL EFFICIENCY OF HUMAN BURDEN BEARERS. connected with primitive water movements, and barbarism, All heavy articles which could not be moved on water chan- privation, frequent wars about hunting and fishing grounds, be- nels had generally to be carried, if moved at all, on the backs cause they furnished the chief means of subsistence, famines of those who wished to use them. A large portion of the human when supplies fell short, and abandonment or destruction of race has always been subjected to this sort of privation. It the weak, aged, and infirm when they were unable to accom- practically results in transforming them, for a number of pur- pany a tribe in an overland journey, were natural outgrowths poses, into beasts of burden, and this is the normal condition of the inferior methods of savage locomotion. The social and of a considerable proportion of the native Mexicans at the industrial state arising from or corresponding with this lack of present day. While the squaws were expected to perform a the great mainspring to productive labor is eloquently described full share of this sort of work, and had burthen straps to assist by Bancroft: "And man, the occupant of the soil, was wild as them, the male Indians were sometimes pressed into the same the savage scene, in harmony with the rude nature by which service. he was surrounded, a vagrant over the continent, in constant What male savages are capable of doing as burden bearers is warfare with his fellow-man; the bark of the birch his canoe; shown by a report of a recent exploration of Alaska, which strings of shells his ornaments, his record, and his coin; the states that "some 6,500 pounds were 'packed' down the moun- roots of the forest among his resources for food; his knowledge tain by less than sixty-five Indians. The whites say in architecture surpassed both in strength and durability by the that it was almost impossible to retain their footing as they skill of the beaver; bended saplings the beams of his house, the wended their way around the sides of the steep mountains. A branches and rind of trees its roof; drifts of forest leaves his misstep would have sent the unfortunate one eight to twelve couch; mats of bulrushes his protection against the winter's hundred feet in the cañons below; but notwithstanding that the cold; his religion the adoration of nature; his morals the whites were 80 cautious their Indian allies went along with ap- promptings of undisciplined instinct; disputing with wolves and parent ease-boys not yet eighteen years of age carrying 65 bears the lordship of the soil, and dividing with the squirrels pounds, and adults from 100 to 130 pounds. The Indians, with- the wild fruits with which the universal woodlands abounded." THE PACK-HORSE OR HORSEBACK ERA. THE use use of beasts of burden was confined chiefly to utilizing mon among the people of both sections was noticed in connec- as carriers of persons or property, in a large num- tion with the first organization of cavalry regiments, after the ber of the districts of the United States, during a protracted civil war commenced in 1861. At earlier periods the transpor- period after the first settlements were founded. This state tation of freight was also conducted, to a considerable extent, of things arose from the lack of good roads and convenient on the backs of horses or other animals, and in a few of the re- vehicles, and in some quarters of the country the old customs mote or wild interior districts this practice has been continued. are'still partially followed to a considerable extent. For per- The inhabitants of some of the old-world countries, after being sonal movements overland horseback riding, aside from walk- familiarized with the use of such effective carriers. as camels ing, was 80 nearly the universal resort up to the beginning of and elephants, seem to have little or no desire for further ad- the nineteenth century, that it was only a few of the wealthy vancement, and to have continued to move themselves and families that kept carriages, and stage lines had only been es- their property on the backs of these animals for many cen- tablished on a few of the most important routes. The nine- turies. But the incessant thirst for change and progress which teenth century was well advanced before it ceased to be a com- has animated the main body of the American people has ren- mon practice in many districts for young women in tolerably dered the complete dominance of a pack-horse or horseback fair circumstances to own a side-saddle, as they were expected era of relatively short duration in nearly all districts after they to be skillful riders and to make social journeys on horseback. attracted a considerable population. Pack-horse movements In the northern states the use of carriages became general at between such districts and comparatively distant settlements an earlier period than in the southern states, and a marked as could not be conveniently reached by water routes were difference in the extent to which skill as equestrians was com- continued, however, for a lengthy period; and the necessity for Digitized by Google 20 THE PACK-HORSE OR HORSEBACK ERA. employing pack animals was specially urgent in cases where late; one-half chest best white biscuit; one-half pound pepper; 1 the proposed journeys required the crossing of steep and quart white vinegar; 1 Gloucester cheese; 1 keg containing 20 lengthy mountain regions. In maintaining communication pounds good butter; 2 dozen old Madeira wine; 2 gallons Ja- between the early forts and settlements west of the Allegheny maica spirits; 1 bottle flour of mustard; 2 well-cured hams; one- mountains and the Atlantic coast pack-horses were at one time half dozen dried tongues; 6 pounds rice; 6 pounds raisins. extensively employed, and they have also been used in a num- PACK-HORSE TRADE CONDUCTED OVER THE ALLEGHENY ber of the movements made to or amidst the great mountain MOUNTAINS. chains west of the Missouri and near the Pacific coast. For a very considerable period after the Braddock expedition, PACK-HORSES USED IN THE BRADDOCK EXPEDITION. the pack-horse system continued to furnish the only available The events connected with attempts to send the ill-fated method of transportation to and from the early settlements in Braddock expedition to western Pennsylvania, in 1755, illus- south-western Pennsylvania and western Virginia. The prin- trate the transportation systems and facilities then prevailing. cipal pioneer movements in south-western Pennsylvania com- There was no road on which wagons could be moved for a menced soon after 1764. Braddock's trail, as it was called, was large part of the distance nearest Fort Duquesne. An Indian the favorite route for crossing the Allegheny mountains, but trail existed in south-western Pennsylvania, over which traders some movements were made by way of Bedford and Fort had long conducted communication with the Indians, carrying Ligonier, which was the military road to Pittsburgh. All effects their goods on pack-horses, but no attempt to enlarge the west- and household furniture were carried on horses furnished with ern portion of the trail, 80 that it could be used by wheeled pack-saddles. For a number of years after these settlements vehicles, had been made. Two of General Braddock's greatest were well established this primitive and expensive method was difficulties were, first, to induce the Pennsylvania assembly to still followed. In Doddridge's notes on the early settlements of make a wagon road, although the work consisted mainly in western Pennsylvania and Virginia he says:- cutting down a sufficient number of trees to create a narrow "The acquisition of the indispensable articles of salt, iron, passage, and, second, to obtain one hundred and fifty wagons, steel, and castings presented great difficulties to the first settlers the number considered necessary. Strenuous exertions, and of the western country. They had no stores of any kind, no practical exemplifications of the fact that British officers did salt, iron, nor iron works; nor had they money to make pur- not exhaust their vocabulary when "the army swore terribly in chases where these articles could be obtained. Peltry and furs Flanders," finally secured the cutting of the road. General were their only resources before they had time to raise cattle Braddock had by this time reached Frederick, Md., but when and horses for sale in the Atlantic states. Every family col- he was visited there by Benjamin Franklin returns of available lected what peltry and fur they could obtain throughout the wagons were brought in, and, to the surprise and mortification year for the purpose of sending them over the mountains for of the British officers, they found that only twenty-five could barter. In the fall of the year, after seeding time, every family be procured, and some of these were not in serviceable condi- formed an association with some of their neighbors, for starting tion. In the midst of the embarrassment arising from this the little caravan. A master driver was to be selected from poor return, Dr. Franklin relates that he happened to say he among them, who was to be assisted by one or more young thought it was a pity the two regiments of British troops "had men and sometimes a boy or two. The horses were fitted out not been landed in Philadelphia, as in that country about every with pack-saddles, to the latter part of which was fastened a farmer had his wagon." General Braddock then earnestly en- pair of hobbles made of hickory withs,-a bell and collar orna- treated Dr. Franklin to undertake the task of providing them, mented their necks. The bags provided for the conveyance of which he successfully accomplished by the issue of the in- the salt were filled with feed for the horses; on the journey a genious advertisement and address which have a high rank in part of this feed was left at convenient stages on the way down, the list of his famous literary productions. to support the return of the caravan. Large wallets well-filled In this advertisement he states that one hundred and fifty with bread, jerk, boiled ham, and cheese furnished provision wagons, with four horses to each wagon, and fifteen hundred for the drivers. At night, after feeding, the horses, whether saddle or pack-horses are wanted. In defining the terms he says put in pasture or turned out into the woods, were hobbled and that "there shall be paid for each wagon, with four good horses the bells were opened. The barter for salt and iron was made and a driver, fifteen shillings per diem; and for each able horse first at Baltimore; Frederick, Hagerstown, Oldtown, and Fort with a pack-saddle, or other saddle and furniture, two shillings Cumberland, in succession, became the place of exchange. per diem; and for each able horse without a saddle eighteen Each horse carried two bushels of alum salt, weighing eighty- pence per diem." The wagons and teams were to be valued, four pounds to the bushel. This, to be sure, was not a heavy and in case of their loss or destruction, in warlike operations, load for the horses, but it was enough, considering the scanty the owners were to be fairly compensated. This stipulation subsistence allowed them on the journey. The common price subsequently caused Dr. Franklin much anxiety, as many of of a bushel of alum salt, at an early period, was a good cow the wagons and teams were either captured by the French and and calf." Indians after the disastrous battle at Braddock's Field, or lost HOW WESTERN WANTS WERE FIRST SUPPLIED. during the retreat, and some of the owners commenced suits In Monnett's History of the Valley of the Mississippi he gives against him. He says: "General Shirley at length relieved me some further details than those furnished in Doddridge's Notes from this terrible situation by appointing commissioners to of the methods employed by the settlers of western Virginia examine the claims and ordering payment. They amounted and south-western Pennsylvania, about and shortly previous to to near twenty thousand pounds, which to pay would have the Revolution, to secure an exchange of their surplus products ruined me." (The sums referred to are probably Pennsylvania for salt, iron, utensils, and implements. He states that "it was currency, the pound of which was equal to $2.66} of the present customary in the western settlements of Pennsylvania and Vir- money.) ginia, from the Kanawha to the Allegheny river, every fall, for In the address issued relative to wagons and horses, their each little neighborhood of a few families to dispatch a 'cara- service is described as "light and easy, for the army will van' to the settlements east of the mountains. It con- scarce march above twelve miles per day, and the wagons and sisted of a master, two or three young men, and one or two baggage horses, as they carry those things that are absolutely boys, a few horses, with pack-saddles on their backs, stuffed necessary to the welfare of the army, must march with the army, bells on their necks, and a pair of hickory-withe hobbles at- and no faster." tached to each pack-saddle. On each pack-saddle was secured An indication of the weight horses of superior quality were a bag of shelled corn for provender on the way, to be deposited expected to carry is furnished by the statement that twenty at convenient distances for the return route. A large wallet, horses were selected as presents for officers of the British army, well filled with bread, jerked bear's meat, or boiled ham and at Dr. Franklin's suggestion, and each sent forward to the camp cheese, contained the provision for the drivers. Thus equipped, loaded with a parcel containing the following articles: Six the cavalcade set out from the wilderness east of the Ohio for pounds loaf sugar; 6 pounds Muscovado sugar; 1 pound green Baltimore, Frederick, Hagerstown, or Oldtown, in early times, tea; 1 pound Bohea tea; 6 pounds ground coffee; 6 pounds choco- and subsequently to Fort Cumberland and Manchester. Digitized by Google THE PACK-HORSE OR HORSEBACK ERA. 21 "As the places successively, in the order of their names, be- the morning. When wagons were first introduced, the carriers came the marts of the western trade, the whole amount of considered that mode of transportation an invasion of their hides and peltrics, ginseng, snake-root, and bear's grease were rights; their indignation was more excited and they manifested exchanged or bartered for salt, nails, and other articles of greater rancor than did the regular teamsters when the line of iron, and occasionally for a few pewter plates and dishes for single teams was started some thirty years ago." the table. The bartering for the settlement being finished, the caravan was ready for its retrograde march. Each horse PACK-ANIMALS IN MOUNTAINS. without 8. rider carried two bushels of salt, weighing eighty- In Captain Marcy's Prairie Traveler he says that "with a four pounds to the bushel, besides a few light articles super- train of pack-animals, properly organized and equipped, a party added. The caravan route from the Ohio river to Frederick may travel with much comfort and celerity. It is enabled to crossed the stupendous ranges of the Allegheny mountains take short cuts, and move over the country in almost any di- as they rise, mountain behind mountain, in the distant rection without regard to roads. Mountains and broken ground prospect. The path, scarcely two feet wide, and traveled by may easily be traversed, and exemption is gained from many horses in single file, roamed over hill and dale, through mount- of the troubles and detentions attendant upon the transit of ain defile, over craggy steeps, beneath impending rocks, and cumbersome wagon trains. One of the most essential requi- around points of dizzy heights, where one false step might hurl sites to the outfit of a pack-train is a good pack-saddle." He horse and rider into the abyss below. To prevent such acci- then describes and gives an illustration of a pack-saddle manu- dents, the bulky baggage was removed in passing the danger- factured in St. Louis, which he found very serviceable. He ous defiles, to secure the horse from being thrown from his says: "It is open at the top, with a light, compact, and strong scanty foothold. This route, selected by experienced woods- tree, which fits the animal's back well, and is covered with men, differed but little from that selected for turnpikes and rail- raw-hide, put on green, and drawn tight by the contraction in roads by professed engineers at a much later day. The drying. It has a leathern breast strap, breeching, and lash strap, order for the march, going and returning, was the same. The with a broad hair girth fastened in the Mexican fashion." horses, with their packs, were marched along in single file, Of the loads that can be carried he says that "one hundred the foremost led by the leader of the caravan, while each suc- and twenty-five pounds is a sufficient load for a mule on a long cessive horse was tethered to the pack-saddle of the horse be- journey." He states, however, that the Spanish Mexicans are fore him. A driver followed behind, to keep an eye upon the "cruel masters, having no mercy upon their beasts, and it is no proper adjustment of the packs, and to urge on any horse that uncommon thing for them to load their mules with the enor- was disposed to lag. In this way two men could manage a cara- mous burden of 300 or 400 pounds." van of ten or fifteen horses, each carrying about two hundred In a note on this subject, Mr. Richard F. Burton, a celebrated pounds' burden. When night came, a temporary camp and a British traveler, says: For long journeys a strong mule should camp-fire protected the weary travelers, while the horses, re- not carry more than 120 pounds, and asses about one-half." leased of their burdens, with hobbles on their feet, and their In reference to comparatively recent pack-horse movements, bell-clappers loosed, were turned loose to graze near the camp." Hall's Guide to the Great West, published in 1865, says that MORE MODERN PACK-HORSE MOVEMENTS. New Mexico furnished the greater part of the mules used by the overland emigrants to California; that they were of very At a later stage the pack-horse system was continued over large size, worth about $100 each, and would carry from 400 to nearly the same route, but from eastern terminal points in 500 pounds up the mountain with apparent ease. Pennsylvania, by common carrier organizations. Rupp's his- In the Indian substitute for the pack-horse system, desig- tory of Cumberland county, Pennsylvania, published in 1848, nated a "travail," formed by the crossing of poles, which are says:- generally the poles of a tent or tepee, the poles usually rest on "The modes of transporting or conveying produce and other a pack-saddle or pad, which a breast strap keeps from slipping articles of commerce have been, like the highways, thorough- back. fares, or public roads, much improved within the memory of many now living west of the Susquehanna. Sixty or seventy THE ADVANCE GUARD OF AMERICAN INTERNAL COMMERCE years ago five hundred pack-horses had been at one time in has almost invariably used pack-horses extensively, inasmuch Carlisle, going thence to Shippensburg, Fort Loudon, and fur- as the earliest form of trade at nearly all typical points in the ther westward, loaded with merchandise, also salt, iron, &c. United States has consisted in the exchange of liquor, arms, The pack-horses used to carry bars of iron on their backs, ammunition, kettles, and trinkets for furs, skins, or robes. As crooked over and around their bodies; barrels or kegs were the Indians receded, or were driven back from the sea-coast or hung on each side of these. Colonel Snyder, of Chambersburg, prominent settlements, it became necessary that traders should in a conversation with the writer in August, 1845, said that he push their way further and further into the interior, and in cleared many a day from $6 to $8 in crooking or bending iron seeking outposts near the hunting grounds that were constantly and shoeing horses for western carriers at the time he was becoming more and more distant from the seaboard, the pack- carrying on a blacksmith shop in the town of Chambersburg. horse furnished indispensable aid to those who wished to carry The pack-horses were generally led in divisions of 12 or 15 with them the articles coveted by the savages, and to take back horses, carrying about two hundred weight each, all going the only available products of barbaric industry. single file and being managed by two men, one going before as the leader and the other at the tail to see after the safety of the HEAVY COST OF PACK-HORSE MOVEMENTS. packs; when the bridle road passed along declivities or over Up to a recent date nearly all the interior transportation hills, the path was in some places washed out 80 deep that the movements in Mexico were conducted on donkeys or pack- packs or burdens came in contact with the ground or other mules. The customary charge was at the rate of one cent a impeding obstacles, and were frequently displaced. However, pound for twenty leagues. as the carriers usually traveled in companies, the packs were The system is necessarily SO expensive that it practically pro- soon adjusted, and no great delay occasioned. The pack horses hibits the transportation over considerable distances of all were generally furnished with bells, which were kept from ring- articles that are not of great value or prime necessity. ing during the day drive, but were let loose at night when the In Harper's Monthly for September, 1877, Edward Howland horses were set free and permitted to feed and browse. The says that in 1784 the cost of transportation by pack-horses bells were intended as guides to indicate their whereabouts in from Philadelphia to Erie was $249 a ton. Digitized by Google 22 COMMON OR COUNTRY ROADS. COMMON OR COUNTRY ROADS. THE methods of transportation heretofore described were upon some known law of this government, or an act of the gov- of a character that received little or no aid ernor and council signifying the necessity thereof, in both which from the concerted action of communities obtained by the cases a reasonable allowance shall be made." exercise of governmental authority. As material advances re- CONTRAST BETWEEN THE COLONIAL AND ROMAN ROAD SYSTEMS. quire such aid, for the improvement of the route over which vessels or vehicles are moved, we shall next consider the assist- Under these systems very little work was done, partly be- ance of this description that was first rendered-the opening, cause the Indian trails furnished the principal facilities needed construction, and repairing of country or common roads. for the limited amount of land travel attempted, and partly on account of the difficulty of providing for the payment of the EARLY COLONIAL LAWS RELATING TO ROADS. cost of any considerable amount of road-making. It was the The basis of much of the early colonial legislation relating to Roman method modified by humane considerations and regard roads was probably found in an act of the English Parliament, for popular rights. It claimed the privilege of a Caesar to lay passed during the reign of Henry VIII, which allotted to out roads and to enforce their construction, but it limited the parishes the care of the roads passing through them, appointed amount of work which any individual could be asked to per- road surveyors, and provided for enforcing the assistance of form; and by promising that he should always be paid for his laborers, and levying a road tax on land-holders. But the ap- labor, raised questions of taxation which English rulers gene- parent necessity for superior long roads was, during a protracted rally found very troublesome. The Romans, following in the period, as scant as the resources available for constructing them. footsteps of the Carthagenians, were bothered by no such The ocean furnished means of access to Europe and the West scruples. They built many roads as military necessities, and Indies, as well as a channel of communication between the dif- peremptorily demanded all the requisite aid from the people ferent colonies. Long journeys from northern to southern of subjugated provinces. Their public or high-roads were called points could be more conveniently made in vessels than by consular roads, and for the making and repair of these thorough- land, and as to western movements of considerable length, they fares the necessary cost was levied upon the owners of the lands were for many years confined chiefly to operations connected through which they passed. To enforce this requirement in- with trading with the Indians, a large proportion of which was scriptions were erected along the roadside, which showed the monopolized by the French, on account of their control of the divisions of the road, the names of the land-holders, the extent St. Lawrence, the lakes, and, to a large extent, the Ohio and of their possessions, and the duty to be levied upon them. upper Mississippi, previous to the overthrow of their authority Few, if any, good modern roads have been built anywhere, over Canada. except under a system analogous to that of the Romans, unless The earliest references of importance to highways in the re- unusual outlays of general or local governments for specific cords of the colony of the Massachusetts Bay in New England purposes were authorized, or the commercial principle was in- are embraced in a preamble and order adopted in 1639, which voked by giving to turnpike, plank-road, and bridge companies reads as follows: 'Whereas the highways in this jurisdiction the right to demand tolls. have not been laid out with such conveniency for travelers as MODIFICATIONS OF COLONIAL SYSTEMS. were fit, nor as was intended by this court, but that in some In the road-making legislation of Pennsylvania, it is notice- places they are felt too straight, and in other places travelers able that dissatisfaction with the inefficiency of the various are forced to go far about, it is therefore, ordered, that all high- methods tried crops out in occasional changes. ways shall be laid out before the next general court, 80 as may The Duke of York's law, quoted above, was modified, in be with most ease and safety for travelers; and for this end [1678, by an order of the court at Upland "that every person every town shall chose two or three men, who shall join with should within the space of two months, as far as his land two or three of the next town, and these shall have power to reaches, make good and passable ways from neighbor to lay out the highways in each town where they may be most neighbor, with bridges where it needs, to the end that neigh- convenient; and those which are 80 deputed shall have power bors on occasion may come together,-those neglecting to to lay out the highways where they may be most convenient, forfeit twenty-five guilders." notwithstanding any man's propriety, or any corno ground, 80 The primitive nature of the roads contemplated, is indicated as it occasion not the pulling down of any man's house, or by an order made a few months later in the court at New Castle, laying open any garden or orchard; and in common grounds, giving the following directions: "The highways to be cleared or where the soil is wet or miry, they shall lay out the ways as followeth, viz., the way to be made clear of standing and the wider, as six, or eight, or ten rods, or more in common lying trees, at least ten feet broad; all stumps and shrubs to be grounds." cut close by the ground. The trees marked yearly on both Additional clauses provide for the payment of damages in sides-sufficient bridges to be made and kept over all marshy, cases of extraordinary injury to improved property, and the swampy, and difficult dirty places, and whatever else shall be order concludes with the statement that "it is not intended thought more necessary about the highways aforesaid." that any person shall be charged with the repairing of the Under Penn's administration the first control of roads was highways in his own land." by the courts, which appointed overseers and fence viewers, The law relating to roads in force in Pennsylvania before that the grand jury laying out the roads; in 1692 the control of roads province was granted to William Penn Was part of the system was given to the townships. In 1700 a revision of pre-existing established for the government of New York in 1664. It inter- laws was made, and an act passed which gave the regulation of mingled provisions for road-making with all other public work, county roads to county justices, and the king's highway and and is as follows: "In all public works for the safety and de- public roads to the Governor and council. The different coun- fence of the government, or the necessary conveniences of ties were directed to provide railed bridges over streams at their bridges, highways, and common passengers, the governor or own expense and to appoint overseers of highways and viewers deputy governor and council shall send warrants to any justice, of fences. and the justices to the constable of the next town, or any other In many northern sections of the country a condition of town within that jurisdiction, to send so many laborers and things prevailed for many years analogous to that attributed to artificers as the warrant shall direct, which the constable and New Brunswick about the time of the Revolution by Cobbett: two others or more of the overseers shall forthwith execute, and "There were no roads. Communication between the settle- the constable and overseers shall have power to give such wages ments was conducted over streams and rivers, in summer in as they shall judge the work to deserve, provided that no ordi- canoes, and in winter in sleighs." nary laborer shall be compelled to work from home above one In a large portion of the south bridle paths, many of which week together. No man shall be compelled to do any public were originally Indian trails, formed the main avenues of local work or service unless the press (impressment) be grounded travel during all the early decades of the nineteenth century, Digitized by Google COMMON OR COUNTRY ROADS. 23 and in some sections the systems of road-making and repairing culiarities of their industrial, political, and commercial posi- deteriorated after the war. There are still said to be some of tion, and to the bad condition of the roads of most of the the mountain counties of southern states, which have been in- European countries from which they had emigrated. At the habited for many years, in which no roads passable with wheeled time of the Revolution there was not a good road of consider- vehicles have ever been made. able length in any part of this country, and an American work VARIATIONS IN THE CONDITION OF ROADS IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. on road-making, published in 1847, begins its preface with the Theoretically and legally there was relatively good provision declaration that the common roads of the United States are for road-making in some of the colonies, but how far such regu- inferior to those of any other civilized country." There are, lations were practically carried out depended, in a large de- even at the present time, many districts to which this criticism gree, upon the prevalent disposition of each particular district could be justly applied, notwithstanding the fact that amid the or county. One of the roads authorized by the provincial gov- superabundance of bad and indifferent roads, some counties, ernment of Pennsylvania encountered such strong local an- districts, and states possess creditable highways. Extensive tagonism that it was not completed in more than a hundred sections have made such slight expenditures for overcoming years. The roads of different states and subdivisions of each natural obstacles that when climatic conditions are unusually of the states vary greatly at the present day in their complete- unfavorable it is a common thing for the forwarding of large ness, and there were similar variations in the degree of energy quantities of agricultural staples to be delayed on account of and skill displayed in the primitive work of expanding the In- the difficulty of hauling them over the short distance between dian trails, creating new roads, and providing facilities for cross- the points of production and adjacent stations. ing deep streams. Few of the early colonists could have had a clear conception of what a good road was. Earnest attempts to construct nume- THE GENERAL CONDITION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES rous turnpikes in England were not made until the latter half up to the time of the Revolution may be summarized in the of the eighteenth century, and it was during the reign of statement that over the main portion of the territory now be- Charles II, in 1663, that the first act was passed authorizing the longing to the United States no improvement whatever had establishment of a toll, as a compensation for the expenditure been effected except in the addition of the horse to the list of required to construct a good highway. This law was not of gen- aids that might possibly be obtained; that in all important and eral application, being a local measure, operative only in three thickly-settled portions of the country a marked improvement English counties, and the new system met with 80 much in available water craft was secured by the use of ships and the antagonism that laws soon became necessary for the punish- gradual or partial substitution of batteaux and boats of various ment of travelers who evaded or refused to pay toll, and of descriptions for canoes; and that a few sections had tolerably rioters who pulled down and destroyed turnpike gates. fair common roads. Permanent bridges over streams of con- A description of a journey from Glasgow to London, made in siderable size were wholly unknown. The best substitute, at 1739, by two persons on horseback, states that they found "no points of greatest importance, such as the Schuylkill at Phila- turnpike until they arrived at Grantham, within 110 miles of delphia, were floating bridges, sustained by boats. These struc- London. Up to that point they traveled on a narrow causeway tures are of great antiquity, and, although only used generally with an unmade soft road on each side of it. They occasionally for facilitating military operations, they were also adopted as met with strings of pack-horses, from thirty to forty in a gang, bridges over rivers at or near some of the important European carrying goods. The leading horse of the troop carried a bell, towns. Land travel was almost universally on horseback. The to warn passengers coming in an opposite direction; and the present century was well advanced before traveling in carriages passengers were then compelled to make way for them, and became at all common, ladies as well as gentlemen making all pass into the road side, since the causeway did not afford room their ordinary journeys on horseback or in heavy farm wagons. for both." Americans were too practical and too ready to see that a Before the dawn of the nineteenth century there were few horse could pull much more freight than he could carry, to sections of the colonies in which the methods were any better, fail to appreciate the importance of wagons, but much as they and many sections in which they were infinitely worse than the desired the construction of roads, the use of pack-horses was contemporaneous Scotch and English facilities. In describing necessary during a protracted period, on long routes, especially them a modern English writer says that "it is scarcely a cen- on those leading through mountainous districts, and notably tury since there was nothing deserving the name of a road in the route between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh, after the com- any of the great thoroughfares of Scotland. The whole inland mercial requirements of the latter place became of sufficient trade of that country was carried on by means of pack-horses. importance to require the maintenance of methodical trans- They forded the different rivers and streams. The roads were portation connections with the seaboard. often impassable in low and wet grounds. When Lord Herward THE DIFFICULTY OF USING THE ROADS OF THE LAST CENTURY was sent, in 1760, from Ayrshire to the college at Edinburgh, during unfavorable seasons, is indicated by the fact that when the road was in such a state that servants were frequently sent members of the Pennsylvania assembly were reproached by Brit- forward with poles to sound the depths of the mosses and bogs ish authorities for not meeting promptly to make provision for which lay in their way. The mail was regularly dispatched be- wars in which their own constituents were deeply interested, tween Edinburgh and London, on horseback, and went in the one of their excuses was that the roads were so impassable that course of five or six days; but so limited was the communica- travel to the capital of the province, even on horseback, was tion between the two capitals, that during the rebellion of 1745, impossible. when an order was sent from London to open all the letters in Nevertheless the importance of roads was keenly recognized the post-office, with the view of detecting treasonable corre- by some of the leading minds of the young colonies. They spondence, there were not, in all, above twenty letters in the appreciated the significance of the Roman maxim that "the London bag. Between 1750 and 1760 a coach traveled from first step in civilization was to make roads," and they lacked London to Edinburgh in thirteen days. Subsequently the Lon- the power, rather than the will, to provide a complete system of don mail made the journey in forty-three hours and a half. inland highways. They had to contend with the general igno- The original coach between Edinburgh and Glasgow, which rance of the era, in reference to the best methods to be em- commenced running in 1765, occupied twelve hours on the ployed, the indifference or hostility of some landholders who road. A swifter vehicle was next introduced, which, on account did not wish to lose an inch of the soil they had acquired on of its great velocity, was called The Fly. It made the journey cheap and easy terms, and above all with the scarcity of labor between Edinburgh and Glasgow in ten hours. Subsequently and capital available for road making. mail coaches made this journey, regularly, in five hours. Robertson, in his rural recollections, says that the common BAD ROADS IN THE OLD WORLD AS WELL AS THE NEW WORLD. carrier from Selkirk to Edinburgh, thirty-eight miles distance, The progress of the American colonies in making roads was took two weeks for his journey between the two towns, going 80 slow during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that and returning. This road was then particularly dangerous and the small amount of work done in this direction would be a fatiguing, owing to steepness of hills, impassable bogs, an' just matter of reproach if due regard were not paid to the pe- streams." Digitized by Google 24 DEFECTIVE AMERICAN ROADS. DEFECTIVE AMERICAN ROADS. THE road-making of the colonial era was necessarily limited In 1695 letters might be forwarded eight times a year from extent and strongly marked by local characteristics. the Potomac to Philadelphia. There was no powerful and sympathetic central authority to In 1710 Parliament passed "an act for establishing a general map out great through routes, and provide ways and means for post-office for all her majesty's dominions." It provided for one constructing them, and it was only under such or similar con- chief letter office in New York, and other chief offices at con- ditions that the Romans had built the superior highways which venient places. A line of posts was established, extending from gave rise to the saying that all roads lead to Rome. So far as Piscataqua to Philadelphia, and a few years later it was ex- the British government could influence the subject while the tended southward to Williamsburg, in Virginia, with the under- colonial system existed, it preferred to perpetuate commercial standing that the post should "leave Philadelphia for the South disseveration, so that all trade might be monopolized by its own as often as letters enough were lodged to pay the expense." merchants and manufacturers, as far as possible, and a cordial Communication between Williamsburg and the Carolinas, union of the people of the thirteen colonies be prevented. which were established a few years later, were still more INDIAN TRAILS irregular. In 1717 advices from Boston to Williamsburg, in Virginia, formed the only paths by which many of the early colonists were completed in four weeks, from March to December, and reached the lands they subsequently cultivated, and the work in double that time in the other four months of the year. of constructing new roads or widening trails went on very slowly. About 1720 the post set out from Philadelphia every Friday, In some sections the custom grew up of designating roads left letters at Burlington and Perth Amboy, and arrived at New which were not passable for wheeled vehicles as "horse-ways." York on Sunday night, leaving there Monday morning on its In south-western Pennsylvania much opposition was mani- peregrinations eastward. fested to the widening of these horse-ways or bridle paths by In 1722 a Philadelphia paper states that "the New York post the owners of pack-horses, who foresaw that the creation of was three days behind his time, and not yet arrived." highways broad enough to be used by wagons would lead to In 1729 the mail between the two cities went once a week in the loss of their occupation. Their interests had gradually been summer and once a fortnight in winter, and this continued developed into considerable proportions, and they naturally until 1754, when Dr. Franklin became superintendent, and im- dreaded the progressive movement by which it was practically proved the colonial postal accommodations materially. In destroyed. Regular pack-horse enterprises had been organized October of that year notice was given that until Christmas the at Lancaster, Harrisburg, Shippensburg, Bedford, Redstone, and post would leave the two cities three times a week, at 8 o'clock Fort Pitt. One proprietor at Harris' Ferry, in 1772, employed A. M., and arrive the next day at about 5 o'clock P. M., making nearly two hundred horses and mules, and more than half that thirty-three hours. After Christmas it left each city only twice number of men. a week. In 1764, if weather permitted, the mails were to leave LAND ROUTES BETWEEN SEABOARD CITIES. every alternate day, and make the journey in less than twenty- The natural counterpart of the inferior accommodations for four hours. traveling in Scotland, and between Edinburgh and London, ex- Dr. Franklin continued to be Postmaster-General for America isting during a large portion of the last century, was to be till 1774. A year later, in 1775, the Continental Congress re- found on the roads between Philadelphia and New York. Bur- solved that a Postmaster-General be appointed for the united lington, New Jersey, was for a long time a place of considerable colonies, who should establish his office at Philadelphia, where consequence because land movements through New Jersey con- the Congress was to hold its sessions, and described the service verged at that point, and from Burlington water craft of various contemplated in a resolution, which requires "that a line of classes furnished means of communication with Philadelphia. posts be appointed, under the direction of the Postmaster-Gen- In 1707 the New Jersey assembly, in enumerating grievances eral, from Falmouth, in New England, to Savannah, in Georgia, to the colonial governor, complained that patents had been with as many cross posts as he shall think fit." granted to individuals to transport goods on the road from In 1790, seven years after the close of the Revolutionary War, Burlington to Amboy, which was one of the two highways the number of post-offices in the United States was only seventy- connecting Philadelphia and New York. The governor, in five; the aggregate length of the post-roads, only 1,875 miles; reply, defined the nature of the monopoly complained of, the amount paid for the transportation of the mails, $22,081; and the state of internal commerce at that period, by say- the gross postal revenues, $37,935, and the expenditures, $32,140. ing that great difficulty had been experienced by those who Mails were conveyed but three times a week between New wished to have goods carried over the road, and the new order York and Boston in summer, and twice in winter. The usual of things he described as follows: "At present, everybody is time consumed in forwarding them was five days. Only five sure, once a fortnight, to have an opportunity of sending any mails per week were exchanged between New York and Phila- quantity of goods, great or small, at reasonable rates, without delphia, and the time required to forward them in either direc- being in danger of imposition; and the sending of this wagon is tion was usually two days. 80 far from being a grievance or a monopoly, that by this means, LAND ROUTES BETWEEN NEW ENGLAND AND CANADA. and no other, a trade has been carried on between Philadelphia, Burlington, Amboy, and New York, which was never known In Edward Everett's address, at the Boston Railroad Jubilee before, and in all probability never would have been." A few years of 1851, he said: When Dr. Franklin, in 1754, projected a plan later Governor Cornbury, who was the author of this statement, of union for these colonies, with Philadelphia as the metropolis, was recalled, and soon after that event the road was again he gave as a reason for this part of the plan, that Philadelphia opened to competition. was situated almost half way between the extremes, and could be conveniently reached even from Portsmouth, New Hamp- COLONIAL POSTAL ROUTES. shire, in eighteen days. If a journey had been contem- Inland mail communications corresponded in tardiness with plated in the direction of Canada in Dr. Franklin's time, it travel. would have been with such feelings as a man would have now- In 1673 the first post rider between New York and Boston a-days, who was going to start for the mouth of Copper Mine made a trip in three weeks. river and the shores of the Arctic sea. But no, sir; such In 1692 Thomas Neale was appointed Postmaster-General of thing was never thought of-never dreamt of. A horrib Virginia and other parts of North America, but this appoint- derness, rivers and lakes unspanned by human ment led to no results of importance. The failure is attributed, swamps, dismal forests that it made the fle by a contemporaneous historian, to "the dispersed condition of threaded by nothing more practicable the the inhabitants." echoing with no sound more inviting Digitized S John Fitch's Second Experimental Boat, 1787. Oliver Evans' Orukter Amphibolis. Fitch's First Passenger Steamboat, 1789. Fulton's First Successful Steamboat. 2 John Fitch's First Propeller. Machinery of Fulton's Steamboat. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google DEFECTIVE AMERICAN ROADS. 25 and the war-whoop of the savage; these it was that filled the trimming the stage, in passing over some of the wretched roads in space between New England settlements and Canada. The in- America is by no means exaggerated. The driver frequently had to habitants of the British colonies never entered Canada in those call to the passengers in the stage to lean out of the carriage, first on days but as provincial troops or Indian captives; and lucky he one side, then on the other, to prevent it from oversetting in the deep ruts with which the road abounds. 'Now, gentlemen, to the right!' that got back with his scalp on." upon which the passengers all stretched their bodies half way out of THE BLAZED TRACE. the carriage to balance on that side. 'Now, gentlemen, to the left!' It is related of Daniel Boone, that in the spring of 1775, after and so Weld's Travels. the close of the Indian war, he assisted in conducting a treaty 4 Before the stage can pass one of these bridges the driver is obliged by which the savages agreed to relinquish lands south of the to stop and arrange the loose planks, of which it is composed, in the manner that best suits his ideas of safety, and as the planks are again Kentucky river. When this task was accomplished Boone pre- disturbed by the passing of the coach, the next travelers who arrive pared for introducing a colony into the new territory thus have, of course, a new arrangement to make. Mahomet, as Sale tells theoretically relieved from savage control by making a "blazed us, was at some pains to imagine a precarious kind of bridge for the trace" which is one of the most primitive forms of road making. entrance of Paradise, in order to enhance the pleasures of arrival. A After the treaty was concluded "he was the first man to ad- Virginia bridge, I think, would have answered his purpose completely. vance beyond the Cumberland Gap, and, with twenty hunters The American Annual Register for 1796, published January and woodsmen, he proceeded to open and mark a trace more 19th, 1797, gives the following description of the traveling of than two hundred miles through the wilderness to the banks of that period: "The roads from Philadelphia to Baltimore ex- the Kentucky river. This was the first blazed trace in Ken- hibit, forthe greater part of the way, an aspect of savage deso- tucky." lation. Chasms to the depth of six, eight, or ten feet occur at SIGNIFICANCE OF "PORTAGE." numerous intervals. A stage coach which left Philadelphia on Of the emigration movement of colonists of Connecticut to the 5th of February, 1796, took five days to go to Baltimore. the Wyoming valley in Pennsylvania, in 1719, it is stated that The weather for the first four days was good. The roads are in they followed an Indian path, but that having carts and oxen a fearful condition. Coaches are overturned, passengers killed they used their axes and made the first wagon road from the and horses destroyed by the overwork put upon them. In Delaware river to the north branch of the Susquehanna river. winter sometimes no stage sets out for two weeks." In constructing a road over such a route they followed a It is stated that when President John Adams and his wife, general custom, as many of the Indian trails led from one river Abigail, drove overland to the new capital at Washington, in to another, forming portages or connecting links between the November of 1800, they lost their way in the Maryland woods favorite water channels over which nearly all extensive move- between Baltimore and the Potomac. ments were conducted, and a large proportion of all the early roads served similar ends, being in fact "portages." PRIMITIVE METHODS OF CROSSING RIVERS. George Catlin gives the following description of a typical Captain Basil Hall gives a graphic description of a primitive portage movement made by the Chippeways around the Falls method of conveying horses and carriages over a river too deep of St. Anthony, after a considerable body of the tribe had con- to be forded at a point where a bridge had been carried away cluded a treaty with the Sioux: "The Chippeways struck their and no regular ferry established. The work was superintended tents by taking them down and rolling up their bark coverings, by a boy paddling in a canoe not twice his own length. He which, with their bark canoes turned up amongst their wig- first carried over the passengers entrusted to his care, one at a wams, were carried to the water's edge; and all things being time. "The next job was to ferry the baggage over; and this packed in, men, women, dogs, and all, were swiftly propelled effected, the horse was towed across by the nose; an operation by paddles to the Falls of St. Anthony, where we had to witness of some delicacy both to actors and spectators. Lastly, came the mode of passing the cataract, by making (as it is called) the the transportation of the wagon, and here all my seamanship portage, which we found to be a very curious scene; and was served only to show the hazard incurred of losing the whole done by running all their canoes into an eddy below the Fall, conveyance. If the rope, which was what we call at sea inch and as near as they could get by paddling; when all were landed and a half line, or rotten stuff, but old and much worn, had and everything taken out of the canoes and with them carried given way, as I fully expected it would, when the wagon was by the women, around the Fall, and half a mile or so above, half channel over, and nothing in sight but four or five inches where the canoes were put into the water again; and goods and of the railing above the water, we must have bivouac'd where chattels being loaded in, and all hands seated, the paddles were we were, on the left bank of the Rouge. Fortunately we suc- again put to work, and the light and bounding crafts began ceeded in dragging the carriage across, and when the fore their voyage." wheels fairly touched the bank, I thought, of course, that all In this case the land movement was only made around the our difficulties were over. But the united strength of all the falls of a single river, but thousands of trails were established party, males and females, young and old combined, could not between favorite points for launching or withdrawing canoes budge it more than a foot out of the water. I don't know what from streams or rivers located at varying distances from each we should have done had we not spied, near the landing place, other, and it was on the lines of such trails that a large number a fathom or two of chain, one end of which our active little of the existing roads were constructed. commanding officer soon tied to the carriage, and the horse ROADS OF 1800. being hitched to the other, we drew it triumphantly to land, The celebrated poet Thomas Moore gives a vivid description with a cheer which made the forest ring again." of the bad qualities of the American roads he journeyed over PRESENT LACK OF GOOD ROADS. during his visit to the United States, soon after 1800. One of An English traveler, who visited this country in 1882, in re- his poems, written during a trip in Virginia, commences thus:- counting his impressions, says: "The lack of good roads is a Dear George! though every bone is aching, general feature wherever I have been. I do not say that I saw fter the shaking I've had this week, over ruts and ridges,' no good roads in America, but they are certainly exceptional. And bridges,4 In many parts, as I before remarked, the railroad has come be- Made of a few uneasy planks, fore the road. Even in the immediate neighborhood of large In open ranks towns, sometimes even in the streets of large towns themselves, Over rivers of mud, whose names alone the road is simply a mass of mud. I do not mean merely such Would make the knees of stoutest man knock. mud as in many parts of England we are used to after rain; I Two notes, added to illustrate this text, are as follows:- mean thick, abiding mire-abiding, at least, for several months $ What Mr. Weld says of the national necessity of balancing or together." 4 Digitized by Google 26 COMMON-ROAD IMPROVEMENTS. COMMON-ROAD IMPROVEMENTS. T° a very limited extent, the work of constructing roads has able that we tried to make a good joke of them. I shall been undertaken and performed by the United States gov- not compare this evening's drive to trotting up or down a pair ernment. It furnished a few of the best roads east of the Mis- of stairs, for, in that case, there would be some kind of regularity sissippi, and opened or improved a few great highways west of in the development of the bumps, but with us there was no the Missouri. It also rendered a lasting and invaluable service wavering, no pause, and when we least expected a jolt, down in all the new states and territories by incorporating in its land we went, smack dash! crash! forging, like a ship in a head- system features which greatly facilitate the opening of roads. sea, right into a hole half a yard deep. At other times, when By making the outside boundaries of each section of land avail- an ominous break in the road seemed to indicate the coming able for a continuous road, highways many miles in length can mischief, and we clung, grinning like grim death, to the rail- be opened without raising intricate questions relating to dam- ing at the sides of the wagon, expecting a concussion which in ages, and the propriety of exercising the right of eminent do- the next instant was to dislocate half the joints in our bodies, main; and when deflections from a straight line are necessi- down we sank into a bed of mud, as softly as if the bottom and tated by swamps or other obstructions there is usually little sides had been padded for our express accommodation." difficulty in procuring the consent of parties to the appropriate Bad as corduroy roads are they represent an important style modifications of routes. There is such a strong natural pro- of improvement, as they embodied in a number of sections the clivity among many farmers to an avoidance of roads through first serious effort to render roads passable by stage coaches. their farms that it was formerly common in some of the older When they were first introduced on leading routes it became states to construct roads between important points around necessary to fill up chuck holes, and in marshy places roads farms, rather than through them, even when the shape of the were supported by corduroy, consisting of logs or saplings laid environed estates was irregular, and thus travelers and trans- close together and across the road. The great end gained by porters were often subjected to a serious loss of time and in- this expedient was the avoidance of the pre-existing necessity convenience, occasioned by a motive which has been elimi- imposed on travelers of getting out of the coach and helping nated, to a great extent, from the regions which originally to pry it out of the mud. In lieu of this annoyance travelers formed part of the public domain of the United States. were subjected to the dangers and discomfort inseparable from In some of the states in which road-making received the an exceedingly rough road,-so rough that they were rattled most liberal governmental aid it was rendered from three about like peas in a gourd, and the coach was occasionally sources, viz., the commonwealth, the counties, and the town- upset. ships, and three classes of roads, known as state, county, and THE SYSTEMS OF REPAIRING ROADS township roads, were created. This road system and many of are in many sections even more imperfect than the provisions these roads have been growing worse instead of better, partly for opening and constructing them. An article on country because substitutes have been provided. Making due allowance roads, published in the Agricultural Report for 1866, in describ- for the superior and unusual excellence of the roads of a com- ing the system of repairs then prevailing in Massachusetts and paratively few localities, especially those embraced in or adja- many other sections of the United States, says: 'No one who jacent to cities, and for the relatively good condition of roads has once witnessed the process of 'mending the roads' in a constructed on routes favored by the natural characteristics of small New England country town needs any argument to con- the soil and climate, such as gravel roads or roads over the vince him that a system more ingeniously devised to accom- plains, it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that, notwithstand- plish nothing was never invented. The surveyors, in the first ing all that has been done by a few classes of governmental au- place, are usually elected at the town meetings, and, as the thorities, nearly all the excellent roads of the country have office of surveyor is of no pecuniary profit beyond mere day been built by companies as corporate enterprises. wages, persons of peculiar skill, could such be found, would not CORDUROY ROADS. usually accept it. In fact, the farmers of the district take their In a sketch of the Civil Engineering of America, by David turns in the office, any respectable man being deemed fully Stevenson, printed in London in 1838, the following description competent. Often some citizen who lives on a road out of re- of the roads in 1837 from Pittsburgh to Erie occurs:- pair seeks the office, and is elected, and takes the opportunity "On the road leading from Pittsburgh on the Ohio to the to expend most of the tax on his own road, leaving the rest of town of Erie on the lake of that name, I saw all the varieties the district to be attended to in future. The surveyor selects, of forest-road making in great perfection. Sometimes our road not the season when repairs are most needed, but that which is lay for miles through extensive marshes, which we crossed by most convenient to himself and his brother farmers, after their corduroy roads, formed of trees cut in lengths of about ten or spring work is done, or after harvesting, and notifies every per- twelve feet, and laid close to each other across the road to pre- son assessed to come and work out his tax. As the citizens, in vent the vehicles from sinking; at others the coach stuck fast town meeting, fix the prices to be allowed for the labor of men in the mud, from which it could be extricated only by the and animals in thus working out the taxes, it is usually fixed combined efforts of the coachman and passengers, and at one at the highest prices the best men and teams could command, place we traveled for upwards of a quarter of a mile through and often much higher, every voter who intends to 'work out a forest flooded with water, which stood to the height of several his tax' having a direct interest to fix a high price, and they feet on many of the trees, and occasionally covered the naves constitute a large majority in town meeting. of the coach wheels. The distance of the route from Pittsburgh "The time appointed for 'working out the highway tax,' as to Erie is 128 miles, which was accomplished in 46 hours, being it is rightly termed, arrives, and at 8 A. M. a motley assemblage at the very slow rate of 21 miles an hour, although the convey- gathers, of decrepit old men, each with a garden hoe ance by which I traveled carried the mail and stopped only for shoulder; of pale, thin mechanics, from their shoe shor breakfast, dinner, and tea, but there was considerable delay with worn-out shovels; half-gro ent by their caused by the coach being once upset and several times mired." who, perhaps, are widows, wi loctor, th Captain Basil Hall, in describing one of the primitive high- and even the minister, all 0 that we ways of Canada, which is unfortunately only a duplicate of the road does not mean h many still existing in the United States, says: "The horrible farmers bring their steers, corduroy roads again made their appearance in a more formida- in the lead, with a cart, an ble shape, by the addition of deep, inky holes, which almost rickety horse-cart and the 1 swallowed up the fore wheels of the wagon and bathed its to do his part. The only effe hinder axle-tree. The jogging and plunging to which we were of two or three yokes of oxen now exposed, and the occasional bang when the vehicle reached the surveyor with the bottom of one of these abysses, were 80 new and remark- time is of too muc' Digitized by Google ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF ROAD IMPROVEMENTS. 27 road. Here is the surveyor, who never held the office before, on their tools and listen. The youngsters amuse themselves by and who knows nothing of road-making or of directing a gang all sorts of practical jokes, among which is the favorite one of of hands. The work must go on in some way. The roads are overloading the carts, when carts are used, 80 as to stall the soft and full of ruts, or rough with protruding stones. The teams." stones must be covered, and the road rounded up into shape. CAUSES OF PROCRASTINATION. The cattle are all put to the big town plough, which is set in at It is difficult, at the present day, to form a conception of the the side of the road. The boys ride on the beam, and the tardiness with which approximately good and passable roads drivers put on the lash, and the gutters, half filled with the were made during the colonial era, and at much later periods. sand and soil and leaves of a dozen seasons, are ploughed up, Among the other causes for procrastination were the wars in the shovel and hoe men waiting very patiently for their turn to which the colonists were involved with the Indians and the work. The teams then stand idle, and this mixture, more fit French; the drain on the resources produced by the Revolution for the compost heap than anything else, is thrown upon the and conflicts which preceded it; and the expense of Indian road, and finally leveled and smoothed by the old men with wars and the second war with Great Britain. Such disturbing their hoes, and thus the road is mended. This is not an ex- events greatly retarded projects for the construction of bridges, aggerated picture of working on the road in many small towns. canals, and turnpikes, which were proposed by progressive men The occasion is regarded rather as a frolic than as serious labor. in some of the states during the third quarter of the eighteenth The old men tell stories to an audience always ready to lean century. ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF ROAD IMPROVEMENTS. THE inferiority of the colonial and many of the present was $11 per one hundred pounds. The latter rate is equivalent common roads, as compared with modern standards, is to $220 per ton for a distance of a little more than three hun- reflected in the length of time required to perform ordinary dred miles, or nearly seventy cents per ton per mile. The rate journeys or to conduct freight movements, and the limited during favorable seasons was much lower, and the high figures amount of internal trade. The difference between the cost of given illustrate the extra cost necessitated by the danger of de- pack-horse transportation, and the cost of movements in lays and interuptions. One of the perils to be encountered was wheeled vehicles over reasonably good roads is 80 great, that a snow storm on the Allegheny mountains, which would tem- although the Conestoga wagon is now looked upon as a vener- porarily render the roads impassable. In towns and cities lo- able type of antiquity, tardiness, and onerous expense, it was cated in Rocky mountain districts, dependent for supplies upon an improvement on pre-existing appliances of scarcely less im- distant regions, prices for indispensable articles sometimes ran portance than that represented by the early railways. The up nearly to famine rates before railways were constructed, be- strong pack-horses of Scotland usually carried three hundred cause communications with the outside world were cut off at pounds. With a cart, on inferior roads, one horse could haul unexpectedly early periods in the fall, or the reopening of trade five or six hundred weight. By material improvements in channels postponed later than usual in the spring. roads, it became practical to increase the load of a cart-horse For some purposes, such as the furnishing of supplies for to eight or ten hundred weight. By making first-rate roads the forts in remote interior districts, wagon transportation over ordinary load of a cart-horse became sixteen hundred weight, long routes were indispensable, regardless of cost, and figures and on some good roads a strong horse was able to carry more relating to these movements furnish some of the most reliable than a ton. This seven-fold increase in the power of the horse data attainable in regard to the prices that have been paid in represents a corresponding increase in the areas over which this country for such service. As the possibility of Indian bulky freight could be economically moved, in the incentives attacks was intermingled with other risks and dangers, the sums to production, and the development of national and individual paid were sometimes probably enhanced by this additional wealth. The general law governing this subject is well stated peril. The miscellaneous statements appended will enable by an English writer, who says: "Around every market-place the intelligent reader to make due allowance for this peculiar you may suppose a number of concentric circles to be drawn, circumstance, and to form an approximately correct estimate within each of which certain articles become marketable, of the cost of transporting freight over inferior roads, and the which were not SO before, and thus become the source of extent to which improvements in roads reduce the cost of wealth and prosperity to many individuals. Diminish the ex- freight movements. pense of carriage but one farthing, and you widen the circles, COST OF MOVEMENTS IN NORTHERN AND NORTH-WESTERN STATES. you form as it were a new creation, not only of stones and earth, and trees and plants, but of men also, and what is more, The introduction to Poor's Manual for 1881 says that about of industry and happiness." the beginning of this century freight designed for Lake Erie and the west was transported over a route leading from Lake COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON INFERIOR ROADS IN TIME, WEAR AND Ontario, and that from the mouth of Niagara river to the head TEAR, AND MONEY. of the Falls, was a portage of 28 miles. The charge for trans- The cost of transportation on inferior roads necessarily varies, porting a bushel of salt for this distance, according to the re- to a great extent, with the degree and nature of their imperfec- port made by Mr. Geddes, in 1809, was 75 cents; and for a ton tions, the character of the vehicles used, and the prevailing cli- of general merchandise, $10. This was at the rate of 354 cents matic influences. Over many routes specially unfavorable sea- per ton per mile. sons create a practical blockade, which may be of considerable It is stated that previous to 1824 the cost of transporting a duration. Snow storms, floods, freshets, heavy rains, freezing ton of merchandise between Buffalo and New York, over earth and thawing may all greatly impede and sometimes absolutely roads, was $100, and the time consumed was twenty days. prevent movements which can be made during favorable epochs Eagle's History of Pennsylvania, in describing the condition with comparative ease and cheapness. The freight charges for of the settlements west of the Alleghenies cites Dr. Carnahan transportation over poor roads fluctuates from a prohibitory as authority for this statement: "For several years after the standard, or a state of things in which goods cannot be moved peace of 1783, there was nothing but a horse-path over the at any price, through many intervening grades, but the lowest mountains; so that salt, iron, powder, lead, and other necessary rates attainable are too high to render it possible to move cheap articles had to be carried on pack-horses from Philadelphia to and bulky articles over considerable distances without incurring Pittsburgh. As late as 1794, the year of the insurrection, 80 an expenditure greater than their usual market value in im- bad that freight in wagons cost from five to ten portant competitive markets. A gentleman informed the writer do da; salt sold for five dollars a bushel; that in the spring of 1821 he paid $8 per hundred pounds for ir twenty cents per pound in Pitts- carrying barrels of mackerel from Philadelphia to Somerset, bt and that at that time the rate from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh ited States in 1852 that "the Digitized by Google 28 ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF ROAD IMPROVEMENTS. average price for transporting by teams in this country a From August to December, inclusive (5 months), $2.16} per 100 bushel of wheat or corn, or 50 pounds of merchandise, 50 pounds per 100 miles. miles, has been about 20 cents, and 40 cents for 100 miles, The average being $1.79 per 100 pounds per 100 miles, or 35 A cents equal to about 15 cents per ton per milo for grain, or $15 per per ton per mile. 100 miles, and 18 cents per mile, or $18 per 100 miles, for the "The rates at which Government has made its contracts for transporting of a ton of merchandise." wagon transportation to New Mexico for 1868-9 are:- In a memorial addressed by presidents of Chicago and From April to November, $1.29 per 100 pounds per 100 miles. North-western and Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, to Wis- For November, $1.75 per 100 pounds per 100 miles. consin legislature, in 1875, they say: "When the states of Mary- From December, 1868, to April, 1869, $2 per 100 pounds per 100 land, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New York entered upon the miles. construction of their canals, a ton of freight could not be car- The average being $1.42 per 100 pounds per 100 miles, or 28,10 cents ried over an ordinary highway for less than ten cents a mile, per ton per mile." even when the highway was in the best condition; while over This letter also stated that "the lowest rates paid by the the country roads, new, as many in this state (Wisconsin) are United States for wagon transportation, under its contracts, with rocky hills and soft, deep soil in the bottom lands, the cost since 1864, inclusive, being the summer or lowest rates, are as averaged 20 cents per ton a mile." follows: 1865, $2.05; 1866, $1.38; 1867, $1.28; 1868, $1.29." In 1865 operations of ox trains sent west from Atchison and COST OF WAGON MOVEMENTS IN SOUTHERN AND SOUTH-WESTERN other Missouri river points to Denver and various plains and STATES. mountain places and forts were as follows: A regular freight In Henry C. Carey's Harmony of Interests, he says, in refer- train, fully equipped, consisted of twenty-six wagons, capable ence to the transportation of cotton in Mississippi before a rail- of hauling 6,000 pounds of freight each (which was the ordi- way was constructed, that he obtained from Skinner's Journal nary load), and each team was drawn by six yoke of oxen, of Agriculture the following statement from one who furnished making 312 oxen to each full train. There were trains double it as the result of his personal observation: "Of the expense of this size, many much smaller, and numerous emigrant parties. this first movement, some idea may be formed by those who At times, during 1865, it was estimated that there were more have seen cotton coming over dreadful roads, up to the hub, than thirteen thousand wagons on the road. In the spring of dragged slowly along 20, 30, or 40 miles, as we have seen it that year freights were about twelve cents a pound from Atchi- coming into Natchez and Vicksburg, hauled by five yoke of son to Denver, and fifteen cents to the mountains beyond. In oxen carrying 2,800 to 3,000 pounds, and 80 slowly that motion the fall of 1865 freights were about 10 cents per pound to Denver was scarcely perceptible. So many perish in the yoke in winter and 12} cents to the mountains. This is at the rate of about and spring that it has been said, with some exaggeration, that 38 cents per ton per mile, but some allowance should be made you might walk on dead oxen from Jackson to Vicksburg. for depreciation in the currency, legal tenders then being con- This was before the railroad was made. A wagon was loaded up, siderably below par. say 14 miles from Natchez, and started at night, and reaches Rates by ox teams in summer to Denver in 1860 were from there in time to get back the next night time enough to 'load 10 to 121 cents per pound; in 1861, from 8 to 10 cents per up.' Thus ten oxen have been wearing and tearing on the pound; in 1864, from 6 to 7 cents per pound; and the general road for 24 hours to make one load." Mr. Carey adds: "Here price was 1 cent per pound per hundred miles till the railroad we have five yoke of oxen transporting 3,000 pounds a day, a was built. At this same time in winter Denver merchants distance of only 14 miles," and in an estimate of the outlay re- paid 25 cents for freight by mule teams. Time from Omaha to quired for the movement he fixes the average cost of wagons at Denver, 40 to 60 days by cattle trains. To Salt Lake in 1860 $80 and of oxen at $40. the rate was 25 to 30 cents, and the time about six months. Olmstead's Texas Journey, describing a trip through the ap- Hall's Guide to the Great West, published in 1865, says: The proaches to eastern Texas, about 1856, says: "We met, in the following items in regard to the condition of the roads leading course of the day, numerous cotton wagons, two or three some- from the Missouri river to Fort Kearney are published in the times together, drawn by three or four pairs of mules or oxen, Omaha City Republican of July 21st. They are worthy of an going slowly on toward Natchitoches or Grand Ecore, each man- attentive perusal:- aged by its negro driver. The load is commonly five bales, of "The roads north and south of the Platte are equally safe or 400 pounds each, and the cotton comes in this tedious way, over dangerous. Military posts are established on the south roads execrable roads, distances of 100 and even 150 miles. It is usu- from Big Sandy to Kearney, and the northern road is protected ally hauled from the eastern tier of Texas counties to the Sa- by military stations from Columbus to Kearney, besides ad- bine, but this year there had been no rise of water in the rivers, vanced cavalry posts at Pawnee Reserve, Wood river, and Loup and from all this region it must be carried to Red river. The Fork, over which stream a good ferry is running. The Platte distance from the Sabine is here about fifty miles, and the cost can be forded opposite Kearney. of this transportation is about one cent a pound; the freight "Trains going west from Kearney are required to form in from Grand Ecore to New Orleans, from one to one and a quar- companies of fifty armed men, and must select one of their ter cents." number to act as captain, under whose control the train re- COST OF WAGON MOVEMENTS ON THE PLAINS. mains until it reaches its destination. It is advisable to form In a report of a committee of the House of Representatives of companies in the towns on the Missouri, as this precaution the United States, dated May 25th, 1868, in regard to the Kansas gives greater security to the trains, and avoids unnecessary de- Pacific Railroad, they say that "there are three regiments of lay and expense at Kearney City. troops in New Mexico (two of infantry and one of cavalry), "Small bands of Indians are hovering along the roads, await- nearly all the supplies for which are wagoned from the end of ing a chance to plunder single wagons or small trains, ns they the Kansas Pacific Railway at a cost of $1.28 per 100 pounds have recently done on the South Platte road. The Pawnee In- per 100 miles This is at the rate of $25.60 per ton of 2,000 dians, whose reserve is on the north side of the Platte, are sup- pounds per 100 miles, or 25 10 cents per ton per mile." The posed to have committed these depredations; therefore, the authority for this statement is a letter written by D. H. Rucker, military commanders at Big Sandy and Columbus have instruc- Acting Quartermaster-General, to W. J. Palmer, treasurer of tions to halt all trains at these stations until they number twenty the Kansas Pacific, dated June 6th, 1868, which shows that the armed men. At Fort Kearney, when the fifty armed men have rate named above was considerably below the average rates, as selected their leader, his appointment will be approved by the will be seen by the following extracts, referring to route No. 2 post commander. At Brownsville, Nebraska City, Plattsmouth, on the road towards New Mexico, over which the railway was and Omaha subaltern officers are stationed, who will give all then being built:- information regarding western travel that may be needed by "The rates paid by Government for wagon transportation on the emigrant or freighter. These, at present, are the military said route in 1867 were as follows:- regulations, and we give them for the benefit of those directly From April to July 8th, $1.28 per 100 pounds per 100 miles. interested." From July 8th to July 31st, $1.56} per 100 pounds per 100 miles. Of the journey to Colorado from Missouri river towns in 1865 Digitized by Google COMMENCEMENT OF THE TURNPIKE AND BRIDGE ERA. 29 Hall's Guide to the Great West said: 'Emigrants with good ox taken, provided it is fed out daily to the team. When grass teams will make the distance in from 30 to 40 days. Parties of constitutes the only forage 2,000 pounds is deemed a sufficient 25, 50, or 100 emigrants, by clubbing together, can provide the load. I regard our Government wagons as unnecessarily heavy necessary outfits at reduced rates, and cross the plains at an for six mules. There is sufficient material in them to sustain a expense, it is said, not exceeding $25 to $35." burden of 4,000 pounds, but they are seldom loaded with more In giving advice as to such journeys, the Guide says: "As to than half that weight." a team, for many reasons the ox is preferable, first, because a The probable duration of an overland journey in trains from team of oxen is cheaper than horses or mules; secondly, be- the Missouri river to California, after the routes had been well cause they require less feed and attention, and lastly, because established, was estimated at about 110 days. they seldom stray, and are, therefore, not as liable to be stolen Captain Mullan, of the United States army, in a report re- or stampeded by the Indians as horses or mules. As to a wagon, lating to one of the national highways he constructed, says:- I advise you not to purchase an expensive one. A common "Thus ended my work in the field, costing seven years of lumber wagon, such as a farmer would select to do his ordinary close and arduous attention, exploring and opening up a road farm work, is the most suitable. It should be of the of 624 miles from the Columbia to the Missouri river, at a cost best seasoned lumber, and put together firmly, 80 as to stand of $230,000. Our road involved 120 miles of difficult the drought of the plains, and should be covered with canvas, timber cutting, 25 feet broad, and 30 measured miles of exca- and lined overhead with oil-cloth, so that there will be full pro- vation, 15 to 20 feet wide. The remainder was either through tection in stormy weather." an open, timbered country, or over open, rolling prairie." He thinks a reasonable time for the journey, would be, "allowing MOVEMENTS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. eighteen days for delays, contingencies, and recruiting animals, Captain Marcy's Prairie Traveler, describing overland routes forty-five days, with loaded wagons; or thirty-five days if you to California and Oregon before continental railways were con- are traveling with pack animals." structed, says:- In the early years of the nineteenth century it took Lewis "Wagons with six mules should never, on a long journey and Clarke, the celebrated explorers, two years and a half to over the prairies, be loaded with over 2,000 pounds, unless travel from the Mississippi to the mouth of the Columbia river grain is transported, when an additional 1,000 pounds may bee and return. COMMENCEMENT OF THE TURNPIKE AND BRIDGE ERA. THE first advance in American internal transportation sys- during the early part of the present century, until the turnpike of considerable significance, beyond the slow and system of Pennsylvania extended throughout the entire length gradual improvement of local roads, was derived from the con- of the commonwealth from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, and struction of turnpikes and bridges, by companies, whose capital west of that city to Ohio, and to penetrate many other portions was in some instances partly derived from state or county of the state. In New York, New Jersey, New England, and all subscriptions, and in others wholly from individuals. The other progressive regions corresponding movements were made. general state of affairs at the beginning of the nineteenth cen- But about the commencement of the century the only turn- tury may be summed up in the statement that attempts to pike then finished in Pennsylvania was the Philadelphia and construct and operate steamboats had been so unfortunate in Lancaster, and the only other turnpike company then chartered their immediate results that they were practically abandoned; in Pennsylvania was the Lancaster and Susquehanna, which some money had been expended on projects for improving the was commenced in 1801 and finished in 1803. It was practi- navigation of internal rivers without conferring any lasting and cally an extension of the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turn- extensive benefit; a few canals had been commenced, but no pike to the Susquehanna river at Columbia. such works of considerable length or importance had been ECONOMIC EFFECT OF TURNPIKES. completed; and experience seemed to indicate that the best if not the only practicable method for effecting important im- Although the great utility of turnpikes in reducing the cost provements was to enlist private capital by the hope that the of freight movements had at that period been well tested in revenue derived from tolls would render turnpikes and bridges England, either the lack of capital or want of confidence in the over important rivers remunerative investments. In 1792 the earning value of the stock of turnpike and bridge companies legislature of Pennsylvania appointed a body of commissioners rendered it difficult to procure the means necessary to con- to make an artificial road from Philadelphia to Lancaster, and struct these roads as rapidly as they were desired by many com- this initial step and-the formation of a turnpike company led munities. to the construction of the first extensive turnpike in the United The relative advantages of canals and turnpikes was dis- States. The distance from the Schuylkill river along this road cussed. Some of the figures and estimates given in connection to Lancaster is sixty-two miles and a quarter. with the various schemes suggested throw an interesting light The capital of the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike Com- upon the views then prevalent in reference to the vital subject pany was $360,000, but this sum being found insufficient, it be- of cost of transportation. One of the great points gained by came necessary to apply a considerable portion of the tolls to turnpikes was the establishment of much easier grades than the completion of the work, and a precedent was thus estab- those common on ordinary roads, and the other end promoted lished for the custom, which subsequently became common was the creation of a relatively hard and smooth surface. The among American railroad companies, of using a portion of net theories bearing on the effect of these improvements have been earnings to finish or improve their lines. Another adjunct of summarized as follows: It is found that upon a slope of 1 in 44, the turnpike movement was the grant by the legislature of or 120 feet to the mile, a horse can draw only three-fourths as Pennsylvania, in 1798, to Mr. Abraham Witmer, of the right to much as he can upon a level; on a slope of 1 in 24, or 220 feet erect as his private property the bridge over the Conestoga, to the mile, only half as much; and on a slope of 1 in 10, or 528 near Lancaster, which formed part of the line of the turnpike, feet to the mile, only one-fourth as much; but these proportions and the incorporation, in the same year, of a company author- vary with the condition of the road, the grade being virtually ized to build a bridge over the Schuylkill river at Market street, increased by its softness. The greatest estimated inclination by which direct and convenient entrance into the city of Phila- down which horses can safely trot is 1 in 60 on roads paved delphia from the eastern terminus of the turnpike was ob- with blocks; 1 in 35 or 40 on macadamized roads; and 1 in 15 tained. It is stated that the expense of this bridge was $300,000, on gravel or dirt roads. and at the time of its completion, in 1801, it was the most im- TOLLS AUTHORIZED ON TURNPIKES. portant work of the kind in the United States. Its length was The act incorporating the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turn- 750 feet, and width 42 feet. pike Company was approved April 9th, 1792. It was entitled The turnpike improvements continued to expand rapidly "An act to enable the Governor of this commonwealth to in- Digitized by Google 30 COMMENCEMENT OF THE TURNPIKE AND BRIDGE ERA. corporate a company for making an artificial road from the nia senate on March 23d, 1822, which gives the results of an city of Philadelphia to the borough of Lancaster." The pre- elaborate investigation. It stated that the length of the turn- amble is as follows: "Whereas, the great quantity of heavy pike roads for which charters had been granted was 2,521 miles, articles, of the growth and produce of the country, and of for- of which 1,807 had been completed. To the capital of these eign goods, which are daily transported between the city of companies individuals had subscribed $4,158,347, and the com- Philadelphia and the western centres of the state, requires an monwealth had subscribed $1,861,542. An estimate of the debts amendment of the highway, which can only be effected by arti- incurred, added to the subscriptions, made the total cost of the ficial beds of stone and gravel, disposed in such manner as to turnpikes $6,401,474. For the construction of bridges $1,629,200 prevent the wheels of carriages from cutting into the soil, the of stock had been subscribed by individuals, and $882,000 by expenses whereof will be great, and it is reasonable that those the commonwealth, and these sums added to estimated amount who will enjoy the benefits of such highway should pay a com- of debts made the total sum contributed to the construction of pensation therefor, and there is reason to believe that such bridges $2,051,795. To navigation companies the report stated highway will be undertaken by an association of citizens, if that individuals had subscribed $1,416,610, the commonwealth proper encouragement be given by the legislature," &c. had subscribed $130,000, the cost of the works at the two Cone- The enacting clauses, which follow, embrace a section relat- wago canals was estimated at $220,000, the estimated expendi- ing to tolls, which authorizes the company "to appoint such ture on the Lehigh by White & Co. was $150,000, 80 that, exclu- and 80 many toll-gatherers as they shall think proper, to col- sive of the expenditures made by the Schuylkill and Susque- lect and receive from all and every person and persons using hanna, and Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation companies, the said road the tolls and rates hereinafter mentioned, and to the appropriations to this branch of internal improvement were stop any person, riding, leading, or driving any horses, cattle, estimated at $1,916,510, and the entire outlay for turnpikes, hogs, sheep, sulkey, chair, chaise, phaeton, cart, waggon, wain, bridges, and navigation companies (exclusive of the three com- sleigh, sled, or other carriage of burthen or pleasure, from pass- panies just named) was estimated at $10,369,779. ing through the said gates or turnpikes, until they shall respect- In reference to the districts traversed by the turnpikes then ively have paid the same; that is to say, for every space of ten completed or in course of construction the report said: Suffice miles in length of the said road the following sums of money, it for the present to say, that when the works now in progress and 80 in proportion for any greater or lesser distance, or for shall be completed there will be two complete stone roads run- any greater or lesser number of sheep, hogs, or cattle, viz.: For ning from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, 300 miles each in length, every score of sheep, one-eighth of a dollar; for every score of one of which is already finished. One continued road from hogs, one-eighth of a dollar; for every score of cattle, one-quar- Philadelphia to the town of Eric, on the lake of that name, ter of a dollar; for every horse and his rider, or led horse, one- passing through Sunbury, Bellefonte, Phillipsburg, Franklin, sixteenth of a dollar; for every sulkey, chair, or chaise, with one and Meadville. Two roads having but a few miles of turnpike horse and two wheels, one-eighth of a dollar; for every chariot, deficient, from Philadelphia, one to the New York state line, in coach, stage-waggon, phaeton, or chaise, with two horses and Bradford county, passing through Berwick, and one to the four wheels, one-quarter of a dollar; for either of the carriages northern part of the state, in Susquehanna county, passing last mentioned, with four horses. three-eighths of a dollar; for through Bethlehem. One continued road from Pittsburgh to every other carriage of pleasure, under whatever name it may Erie, passing through Butler, Mercer, Meadville, and Waterford. go, the like sums, according to the number of wheels and horses The report claimed that when these lines were all completed drawing the same; for every cart or waggon, whose wheels do "the northern, north-western, and western sections of the state not exceed the breadth of four inches, one-eighth of a dollar for will then be connected with the metropolis, and afford facilities each horse drawing the same; for every cart or waggon, whose for traveling and transportation, unequalled as to extent in the wheels shall exceed in breadth four inches, and not exceed United States." seven inches, one-sixteenth of a dollar for every horse drawing These satisfactory announcements were, however, accom- the same; for every cart or waggon, the breadth of whose wheels panied with the statement that many of the new turnpikes had shall be more than seven inches, and not more than ten inches, been constructed in a very imperfect manner, and an intima- or, being of the breadth of seven, shall roll more than ten tion that it was doubtful whether the best methods had been inches, five cents for every horse drawing the same; for every adopted in any instance. The report said: "The art of making cart or waggon, the breadth of whose wheels shall be more than artificial roads is in its infancy in our country, and it behooves ten inches, and not exceed twelve inches, or, being ten inches, us, as we value our prosperity, to use every means within our shall roll more than fifteen inches, three cents for every horse reach to profit by the lights and experience of those who un- drawing the same; for every cart or waggon, the breadth of derstand the subject better than ourselves. The construction whose wheels shall be more than twelve inches, two cents for of stone and other artificial roads is a science which few men every horse drawing the same." understand, and yet which few men hesitate to undertake, and In addition to the discrimination in tolls favorable to broad- it is no doubt from a want of ordinary skill in preparing and wheeled wagons, the act of incorporation provided that no applying the materials of which our roads are composed, and wagon or other carriage with four wheels, the breadth of whose in shaping their surface, and of ordinary judgment in the ap- wheels shall not be four inches, shall be drawn along the said plication of labor, that most of our roads have been constructed road between the first day of December and the first day of 80 expensively, and some of them so badly." The report then May following, in any year or years, with a greater weight refers to information the committee had gleaned from a small thereon than two and one-half tons, or with more than three English publication, entitled "McAdam on Roads," indicating tons during the rest of the year." Another clause declared that a superior system of road-making had been successfully that "no greater weight than seven tons shall be drawn along adopted through his labors. the said road in any carriage whatever, between the said first Of the turnpike system of Pennsylvania, Mr. George W. days of December and May, nor more than eight tons during Smith, writing in 1828, said: "Since the year 1792, 168 compa- the rest of the year." These tolls on broad-wheeled wagons nies have been incorporated for the purpose of making about were lower than those charged a few years after the turnpike 3,110 miles of turnpike roads. One hundred and two have gone went into operation, and the increase which evidently occurred into operation, and have constructed nearly 2,380 miles of roads, is accounted for by a clause in the original charter stating that passable at all seasons, at an expense of $8,431,059.50. The turn- if the tolls authorized do not secure a six per cent. dividend the pike from Lancaster to Philadelphia extends 62 miles; was com- company is empowered "to increase the tolls herein above menced in 1792, finished 1794. Other turnpike roads allowed 80 much, on each and every allowance thereof, as will have since been connected with it, extending from Trenton, raise the dividends up to six per cent. per annum." on the Delaware, to Steubenville, on the Ohio, a continuous PROGRESS OF TURNPIKE AND BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN PENNSYL- line of 343 miles, the cost of which, including the bridges, has VANIA. exceeded the sums expended on the celebrated road of Napoleon A very distinct account of the progress made in Pennsylvania over the Simplon. The whole surface of the state is up to 1822, in the construction of turnpikes, canals, and bridges, traversed with the numerous turnpikes, which extend their is furnished by a report on this subject made to the Pennsylva- branches to the remotest districts. None of them have yielded Digitized by Google CHARACTERISTICS OF TURNPIKE DEVELOPMENT. 31 dividends sufficient to remunerate their proprietors. Most of them are constructed with a greater regard to solidity and duration have yielded little more than has been expended in their re- than those in the other states." pairs, and some have yielded tolls not sufficient even for this OPPOSITION TO TURNPIKES AND THEIR EFFECT IN IMPROVING purpose, and, consequently, in some cases, have been abandoned FACILITIES FOR TRAVEL. by their proprietors; but they must not, therefore, be regarded In Governor Wolf's annual message to the legislature of as having occasioned an unprofitable expenditure of capital. Pennsylvania, dated December 7th, 1831, he says:- The stockholders in general were the proprietors of the land "The first turnpike road ever constructed in the United traversed, and, consequently, benefited by these roads, or they States is indebted for its commencement and completion to the were merchants, interested in reducing the expense and ob- state of Pennsylvania, and although avarice and prejudice had taining a certainty of transportation, which objects were ef- well nigh demolished that proud monument, the Philadelphia fected by these roads. Before their construction regularity of and Lancaster turnpike road, reared by the spirit of improve- transportation was impossible. During the rainy season, or on ment that manifested itself at 80 early a period, by a fierce and the breaking up of the frost, wagons were frequently detained violent opposition to it in all its stages, still perseverance over- on the road, sometimes for weeks. The merchandise contained came opposition, the highly useful and valuable enterprise was in them was subject to injury from the roughness and danger- eventually completed, and the distance between Philadelphia ous condition of these highways. The reduction in the expense and Lancaster, which before its construction required nearly of transportation, added to the increased value of the lands ad- as much time to travel as it now occupies the mail stage to jacent to the three great turnpikes, leading from Philadelphia, perform the journey between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, is Pittsburgh, Erie, and Tioga, have amounted to a sum which, at now traveled in less than a single day. We have now the lowest estimate, exceeds the cost of constructing, not only within this happy commonwealth more than 2,500 miles of these roads, but of all the turnpikes in the state collectively." turnpike roads, and notwithstanding the uniform opposition The system of construction, however, is criticised. Mr. Smith that has always manifested itself against every attempt to says that "McAdam's plan, as it is erroneously called, has been enter upon a new project of improvement, Pennsylvania has practiced only in two or three cases, but to a very limited ex- now within her limits internal improvements, consisting of tent, and even for this partial introduction of it we are indebted turnpike roads, canals, railways, and bridges, all of them con- more to circumstances than to design." He adds, however, structed since 1791, for which there has been disbursed from that sundry faults he describes "are common to the turnpikes the public treasury of the state, and by corporations, a sum of the Union generally," and that "the roads of Pennsylvania exceeding $37,000,000." CHARACTERISTICS OF TURNPIKE DEVELOPMENT. TURNPIKES OF NEW YORK. O NE of the most important turnpikes of New York was the stone to be broken so as to pass through a ring 3 inches in called the Mohawk and Hudson. It was opened early in diameter, and the lower stratum to be broken so as to pass the present century. A writer who says he passed over it fre- through a 7-inch ring. The stone part was to be covered with quently during the war of 1812 says that "it was run in a direct gravel, and rolled with an iron-faced roller, 4 feet in length, and line from the city of Albany to the city of Schenectady; was made to bear 3 tons. The bridges along the road were superior about sixty feet in width. The hills were graded down to an edifices for the era in which they were constructed. easy ascent both ways, and the road paved with common Although the proposition to construct this road was first made paving stone in places where it was liable to be cut up by the in Congress in 1797, and the act providing for its construction ponderous wheels of the huge wagons used in carrying the war was passed in 1806, the first stage-coach bearing the United munitions from the former city to the latter, where they were States mails passed over it from Cumberland to Wheeling on transferred to batteaux and pole boats on the Mohawk river, August 1st, 1818. Of the construction of one of its sections, 11 thence to Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, and probably to interior miles long, reaching from Braddock Grove to Uniontown, which stations when needed. The turnpike was ornamented with a was reached in 1817, A. L. Little, Esq., formerly of Fayette row of poplar trees planted on either side, which gave it quite county, Pennsylvania, wrote: "I was there to see it located, a picturesque appearance for many years, but which proved to and the stakes stuck down the mountain across the old com- be very injurious by shading it and rendering it muddy and mons south of Woodstock, afterwards Monroe, before almost impassable at times. The vast amount of war material a shovelful of earth was displaced, and also to see that great forwarded from the city of Albany destined to the western contractor, Mordecai Cochran, with his immortal Irish brigade, lakes, passed over this road for some three years, both summer a thousand strong, with their carts, wheel-barrows, picks, shovels, and winter, in large wagons with tires six inches in width and and blasting tools, grading those commons, and climbing the drawn by six and eight horses to a wagon. During the winter mountain-side, and leaving behind them a roadway months I have seen this road become so smooth from the con- good enough for an emperor to travel over." stant rolling of these wide-tired wheels, that it was very difficult This national road continued to be, for a considerable period, for the horses to keep on their feet. I have seen many of them the favorite national highway for connecting the settlements with their front teeth knocked out, by falling on their noses, east and west of the Allegheny mountains, and especially for and otherwise seriously maimed. From the close of the war the journeys of congressmen and travelers to and from Wash- of 1812, up to the construction of the Erie Canal, it was the ington. Stage movements probably never gained a higher state great market avenue for the farmers of the Mohawk valley, of perfection in this country than on this route, as mail con- and was studded with hotels, or taverns as they were then tractors were anxious to make a good impression on the sena- called, from one city to the other so closely that you could tors and representatives who traveled in their coaches and never get out of sight of a swinging tavern signboard." whose influence might prove potential in transactions with the post-office department or appropriations for postal service. THE NATIONAL ROAD. Of this road, as of many other turnpikes, it is stated that The most important and best-constructed early turnpike in heavy travel and failure to make proper provision for timely the United States was the National road, leading from Cumber- repairs, wore out the bed. Of the turnpikes of the country, land to Wheeling, and subsequently extended. The length of generally, a civil engineer sociates says that the line first opened was 130 miles, and the cost of construction "under the effects of fro traffic, turn- $1,700,000. The contracts stipulated that the road should be 60 pikes became expensive a le. in good feet in width, the road-bed 32 feet wide, 20 feet of the graduated weather, would travel OV^ ? toll. part to be covered with stone 18 inches deep at the centre, and Soon they were unport nity tapering to 12 inches deep at the edges, the upper 6 inches of generally, and D the Digitized by Google articles, eign goe. Philade 1.. amenda, ficial b. prevent expense- who We pensat - highwa prope: Th ing 1.. and leeta the stop -10 1 inch cart ten in. shall 1. drawing whose 1: every here In addition to wheeled wagons wagon or other CO.# wheels shall not be road between the May following, in thereon than two and tons during the rest that "no greater weight the said road in any CA days of December and \ the rest of the year." were lower than those went into operation, and is accounted for by a claus if the tolls authorized do not company is empowered "to allowed so much, on each and raise the dividends up to six per PROGRESS OF TURNPIKE AND BRIDGE A very distinct account of the VANIA. progres is up to 1822, in the construction of turnpil furnished by a report on this subject ma Digitized by Google MULE AND BURRO MOVEMENTS. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON TURNPIKES. 33 Many of the teamsters carried bed-clothes with them, and spread lost, and no rest was given the traveler. It was by no means a them out on the floor, where they slept in rows like soldiers. ride of great pleasure, but it was the only way, and it was taken It was a rough life, but they enjoyed it for all that, and when without complaining. Usually every six miles a toll-gate was rumors went the rounds that a great railway line was going to placed, though sometimes the toll-gates were twelve miles apart. be built across the state, and with it would come an end of their There was one cheering thought about the journey that in those life on the turnpike, the howl of opposition from these men days was sufficient to make it bearable, at least to the men. would have killed the project, if howls could have done it. There was plenty to drink along the way, and it was both good and cheap. Ministers, lawyers, statesmen, and all, while horses THE OLD STAGE-COACH LINES. were being changed at the relay stations, rushed out of the The stage-coach feature of the old turnpike is something with stage-coach to the taverns, and comforted themselves with such a dash and liveliness about the very thought of it that it something cheering. The fare on the stage-coach from city to awakens our interest. It was truly the life of the turnpike. city varied somewhat, as did the condition the roads were in, Dashing along at a gallop, the four horses attached to the coach or as the rival lines cut the closest on prices. A through-pass formed quite a marked contrast to the slowly-plodding teams ticket from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia was all the way from drawing the big wagons. Then there was something of more $14 to $20, which in those days meant more than the same sum than ordinary interest about the coach itself, and the passengers does now. There were special rates to emigrants, but they were as well. For many years two great lines of coaches were run brought west in large covered wagons, and not on the regular between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia. Starting daily, the three coaches. For twenty-five years emigrant travel formed a big hundred and fifty odd miles between the two cities were passed portion of the business along the turnpike. It was mostly from over in about three days-that is, if the roads were in very good Baltimore, thousands of immigrants landing there, and engag- condition-but more time was usually required. Every twelve ing passage to the west through companies engaged in that miles a change of horses was made, and quickly. No time was business alone. COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON TURNPIKES. GAIN IN THE EFFECTIVE FORCE OF HORSES. THE increase of efficiency of teams, which resulted from the mile, or nearly double the average receipts per ton per mile for of the early turnpikes, is described in the all freight movements by the present east and west trunk lines; report of the canal commissioners of Pennsylvania in 1831, to and the entire cost of moving flour from Columbia to Philadel- be sufficient to enable four horses which would draw on a com- phia, was at the rate of 13.51 cents per ton per mile, or about mon road, in addition to the weight of the wagon containing eighteen times as large a sum as the average receipts of the the load, one ton a distance of twelve miles, to move on a turn- trunk lines at the present day. pike not exceeding five degrees of inclination one and a half The old turnpike charges were not specially high, in view of tons eighteen miles. Instead of the daily work being equiva- Fulton's statement that on a road of the best kind four horses, lent to the movement of one ton twelve miles, it was equal to and sometimes five, are necessary to transport only three tons." the movement of one ton twenty-seven miles, a gain of 125 per Among the elements of cost to be included he embraces "the cent. value of the horses, their feeding, shoeing, gear, wagons, and Shortly after the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike went attendance." In his advocacy of canals he estimated the daily into operation a journal of that era, dated January 8th, 1796, cost of the services of a man at one dollar, and a horse at one publishes an imaginary dialogue, which indicates that con- dollar, and supposing that five horses would be needed to haul siderable effort was at first necessary to convince parties inter- three tons of flour from Columbia to Philadelphia, and that the ested that they could advance their individual interests by using journey of seventy-four miles, and loading and unloading, would the new artificial road, and paying toll. The discussion pre- be made in three days, the bare cost for the teamster, horses, sumably occurs at a blacksmith shop, and one farmer endeavors and tolls would be $21, leaving only a margin of $9 for profit to convince the other that he really saved money by paying and contingencies; 80 that if a full return load could not be tolls amounting to six dollars in a five days' trip from Lan- readily procured the business was not specially remunerative. caster to Philadelphia, made to carry to market fifteen barrels MOVEMENT BETWEEN PHILADELPHIA AND PITTSBURGH. of flour. ROBERT FULTON'S STATEMENTS. A pamphlet issued by the Empire Transportation Company, As to the actual expense of moving freight over the early in 1876, says: "Before the advent of canals, transportation in turnpikes Robert Fulton made the following statements in a Pennsylvania was chiefly performed by wagons, stages, and letter addressed to Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the United boats. The wagons, drawn by four or six massive horses, 'with States Treasury, in 1807: "From Philadelphia to the Susque- their orchestra of bells,' were huge, broad-tired, canvas-roofed hanna, at Columbia, is seventy-four miles; that road, if I am trains, employed by their agricultural owners in the idle farm- rightly informed, cost, on an average, 6,000 dollars a mile, or ing period between the seed times of autumn and spring. 444,000 dollars for the whole. On it, from Columbia to Phila- 'Conestoga teams' was their generic title; though 'Pitt teams' delphia, a barrel of flour, say 200 cwt., pays one dollar carriage. designated those plying between the Delaware and the small A broad-wheel wagon carries thirty barrels, or three tons, and city of Pittsburgh, at the head of the Ohio. Goods were re- pays for turnpike three dollars; thus, for each ton carried, the ceipted for, time guaranteed (about eighteen miles per day), turnpike receives only one dollar." This is followed by the and losses paid for by these primitive carriers, much as now. statement that the sum usually paid for hauling a ton of flour A load ranged from 5,000 to 7,000 pounds; and rates between carried from Columbia to Philadelphia (including the sum paid Philadelphia and Pittsburgh were from two dollars to two and to the owner of the wagon and team and tolls), was $10, and a half dollars per hundred pounds. Merchandise was this calculation: "I will proceed with the Lancaster turnpike, taken from Philadelphia to Columbia by team, at an expense supposing it to extend to Pittsburgh, 320 miles, on which, the of 'three levies' (thirty-seven and a half cents) to fifty cents carriage being at the rate now paid from Columbia to Philadel- per hundred pounds." phia, that is $10 a ton for 74 miles, the ton from Pittsburgh MOVEMENTS ON THE NATIONAL ROAD. would amount to $42, at which price, a barrel of flour would Jonathan Knight, chief engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio, cost $4 in carriage, an expense which excludes it from the referring to wagon movements on the Cumberland or National market." turnpike road about 1831, said: "The maximum grade em- One important fact der oraneous ployed in the location and construction of the road was 5 announcements is that t long degrees, equal to about 1 in 111, and there frequently occur American turnpikes sli er stretches of road for miles together ascending mountains at an 5 Digitized by Google : -2 P-O- -old 1. for -11 = -ai are parmi- "sem. i ad N. 01 as 5.18h : cether. -rut; BUT DAUP FERRIES AND BRIDGES. 37 nent bridge at Market street, Philadelphia, was built in accord- NOT SUSPENDED. Feet. ance with its design. Bridge patents had also been granted Victoria (over St. Lawrence river), wrought iron 9,437 before 1817, to Burr and Wernwag. The advances typified by Bombay (Madras) 3,730 these patents and a number which succeeded them, in connec- Boyne, at Drogheda. wrought iron 1,760 tion with truss-bridges, have practically revolutionized and im- Lisbon Aqueduct, stone 3,805 measurably improved the main portion of the bridge building Louisville, Ky 5,310 of the United States. One of the most famous and extensively Maintenon Aqueduct, stone 16,307 Harlem Aqueduct, stone 1,450 used of the truss-bridges of later design is the Howe truss Montpelier Aqueduct, stone 3,217 bridge. Another famous American bridge inventor and con- Parkesburg, W. Va., iron 7,045 structor was Squire Whipple, and one of the earliest iron Potomac 5,300 bridges in this country was erected in accordance with his Quincy (over the Mississippi river), iron 3,200 designs. Omaha (over the Missouri river) 2,800 A FEW WIRE SUSPENSION BRIDGES, Stockport, stone. 1,792 containing a comparatively small amount of material, and, Strasburg, stone 3,390 therefore, liable to a considerable amount of swaying, were con- St. Charles, Mo., iron 6,536 Susquehanna, stone 3,500 structed at a comparatively early date. At a later period struc- Albany, N. Y., extreme length 4,800 tures of this description gained considerable magnitude and Albany, N. Y., double track railway bridge (largest draw-span in renown, but the great cost of lengthy and solid wire bridges has the world) 1,400 prevented their general use. The first American wire bridge of Vistula river (Germany), iron 2,750 considerable size was that erected at Fairmount, Philadelphia, Firth of Tay, length nearly two miles, or 10,521 in accordance with plans furnished by Charles Ellet, jr. It was It is probably on account of the great cost of the Brooklyn opened for travel in the spring of 1842, and was erected on the bridge, and the financial arrangements it necessitated, that in site of the wooden bridge built by Louis Wernwag in 1818, and an era when the general movement of the country is toward which had been destroyed by fire, a fate that befell 80 many of the abrogation of tolls on highway bridges, especially those the wooden bridges that the desirability of using less destructi- located near large towns or cities, a charge was imposed for the ble material was generally recognized. use of the edifice that connects the largest city of the continent A very large proportion of all the great American bridges with a very populous adjacent municipality. Opposition to constructed of late years were intended mainly or exclusively these tolls has been manifested by some of the bridge trustees for railway use, but the wire suspension system, in its applica- and many citizens, and cogent reasons given for their abroga- tion to miscellaneous traffic, was developed up at a few points tion. The tolls established at the outset were as follows:- to the highest rank, in some respects, that bridges of any kind have ever obtained. THE BRIDGE TOLLS. Centa. This result is largely due to the remarkable skill displayed 1 horse or horse and man 5 by John A. Roebling and his son, Colonel Washington A. Roeb- 1 horse and vehicle. 10 ling. After constructing wire suspension bridges of unprece- 2 horses and vehicle 20 Foot passengers 1 dented magnitude and utility at Pittsburgh and near Niagara 2-horse trucks or wagons. 30 Falls, Mr. John A. Roebling commenced the crowning work of Cattle, each 5 his life, which was finished under the supervision of his son. It Sheep and hogs, each 2 was the famous Brooklyn bridge over the East river, which con- nects the cities of New York and Brooklyn. The total cost of INTRICACIES OF THE ART OF MODERN BRIDGE BUILDING. this structure was about $15,500,000, and, exclusive of land In an address delivered at the celebration of the opening of damages and interest, it cost about $7,000,000. Its completion the Brooklyn bridge, the leading orator, Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, was formally celebrated on May 24th, 1883. said:- THE BROOKLYN OR EAST RIVER BRIDGE In no previous period of the world's history could this consists of a central suspended span of 1,595 feet 6 inches bridge have been built. Within the last hundred years the length between central towers, and two side spans, also sus- greater part of the knowledge necessary for its erection has pended, each 930 feet long. The approaches increase the total been gained. Chemistry was not born until 1776, the year length to about one and one-sixth miles. The ends of the two when political economy was ushered into the world by Adam cables are anchored in two masses, containing a total of 26,000 Smith, and the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed cubic yards of masonry. These masses are each about 119 feet by the Continental Congress, to be maintained at the point of by 132 feet at the base, and 89 feet high. The piers at either the sword by George Washington. In the same year Watt pro- side of the river rise to a height of 2711 feet above mean high duced his successful steam engine, and a century has not tide. Underneath the central span a space of 135 feet is left for elapsed since the first specimen of his skill was erected on this the passage of vessels, so as to avoid interruption of navigation continent. The law of gravitation was indeed known a hun- by all craft except those using unusually tall masts. Great dif- dred years ago, but the intricate laws of force which now con- ficulty was experienced in obtaining a reliable foundation. trol the domain of industry had not been developed by the study Work on the Brooklyn caisson was begun November 1st, 1869, of physical science, and their practical applications have only and on the New York caisson on September 6th, 1870. The been effectually accomplished within our own day, and indeed, bridge presents five parallel avenues, each about 16 feet wide. some of the most important of them during the building of the The two outer ones are used by vehicles; the central one, ele- bridge. For use in the caissons, the perfecting of the electric vated above the rest, by pedestrians; the two intermediate ones light came too late, though happily in season for the illumina- tion of the finished work. by street cars, propelled by continuous cables, operated by steam engines located at the termini. It has been estimated that the This construction has not only employed every abstract con- capacity of the bridge would permit the passage of 80,000 per- clusion and formula of mathematics, whether derived from the sons in an hour on the cars, 45,000 pedestrians in an hour on study of the earth or the heavens, but the whole structure may the promenade, and 1,500 vehicles in an hour on the driveways. be said to rest upon mathematical foundation. The great dis- coveries of chemistry, showing the composition of water, the COMPARISON WITH OTHER BRIDGES. Feet. nature of gases, the properties of metals, the laws and processes Chelsea, suspended 700 of physics, from the strains and pressures of mighty masses to Cincinnati and Covington (over the Ohio), suspended, builtin 1867. 1,067 the delicate vibrations of molecules, are Clifton (over Niagara river), suspended 1,268 Every department of human industry is e Friborg. built 1832, suspended 870 quarrying and cutting of the stones, th Hungerford, suspended 1,350 Kieff, suspended 2,562 of the ores, the conversion of iron int Menai, built 1819-25, suspended 1,050 process, to the final shaping Niagara, built 1855, suspended 2,220 forms and its reduction i Pesth, built 1840-49, suspended 1,262 degree the tensile stre Digitized by Google 38 IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC-ROAD IMPROVEMENTS. pension. Every tool which the ingenuity of man has invented have enabled steel to be substituted for iron-applications has somewhere, in some special detail, contributed its share in made since the original plans of the bridge were devised-we the accomplishment of the final result. should have had a structure fit, indeed, for use, but of such moderate capacity that we could not have justified the claim 'Ah! what a wondrous thing it is which we are now able to make, that the cities of New York To note how many wheels of toil One word; one thought can set in motion.' and Brooklyn have constructed, and to-day rejoice in the pos- session of, the crowning glory of an age memorable for great But without the most recent discoveries of science, which industrial achievements." IMPORTANCE OF PUBLIC-ROAD IMPROVEMENTS. of the common roads of the country, and pounds, or 41.6 per cent. more than was required by the others. secure good highways through the efforts of Professor Sanborn says:- turnpike companies, partly on account of the extent to which "Assuming the wagon to weigh 1,000 pounds, then on the all lengthy land movements are made on railway routes, is broad wheels 3,248 pounds of load would be drawn as easily as attracting much attention in various localities, and several 2,000 pounds on the narrow tires, except the loss from the plans for improving the existing road systems have in some wheels cutting deeper under the heavier load. Again, the states been adopted. One of the most practical, in old commu- broad wheels in the trial did not injure the turf, while the nar- nities, is for the authorities of populous centres to buy all the row wheels cut through it, an important consideration. Our stock of turnpike companies, make the turnpikes free highways, teamsters, for use about the college farm, invariably choose and keep them in a reasonably good state of repair. Boston the broad wheels. They find they are not nearly as liable to was one of the first cities to adopt this expedient on an exten- get stuck in soft places, or during rainy times. sive scale, and it has since been applied to some of the turn- "In a subsequent trial, on a partially dried dirt road, the pikes contiguous to Philadelphia and other cities. Various broad wheels cut the road less deeply, and drew easier than the plans have been proposed, and to some extent adopted in dif- narrow wheels, the draft being for the broad tires 371 pounds, ferent states. One of the most comprehensive is probably that and for the narrow tires, 441 pounds, or the latter drew 12.7 per in force in Ohio. It provides for the construction of free turn- cent. heavier than the former, a net difference per ton load of pikes in all counties that are disposed to favor such improve- 381 pounds, or 381 pounds more could be drawn on the broad ments. wheels to the preservation of roads, as is recognized in two or A great question in connection with all such matters is "who three states by adjusting the rate of toll to the width of wheels, shall bell the cat?" The utility of good roads is appreciated the tolls being remitted on wheels of a certain width. The dif- by every person who is obliged to travel or transport. But ference of draft above recorded disappears on good roads. some of those who would derive a large amount of direct "In the tests for ascertaining the difference in draft on good benefit from improvements of highways would oppose all and poor roads ordinary narrow tires were used. The road had efforts to oblige them to pay their legitimate share of the a gravel bed. The first pull was up a grade 1 foot in 28 feet, necessary expenses, and many persons who are only benefited and the draft was 310 pounds. This test was made on grass, indirectly would manifest decided hostility to costly improve- and shows that narrow tires on grass, a few days after a rain, are ments paid for out of a fund raised by taxation. There is also equivalent to a draft up a hill of more than 1 foot rise to 28 feet. a doctrine, which has often been ignored in connection with "The second pull was on a flat at the top of the above grade, the construction of railways in the United States, and too often and drew on a draft of 118 pounds. This should enforce the been overstrained in its application to common roads, that the importance of avoiding hills, and of reducing grades, when cost of a line of land carriage should not exceed the principal practicable, by leveling. The net load drawn would be hardly corresponding to the yearly amount made or saved by the road one-third as much up this mild grade as on level ground. In as interest. The application of this doctrine to the common addition to this loss, there is the further loss of capacity of a roads of regions in which all the actual and prospective traffic horse to draw up hill. It is well known that the structure of is of very limited quantity, would go far to justify their present the horse is such that he works to a disadvantage up a grade. inferior condition, and to render it inexpedient or unprofitable On level ground man power is as 1 to 5, but up hill as 1 to 3, to spend considerable sums in improving them. compared with the horse. On the other hand, there are many districts in which con- "The value of grades is well known to railroads, and it has siderable outlays would yield a direct or indirect return, in the sometimes caused their reconstruction or the building of com- way of reducing the cost of transportation, that would repre peting lines, and in older parts of our country the country sent a much larger sum than the cost of the necessary improve- roads are often reconstructed at great cost for the business ad- ments. In determining vantage of improved grades." WHERE GOOD ROADS WILL PAY, On a moist dirt road the draft was 487 pounds, or 57 per cent. and where they will be unremunerative, and the extent to more than required on a grade of one to twenty-eight feet on a which improvements should be advanced, the following state- gravel road, four times as much as required on a level road, and ments, when viewed in connection with the number of horses, seven times as much as required on a level plank floor. wagons, and other vehicles that would probably be moved over The draft registered by no means shows the actual effects on à given line every year, may help to guide the judgment of the horses, and it does not take into account the suction of the those who wish to arrive at correct conclusions:- mud and the slipping of their feet, nor the extra effort required Professor Sanborn, of the Missouri State College, has made a for lifting their feet over the little elevations constantly before number of experiments to ascertain just what the difference them. Prof. Sanborn concludes by saying:- is between the force required for pulling a load of given weight As we view the long periods in which traffic is suspended over different kinds of roads, and to show the value of broad on our dirt roads (generally in periods when farmers are not tires, especially in farm work. The results are given in a busy), the small loads dragged into our markets, the value of pamphlet of a dozen pages, illustrated by eight diagrams. which is largely absorbed by the expense of delivery; the Each load drawn was 3,695 pounds. The tires of the wheels almost universal use of the saddle horse, and the immense were respectively one and a half and three inches wide, the loads carried on the solid roads of much of Europe, in connec- narrower ones being considerably worn. On a blue-grass sward, tion with the above tests, we are not likely to overestimate the moist, although but little rain had fallen within twelve days of profound relation of our miserably crooked and marly roads, the time of making the test, the average force required by the bridgeless creeks, and hills, neither graded nor circumvented, broad tires was 310 pounds. The narrower ones required 439 to our system of farming, its profits and pleasures. Digitized by Google IMPORTANCE OF PUBLICROAD IMPROVEMENTS. 39 "From the above tests, the traffic that will warrant a $2,000 and maintaining its own highways, the nature of the improve- outlay per mile of unimproved roads may be approximately ments perfected will be largely affected by due regard for the estimated. If by properly grading our hills and graveling our substantial interests of their tax-payers, and the extent to which road-beds we can double the freight carried per team, we could enlightened views of their interests prevail. on the basis of fifteen miles per day for a loaded team costing There is such a wide diversity in the needs and condition of $3 per day, save the interest of this cost at 6 per cent. in the the different counties of any state, and even of the different passage of 600 loaded teams each way." townships of many counties, that any general state law, to be WHAT A HORSE CAN DRAG ON DIFFERENT ROADS. universally acceptable, must leave wide margin for divergent In a communication to the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, action. Some of the plans proposed, or tried, are as follows:- made by Rudolph Hering, he stated that if one horse can In Ohio a free turnpike, or graveled road improvement law, just pull a given load on two iron rails, it will take one and was passed about 1863, and under its provisions about 4,000 two-thirds horses to pull the same load upon an asphalt pave- miles of road have been built. Twenty years later more than ment, three and one-third upon good Belgian blocks, five upon one-half the counties in the state were without free pikes, and ordinary Belgian blocks, seven upon good cobble stone, thirteen in many counties there were no improved roads of any kind. upon ordinary cobble stone, twenty upon an earth road, and In 1883 Warren county took the lead, with 624 miles; then forty upon sand. follows Miami, with 500; Shelby, 326; Montgomery, 300; Logan, A modern compilation of engineering maxims states that- 285; Madison, 265; Hardin, 250, and so on down the scale to A horse can drag- Jefferson county, which foots the list with four miles. The 3 times as much on the worst earthen road, average cost per mile for construction runs as follows: Hamil- 9 " " on a good macadamized road, ton county was the highest, at $6,228 per mile; next Scioto 25 " " on a plank road, county, $3,448; then Sandusky, $3,000; Shelby, $2,772; Hardin, 33 " " on a stone trackway, $2,400; and the lowest is Paulding county, $800. The cost of 54 .. " on a good railway, repairs in counties where the work was not done under the as he can carry on his back. supervision of the township trustees, in 1882-83, was highest in The traction on a gravel road will be 18 of the load. Scioto county, being $104; Miami, $70; Sandusky, $57; Hardin, " on a macadamized road, ruts and mud " $44; Shelby, $30; Auglaize, $23; and the lowest in Madison " on a well-made pavement .. " " 100 " " county, at $15 per mile. The average cost per mile of con- on a plank road " on best railways " " struction for the state is about $1,800, making a total cost of construction $7,200,000, while the average cost per mile of re- The resistance caused by ascending inclines is as below: If on a level a horse can draw 100- pairs was about $271, which represents an annual expense for Gradient 0 in 100 a horse can draw 1.00 repairs amounting to $109,000. " 1 in 100 0.90 In Pennsylvania improved methods have often been agitated, " 1 in 50 " " 0.81 and one of the results was the presentation in the state senate " 1 in 45 " " 0.76 at the session of 1885, of a bill proposing radical changes in the " 1 in 40 " " 0.72 road laws of the state-in effect repealing all existing laws and $4 1 in 30 " " 0.64 providing for a general public road system throughout the state. " 1 in 25 " " 0.52 The following are the main provisions:- .. 1 in 20 " " 0.40 1. The establishment of a State Department of Public Roads, " 1 in 10 " " 0.25 presided over by a State Supervisor who must be a competent A horse can drag with the force of 120 pounds continuously engineer, appointed by the Governor. and steadily at a walk; hence it can draw at a walk on a level 2. A County Road Supervisor of skill and experience in road stone road 120 pounds X34=4,080 pounds, or 1 ton 16 cwt. 48 making, for each county in the state, elected by County Con- pounds. ventions of District Road Overseers. The traction of a carriage is to its weight on a stone pave- 3. A Board of Road Overseers for each township, borough, or ment as 1: 68; on a good macadamized road 1 49; flint founda- city, elected by a popular vote, on the plan of minority repre- tion road 1: 34; on a gravel road 1: 15; on a sandy road 1:7. sentation in each district. PROPOSED LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR IMPROVED ROADS. 4. A District Road Supervisor, or Road Master, for each dis- There are few, if any, populous districts in which the sum trict, to be chosen by the respective Boards of District Overseers. saved annually in reductions of the cost of transportation and It was further provided in this bill that the state shall appro- increase of accommodations and conveniences, by marked im- priate one million of dollars, to be apportioned among the provements of the publichighways, would not exceed the interest several districts, as the state appropriation to public schools is on the cost of construction and the expense of repairs. if they now apportioned-provided, that each district must levy and were made in a skillful and economical manner. But various collect a road tax, as school taxes are now collected, at least popular, legal, and engineering questions must be decided equal in amount to its quota of the state appropriation, other- wisely before the best results can be attained. Who shall pay wise the latter is to be withheld. It also authorizes boards of for good roads? How shall they be constructed? Under what district overseers, on certain conditions, to levy and collect system shall repairs be managed? special taxes, or to borrow money, to purchase road rollers for There are comparatively few districts in which passably good their districts, and to meet other extraordinary expenses. roads have ever been built by the public authorities, and since In Illinois bills have been presented favoring an annual ap- plank roads and turnpikes have generally ceased to be remune- propriation of about one million of dollars, to be divided among rative investments, few companies would care to embark in the counties or districts, and to establish two distinct and sepa- similar enterprises with a prospect of inevitable financial fail- rate road and bridge systems, each complete within itself, the ure. The chief reliance, unless some new modification of cor- one cash, the other labor. The cash system is the law until a porate arrangements is devised, must apparently be upon public town votes to go into the labor system, which it may do on appropriations. A wide field for discussion might be opened petition of twenty-five legal voters. in regard to the extent to which the Federal Government ROADS RADIATING FROM RAILWAY STATIONS. should aid states, or states should aid counties, or counties should aid townships, but present indications favor the adoption A discussion of general systems of road improvement, by Mr. or continuance of systems under which the principal burden of S. B. Fisher, suggests that special efforts should be directed to constructing and maintaining the roads of each small commu- the improvement of roads radiating from railway stations, inas- nity must be borne by its own tax-payers. One of the most much as they are the thoroughfares on which nearly all move- decided changes of the last half century has been towards a ments are made, and in this connection the following descrip- diminution of the number of roads and road projects that tion is given of the practical influence of railway improve- would be likely to receive assistance from state or county trea- ments on many sections:- suries. Wherever the fact is clearly established that each town, "Let us glance at a railroad map. Here runs the railroad township, or city must defray the entire cost of constructing through a tier of farms. On these farms it will burn the fences, Digitized by Google 40 METHODS OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION. kill the sheep, and keep the people awake o'nights. Just out- heavy traffic, seems to make them still further apart. It is side of this tier of farms, for two or three miles on each side, very probable that distances of from six to ten miles between there are people living, who have all the advantages of rail- regular stations would contribute very considerably both to roads, who are linked with the whole world, and can have un- economy in the equipment and to economy and safety in the told material comforts. Back of these there is another strip of operation of railroads. On leading railway lines it is difficult land, on which the people enjoy these advantages in a lesser to get new connections for local traffic. Thus the influence of degree, and then back of this another, and so on, until the railroads on the country is confined to nuclei, of which the rail- benefits of railroads are not felt. It is probable that the influ- way station is the centre. In fact, the railway system has taken ence of railroads is not directly felt much beyond a distance of up part of the primitive public-road scheme, that part which ten miles on either side. Not only this, but their benefits are was assigned to the national, state, and partly to the country dispensed only along this strip of country at those points called roads, or transportation to great distances, and has carried it stations. These stations are often not very frequent at the far beyond the dreams of the originators. It has left the local present time, and the tendency on leading railroad lines, with transportation question untouched, except incidentally." METHODS OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION. OF the methods of construction much has been written, and he often made a new one of it for £88 a mile, while round Lon- it is to be regretted that a large proportion of the road don the cost of annual repairs had been £470 a mile. For he making and repairing of the country has not been conducted knew that the roads-such had been the ignorant waste-gene- wisely or economically. The blunders made in England before rally contained materials enough for their use for several years the labors of McAdam and Telford were commenced in that if properly applied. Unless the road was hopeless, he went to country have been repeated, and are now being constantly work in a practical, cheap way-first cutting off the 'grid- repeated, in many portions of the United States. Effective iron' of ruts in the centre to a level with the bottom of the reforms can scarcely be hoped for before roads are placed furrows; then 'picking' the road up to a depth of four inches; under enlightened and vigilant supervision. removing all the chalk, clay, or mud; breaking the large stones John Loudon McAdam spent a number of years and con- small, and simply putting them back again; and one of his siderable money in investigating roads and road systems. He directions to his workmen was 'that nothing is to be laid on substantially agreed with all engineers in the opinion that a the clean stone on pretence of binding.' But too often the dry foundation was an indispensable requisite, but he differed road was so bad, as at Egham, that it had to be removed to its from many of them in regard to plans to secure it, the size and foundations. For the repairs of his roads, when once made, quantity of stone or "metal" used as covering material, and he always chose wet weather, and 'loosened the hardened sur- the degree of convexity that should be adopted. His labors face with a pick' before putting on the fresh broken stone; began to attract general attention in England about 1819, on things familiar to us now, but paradoxes then to all the con- account of the success which had attended his efforts during fraternities of the roads. In this way he had the greatest the three preceding years, to improve the condition of 148 success with the freestone near Bath, and on a road out of miles of turnpike roads which had been placed under his Bristol towards Old Down, where everybody had always said a charge. good road would never be made with the material available, THE MCADAM SYSTEM. this impossible road of eleven miles, which the Postmaster- A brief description of his system embraces these statements: General, as a last resource, was about to indict, he perfected in Instead of producing a peaked roof-like mass of rough soft two months, in 1816, for £55 a mile. Indeed, as to materials, rubbish, he got a flat, smooth, and solid surface. In lieu of a they were to some extent a matter of indifference to him, pro- road 41 feet through, he made one of at most ten inches in vided they were stones and stones only. Flint (Essex and thickness; and for rocks and boulders he substituted stone Sussex), he said, made an excellent road, if only broken pro- broken small. His leading principle was that a road ought to perly small; limestone (Wilts, Somerset, and Gloucester) con- be considered as an artificial flooring 80 strong and even as to solidates soonest of all, but is not the most lasting; the pebbles let the heaviest vehicle pass over it without impediment. Then of Shropshire and Staffordshire were also good, and the beach- people began to hear with wonder of roads thirty and forty feet pebbles of Essex, Kent, and Sussex were some of the best wide rising only three inches in the centre; and he propounded materials in the kingdom; but the whinstone or granite of the the extraordinary heresy that a better and more lasting road north and of Scotland he pronounced the most durable. Even could be made over the naked surface of a morass than over in the breaking of stones McAdam made a revolution. He the solid rock. Another of his easy first principles was that saw that able-bodied men standing up with heavy hammers the native soil was more resistant when dry than when wet, wasted the greater portion of their strength. He made his and that, as in reality it had to carry not alone the traffic but stone-breakers sit, SO that all the force of the blows took direct the road also, it ought to be kept in the condition of greatest effect on the stone; and the result was that he found small resistance; that the best way of keeping it dry was to put over hammers did the work perfectly well, and thus was enabled to it a covering impervious to rain-the road, in fact; and that the confine it to old men past hard labour, women, and boys, which thickness of this covering was to be regulated solely in relation reduced the cost of the broken stone by one-half. The size to to its imperviousness, and not at all as to its bearing of weights, which the stone should be broken he determined in a practical to which the native soil was quite equal. Instead of digging a way by the area of contact of an ordinary wheel with a smooth trench, therefore, to do away with the surface of the native soil, road. This he found to be about an inch lengthwise, and, there- he carefully respected it, and raised his road sufficiently above fore, he laid it down that 'a stone which exceeds an inch in any it to let the water run off. Impermeability he obtained by the of its dimensions is mischievous'-that is to say, that the wheel practical discovery that stones broken small and shaken and in pressing on one end of it tends to lift the other end out of pressed together, as by the traffic on a road, rapidly settled the road. In practice he found it simplest to fix a weight of six down face to face and angle to angle, and made as close a ounces; and his surveyors carried about scales to test the largest mass as a wall. Surprise followed surprise. Roads which were stones in each heap. He would allow no large stones even for mere layers of broken stone, six, four, and even as little as three the foundation of his roads, for he found they constantly worked inches in thickness, passed through the worst winters without upwards by the pressure and vibration of the traffic." breaking up, while, as the coachmen used to say, they 'ran THE TELFORD SYSTEM true; the wheel ran hard upon them, it ran upon the nail.' makes more elaborate provisions for the foundation of a road, Commissioners could not believe their eyes when they saw new and differs in some other respects. He advocated a paved roads made for less than it had cost them yearly to repair their foundation, generally made in a manner similar to that de- old ones. When an old road was given into McAdam's charge scribed in the following extract from one of his specifications Digitized by Google VARIOUS STYLES OF BAD ROADS. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google EARLY CANAL PROJECTS. 41 for a portion of the Holyhead road: "Upon the level bed, pre- The process of laying a very expensive short road, built in pared for the road materials, a bottom course, or layer of stones, partial accordance with the Telford system, in the vicinity of is to be set by hand, in form of a close, firm pavement. The Philadelphia, is described as follows: "The first layer is slag or stones set in the middle of the road are to be seven inches in cinder from blast furnaces, which is set on end to the depth of depth; at nine feet from the centre, five inches; at twelve feet nine inches, then a layer of broken limestone three inches from the centre, four inches, and at fifteen feet, three inches. thick, when an enormous steam roller is again run over this They are to be set on their broadest edges lengthwise across the layer, when another covering of stone is placed upon it, which road, and the breadth of the upper edge is not to exceed four is again rolled, and a finishing touch of fine stone placed over inches in any case. All the irregularities of the upper part of the whole, and again rolled. The road when completed will be the said pavement are to be broken off by the hammer, and all eighteen inches thick in the centre, and tapering off at the sides the interstices to be filled with stone chips, firmly wedged, or to nine inches." packed by hand with a light hammer, so that, when the whole In the best descriptions of modern American roads con- pavement is finished, there shall be a convexity of four inches structed in large cities or their vicinity heavy steam rollers are in the breadth of fifteen feet from the centre." used, and through their aid better results are attained than are The advantages claimed for a foundation of this description achieved without similar appliances. Machinery of this kind are that it is firmer and less elastic than the best foundation of has been steadily improved, and it not only does for roads, in common earth; that it will carry greater loads without damage, the way of packing and perfecting them, what under the older and that the bottom stones, thus set, assist in the drainage, by systems could only be accomplished by a large amount of allowing the water to pass through them. It must be under- travel, but it greatly diminishes the danger of seriqus injury by stood, however, that if the large stones are not firmly wedged creating at the outset a complete highway. This is considered they will probably work up to the surface. a great advance. EARLY CANAL PROJECTS. IN the chronological order of development, turnpikes pre- cord river, and thence into the Merrimac river at Chelmsford. ceded canals in the completion of lines of considerable The Middlesex Canal Company was chartered in 1792. Active length and their extensive use, but canal and river-improve- operations on this work were commenced in 1795, and con- ment projects were the first to attract the attention of leading tinued until, after some years of effort, a work of considerable citizens, and postponement of their consideration to a rela- magnitude and utility was completed. The Carondelet Canal tively late date was due rather to a lack of capital, and to the was built in Louisiana about 1794, partly as a drainage canal fact that turnpikes were cheaper per mile, than to want of faith for the city of New Orleans. It was constructed by Governor in the utility of canals or absence of a desire to secure their Carondelet, and the citizens contributed a large force of slaves completion. A few short lines were, indeed, finished, or at to aid him. A canal was built in South Carolina in 1802, which least advanced to a sufficient extent to be of some practical connected Charleston harbor with the Santee river. It was service, before any of the turnpike companies were organized. twenty-two miles long, and cost $720,000, but is one of the nu- Various methods of improving water routes, by removing ob- merous canals that have been abandoned. In addition to these structions to navigation, were proposed during the colonial era works, a number of others were proposed or discussed at an or very soon after its close, and vigorous endeavors to promote early period, including a work which was the forerunner of the projects for constructing several canals of considerable import- Erie Canal, the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Delaware and Chesa- ance were made before the Revolutionary War. The first peake, and the Union Canal, of Pennsylvania, a work intended canal constructed within the present limits of the United States to connect the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers. was, according to some accounts, a short line built by Lieu- THE UNION CANAL, tenant-Governor Colder, in Orange county, New York, in 1750, for transporting stone. Probably the first charter under or forerunners of it, in the nature of projected improvements which active operations were prosecuted was granted by an act for providing an artificial junction between the waters of the incorporating the James River company, which was passed by Susquehanna and the Schuylkill, was probably the first project the legislature of Virginia on January 5th, 1785, for the pur- of the kind seriously discussed in the colonies. William Penn pose of improving the navigation of the James river. The referred to the subject two centuries ago. It received some company constructed a canal around the falls of James river, consideration before the Revolutionary War. It was chiefly on extending from the city of Richmond to Westham, a distance account of the importance attached to it that the following of about seven miles, and improved the bed of the river by interesting historic letter was written, in 1772, by Benjamin sluices as high up as Buchanan. This canal Was subsequently Franklin, to S. Rhoads, who was then Mayor of Philadelphia:- enlarged and extended, mainly by appropriations obtained from "LONDON, Aug. 22, 1772. the state of Virginia, and this expedient is typical of the course DEAR FRIEND: I think I before acknowledg'd your Favour of pursued in nearly all the early canal enterprises. In a num- Feb. 29. I have since received that of May 30. I am glad my ber of instances companies commenced operations, failed to Canal Papers were agreeable to you. I fancy work of that kind obtain the requisite means, and then applied either for is set on foot in America. I think it would be saving Money state or federal appropriations, for which shares were usually to engage by a handsome Salary an Engineer from here who given. Another of the early projects was the Dismal Swamp has been accustomed to such Business. The many Canals on Canal, commenced in 1787, under a joint charter of Virginia foot here under different great Masters, are daily raising a and North Carolina, and opened in 1794. The list of owners of number of Pupils in the Art, some of whom may want Etn- its stock included George Washington and Patrick Henry. It ployment hereafter, and a single Mistake thro' Inexperience in was originally designed to facilitate the movement of lumber such important Works, may cost much more than the Expense out of the Dismal Swamp, but subsequently served more im- of Salary to an ingenious young Man already well acquainted portant ends by furnishing during the war of 1812-14 an inland with both Principles and Practice. This the Irish have learnt water channel of communication, which was free from the at a dear rate in the first Attempt of their great Canal, and attacks of British cruisers. now are endeavouring to get Smeaton to come and rectify Other canals, on which active operations commenced before their Errors. With regard to your Question, whether it is best the present century, include the following: A charter was to make the Schuylkill a part of the Navigation to the back granted on June 25th, 1792, to "The Proprietors of the Locks Country, or whether the Difficulty of that River, subject to all and Canals on the Merrimac River," and this company opened the Inconveniences of Floods, Ice, &c., will not be greater than a line in 1797, about one and one-half miles long, which pro- the Expense of Digging, Locks, &c., I can only say that here vided a channel around Pawtucket falls, leading into the Con- they look on the constant Practicability of a Navigation, allow- 6 Digitized by Google 42 EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICAN CANALS. ing Boats to pass and repass at all Times and Seasons, without which was used as a permanent thing, though it is stated that Hindrance, to be a point of the greatest Importance, and, in the expedition of 1779, under General Sullivan, General therefore, they seldom or ever use a River where it can be James Clinton successfully made use of the expedient to extri- avoided. Locks in Rivers are subject to many more Accidents cate his division of the army from some difficulty on the east than those in still water Canals; and the Carrying away a few branch of the Susquehanna by erecting a temporary dam Locks by Freshets of Ice, not only creates a great Expense, but across the outlet of Otsego lake, which accumulated water interrupts Business for a long time till repairs are made, which enough to float them, when let off, and carry them down the may soon be destroyed again, and thus the Carrying on a river." Course of Business by such a Navigation be discouraged, as sub- The "artificial freshets" here referred to were probably one ject to frequent interruptions. The Toll, too, must be higher of the first important and successful efforts made in this coun- to pay for such Repairs. Rivers are ungovernable things, try to materially improve the methods of navigating interior especially in Hilly Countries. Canals are quiet and very man- streams, and the fact that General James Clinton was able to ageable. Therefore they are often carried on here by the Sides render essential service in the manner indicated may have had of Rivers, only on Ground above the Reach of Floods, no other an important bearing on canal development, inasmuch as he Use being made of the Rivers than to supply occasionally the became an earnest advocate of the construction of the Erie waste of water in the Canals. Canal, and inspired with his zeal his son, De Witt Clinton, "I warmly wish Success to every Attempt for Improvement whose signal triumph was only the realization of the hopes of of our dear Country, and am with sincere Esteem, his father. "Yours most affectionately, These artificial freshets of the Lehigh Goal and Navigation "D. FRANKLIN." Company were produced at stated intervals, and generally daily "I congratulate you on the Change of our American Minister. during theseason of navigation, before its canal was constructed The present has more favourable Disposition towards us than by storing water in the pools of dams across the river, of log his Predecessor." crib-work, filled in with stones. Wide sluices, for passing rafts To S. Rhoads, Esq." and coal arks, were made in these dams, and they were readily opened and shut by one man, by means of hydraulic pressure, ARTIFICIAL FRESHETS. acting in a contrivance designed by Josiah White, which was An elaborate account of the early operations of the Lehigh known by the name of the "bear-trap lock." The arrangement Coal and Navigation Company says: "The descending naviga- was very simple and ingenious, and fully answered the intended tion by artificial freshets on the Lehigh is the first on record purpose. EARLY HISTORY OF AMERICAN CANALS. A work was published in Philadelphia in 1795, entitled a COST OF LAND CARRIAGE IN PENNSYLVANIA IN 1791. "Historical Account of the Rise, Progress, and Present One of the estimates made in reference to the probable earn- State of the Canal Navigation in Pennsylvania, by direction of ings of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Canal states that "the the President and Managers of the Schuylkill and Susquehanna, present price of land carriage from Middletown to Philadelphia and the Delaware and Schuylkill Navigation Company." Robert is 5s. 6d. per cwt., or for twenty tons, £110." This was presum- Morris was president of both these companies. This publica- ably Pennsylvania currency, £3 being equal to $8, or £1 to tion states that in 1789 a few citizens of Pennsylvania had united $2.66]. The movement of twenty tons, therefore, cost $293.33}, "by the name of the Society for Promoting the Improvement or $14.66 per ton. The present distance by rail is ninety-six of Roads and Inland Navigation," and the number of members miles. The cost per ton per mile was about 15} cents. soon increased to more than one hundred, residing in various PROVISIONS OF EARLY CHARTERS. parts of the state. By appeals to the legislature, appropriations for a number of roads were obtained, and charters and a small One of the provisions in a paper styled Heads of a Plan Sug- amount of pecuniary assistance had been granted to the canal gesting the Nature of the Restrictions and the Protection that companies mentioned above. Work on both these projects had Should be Established in Connection with the System of Char- been commenced, and some progress had been made, but the tering Companies, or of Having Works Built by "Constructors necessity of additional capital and improved methods of pro- Entitled to Tolls," which the legislature of Pennsylvania con- curing it was already keenly felt. cluded to adopt, was as follows: "By an article in each con- The introductory remarks explain the hopes and expecta- tract, the Government shall be restrained from laying out or tions then cherished, in the statement that by "canals a people establishing turnpikes or toll navigations, in a second instance, may be supplied with grain, forage, fuel, materials for building, during years, which would destroy or diminish the income and also all other heavy and raw materials for manufactures, or revenue of turnpikes or toll navigations which they had which otherwise would remain of little value at a distance from established in the first instance." the place where they are wanted, because of the great expense In a memorial addressed by the Schuylkill and Susquehanna commonly attending their transportation by carriages, &c., for Canal Navigation Company to the legislature, they asked for a a barge of a reasonable size, worked by two men and drawn by modification of their charter or contract relating to tolls, and two horses, can transport seventy or eighty tons; which weight, stated that "as by the act of incorporation, although some by any other carriage, would have required forty men and parts of the said canal navigation may be finished and in use about sixty horses. This calculation is made for the canals in before the whole distance of seventy miles can be completed, England, where, by means of turnpikes, a level country and yet the company are not enabled to receive toll for that part, improved roads, land carriage has a great advantage over any except at the rate of one dollar for seventy miles, or the whole land carriage that can, for many years, be completed through- distance, which is only one cent, or three-sevenths of a cent out the greater part of the United States." per mile, whereas the Delaware and Schuylkill Canal is allowed The society, in a memorial addressed to the Pennsylvania one-sixteenth of a dollar per mile whenever any part thereof is legislature in 1791, had suggested as works worthy of favorable finished." consideration, quite a number of important projects. The list EFFECT OF REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN POSTPONING ACTIVE OPERA- included an improvement of the navigation of the Delaware TIONS. from the tidewater at Trenton Falls to Lake Otsego, the head The appendix states that the summit level of the Schuylkill of the north-east branch of the Susquehanna; and an improve- and Susquehanna Canal had been examined and leveled by a ment of Susquehanna navigation, to be connected with the committee appointed by the American Philosophical Society, Schuylkill on the east, and Ohio and the great lakes on the west. but it adds that "the dark and distressing period of the Revolu- Digitized by Google EARLY CANAL FINANCIERING. 43 tion necessarily suspended all improvements of this nature, in THE CHESAPEAKE AND OHIO PROJECT. every part of America, until the glorious era of the peace and The reasons thus cogently expressed doubtless form the prin- independence of the United States, when they were first re- cipal causes of the ardent devotion manifested by Washington, sumed in the states of Virginia and Maryland, upon the Poto- at various stages of his career, to the creation of practicable mac, under the auspices of the illustrious Washington, during connection between the waters of the Chesapeake and the Ohio. his short recess from his public labors; next in the state of Largely through his instrumentality, a charter for the construc- Pennsylvania; and speedily afterwards, with a noble emulation tion of such a work was obtained from the states of Virginia of public spirit, in most of the other states, according to their and Maryland, and also valuable grants of land and money. natural advantages, as New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, This was the first important and extensive work designed to the Carolinas, &c." connect the Atlantic seaboard and the western states on which a vigorous commencement was made, and Washington was the WASHINGTON'S VIEWS AND LABORS. first president of the company formed to prosecute that under- The labors of Washington here referred to, had a marked taking. His attention had been called, during the revolutionary influence in directing general attention to the importance of struggle, to the importance of the natural advantages for secur- improving the channels of communication between the At- ing a cheap through water route which existed in New York, lantic coast and the interior districts, lying west of the Alle- but he preferred to give close attention to the project which gheny mountains. Thitherward a strong stream of immigration was designed to establish such an important channel through had at last been directed. After closely hugging the seaboard the regions with which he was most familiar, and which he during the first century and a half that succeeded the establish- had personally explored during, previous to, and after his con- ment of settlements in Massachusetts and Virginia, and after nection with the ill-fated Braddock expedition. the strong obstacles to a fulfillment of the prophetic saying The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, however, was too expen- that "Westward the course of empire wends its way," which sive an undertaking to be completed during Washington's life. arose from Indian, French, and Spanish hostilities, had been, Even its extension to Cumberland, like the early canal projects to a great extent, removed, the chief barriers to extensive of Pennsylvania and New York, required many years of effort, migrations to the rich prairies of the west was the expense of and renewals of exertion after postponements or partial aban- transportation for surplus products from western Pennsylvania, donment. western Virginia, Kentucky, and Ohio to available markets. SLOW PROGRESS OF IMPORTANT EARLY CANAL PROJECTS. For a considerable period the only resort was down the Ohio A forcible indication of the financial and other difficulties and Mississippi,-the cost of movement over the mountains with which the pioneer projectors had to contend is furnished being 80 excessive as to absolutely prohibit the sending of by the statement that the Schuylkill and Susquehanna, subse- bulky dead freight in either direction. A vivid picture of some quently called the Union Canal, eighty-two miles in length, and of the embarrassments arising from this condition of affairs, designed to furnish a channel between the Schuylkill river, and of the danger it generated that all the inhabitants of the near Reading, and Middletown, on the Susquehanna, which Mississippi valley would form new political affiliations, and was located in 1762 (at an earlier period than any other canal thus make their settlements perilous rather than a pillar of in the United States), was not actually commenced until 1791, strength to the colonies which had emerged triumphantly, but nearly thirty years after the original surveys were made. Four terribly exhausted, from a struggle with Great Britain, is fur- miles of the line, however, were opened in 1794, but work was nished in a letter addressed by General Washington, on October suspended from 1795 until 1821, and the entire line was only 12th, 1783, to the Marquis de Chastelleux. After saying that completed in 1827, sixty-five years after the first surveys were "the flank and rear of the United States are possessed by other made, and thirty-six years after actual work was commenced. powers, and formidable ones, too; and how necessary it is to Nor was this dilatoriness exceptional. apply the cement of interest to bind all parts of the Union In 1764 the second canal survey was made. It was over the together by indissoluble bonds-especially that part of it which route intended to connect the Chesapeake bay with the Dela- lies immediately west of us, with the Middle states,"-he adds ware river. In 1769 a second survey of this route was con- these very important statements: "The Western states (I speak ducted under the direction of the American Philosophical So- now from my own observation) hang upon a pivot. The touch ciety; but work was only commenced on the Chesapeake and of a feather would turn them any way. They have looked down Delaware Canal, 13} miles long, in 1804, and subsequently sus- the Mississippi till the Spaniards, very impoliticly, I think, for pended. The line was relocated in 1822, and completed in themselves, threw difficulties in the way; and they looked that 1829, sixty-five years after the first survey was made, and way for no other reason than because they could glide quietly twenty-five years after work was commenced. The Chesa- down the stream, without considering, perhaps, the difficulties peake and Ohio Canal, with which Washington was closely of the voyage back again, and the time necessary to perform identified in its early stages, and which was originally designed it, and because they had no other means of coming to us but to furnish a practical water route corresponding very closely by land transportation and unimproved roads. These causes with the line followed by Braddock's expedition, inasmuch as have hitherto checked the industry of the present settlers; for the scheme contemplated a line from Georgetown, District of except the demand for provisions, occasioned by the increase Columbia, to Pittsburgh, was vigorously commenced in 1828, of population, and the little flour which the necessities of the and in 1850 180 miles of the line, leading from Cumberland to Spaniards compel them to buy, they have no incitement to Georgetown, were opened. labor. But smooth the road and make the way easy for them, There were similar delays or postponements in all the early and then see what an influx of articles will be poured upon us, canals of material magnitude, and only the shorter and cheaper how amazingly our exports will increase, and how amply we lines, intended mainly to serve local purposes, to most of which shall be compensated for any trouble and expense we may en- reference has already been made, were finished in a compara- counter to effect it." tively brief period. EARLY CANAL FINANCIERING. POLICY OF STATE GOVERNMENTS. zeal for the improvement of the country, by means of roads THE policated adopted by several of the important states is and inland navigation, yet could not subject the finances of the by the following statement of the general prin- state (even if adequate) to the burden of the whole; yet they ciples approved by the legislature of Pennsylvania, after duly would make liberal appropriations of public money for the considering the appeals and memorials made in 1791 and duc- improvement of such roads and navigable waters, as, lying too ceeding years by the society for promoting the improvement remote from the more populous parts of the country, and the of roads and inland navigation, viz.:- inhabitants but thinly settled, rendered it impracticable for "That the legislature, although animated by the warmest them either to improve their own roads and waters by sub. Digitized by Google 44 EARLY CANAL FINANCIERING. scriptions or the usual county taxes; and the profits of the tolls tion Company. The legislature passed the act of incorporation would yet be too small to induce companies to undertake the September 29th, 1791. Books for subscription were shortly work at their own expense; but that in the more settled parts afterward opened. Such was the interest and excitement that of the country, especially near the metropolis, they would be 40,000 shares were subscribed for, although there were but 1,000 ready to incorporate companies, for the gradual and progressive to be sold. In this dilemma the managers resorted to a lottery improvement of roads and waters, where the tolls would be to determine who should be the successful bidders. The chances sufficient to recompense the subscribers or stockholders, and for the prize were one in forty, and the lucky holder of the the charge would fall according to justice upon those who were drawn number had the privilege of buying the stock at par, to be benefited, in proportion to the use they might make of whilst thirty-nine others just as anxious were excluded. such roads and waters." The persons interested in this project were desirous to have In accordance with these principles the legislature of Penn- the work very complete. It was not enough that the com- sylvania granted several charters for the formation of canal and merce of the Susquehanna and the fruitful counties upon that turnpike companies and made appropriations for the construc- river should be brought to the Schuylkill. The banks of the tion or improvement of state roads and the "clearing and latter, in 1791, were as secluded and almost as wild as they had making navigable certain parts" of sundry rivers in the com- been a century previous. Trade was conducted on the Dela- monwealth. The appropriation for the improvement of rivers ware, and in order to complete the scheme it was considered made in 1791 amounted to £20,270 ($2.66} to the £). The pro- necessary that a canal should be built between the Delaware posed aid was distributed to rivers in all portions of the com- and Schuylkill, SO that the produce coming down the latter monwealth, including the Delaware, Lackawaxen, Lehigh, from the west could be carried over and landed at the wharves Schuylkill, Susquehanna, Juniata, Sinnemahoning, Allegheny, of the merchants of the city. To accomplish this object the French Creek, Conemaugh, and Kiskiminetas. At the same Delaware and Schuylkill Canal Company was chartered by act time road appropriations amounting to a considerable sum of April 10th, 1792. Power was given to the company to take were made. In 1792 £3,000 additional river appropriations water from the Schuylkill anywhere between the mouth of Stony were made, and aid was granted to a number of road projects. creek, at Norristown, and the northern boundary of the city The total river and road appropriations of 1791 and 1792 of Philadelphia. The capital was 2,000 shares, at $200 each. amounted to £36,160. In 1793 $14,333 were appropriated to The stock was promptly taken, and the company organized by roads. But although these river and road improvements ren- the election of Robert Morris, president; Timothy Matlack, dered some aid to local interests they furnished very imperfect secretary, and Tench Francis, treasurer. The work was com- aids to the transportation requirements of the time, and a very menced in November, 1792, near Norristown Mills, and prose- decided advance resulted from the passage of an act of incor- cuted for some years. poration, in 1792, of the first important turnpike company With Robert Morris, the famous financier of the Revolution, organized in the United States. at the head of these organizations, they commanded such an EARLY AGITATION OF THE ERIE CANAL PROJECT. unusual degree of public confidence that they were regarded Canals of considerable length were too expensive to be prose- as the leading canal enterprises of the country. Unfortunately cuted with great energy in any portion of the Union before the they were overwhelmed with disaster. Either on account of present century, or even during the first decade of the nine- errors in plans adopted, miscalculations of cost, failure to pro- teenth century. Fair beginnings had been made in a number cure the necessary means, financial convulsions, or a combina- of quarters, one of the most important being in connection tion of all these difficulties, they were compelled to suspend with preliminary steps for the construction of a portion of the their operations after an outlay of $440,000, which was an im- Erie Canal. Sir Henry Moore, a provincial governor, had called mense sum in those days. This suspension, and an interrup- the attention of the legislature of New York to the importance tion of active operations on the Chesapeake and Delaware of a connection of the Hudson with lake Erie by "an artificial Canal, which occurred a few years later, had a disastrous or river" in 1768. A private company constructed a small link discouraging effect on all similar projects for a considerable in the route at a comparatively early date, and efforts had been period. made about 1808 or 1809 to induce the Federal Government to On the 2d of April, 1811, the legislature passed an act to co-operate with the state. It was probably about this period incorporate 'the Union Canal Company, of Pennsylvania." that Thomas Jefferson made the famous remark that the canal The name was chosen because the new corporation was really might be finished a century later. a union of the old Schuylkill and Susquehanna and the Dela- The slow progress that had been made at that date in con- ware and Schuylkill canal companies. The preamble recited nection with various canal enterprises, and the lamentable that those corporations had made strenuous efforts to carry out failure of a variety of financial expedients, were sufficiently the objects of their charters, but had failed. They were, there- discouraging to render the completion of such a gigantic under- fore, dissolved, and a new company formed of the stockholders taking as the projected Erie Canal only a thing to be hoped for of the old corporations, whose relative rights were adjusted in as a future possibility. the new distribution of the capital. TRIBULATIONS OF THE UNION CANAL COMPANY. RAISING MONEY BY LOTTERY SCHEMES. The financial history of the Union Canal, of Pennsylvania, Work was again interrupted by the war of 1812, and com- the project for connecting the Delaware and Susquehanna paratively little was done until a mode for raising funds to con- rivers, already referred to, which was one of the earliest if not tinue operations was furnished by the passage of an act March the first scheme of considerable magnitude to receive very 29th, 1819, granting an interest of 6 per cent. to subscribers to serious attention, illustrates the difficulties that attended many stock of the canal, with the understanding that the money of the pioneer canal projects. This company was declared to needed for paying such interest should be derived from a lot- be hopelessly insolvent in March, 1885, in a legal report filed in tery or series of lotteries authorized. To increase the feasibility one of the courts of Philadelphia, which recommended that it of this scheme, the company was granted a monopoly of the should be sold at sheriff's sale. right of conducting lotteries in Pennsylvania. This programme The Union Canal was the outgrowth of a scheme first agitated was materially strengthened by the passage of an act on March about 1760 for improving the navigation of the Schuylkill, 26th, 1821, by which the state was pledged to pay any deficiency which, after a small amount of work was done, was revived in of interest which the lottery could not produce. 1771, and then made part of a project for uniting the waters of A power to issue lottery tickets had been part of the original the Susquehanna and Schuylkill, officially reported to be feasi- scheme, and granted by an act passed April 17th, 1795, but up ble. Mainly on account of the disturbing influences arising to 1810 the company had only realized about $60,000 from the from the Revolutionary War, this project was allowed to lottery. Subsequently the lottery operations became quite slumber until 1791, when it was decided that the proper plan lucrative and a source of great abuses. would be to organize a company to do the work. The capital The plan of aiding the Union Canal by giving it exclusive was fixed at 1,000 shares at $400 each, and the title of the com- authority during a considerable period to establish lotteries pany was agreed to be the Schuylkill and Susquehanna Naviga- was by no means peculiar to Pennsylvania. It seems to have Digitized by Google EFFECT OF THE COMPLETION OF THE ERIE CANAL 45 been a favorite resource with adjacent states for the nominal Union Canal was nearly eighty miles long, from Middletown, accomplishment of similar purposes. A lengthy address, issued on the Susquehanna, to a point on the Schuylkill a short dis- in Philadelphia in 1833, setting forth the evils of the lottery tance below Reading, and was adapted to the use of boats of system, said that there were more than two hundred lottery twenty-five to thirty tons' burthen. At Middletown it was con- offices in that city, and that there had been offered for sale in nected with the Pennsylvania Canal, leading, by various con- them during the year, tickets in 420 schemes, authorized by New nections, to Pittsburgh and Erie, to Tioga in the north, and to York, Virginia, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, Maryland, the Bald Eagle, on the west branch of the Susquehanna. At and North Carolina. The sale of tickets in all these schemes, Reading it was connected with the works of the Schuylkill which represented aggregate prizes of $53,136,930, was prohibited Navigation Company, leading to Philadelphia. In 1828 the by law in Pennsylvania, except 26 schemes for the benefit of the cost of the Union Canal was estimated at $1,600,000, and its Union Canal, which represented prizes amounting to $5,313,056. small locks, and the probability that much of the business of In commenting upon these facts the address referred to said: the Susquehanna would be conducted over the projected Phila- "Thus the people of Pennsylvania have been made to con- delphia and Columbia Railrond, were referred to in that year as tribute to the internal improvements of New York, Virginia, causes likely to militate against its financial success, and these Connecticut, Rhode Island, and North Carolina, Maryland and apprehensions proved to be well founded. Delaware, as well as to pay a large sum to a company of their OTHER EARLY CANALS IN PENNSYLVANIA. own state, whose grant has expired. Pennsylvania, by being the great mart for nearly all the lotteries of the United Charles Miner, writing in 1833, in describing the com- States, has reason for emphatic complaint. In defiance of all mencement of operations by Messrs. White & Hazard, in 1818, her legislative prohibition of foreign lotteries, her citizens are to improve the navigation of the Schuylkill, says:- annually subsidized to an immense amount; perhaps for a "The only canals in Pennsylvania, at that time in navigable church in Rhode Island, or a rail road through the Dismal order, were one of about two miles in length, at York Haven, Swamp, or for other improvements in which she has as remote on the Susquehanna, and one made by Josiah White at the a prospect of interest or advantage." Falls of Schuylkill, with two locks, and a canal three or four hundred yards long." Of the latter work a memoir of Josiah COMPLETION OF THE UNION CANAL. White says: "He bought a country place, with an unimproved Partly on account of the increased success of lottery opera- water power, about five miles from Philadelphia, at the Falls tions, and partly on account of the material aid derived from of Schuylkill. Here he began his engineering operations with the substantial assurances furnished by the act of 1821, the an effort to improve that water power. Josiah White built managers of the Union Canal were enabled to resume opera- a dam in the river Schuylkill, and a large lock, of cut stone, tions in that year, and in about six years from that time the for passing river boats. This was the first lock built on the work was finished, thirty-seven years after the commencement river, and it was not until after a very severe and expensive of construction, and sixty-five years after the first survey. The struggle with the water that the foundation was laid." EFFECT OF THE COMPLETION OF THE ERIE CANAL. A GREAT impetus was given to canal construction by the He thought Ohio was more fortunate, and that her canal sys- completion of the Erie Canal in 1825. Its success inspired tem was likely to be very effective. He said that her inhabi- other states with a desire and determination to build compet- tants had made judicious efforts "to take advantage of their ing or connecting lines, and about the same time a number of peculiar situation, and to co-operate with rather than rival the English canal companies reached the flood tide of pros- their sister state. By means of canals, stretching from the very perity. Their shares were sold at a great premium. A list of centre of that fertile region, they can now (1827-28) send their English canal stocks that had originally cost £1,525 sold in 1821 produce to lake Erie, from whence it may enter the grand for £9,287, or more than six times their par value, and they canal at Buffalo, and so find its way to Lockport, Rochester, paid dividends exceeding 314 per cent. per annum. From that and Albany, and from thence its course to the sea at New York, time until 1831 about the same conditions prevailed. The down the Hudson, is an affair of a few hours. On the other stock of one of the English canals, the Chester, only 91 miles hand, if the southern market is deemed preferable by the in- long, which had originally cost £100, sold for £2,550, and paid habitants of the state alluded to, they may send their produce a dividend of £180, or 180 per cent. on the first investment. In by canals into the river Ohio, which joins the Mississippi, and 1832 the stock of the Schuylkill Navigation Company, of Penn- thus it will float swiftly down to New Orleans." sylvania, sold at an advance of 100 per cent. on the original price of shares. At a later period their stock rose to three and UNPROFITABLE CANALS. a half times its par value. Although some important works had been commenced and With state pride aroused and high hopes of corporate gains a few had been finished before the completion of the Erie Canal, awakened a canal craze became inevitable. Captain Basil Hall, yet largely on account of the impetus given by its early triumphs of the British navy, in his travels in North America in 1827 and the success of a few canal companies, the work of con- and 1828, after speaking in glowing terms of the numerous struction was prosecuted with great vigor during the period advantages derived by New York from the completion of the from 1825 to 1840. A summary of the length of the lines fin- Erie Canal, directs attention to the losses that were likely to be ished and the financial results is furnished in the following inflicted by impracticable and unprofitable schemes warmed extract from the United States Census Report for 1880 on into life by the success of the New York canal. He says:- Agencies of Transportation:- "Property of every kind has risen in value, as might have Adding together the totals of operating and abandoned been expected, in all those parts of the country through which canals, we have a grand total of 4,468 miles of canals, costing the (Erie) canal passes, and a vast increase, both of exports approximately $214,041,802. Of these, 1,953 miles are now and imports, has taken place in those sections of the state abandoned, and a large portion of the remaining 2,515 is not which lie between the Hudson and the lakes, all tending to paying expenses. This is largely due to railroad competition. increase the wealth and importance of the state of New York. All the canals in the New England states are abandoned for But the example of this successful experiment has, I suspect, commercial purposes. The Middlesex Canal was, perhaps, the done some mischiej in the rest of the American states; for it has set most successful up to the time of the construction of the Boston agoing a multitude of projects, many of which, I am convinced, and Lowell Railroad in 1835, and it paid expenses and a dividend can never answer any good purpose, except to such speculators of about 6 per cent. for a number of years. The Oxford and Cum- as may have sold their original shares at a premium, and then berland Canal, costing a moderate sum, did a fair business previ- backed out of the scrape, pretty much as many of the joint ous to the construction of the Portland and Ogdensh stock company jobbers did in England in 1825." The Blackstone Canal, in Massachusetts and Digitized by Google 46 EFFECT OF THE COMPLETION OF THE ERIE CANAL. passing through a rich region of country abounding in manu- "To each of these estimates must be added the toll, which factories, was built in the best manner, but was never profit- will be less on the small canal. If, therefore, the increased toll able. The Farmington and Hampshire and Hampden canals (which will be necessary to pay on the large and consequently sunk $1,089,425. In New York state, 356 miles of lateral canals, more expensive canal) be less than the amount saved in the costing $10,235,314, have been abandoned; in Pennsylvania 477 transportation thereon, it will conduce more to the public miles are abandoned, costing $12,745,780; in Ohio, 205 miles, interest to adopt it, if a sufficient supply of water can be ob- costing $3,000,000, have been abandoned. Indiana, with the tained, particularly if such canal be intended to communicate aid of her creditors, constructed 379 miles of canals, costing with canals of large section and considerable extent." $6,325,262, all of which were abandoned upon the construction In other words, the cost of transportation, exclusive of tolls, of railroads along the lines of the canals. The most enterpris- was nearly twice as great on a canal on which only 25-ton ing and sagacious men in the country were engaged in pro- boats could be moved as on a canal adapted to the movement jecting and building these canals, but their expectations with of 50-ton boats, and on this question of capacity the utility of regard to them were never realized." many of the canals constructed in this country has hinged. The following figures are taken from the official records of In determining the size or capacity of canals, one of the im- the year 1880, of the results of working the canals which had portant questions to be considered was the difficulty of obtain- not been abandoned:- ing sufficient quantities of water to feed or supply large struc- State. Mileage. Cost. Gross income. Expenses. tures. The additional expense also created obstacles of grave New York 608 $68,229,416 $1,239,448 $1,099,974 importance during an era when capital was exceedingly scarce. New Jersey 171 10,776,353 635,108 461,762 The enlargements made from time to time greatly cheapened Pennsylvania 529 37,706,645 1,562,018 588,024 Delaware 14 3,730,230 201,783 62,245 the cost of movement, and a principal cause of the marked Maryland 104 11,290,327 372,616 227,277 reductions in the actual charges imposed at various periods is Virginia 44 4,042,363 104,048 71,632 the economical benefits resulting from the substitution of large North Carolina 13 300,000 8,000 3,000 for small boats. Another element of economy is the substitu- Georgia 25 1,907,818 8,200 14,362 tion of steam for horse power. Reductions of tolls have also Florida 10 70,000 Not returned. helped to reduce rates, especially where they have been so im- Louisiana 19 2,030,000 27,840 13,650 portant as those made on the Erie Canal. One of the calcula- Texas 8 340,000 4,535 3,454 tions is that the cost of moving one ton per mile on a large Illinois 102 6,557,681 107,605 125,601 Michigan 3 7,425,300 52,519 28,532 canal is 41} per cent. of the cost of movement on a small canal, Ohio 674 15,022,503 214,891 223,643 and by enlargements and the use of steam power the cost, ex- Oregon t 600,000 Not returned. clusive of tolls, has been reduced to less than three mills per ton per mile. Total for United States 2,515 $170,028,636 $4,538,620 $2,954,156 The advantages resulting from enlargements of canals, to- VARIATIONS IN THE CONSTRUCTION AND SIZE OF CANALS. gether with contrasts of the benefits realized or anticipated from As compared with the primitive canals of some other coun- canals with the results derived from some of the early railroads, tries, a number of the American lines represented, from the are illustrated by the following statements:- outset, a marked improvement in several particulars; but lack of capital generally prevented the construction of artificial water- COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON CANALS OF VARIOUS SIZES AND ON ways large enough to admit boats of considerable capacity, and EARLY RAILROADS. this defect was 80 damaging that enlargements became neces- A report of Mr. Josiah White, acting manager of the Lehigh sary on nearly every work that was destined to obtain a promi- Coal and Navigation Company, dated Philadelphia, January nent position. 12th, 1829, says:- An early indication of the inconveniences and lack of ability "Perhaps some remarks on our experience with our railroad, to compete with large-section canals, which would be likely to on which has been transported upwards of 6,000 tons, may result from the methods pursued in the construction of some settle the question, with some of our stockholders, who have of the canals of Pennsylvania, is furnished by the following doubted the policy of canaling the valley of the Lehigh, in remarks in reference to the Union Canal, which had locks only place of making a railroad. I, therefore, give the cost of trans- seventeen feet wide, written in 1828: "Unquestionably, canals portation on our railroad and also on the Erie Canal; of small section can be made in less time, with less expense, both are given without tolls or repairs of road or canal. and require less water than canals of large section, and may, therefore, be frequently more beneficial to a company than the Cost of Transportation on our Railroad for the Year 1828. latter, particularly if the amount of the trade, or rather of the tolls, be not influenced by the size of the canal; but to the Mules and horses cost 11 cent per ton a mile. public at large, to those using the navigation, the expense of Hands 11 cent per ton a mile. transportation is much less on the large canal, for two men, Repairing wagons i cent per ton a mile. Oil for wagons t cent per ton a mile. one boy, and a horse are required for every boat of twenty-five tons. The employment of an additional horse, which will occa- Total 3100 cents per ton a mile, sion but a very small addition to the expense, will be sufficient full load one way, and the whole cost divided into the distance for a boat of forty-five or fifty tons. In our commonwealth one way only. (Pennsylvania) it may be thus stated:- 2 men, at 75 cents each $1 50 Cost of Transportation by the Erie Canal (Exclusive of Tolls). 1 boy, at 50 cents 50 For boats of 40 tons burthen, 1 cent per ton a mile; full 1 horse, at 50 cents 50 loads one way and returning empty. Calculated as per the $2 50 railroad. for twenty-five tons, or 10 cents per ton for a given distance. Calculating on same data as above, on a boat of 67 tons, such 2 men, at 75 cents each $1 50 as will be adapted to the Delaware Canal, transportation will 1 boy, at 50 cents 50 cost 10 of a cent per ton a mile; and for a boat of 134 tons 2 horses, at 50 cents 1 00 burthen, adapted to the Lehigh Canal, I cent per ton a mile; $3 00 the latter being less than one-sixth the cost per mile, as per our for 50 tons, or only 6 cents per ton for the same distance. railroad." Digitized by Google COST OF CANAL TRANSPORTATION. 47 COST OF CANAL TRANSPORTATION. THE average tolls on several important American canals in He gives the relative cost of transportation as follows: Old were two cents per ton per mile, and the cost of Erie Canal, 4 feet water, boats 76 tons, cost 4.14 mills per ton movement one cent, making three cents per ton per mile the per mile; enlarged Erie Canal, 7 feet water, boats 210 tons, cost sum usually paid for transporting articles which were not sub- 2.16 mills per ton per mile; re-enlarged Erie Canal, 8 feet water jected to exceptionally high or exceptionally low tolls. These boats 690 tons, cost 1.04 mills per ton per mile. charges were cited in a memorial of the Chesapeake and Ohio Andrews' Report on Colonial and Lake Trade, published in Canal Company to Congress, in 1832, as the standard American 1854, says:- rates at that time. "Previous to the construction of the canal the cost of trans- The tolls on the Union Canal, of Pennsylvania, in 1831 varied portation from Lake Erie to tidewater was such as to nearly from half a cent per ton per mile to two cents, with the charac- prevent all movement of merchandise. A report of the com- ter of the article, two cents being imposed on household furni- mittee of the legislature, to whom was referred the whole sub- ture, marble, merchandise, rosin, salt, tar, and window glass, ject of the proposed work, consisting of the most intelligent and half a cent on clay, earth, and stone. A number of articles members of that body, dated March 17th, 1817, states that at that were charged one cent, and others 1, 11, 11, and 17 cents. Simi- time the cost of transportation from Buffalo to Montreal was lar tolls were established at the outset on the Pennsylvania state $30 per ton, and the returning transportation from $60 to $75. canals, but subsequently they were frequently changed. The expense of transportation from Buffalo to New York was COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON THE ERIE CANAL. stated at $100 per ton, and the ordinary length of passage An annual report of the Auditor of the Canal Department of twenty days; 80 that, upon the very route through which the the state of New York contains a table showing that average heaviest and cheapest products of the west are now sent to charges for canal transportation for the periods named below market, the cost of transportation equaled nearly three times had been as follows:- the market value of wheat in New York; six times the value of Up freight per ton from Down freight per ton corn; twelve times the value of oats; and far exceeded the value Average from- Albany to Buffalo. from Buffalo to Albany. of cured provisions. Prior to the construction of the Tolls. Freight. Tolls. Freight. 1830 to 1833, 4 years $18 $9 85 $8 $8 84 $4 74 $4 10 Erie Canal the wheat of western New York was sent down the 1834 to 1837, 4 years 18 6 57 11 43 7 15 3 28 3 87 Susquehanna to Baltimore, as the cheapest and best route to 1838 to 1841, 4 years 16 10 6 57 9 53 6 94 3 28 3 66 market. 1842 to 1845, 4 years 11 75 6 57 5 18 5 93 3 28 2 65 "The rates of transportation over the Erie Canal, at its open- 1846 to 1849, 4 years 7 85 4 80 3 05 5 90 2 92 2 98 ing, were nearly double the present charges (1854)-which 1850 to 1853, 4 years 6 05 3 76 2 29 5 07 2 37 2 70 range from $3 to $7 per ton, according to the character of the 1854 to 1857, 4 years 5 05 2 92 2 13 4 86 2 19 2 67 freight." 1858 to 1861, 4 years 2 45 1 24 1 21 3 54 1 51 2 03 1862 to 1865, 4 years 2 52 1 22 1 30 4 66 2 11 2 55 "DISCRIMINATING" TOLLS ON THE NEW YORK CANALS. 1866 to 1872, 7 years 2 1 05 1 55 4 13 1 80 2 33 The same work states that 1845 was the year in which the F. A. Alberger, in n letter addressed to the Senatorial com- enlarged Welland Canal first came into serious competition mittee on transportation routes, dated Buffalo, December 1st, with the route through Buffalo. The policy of the state of 1873, said: "The toll-freight on a barrel of flour from Buffalo to New York has been not only to obtain the largest possible Albany in 1830-31-32 was 55 cents; carriers' charges, average, revenue from her canals, but also to protect her own manufac- 43 cents; in 1833, 39 cents; carriers' charges, average, 49 cents; tures and products against competition from other quarters; from 1833 to 1846, 35 cents; carriers' charges, average, 36 cents; and this she has been enabled hitherto most effectually to from 1845 to 1851, 31 cents; carriers' charges, average, 31} accomplish, by levying discriminating tolls. Thus foreign salt cents; from 1850 to 1858, 23 cents; carriers' charges, average, was excluded from the western states by a rate of toll about 29# cents; from 1857 to 1861, 15 cents; carriers' charges, average, twice its whole value. The toll upon this article in 1845 was 201 cents; in 1861, 19 cents; carriers' charges, average, 27 cents; three cents per 1,000 pounds per mile, or $21.78 per ton of 2,000 from 1861 to 1870, 23 cents; carriers' charges, average, 27 cents; pounds (about three dollars per barrel), while the toll upen from 1869 to 1873, 11} cents; carriers' charges, average, 26,180 New York state salt was only one-thirteenth part of that upon cents." the foreign article. In 1846 (the first year after the opening of The Auditor of the New York Canal Department, in his re- the enlarged Welland Canal), the tolls on foreign salt were re- port on the tolls, trade, and tonnage of the canals for 1872, duced one-half, and a still greater amount on New York state gives the average sum per ton per mile received by the carrier, salt. The next year a further reduction of thirty-three per at 10.02 miles, including state tolls. In the same report he cent took place; and in 1850 the toll was again reduced one- gives the average amount per ton per mile received by the half, 80 that it is now only one-sixth the rate charged in 1845; carrier from 1856 to 1872, as follows:- but it is still subject to a tax five times as great as that paid by Mills. Mills. New York state salt. 1856 11.10 1865 10.10 In like manner, railroad iron in 1845 paid a toll of 9 mills. 1857 7.99 1866 10.00 1858 7.97 1867 In 1846 this was reduced to 5 mills; in 1850, to 4 mills; in 1851, 9.00 1859 6.72 1868 8.80 to 21 mills, and in 1852, to 1} mills. Almost every other article 1860 9.94 1869 9.20 of heavy goods and merchandise for up-freight has likewise 1861 10.08 1870 8.30 undergone frequent and heavy reductions in toll on the Erie 1862 9.59 1871 10.02 Canal since the Welland and St. Lawrence came into competi- 1863 8.76 1872 10.02 tion with it. 1864 10.15 In the down trade, flour and wheat have been reduced 33 per The average amount received by the carrier, including the cent.; corn and oats, from 41 mills to 2 mills; pork, bacon, lard, state tolls for the seventeen years ended with 1872, was 9.14 and lard oil, from 41 mills to 1} mills; beef, butter, cheese, tal- mills per ton per mile, including the carriers' profits, which is low, beer, cider, vinegar, from 4} to 3 mills. Almost every other an average from Buffalo to Troy, 345 miles, of $3.15 per ton, article of down-freight has undergone like reductions. Like and from Buffalo to New York, 500 miles, of $4.57 per ton of wise, the discrimination in favor of pot and pearl ashes, an 2,000 pounds. State Engineer Taylor, in his special report of window glass manufactured in New York state, has been aban 1863, on canal enlargement, makes the cost per ton per mile doned, the state retaining only a discriminating on the present Erie Canal 2.16 mills and 1.04 mills per ton per and gypsum from other states or countries." mile with a (projected) re-enlarged Erie Canal of capacity for These reminiscences of the old way of ma boats of 600 tons. present striking contrasts with the modern Digitized by Google 48 COST OF CANAL TRANSPORTATION. ing tolls on the New York canals, and appropriating money to main line of improvements was about getting fairly under way, keep them in repair or to improve them. They also suggest Moore's Philadelphia Price Current said:- texts on the subject of "freight discriminations." "Only last year (1833) the papers of New York boasted in capital letters, that goods had been transported to Cincinnati, MOVEMENTS ON PENNSYLVANIA STATE CANALS. via Albany and the canal for the trifling sum of TWO DOL- The report of the Canal Commissioners of Pennsylvania for LARS AND FORTY CENTS (per hundred pounds); we give it 1831 says: "Flour is now carried by the canals to Philadelphia in capitals, for the whole benefit of the boast shall be promi- from Lewistown, 211 miles, for 621 cents, and from Harrisburg, nently repeated. Goods are now delivered from Phila- 150 miles, for 40 cents a barrel; and gypsum is taken back for delphia at Cincinnati for ONE DOLLAR AND THIRTY $8 a ton to Harrisburg, and $5 a ton to Lewistown. Therefore, CENTS!! We place this in capitals also that there may be no the freight, exclusive of tolls, is, downwards, 14} mills per ton misunderstanding. Cotton has been brought from Ala- per mile, and returning, 7 mills per ton per mile, or an average bama, via the Pennsylvania Canal, and delivered in Philadelphia both ways of one cent and three-fourths of a mill per ton per at a less cost than it could be sent via New Orleans!" mile for carriage." The report also says: "The tolls charged on the Pennsyl- MOVEMENTS ON THE DELAWARE AND HUDSON AND OTHER COAL- vania Canal were revised by the board of Canal Commissioners TRANSPORTING CANALS. on the 9th of last April. They are now as low as justice can On the Delaware and Hudson Canal, when its capacity was require or prudence will warrant. A copy of the rates of toll in restricted to 50-ton boats, coal was carried 108 miles for $1; tabular form, marked B, accompanies this report." It em- when the capacity increased, 80 as to make it available for braces the following and other rates pertaining to passengers, boats carrying from 115 to 141 tons, the cost was reduced to 50 boats, &c.:- cents, or 410 mills per ton per mile. Rates of toll per mile to be charged on the Pennsylvania Canal, John Bolton, shortly after retirement from the position of from and after the 1st day of May, A. D. 1831:- president of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, said: "On the On ashes, leached, and manure, per ton, 6 mills; ashes, pot Erie Canal and Delaware and Hudson Canal, the highest rate and pearl, per ton of 7 barrels, 1 cent, 5 mills; agricultural pro- on merchandise, including toll, freight, and receiving and for- ductions, not particularly specified, 1 cent, 5 mills; agricultural warding, is 5 cents per ton per mile, $1.62 for 32 miles. The instruments and carts, wagons, sleighs, ploughs, and mechanics' Delaware and Hudson Canal is 108 miles long, their railroad tools, necessary for the owners' individual use, when accom- 16 miles; the toll on that canal, on coal, is $1.50 for the whole panied by the owner emigrating, per ton, 1 cent, 5 mills; bark, distance, and on the railroad 50 cents per ton." in boat, per ton, 1 cent, 5 mills; in rafts, 1 cent; if ground, 1 Jonathan Knight, in 1832, said: "With regard to the cost of cent, 5 mills; beef, salted, per ton of 8 barrels, 1 cent, 5 mills; transportation upon canals, there are various and conflicting brick, per ton of 500, 71 mills; boards, planks, and scantling, statements. It appears that on the Erie Canal, the reduced to inch measure, and all siding lath and other sawed cost, with boats of 40 tons burthen (exclusive of tolls), is one stuff less than an inch thick, if conveyed in boats and SCOWS cent per ton per mile, with full loads in one direction and down stream, 1,000 feet board. measure, 1 cent; do., do., if con- empty in the other. The information we personally obtained, veyed in boats and SCOWS up stream, 2 cents; the same if con- in the autumn of 1830, upon the works of the Delaware and veyed in rafts up or down; butter, lard, and cheese, per ton, 1 Hudson Canal Company. in relation to their canal, was, that cent, 5 mills. two men, a boy, and a horse, would convey a boat, freighted The toll on the following articles, per ton per mile, in cents with 25 tons of coal, 20 miles in a day; in October, however, and mills, was as follows: Clay, earth, sand, and gravel, 6 mills; owing to the want of water, the quantity carried was only 20 charcoal, 1.5; mineral coal, 5 mills; cotton, 1.5; dry goods and tons. The transportation was done by contract for $1.50 per merchandise, 3; deer, buffalo, and moose skins, 2; furs and pel- ton; the length of the canal being 108 miles, the cost per ton tries, èxcept those just named, 3; household furniture, 2; grind- per mile was 1100 of a cent, exclusive of tolls; but they hoped stones, 1.5; gypsum, 1.5; groceries, 2; hay, 1; heading or pool to economize it to $1.25, or per ton per mile 1100. This very poles for barrels or hogsheads, if transported in rafts, 1.5; hard- well agrees with Judge Wright's statement of 'one cent to one ware, 2.5; hemp and hempen yarns, 1.5; iron ore, 1; iron pigs and cent two mills.' The present cost of transit, on the Lehigh broken castings, 1.5; iron castings, blooms, and anchovies, 2; Canal, in rough arks, is one cent per ton per mile. With a boat iron bar, rolled, slit, or hammered, 2.5; lard, pig, 1.21; lead, of 75 tons burthen, Josiah White, the superintendent, estimates white, 1.5; lath, split, 1; marble, unwrought, 1.5; marble, manu- the cost of transportation on the Lehigh Canal to be about I of factured, 2.5; millstones and French burrs, 1; queensware and a cent per ton per mile." earthenware, 2.5; salt, fine, in rafts, 1.5; tobacco, not manufac- In 1827 on the Schuylkill Canal, the toll charged for a through tured, 1.5. movement was $1.48, or 11 cents per ton per mile. In an esti- The toll on the following articles. in which the ton is to con- mate of the cost of moving coal over this canal to Philadelphia sist of a specific quantity, or some other basis of charge is made, in 1833, the toll was fixed at $1 and the freight charges at $1.50. was as follows, in cents and mills: Barley, ton of 50 bushels, 1.5; A series of calculations made in 1834 by an enthusiastic ad- beer, ton of 8 barrels, 1.5; cider, ton of 8 barrels or 2 hogsheads, vocate of the construction of a railway leading from Wilkes- 1.5; corn, Indian, ton of 40 bushels, 1.5; flour, ton of 10} barrels, Barre to the Lehigh, for the purpose of securing a New York 1.5; fish, salted, ton of 71 barrels or 14 half barrels, 1.5; heading market for Wyoming coal, embraced the following estimates of for barrels, if carried in boats or SCOWS, ton of 500, 71; heading cost of transportation at the rates then prevailing:- for hogsheads, ton of 400, 71; hoop poles for barrels or hogs- 10 miles railroad at 6 cents $0 60 heads, if carried in boats or scows, 71; lime, ton of 28 bushels, 261 miles canal to Mauch Chunk-toll, 1 cent; freight, 2 cent 461 1; liquors, except whisky and other domestic distilled spirits, 72 miles canal to Black Eddy 1 26 ton of 2 hogsheads or 8 barrels, 2.5; oats, ton of 80 bushels, 1.5; 60 miles Delaware and Raritan Canal (toll and freight) 94 oysters, ton of 4,000, 3; pork, salted, ton of 8 barrels, 1.5; posts 40 miles tide to New York 40 and rails, 5 mills; rye, ton of 40 bushels, 1.5; rosin, ton of 8 $3.66} barrels, 2; clover, flax, and other seeds, ton of 40 bushels, 1.5; In commenting upon the future course of the coal trade he staves for pipes, 71; tar, ton of 7 barrels, 28 gallons each, 2; said: "Doubtless the Mauch Chunk mines have an advantage round and square timber, 1, if conveyed in boats, and 2 if con- over all others; but they cannot supply the whole demand. veyed in rafts; wheat, per ton of 40 bushels, 1.5; whisky and Coal in New York will not probably be ever less than from five other domestic distilled spirits, ton of 2 hogsheads or 8 barrels, to six dollars a ton, and at that price we could take ours to 2; wood for fuel, per cord, 1.5, if conveyed in boats or scows, that city." and 3 if conveyed in rafts. NEW ENGLAND CANALS. On all articles not enumerated above, 1.5 per ton, if pass- The reductions on the Erie Canal already described were, to ing eastward or southward, and 3 if passing northward or a considerable extent, accompanied by corresponding reduc- westward. tions on various other canals, or they were obliged to either In August, 1834, when a large portion of the Pennsylvania abandon or greatly restrict their operations. On the Middlesex Digitized by Google 111 Toll Gate, Turnpike Movements. The will Telford Road System McAdam Digitized by Google Digitized by Google COST OF CANAL TRANSPORTATION. 49 Canal, the first of the important New England canals, boats conveyance of passengers, and under some circumstances of carried from 16 to 30 tons, and it was found that one horse competition for light goods of great value in proportion to their could draw 25 tons on the canal as easily as one ton on the weight, the preference would be given to a railroad. common road. The company's charter allowed a toll of one- "It may be observed in favor of railroads that they admit of sixteenth of a dollar per mile for every ton of goods carried in advantageous use in districts where canals, for want of water, the boats, and the same sum for every ton of timber floated in would be impracticable. This advantage often occurs in min- rafts. The actual rates ranged from $1 to $2 per gross ton for ing districts, and sometimes for general trade, where it is neces- the 27 miles from Boston to Lowell. A report on the Black- sary to cross dividing ridges, at a level too high to obtain water stone Canal, when work was about to be commenced in 1822, for their summits. for the purpose of connecting Providence and Worcester, esti- "The facts and reasonings presented, we believe, clearly show mated the cost of transportation, exclusive of tolls, at one cent that both canals and railroads are highly important means of per ton per mile, or $1 a ton for 100 miles, while the usual cost internal communication; that each has its peculiar advantages, of conveyance was $1.25 per cwt., or $25 a ton for 100 miles. and will predominate according to the character of the route, The canal was 32 feet wide at the top, 18 feet at the bottom, and the trade for which it is intended to provide." and 31 feet deep, with locks 10 feet wide and 70 feet long. It was upon this basis, and by reason of these and other NEW JERSEY CANALS. similar representations, that the work of enlargement of the In the act incorporating the Delaware and Raritan Canal Erie Canal was commenced in 1835, and ultimately prosecuted Company, passed by the New Jersey Legislature in or about to completion in 1862. 1830, the company was authorized to charge such tolls as they RELATIVE UTILITY OF CANALS AND RAILWAYS. shall think reasonable and proper, provided they shall not ex- The above report was severely criticized, soon after its publi- ceed "the rate of four cents per ton per mile, toll, for the trans- cation, by able engineers, who contended that the data it fur- portation of every species of property, nor more than five cents nished in regard to the relation between the cost of railway and per mile, toll, for the carrying of each passenger, on the canal, canal movements was based on experiments on a railway ope- and not more than half that rate on the feeder." rated under many disadvantages. The statesmen of that day, In 1848 the reported average toll on the Delaware and Rari- however, were much more ready to listen to arguments in favor tan Canal, for 43 miles, was 68 cents per ton of 2,240 pounds, or of canals than any views which could be presented in favor of 18 cents per mile per ton of 2,000 pounds. The toll sheet re- railways, partly, it is said, because canals could be more easily quired the payment of 11 cents per ton of 2,000 pounds per understood, and partly because methods of constructing and mile for marble, potatoes, apples, and vegetables generally. operating canals in the direct or indirect interest of influential High grades of freight paid'4 cents. For toll and transporta- politicians had been established. It is, of course, now known tion combined the company was authorized to charge 4 cents per that many railways can and do make their average movements ton per mile for every species of property. at much lower rates than those prevailing on any of the early On the 14th of March, 1835, an able and exhaustive report canals, and that there were good theoretical reasons for believ- upon the ing that railways could be more useful as freight carriers than COMPARATIVE COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON EARLY CANALS AND any canals that are not very large is shown by the following RAILROADS, table and comments, which form part of an argument pre- was made to the New York canal commissioners, by Messrs. sented to Congress, in 1832, by Jonathan Knight, in his advo- John B. Jervis, Holmes Hutchinson, and Frederick W. Mills, cacy of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad as a riyal of the Chesa- civil engineers of large and varied experience. peake and Ohio Canal:- These gentlemen reported that the cost of transportation on A Table Showing the Effects of a Power, or Force of Traction, of One railroads then was 31 cents per ton per mile, on a level road; Hundred Pounds, at Different Velocities, on Canals and Railroads. and that this cost would be increased upon different ascending grades, in the following ratio:- Velocity of motion.- Load moved at a power of 100 pounds. Fect On a canal. Miles On a level railway. Cents. Total mass Useful Total mass Useful per hour. per second. moved. effect. moved. effect. Ascent of 10 feet per mile 4.20 24 3.66 55,500 39,400 40,000 30,000 Ascent of 20 feet per mile 4.90 3 4.40 38,542 27,361 40,000 30,000 Ascent of 30 feet per mile 5.95 31 5.13 28,316 20,100 40,000 30,000 Ascent of 40 feet per mile 7.28 4 5.86 21,680 15,390 40,000 30,000 Ascent of 50 feet per mile 8.19 5 7.33 13,875 9,850 40,000 30,000 Ascent of 60 feet per mile 9.60 6 8.80 9,635 6,840 40,000 30,000 Ascent of 70 feet per mile 11.41 7 10.26 7,080 5,026 40,000 30,000 They also reported that the cost of transportation, exclusive 8 11.73 5,420 3,848 40,000 30,000 of tolls, for a ton of 2,240 pounds on the Erie Canal, would be 9 13.20 4,282 3,040 40,000 30,000 1.04 cents per ton per mile; and that if the canals were reduced 10 14.66 3,468 2,462 40,000 30,000 to a level, the cost would be only 8288 of a cent per ton per 13} 19.90 1,900 1,350 40,000 30,000 mile. In commenting upon this corrected table, Knight says: "See- Also: "Taking the facts we have obtained as a basis, we find ing, therefore, that the improvements in railways and cars have the relative cost of conveyance is as 4.375 to 1, a little over four been such that, with a velocity of three miles per hour, the and one-third to one, in favor of canals; this is exclusive of tolls effect is greater than on a canal, and that, at higher velocities, or profits." the effect will be vastly more decided in favor of the railway, in Also: "The average tolls on the Erie Canal are less than one consequence of the resistance in the canal increasing in a du- cent per ton per mile; assuming an average toll of one cent per plicate ratio of the velocities, and when we also reflect upon ton per mile, the ratio of the entire cost of transportation and the very great improvements which have, in the last two or tolls is (2.5 to 1) two and a half to one in favor of canals." three years, been made in the locomotive steam engine, and The report closes as follows:- consider the paramount importance of speed and certainty to "We are, therefore, led to the conclusion that in regard to a traveling and commercial people, more especially in a coun- the cost of construction and maintenance, and also in reference try of such extended surface as the United States, and that this to the expense of conveyance at moderate velocities, canals are avenue of communication will be open throughout the year, in clearly the most advantageous means of communication. On winter as well as summer, shall we hesitate to say that a rail- the other hand, where high velocities are required, as for the road should be preferred in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred?" 7 Digitized by Google 50 PASSENGER TRAFFIC OF THE CANALS. PASSENGER TRAFFIC OF THE CANALS. FOR somo years there was a considerable amount of travel and the sleeping cars of that ubiquitous George M. Pullman on the leading canals, and especially on the Erie and the but a bold-faced plagiarism, after all? And George M. never main line of Pennsylvania. The following account was given owns to it that he has copied the old packets. True, his cars a few years ago by a correspondent of the Pittsburgh Chronicle- are elegant and sumptuous, and roll along faster than the se- Telegraph of rene packets; but you can't go on deck to sit on the trunks, MOVEMENTS ON THE PENNSYLVANIA MAIN LINE. sing in the moonlight, or duck your heads at the cry of 'Low A few days ago the writer called upon an old gentleman now bridge!' Nor can you have some youthful, incipient President living in Springdale, Allegheny county, who, from the opening driving your locomotive, as you might have had driving the of the canal for passenger travel in 1834, to its close in 1854, team on the towpath. Nor can you enjoy, and study, and was a captain of a passenger packet. Captain J. N. Hanna is analyze the scenery from car windows, at forty miles an hour, now nearly seventy years of age, but the old days on the canal as you could from the quietly gliding packets. And then our are seemingly but as yesterdays to him, and there is probably rival packet lines, the 'Pioneer' and 'Good Intent'-what ardent no one now living who knows 80 much, of what was done on emulation, with three horses to each boat, tandem on the tow- the canal, during the years of its existence, as he. The captain path! Noble ambition to excel!" is now employing his spare moments in the construction of Horace Greeley gave a less agreeable picture of two models of passenger packets-the one a model of the first TRAVEL ON THE ERIE CANAL. packet ever run on the canal, the Pittsburgh, and the other, In his Recollections of a Busy Life, he says: "I was kindly the Philadelphia, a section boat. These models, when com- allowed to visit my father's family in their new western home pleted, will be placed on exhibition at expositions in different twice during my apprenticeship, having a furlough of a month parts of the country, and will be objects of curiosity to many. in either instance. I made either journey by way of the Erie The packet, Pittsburgh, was first run into Pittsburgh on the Canal, on those line boats whose 'cent and a half a mile, mile 19th of March, 1836. It was 72 feet in length, 11 feet in width, and a half an hour,' so many yet remember. Railroads, as yet, and was 8 feet in height. The interior of the bont was divided were not. The days passed slowly yet smoothly on those glid- into three apartments-the cook-room, ladies' cabin, and gen- ing arks, being enlivened by various sedentary games; but the tleman's cabin. Along the sides were fastened swinging berths, nights were tedious beyond any sleeping-car experience. At shut off from each other by means of curtains. About twenty daybreak you were routed out of your shabby, shelf-like berth, windows on each side gave light to the boat and several sky- and driven on deck to swallow fog, while the cabin was cleared lights also gave additional light to the interior. The boat was of its beds, and made ready for breakfast. I say nothing as to painted white, with its waylards red and black, and on the 'the good old times,' but if any one would recall the good old windows were Venetian shutters which were painted green. line boats, I object. And the wretched little tubs that then did Add a crew of nine persons, a driver and three mules, and you duty for steamboats on lake Erie were scarcely less conducive have a completely equipped canal boat of fifty years ago, ready to the increase and diffusion of human misery. I have suf- to accommodate one hundred and fifty passengers. fered in them to the extent of human endurance. I have left You want to know something of how we traveled, do you?" one at Dunkirk, and walked twenty miles to Westfield, instead said the captains "Well, we would start from Pittsburgh at of keeping on by boat at a triffing charge, simply because flesh nine o'clock in the evening, and run to the end of the Western and blood could bear the torture no longer. I trust I have due division, at Johnstown, in 28 hours, a distance of 103 miles. respect for the 'good old ways' we often hear of, yet I feel that In that distance we would change horses thirteen times. A this earthly life has been practically lengthened and sweetened passenger packet left Pittsburgh every evening and generally by the invention and construction of railways." the boat would be crowded with passengers. When we got to Thomas L. Kenny, in 1826, in his tour to the lakes, while Johnstown, the passengers would be taken over the mountains making a trip over the Erie Canal in a cabin boat, wrote as in coaches. Half way across, the coaches would meet those follows:- making transfers from the canal on the other side, and each It is not possible for me to convey any adequate idea of the would turn and go back with the other coach's load. Several wealth which flows upon the canal; nor of the advantages years after the canal was in operation the old Portage railway which are experienced from it by the people who live upon its was built across the mountain, and section boats were then borders, and those more remote settlements throughout the built and taken across in that way without a transfer of pas- entire region of the north-west. The truth is, the canal is in sengers being made." everybody's mouth. The yeomanry, the bone and muscle of Of passenger movements on the same route, R. S. Elliott, of these regions, make you see in their countenances that they St. Louis, an engineer who helped to construct the canal, writes esteem it to be little short of a gift of the gods. The as follows: "I have noted the advent of the stages and their fact is the canal is nothing more nor less than a great sluice of drivers when our turnpike road came into use. But what is wealth; and the hardy settlers in all these regions are getting human glory, after all. The canal came, with packet boats for rich by the facilities that it affords them." passengers, and where was the glory of the stage driver then? Of the canal boat in which he made the journey, which was called the DeWitt Clinton, he says: "This boat is considered Gone, like the snowflake in the silver fountain, Or as the daylight fades o'er vale and mountain. the best on the line; but her outside appearance, which is, how- ever, like the rest of the packet boats, I confess, made on me, For the boat captain outshone any driver that had ever held as I came on board, a most unfavorable impression. You have rein, or sounded his brass horn as he swept proudly round on only to go to the Potomac and look at one of your flour boats, a high trot to the tavern door. The stages still ran, and car- of some 70 or 80 feet long, and fancy a box placed upon it, ried mails, for boats could not run in winter; but the charm bottom upwards, with its edges on the gunwales, narrowing had gone out of the driver. No more the expectant gatherings gradually to the top, and covering the whole length, except at the tavern portals. They were down at the canal, to greet some five feet at the bow, where there is a little platform, or the packet. And when the boat came gliding into the lock, deck, and from which, and at the end of this box, is the en- and her captain, fearless on her bloodless deck, gave the sonor- trance into the ladies cabin; and some ten feet at the stern, ous order, 'Snub her!' what was Wellington at Waterloo to where there is another platform, upon which the steersman him? And in sooth not to be despised were those canal pack- stands, and in which end of the cover, or box, are the doors ets. Kitchen at the stern, table from end to end of the cabin, that lead to the gentleman's cabin, and where both gentlemen three square meals, and at night a double tier of shelves on and ladies assemble to eat, and you have n fair specimen of the either side for beds-what was all this but comfort and luxury, exterior of a canal boat." He explains subsequently, that the if not grandeur, even less than forty years ago? Eating, sleep- boat is drawn by three horses, at the rate of speed, generally, ing, and the journey still going on! What are the dining cars of four miles an hour. Digitized by Google UTILITY OF THE CANALS. 51 UTILITY OF THE CANALS. failure of a large proportion weeks. She left here in May with 1,000 bushels of wheat for the United States, in a finan- Philadelphia, delivered her cargo in prime order; took in a cial sense, some of them have continued to be useful up to the load of oats for Pottsville; loaded at that place with coal for present day. A few were temporarily grent successes, and in Philadelphia; and has now safely returned to our shore from the aggregate they rendered immense service to the country, the latter place, with 20 tons, Nova Scotia plaster. She has had not merely by furnishing avenues for transportation, but by a prosperous trip." establishing a foundation for the great enterprises by which The facility afforded by the Ohio canals for reaching lake they have been succeeded and supplanted. They helped to Erie and thence forwarding merchandise via Buffalo and the educate civil engineers. They familiarized tax-payers and in- Erie Canal was one of the causes which frustrated the move- vestors with large expenditures for internal improvements. ment of western produce to Philadelphia, even after the main They gave a great stimulus to traffic by inspiring many pro- line of public works was completed. It was stated in 1880 that ducers with the hope of finding a market for the surplus yield "so great is the facility of transportation from the interior of of their fields, forests, factories, and mines. They established a Ohio to the state of New York, that wheat now commands a powerful connecting link between the Eastern, Middle, and higher price at Massilon, one hundred miles west of Pittsburgh, Western states, and hastened the development of the Upper than at the salt works, fifty or sixty miles east of it." Mississippi valley. In a number of the older sections they fur- Of the Delaware and Raritan Canal, the Trenton Gazette, in nished the first cheap channels of communication between im- September, 1834, said: "The depth of water appears to be suf- portant local points, and in promoting coal-mining operations ficient to pass coasting vessels from the Delaware to the Rari- they laid the groundwork for one of the most vital elements of tan. The New York papers mention the arrival of the schooner American progress. If they had only demonstrated the feasi- Sarah Ann, loaded with dry goods, in forty-eight hours from bility of moving large quantities of anthracite and bituminous Philadelphia, via Delaware and Raritan Canal. The business coal to the seaboard cities, and of transporting a large percent- on the canal appears to be rapidly increasing, and the novel age of the surplus breadstuffs and provisions of the west and spectacle of masted vessels gliding through the cornfields and north-west to the Atlantic seaboard, they would have yielded woods is presented to our view." to the nation a rich return for their entire cost, and they suc- In 1833 hopes of the completion of the Chesapeake and Ohio ceeded wonderfully in performing those great tasks. In their Canal, throughout its entire length from Georgetown to Pitts- infancy they fostered very sanguine expectations. burgh, were still cherished, and another project, frequently dis- THE CHAIN OF NATURAL WATER CHANNELS cussed, for which national aid was solicited, was the construc- tion of a national steamboat canal, which would convert the is 80 extensive, and so much was accomplished in the way of Susquehanna into an avenue leading directly to the great lakes. creating great through routes, that nearly everything desira- On the Chesapcake and Delaware Canal during the year ended ble seemed to be a possible result of the skillful grouping of June 1st, 1831, passages were made by 1,232 packets, contain- canal, river, lake, gulf, and oceanic navigation. The frequent ing merchandise; 600 vessels, which carried 13,332 cords of discussion of schemes intended to revive some of the most am- wood; 272 vessels with rafts and arks, carrying 7.118,734 feet of bitious of the early projects shows what a deep impression they lumber; 292 vessels, carrying 101,462 barrels of flour; 246 ves- made upon the public, but these proposed revivals, in nearly sels, carrying 289,173 bushels of wheat and corn, and 2,638 ves- every instance, contemplate the expenditure of large amounts sels loaded with cotton, iron, oysters, fish, and whisky. of public money, and rarely or never aim at organizing com- On the Union Canal, of Pennsylvania, the number of tons panies which would assume risks and provide the necessary transported during the year ended November 1st, 1831, was funds. 59,970. The leading articles were 74,905 barrels of flour, 257,565 In endeavors to form a just estimate of the canal era it should bushels of wheat and rye, 12,763 barrels of whisky, 5,110 tons be remembered that it was contemporaneous with the rapid of iron, 85,053 bushels of bituminous coal, 13,303,000 feet of development of steamboat navigation, and in advance of the lumber (assumed to weigh about one ton per 1,000 feet), 6,292,000 demonstrated success of railways as advantageous avenues for shingles (assumed to weigh half я ton per 1,000), 6,996 tons of lengthy transportation movements. The possibilities of com- gypsum, and 61,920 bushels of salt. plete connections between the internal water systems of this country, and through them with all other portions of the outer EARLY MOVEMENTS ON THE ERIE CANAL. world, are bewildering. What was actually accomplished in In the testimony of Mr. Churchill, before the Senate com- linking the lakes with the Hudson exceeded all rational ex- mittee on transportation to the seaboard in 1873, he said:- pectations, and if plans for connecting Philadelphia, Baltimore, "When the Erie Canal was first constructed the freight that and Georgetown with the Ohio river, had been equally success- moved upon its waters was almost exclusively the product of ful, the utility of canals would have been greatly increased and the state of New York. In 1837, twelve years after western railway progress might have been greatly retarded. production had felt the stimulus of the Erie Canal, the amount The following statements of of produce coming into existence outside the borders of New York which reached Albany by the Erie and Oswego Canal was EARLY OPERATIONS ON SOME OF THE CANALS only one-sixth of the whole volume so reaching it; that is to help to indicate the nature of the hopes they awakened, or say, of the stuff which reached Albany by the Oswego and Erie the amount and character of the business they transacted:- Canal at that time, five-sixths of it was the product of New An account was published in 1830 of a boat being cleared at York, and only one-sixth of it the product of foreign territory. the canal collector's office in Albany for Syracuse. It was the Last year (1872) SQ far was this changed, that only one- yawl boat Scio, in which the captain had left Philadelphia with twelfth of the freight which reached Albany by the Oswego and his wife, children, and furniture, and moved from Philadelphia Erie Canal was the product of the state of New York, and up the Delaware, through the creek, into the Raritan river, and eleven-twelfths of it was the product of other states." across to New York, from which city he had moved up the In the testimony of George S. Hazard he said the Erie Canal Hudson river to Albany, where he took the canal with the had "reduced the transportation of a barrel of flour or a ton of intention of moving up to Syracuse on the Erie Canal and merchandise, between Albany and Buffalo, from $70 to $7 a ton. thence up the Oswego Canal to lake Ontario in Jefferson It has been constantly reducing the price of transportation ever county. since it was created." A newspaper published in Milton, Pennsylvania, in July, The following are the articles that reached Albany, by the 1830, says: "The Miltonian-canal boat, Captain James Blair, canal, in 1830: In barrels-flour, 396,900; ashes, 25,670; provi- returned from her trip on Tuesday last, after an absence of six sions, 22,008; salt, 42,601; whisky, 28,307. Hogsheads of whisky, Digitized by Google 52 CAUSES OF CANAL FAILURES. 1,420; boxes of glass, 6,374; barrels of lime, 2,404. Bushels-of Articles carried through. Quantity. Av'ge rate Tons. of freight. Total freight. Total value. wheat, 209,011; corn, rye, and oats, 114,989; barley, 182,783; Rate. cords of wood, 12,976; feet of timber, 31,621; shingles, 11,810,000; Stone 668 1 121 751 1,002 feet of lumber, 25,832,142. Sand 365 1 12} 405 547 The following is n statement of the trade on the Clay 375 1 12} 417 1,125 Brick, 72,770 145 1 12, 82 873 DELAWARE AND RARITAN CANAL Merchandise 6,666 2 27 13,998 1,513,182 for the month of May, 1848, showing the articles carried through, By canal, tons 84,448 $100,984 $1,942,394 the rate of freight on the articles, the total amount of freight RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF THE AMERICAN CANAL SYSTEM. paid, and the value of the articles:- In an address delivered by Hon. Levi Woodbury, in Wash- Quantity. Av'ge rate Articles carried through. of freight. Total freight. Total value. Tons. ington, in 1845, he said:- Rate. Coal 67,478 $1 12} $75,912 $269,912 "The extensive use of science in canaling in this country is Grain and feed, 27,350 bush. 615 4 992 13,675 another illustration of the great progress in the encouragement Lime, 44,229 bushels 1,490 4 1,760 7,076 of it for practical objects. It is not merely the introduction of Salt, 1,550 bushels 52 4 61 310 locks instead of cranes and inclined planes, which has changed Timberand lumber, 1,525,957 the whole aspect of canals in modern times, from what it was feet 3,178 1 00 1,525 15,728 in antiquity, or is now in China, though 80 long celebrated for Pig and railroad iron 1,675 1 50 2,512 76,375 its artificial aids to internal commerce. But, beside the great Flour and corn meal, 4,833 number here, what in length and grandeur, and difficulty, are barrels 440 182 906 21,748 Whisky, 531 barrels. 66 25 133 eighty miles of Egyptian canal across the isthmus of Suez, or 4,248 Fish, 97 barrels 14 25 24 776 a few furlongs more of it, a century or two ago, through the Nails, 1,805 kegs 90 7 125 8,122 swåmps of Holland, compared with those uniting the Ohio Hay and straw 368 1 00 368 3,680 with our inland seas, and the three or four hundred miles that Ice 803 1 25 1,004 4,015 wed the waters of our Atlantic with those of lake Erie!" CAUSES OF CANAL FAILURES. A S corporate enterprises, except in a few specially favored of these works were the following: James River and Kanawha, localities, canals were peculiarly unfortunate. In addi- located in Virginia, 196.50 miles, which had cost $6,139,280; tion to all other troubles, unusual freshets almost entirely de- canals in Pennsylvania, which had an aggregate length of 477 stroyed, on several occasions, some of the most expensive works, miles, and had cost $12,745,780; canals in New York, 356.66 such as the Lehigh and the Schuylkill canals. The inability to miles in length, which had cost $10,235,314; Ohio canals, 205 \ operate them during winter months was a constant source of miles in length, which had cost $3,217,552, and Indiana canals, embarrassment, and one of the most important causes of their 453 miles in length, which had cost $7,725,262. failure. The report of the New York Canal Engineer for 1882 Only a portion of the pecumiary losses incurred by the con- forcibly says:- struction and operation of canals is represented by the cost of It should also be considered that canals can be navigated the works which have been abandoned, inasmuch as a number only about seven months in the year; that the time of their of them were operated for a considerable period during which opening and closing is always very uncertain; that their navi- they failed to earn interest on the cost of construction and repairs. gation is constantly subjected to detentions, occasioned by the The following are the financial results of the operation of the want of an adequate supply of water, together with breakages most unprofitable portions of the canals constructed by the state and other unavoidable accidents, and that the time required of Pennsylvania, during most or all of the period from 1830 to for boats to pass between the lakes and tide-water is about five 1858, while they remained under state management: The Juniata times that required upon the railroads; while, on the other division, 127 miles, which cost $3,575,966, yielded $1,661,248, and hand, freight may be shipped by railroad every day in the year, incurred expenses, including cost of repairs, amounting to and delivered at its destination with the utmost regularity, and $2,305,380. The Susquehanna division, 41 miles in length, which at prices generally but very little if any greater, and in many cost $897,160, yielded a revenue of $724,092, and incurred ex- cases much less, than those charged upon the canals. penses amounting to $806,640. The West Branch division, 76 "The single item of detentions caused by breaks in the canals miles long, which cost $1,833,183, yielded $892,995 of revenue, would of itself, if generally understood, seem to afford sufficient and the expenses were $1,043,695. The Beaver division, 30 reason for the diversion of a considerable amount of tonnage miles long, which cost $519,364 (and was operated from 1835 from the canals, to say nothing of the enormous expense which to 1845), yielded $38,312 of revenue, and the expenses were they entail upon the state. $210,360. The French Creek division, 49 miles long, which "It is a matter of surprise that no regular record or account cost $817,779, operated from 1833 to 1845, yielded a revenue of of these casualties has been kept in any department of the state $5,821, and the expenses were $143,911. Some of the aban- canals, but a careful examination of the different reports shows doned New York state canals made a similar financial record, that from 1858 to 1882, inclusive, embracing a period of twenty- and the Ohio canals also failed, during the later years of their five years, the detentions from breaks in all the canals of the operation, to yield a sum equal to the current expenses. Since state, SO far as any record can be found, amount to 925 days, the abolition of tolls on the New York canals they, of course, and that their cost to the state has amounted to $2,042,183, and necessarily fail either to earn any interest upon their cost, or to there can be no doubt that a large percentage may be added to furnish means for repairs and cost of operation. Some of the these figures with perfect safety." works of private corporations, or of companies whose capital A number of the canals, and especially those constructed by was represented partly by the subscriptions of individuals, and states, were located in districts which obviously could not fur- partly by the subscriptions or donations of states or the United nish remunerative business. The differences in this respect, in States, have not fared much better. The Chesapeake and Ohio canals, are scarcely less marked than in other transportation has an exceptionally disastrous financial record. enterprises, but there was a much larger percentage of absolute SUCCESSFUL CANALS. failures, and a smaller percentage of decided successes, in canals There were, however, a few notable successes, and the Erie than in any other important class of American works designed Canal, and some of the canals constructed by the state of to promote the movement of freight and passengers. Pennsylvania, during the period when they were operated for LOSSES ON THE ABANDONED CANALS. the purpose of deriving as large a revenue as could conve- The canals abandoned in 1880 had an aggregate length of niently be obtained, made fair returns. The Eastern division 1,953.56 miles, and had cost $44,013,166. The most important of the Pennsylvania Canal, 46 miles in length, which cost Digitized by Google CAUSES OF CANAL FAILURES. 53 $1,737,285, yielded, during the period from 1830 to 1857, a reve- as the most magnificent engineering work in America, but nue of $3,405,632, and the expenses were $1,071,595. The Dela- which, in its practical operations, was exceptionally unfortu- ware division, 60 miles in length, which cost $1,543,763, yielded nate. The Portage Railroad, 41 miles in length, cost $2,708,672. a revenue of $4,123,377, and the expenses were $1,572,550. The It was operated by the state from the latter part of 1834 to July Erie and Champlain canals of New York, up to September 30th, 31st, 1857, and during that period it yielded a revenue of 1882, had yielded revenues amounting to $127,878,212.46; the $3,648,611, and its expenses were $4,876,334. Soon after it was cost of collection, superintendence, and ordinary repairs had sold by the commonwealth it was abandoned, and the state been $34,900,324.55; and the apparent profit in operating was canal west of the mountains, with which it was connected, was $92,977,887.91. This sum, however, made no allowance for in- also abandoned. Of its practical operations, Mr. Solomon W. terest on canal loans, or other means of providing for the cost Roberts, an engineer who helped to construct it, says: "One of construction, which was $54,505,148.47. thing that was considered to be a great curiosity, was the car- On all the canals operated by states and corporations in the riage of canal boats over the mountain, which was done to a United States in 1880 the quantity of freight transported was considerable extent. The road being, as its name implied, a 21,044,292 tons. The length, dimensions, and freight traffic of Portage Railroad, a transhipment of some sort was required at those over which more than a million tons were transported both ends of the line, which caused expense and delay. Differ- were as follows:- ent firms, engaged in the transportation business, tried different Length Width Freight plans to diminish the evil. One plan was the use of boats built Canal Black-water Surface Bottom Depth. traffic. miles. miles. feet. feet. Tons. in sections, and carried in trucks over the railroad. Another Erie, branches, and mode of carrying freight, was in cars having movable bodies, feeders 365.48 29.59 70 52} 7 4,608,651 which could be lifted off the wheels, and transferred to canal Champlain, feed- boats fitted to receive them. The wear and tear of the sectional ers, and dams 81.00 58 44 6 1,200,503 Delawareand Hud- boats, and movable car bodies, and the amount of dead weight son 83.00 3.00 48 32 6 1,329,313 that had to be carried, were found to be serious objections to Delawareand Rari- both these plans." The Portage Railroad cannot be regarded, tan 44.00 80 7 1,348,082 in an engineering sense, as a mere inclined plane attachment Monongahela Nav- or adjunct, of a line of canals. In some respects it was much igation 51 3,450,400 more. But it served the purpose indicated, and furnished an Saint Mary's Falls important additional illustration of the inherent difficulties (ship) 100.00 17 1,244,279 and expenditures which attend efforts to use, on an extensive In addition to the above the tonnage of the most important scale, the same vehicles or vessels, in a combined land and canals operated in 1880 was as follows: Pennsylvania Canal water route. Company's canals, 861,798 tons; Schuylkill Navigation, 630,416 Another obstacle to the success of the Pennsylvania state tons; Lehigh Coal and Navigation and Delaware division, canals was their inferior size, as compared with the New York 719,338; Chesapeake and Delaware (ship), 959,146 tons; Chesa- canals. All the former were uniform in dimensions, viz.: 28 peake and Ohio, 655,423 tons; Albemarle and Chesapeake, feet wide at bottom, 40 feet at water line, and 4 feet deep, with 400,000 tons; Illinois and Michigan (ship), 751,360 tons; Ohio the exception of the Delaware division which had a depth of 5 Canal and feeders, 429,626 tons; Miami and Erie Canal and feet. The dimensions of the prism, on the enlarged New York feeders, 323,737 tons. canals, were originally intended to be as follows: Width of water PENNSYLVANIA STATE CANALS. at surface, 70 feet; width of bottom, 56 feet; depth of water, 7 As compared with the Pennsylvania main line of canals and feet. Although these dimensions were modified in many cases railroads the Erie Canal was much the more mest successful of the in the widths at surface and bottom, to meet the character of two undertakings, for various reasons. Connection with the material comprising the slopes, steady efforts were made to lakes proved more advantageous than connection with the avoid a diminution of the cross-sectional area of waterway. rivers uniting at Pittsburgh, and the fact that the use of in- In all modern transportation movements the size of the clined planes was necessary on the Pennsylvania canals, at the vessel or vehicle used in transporting freight is one of the most Portage Railroad, proved a very serious obstacle to cheap important elements of economy. For this reason, if for no movements. Inclined planes represent the old Chinese method other, small canals cease to be remunerative, while improve- of operating canals, and they have been adopted by a few ments designed to increase the capacity of important natural American and European lines, one instance being fur- waterways, or to construct ship canals over routes of great nished by the Morris Canal and another by the hauling of consequence render very essential service. boats over the Portage Railroad, but after locks were invented CANAL OPERATION FROM A MULE DRIVERS' STANDPOINT. in Italy, a short time before the discovery of America, their Notwithstanding the use of steam power, to a limited extent, superiority as a device for overcoming elevations was almost on a few of the canals, on the New York canals, in 1882, only universally acknowledged, and inclined planes were rarely 92 of 4,000 boats then in use were propeHed by steam. A used, except over routes which required that an unusually high driver of the mules attached to one of the boats was inter- or great elevation should be overcome. In constructing the viewed in 1883 with the following result:- Erie Canal the rise and fall along the entire line was only 692 'Well," began the reporter, how are the boys along the feet. It Was largely on account of the remarkably deep or towpath getting along this season?" favorable depression in the mountain chain or elevated plateau "Oh, this season's a good 'un," readily answered the mule- that divides the waters flowing directly into the Atlantic from teer; "it's never nothin' to brag about." those emptying into the Mississippi, which was found along its 'How do the drivers work?" further queried the scribe; by route, that the Erie Canal achieved its noted success in an en- the trip or by the day?" terprise which, in some of its important bearings, encountered " Both ways. A man can git a dollar a day, or he can hire ill-fated rivalry, from the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal as pro- out by the trip, and git about twenty dollars a month. But jected, and the Pennsylvania main line, as completed. In when he works by the day he gits nothin' when a boat unloads, adopting, on the Pennsylvania main line system, the Portage and working by the trip his pay goes right on. So it makes it Railroad as a device for overcoming the elevation of the Alle- even." gheny mountains, there was an ascent from Johnstown, west of How long does it take to make a trip from Buffalo to Al- the mountains, to the summit, of 1,171.58 feet in 26.59 miles, and bany and return?" on the eastern side of the mountains a descent from the summit Depends on the load. About three weeks on an average. to Hollidaysburg, of 1,398.71 feet in 10.10 miles. In other words, The current goes east, 80 it's easier goin' to Albany than comin' the Pennsylvania main line system, by the aid of the Portage back." Railroad, undertook to overcome, in a distance of 36.69 miles, " How many trips can a boat make in a season?" about twice the elevation that it was necessary to overcome, by About nine or ten." locks, along the entire length of the Erie Canal. The result "This boat you are driving is loaded with wheat. How was the completion of a work which was regarded, at the time, many bushels does it hold?" Digitized by Google 54 IMPROVEMENT OF VEHICLES USED ON ROADS. About 8,000." Driving nights is pretty lonesome work, isn't it?" Is the rate of payment larger this year than last?" Now yer shouting. All alone in the dark, and no one to "Oh, yes. They git six cents a bushel this year, and only talk to 'cept a mule, it's mighty lonesome. Then when it rains three and a half last, and no tolls to pay neither. Bizness is an' is stormy it's not much fun peggin' along an' hollerin' at mighty good this season." your mule." How are your hours of duty divided?" How many months of a year does a driver work?" 'Wal, there allers is two drivers. Each un has six hours "Oh, eight or nine months is fair. Sometimes nine or ten, day and six hours night driving. His mules change when he though, when the weather is good." does." " And what do you do winters?" Is pulling a canal boat very hard work for the mules?" 'Haul up at either end, and git what you can. Sometimes A mule kin stand it better'n a hoss. Take a hoss and it you can get work on the railroad and sometimes nothin' only takes a few seasons to wear him out. Now you mayn't at all." believe it, but that off mule has been pulling a boat twenty- "How many men are there on a boat?" three years." "Five gen'rally. There's two drivers, two steersmen, and But isn't a mule harder to drive?" the cap'n." Wal, yes; they git kinder rambunctious sometimes. Whoa, "The steersmen, of course, get higher wages than the there!" he suddenly shouted to his mule, who was attempting driver?" to execute a fandango upon the towpath. After the brute be- "Oh, yes; a steersman can get about $40 a month. That's came quicted, he proceeded: "Something cur'us about them the place the driver is allers fishin' fur. It takes about four or mules. You can ca'c'late their age pretty close every time by five years driving to get there, though." the way they wobble their ears. Take a young mule, and he Then the mule began to elevate his heels in a manner that twists 'em all shapes all the time; when he gits old he quiets rendered a position in the rear extremely precarious, and the down and holds 'em kinder steady. They're mighty good for reporter sought a safer ground than on the towpath within two telling the weather, too; when a mule keeps his cars pricked feet of the kicking apparatus which makes every well-organ- up it's a sure sign of rain." ized mule respected. IMPROVEMENT OF VEHICLES USED ON ROADS. THERE Are are three great elements of advancement in trans- ment of freight. The former may be designated as coaches or systems, viz.: 1, improvement of the roadway; carriages, and the latter as 2, improvement of the vehicles used; 3, improvement of the motive power by which the vehicles are propelled. To a con- CARTS OR WAGONS. siderable extent progress made in each of these improvements In colonial development carts were the wheeled vehicles first is interdependent. The extensive use of the best forms and used to a considerable extent, and they were gradually supple- varieties of wheeled vehicles cannot be expected in a country mented by wagons. Carriages corresponding to those contem- destitute of good roads, and the vigorous exercise of inventive poraneously used in England were also introduced, but they talent in improving vehicles only commenced at a comparatively were owned by only a very small number of the resident popu- late period. On the other hand, there must be a number of lation and formed the luxuries of the few rather than a com- vehicles extant, and an carnest desire to use them, before the mon possession. To facilitate farm freight movements carts movements which finally lend to the construction of good roads (and sleds in northern latitudes) were almost indispensable, and are energetically prosecuted. Genuine and important advance- in a few of the colonies a considerable number of wagons were ment usually proceeds in parallel lines. While the roads are used at a comparatively early period. But the number of wag- being improved in a marked degree, the vehicles are also gain- ons and carriages in most of the colonies was very limited be- ing in utility, convenience, strength, lightness, and adaptability fore the close of the Revolutionary War, and Bishop's History to their intended uses. When motive power is represented by of American Manufactures says that in 1750 only the best farm- the horse, the qualities of that animal are changed, as far as ers of many sections had carts on their farms. There were dis- possible, by breeding and training, to accord with the new re- tricts in which sleds were used in summer as well as in winter, quirements arising from improvements in ronds and vehicles; and of the early carts and wagons it is stated that their con- and when motive power is represented by locomotives, their size, struction was at first very rude, as little or no iron was used, speed, and capacity varies with the demands of the public and and the wheels were generally of solid wood, cut with a saw the characteristics of the permanent ways they are to traverse. from the end of a log. These primitive contrivances were but Wheeled vehicles are of great antiquity, and after the Romans little if any better than the rude Mexican vehicles described constructed superior roads in the vicinity of their capital, im- recently in the following extract from the Chihuahua Enter- provements of considerable significance were made in the car- prise: Frequently on the streets of Chihuahua can be seen ringes of that early era. But further progress was arrested, carts, so primitive in their construction and so rude in their partly by the abandonment of the Roman method of making proportions, that they at once become objects of wonder and and maintaining roads, and partly by peculiarities of the feu- astonishment to those who have never seen them before. The dal system, which required superior horsemanship and dis- wheels of these carts are solid, or made of solid pieces of tim- couraged or partly prohibited the use of vehicles by men, for ber pinned together, and, with few exceptions, are about as personal movements. The sentiment prevailed for centuries near round as blocks with their corners cut off and slightly that it was a sign of effeminacy for a man to ride in a carriage, rounded, and what may seem strange, there is no iron or any and the extirpation of this feeling is a comparatively modern other metal used in their construction. Rawhide and wood achievement. alone are used, and these materials are 80 combined that the The American colonists naturally brought with them to this cart is made, but 80 ill-shaped and proportioned that it might country and maintained here views similar to those which pre- easily be taken for the one Jacob took down with him into vailed in their native lands, but before the nineteenth century Egypt for corn. The spindles extend six or eight inches out- progress in nearly all industrial directions, and especially in side of the wheels, and a wooden linch-pin holds them in place. matters relating to roads and vehicles, was more rapid in the These spindles are soon worn, and the consequence is the old world than on the western shore of the Atlantic, on account wheels 'wobble' from side to side, and as no grease is used, a of the relative abundance of capital, and engineering and in- screeching noise generally announces their approach. The ventive talent in England and on the continent. Irrespective tongue is я long pole fastened to the axle-tree with rawhide, of subdivisions which now exist, the numerous modern wheeled and at the other end are fastened the poor oxen with yokes vehicles are of two classes, one being generally used principally lashed behind their horns with band of the same material. for the movement of passengers and the other for the move- The wheels are generally from three to four feet in diameter, Digitized by Google IMPROVEMENT OF VEHICLES USED ON ROADS. 55 but sometimes they are seen much larger, perhaps five to six going up hill. By this device a gain in effective power in move- feet. It is probably not generally known, but we are informed ments over the mountains was attained. The Conestoga wagon it is true, that the oxen lashed to the tongue, in one to two received that title either because the four, five, or six horses by years, have all their teeth shattered out. Any one noticing which it was drawn were usually of the breed of heavy draft these carts passing over the cobble stones in the streets and horses that had been developed in the Conestoga valley of seeing in what an unmerciful manner their heads are jerked Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, or because the wagon itself from side to side and up and down, would not be slow to believe was first constructed there, or because the teams came most the statement. These carts often come in heavily loaded, with frequently from that locality. Although the use of Conestoga from two to four yokes of cattle hitched to them, and the wagons gradually extended to a number of sections, the farm- driver, with a long pole in his hands, running from one side to ers of the Conestoga valley owned an exceptionally large num- the other, punching them with the spike end of his pole. It ber of them during their period of special usefulness, which is a novel sight, but one that excites pity and commiseration was that preceding the construction of canals and railways in the hearts of those who look on for the first time. But over important interior routes of trade. Hon. John Strohm, these will soon disappear and a new state of things will be in an article on the Conestoga horse, contributed to the United inaugurated." States Agricultural Report for 1863, says that "the immigration RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF WAGONS IN PENNSYLVANIA. to and settling of the western states created a demand for the transportation of large quantities of dry goods and groceries to Indications that Pennsylvania was more abundantly supplied supply the wants of those engaged in opening up and settling with wagons than adjacent colonies are furnished by the fact these new countries; and many farmers in the Conestoga valley that 150 wagons were readily obtained in that state, for the use occasionally employed their teams in hauling 'store goods' of Braddock's expedition, in 1755, through the exertions of Dr. from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, the latter place being the Franklin, after the failure of similar efforts in Maryland and terminus beyond which eastern teams seldom went. During Virginia, and by the following extract from a protest addressed the war of 1812 these noble teams rendered essential service to by president Reed, of Pennsylvania, to General Washington, in the country in the transportation of arms and ammunition, and a letter dated August 3d, 1780:- supplies to the army on the frontier. Long lines of these teams "We are informed that a further demand of teams to the were frequently seen wending their weary way to the theatre amount of 1,066 is to be made on this state. We should be wanting of action, and contributing greatly to the comfort of the army in duty to the public as well as justice to your Excellency not and the defence of the country. Their usual route of travel to take the first opportunity to inform you that we do not think was from Philadelphia through Lancaster, crossing the Susque- it practicable to comply with it. The letters we receive from hanna at Columbia or Marietta, and thence over the mountains the wagon masters assure us of the greatest difficulties in per- to Pittsburgh, and sometimes northward to lake Erie. The forming former orders. The number of teams in the state is capacious wagons which the Conestoga farmers then had in greatly reduced. Lancaster county, which formerly registered use, and the heavy teams of large, fat, sleek horses attached 1,700, now does not register 500, and many of those are ordi- thereto, were the best means of land transportation which the nary. Some of the other counties have declined in a greater pro- times and circumstances of the country then afforded. These portion. We must intreat your Excellency to believe it is with wagons and teams attracted attention and commanded admira- real reluctance we decline any requisition, because we are per- tion wherever they appeared; and hence the origin, as I con- suaded you would not make any which you did not deem ceive, of the horse and wagon to which the appellation of necessary, but we dare not mislead in points of so great conse- 'Conestoga' has been attached. The farmers of those days quence to give expectations where we have no solid ground to seemed fully to appreciate the importance of these teams, and go upon. The present resources and ability of this state are evinced considerable taste and no little pride in their style of greatly exaggerated, whether through ignorance or design is fitting them out. The harness was constructed of the best not so material. The prices given in specie are the most un- materials, with an eye to show as well as utility. In the har- deniable proofs of it. The horses purchased by the French ness and trimmings of these teams they frequently indulged in commissary, tho' not of the first quality, have, on an average, expenses that approached to extravagance. In addition to cost £60 each. His waggons are engaged on a like scale. The what was indispensably necessary, articles that by some were justice of our remarks must appear more clearly when your deemed decorations were sometimes appended, and served to Excellency recollects that the army has been chiefly supplied with increase the admiration which the noble animals to which they horses and waggons from this state during the war, that the most of were attached so universally attracted. It was, indeed, an' them now attached to the army are drawn from this state. The animating sight to see five or six highly-fed horses, half covered quartermaster yesterday declared that half of all the supplies fur- with heavy bear skins, or decorated with gaudily-fringed hous- nished the army (imported articles excepted), had been drawn from ings, surmounted with a set of finely-toned bells, their bridles this state for three years past." adorned with loops of red trimming, and moving over the CONESTOGA TEAMS AND WAGONS. ground with a brisk elastic step, snorting disdainfully at sur- The primitive condition of carts and wagons could scarcely rounding objects, as if half conscious of their superior appear- have remained unimproved during a very protracted period in ance, and participating in the pride that swelled the bosom of any of the numerous communities in which a blacksmith and their master and driver." a wheelwright were established and busily engaged in prose- WAGON MOVEMENTS ON THE PLAINS. cuting their labors. As compared with the other colonies the In western emigration movements, first to the states east of early industrial development of Pennsylvania necessitated the Mississippi, and subsequently to new states and territories extra efforts to utilize wheeled vehicles, on account of the west of the Missouri, wagons were very extensively used before absence of tidewater, except along a small portion of her the construction of railroads. The plains furnished a great sonth-eastern boundary, and the great extent to which interior theatre for their use from the time of the discovery of gold in regions were traversed by mountainous systems. The presence California up to the period of the construction of the first Pa- of a large German population in interior localities where they cific railroad. In addition to the wagons used by emigrants, would have been shut off from access to markets for surplus the wagon-freighting business became quite extensive, as large produce if roads had not been constructed and carts or wagons quantities of supplies for forts and new settlements and mining used, also gave an impetus to progress which had as one of its machinery were forwarded. It is stated that in 1865, when results the invention or construction of the Conestoga wagon. Atchison, Kansas, was the principal point on the Missouri It was regarded for a considerable period as the highest type of river (but by no means the only one) from which freight was a commodious freight vehicle in the country, especially for forwarded to Colorado, Utah, Montana, and other new terri- traversing hilly or mountainous roads, and was first used about tories, there were loaded in that city 4,480 wagons, drawn by 1760. One of its peculiarities was a decided curve in the bottom, 7,310 mules and 29,720 oxen. drive these teams analogous to that of a canoe, the object of which was to pre- 5,610 men were employed, an 'nt of freight vent freight from slipping too far to the front when wagons carried was 27,000 tons. In t gate ship- were going down hill, or too far to the rear when they were ments from Kansa a, and Digitized by Google 56 FREIGHT AND PASSENGER WAGONS-LIGHT VEHICLES. Plattsmouth were supposed to be fully equal to or greater than use in all common carrier overland freight movements, while the shipments from Atchison, and, supposing this estimate to in Scotland the cart, or one-horse vehicle, in various improved be correct, there were employed in the overland freight busi- forms, continued to furnish corresponding facilities. One of ness in wagons, 14,620 mules, 59,440 cattle, and 11,220 the reasons assigned for this preference was that more work men, who moved 54,000 tons of freight. The investment in the could be performed by a single horse attached to a cart, than teams and wagons used was estimated at $7,289,300. by the same animal if he served in conjunction with one or In some cases mining machinery of great weight was hauled more horses. The belief was expressed that two horses working over long distances. An illustration was published of a mule separately in two carts, would exert as much useful power as team, consisting of eighteen mules, drawing boilers and ma- three horses of equal strength who were jointly attached to a chinery weighing 54,000 pounds. The machinery is loaded in single wagon. The cart, like early forms of two-wheeled car- four vehicles, each of peculiar construction. riages, such as the chaise or gig, compels the horse to serve in MOVING HOUSES. the double capacity of bearing a part of the burden attached as well as pulling it, and thus calling into exercise all his avail- In other cases, when some of the town speculations with able strength, while wagons and modern carriages uțilize his which the new west teemed proved disastrous, houses were powers only as a draught animal, and it may be that circum- moved to more promising sites. A description of such a stances connected with the condition of roads, the desirability of movement says: "The people generally had abandoned all extracting the largest amount of available service from a single hope of the city, and were moving their houses bodily to horse, differences in relation between the value of human and Devil's lake and other places. The houses were first lifted on horse labor, or other causes, led some communities to prefer to large timbers of sufficient size and strength to bear the and continue the use of carts or one-horse freight vehicles, weight of the house. These timbers were then suspended un- while others preferred wagons drawn by two, four, five, six, or der two monstrous freight wagons on either side of the build- eight horses. Whatever the cause may have been a difference ing. Four large horses or oxen were then hitched to the analogous to that existing between prevailing habits in Scotland wagons on each side, and the road to Devil's lake being across and England also existed between various states and districts of a smooth prairie, the teams were able to move along easily this country. The ante-revolutionary history of freight vehi- with a fair-sized building. It was a beautiful afternoon that I cles in the American colonies may probably be summed up in rode in a hack over that twenty miles. Very often the team the statement that sleds were used extensively, that after carts had to move around these houses on wheels. Some of them, became common a number of them were very rudely con- with the teams attached, presented to my mind sights most structed, that the highest form of freight vehicle developed, magnificent. It was the first time that I had ever seen a city before a comparatively recent period, was the Conestoga moving on wheels. I had seen people moving on a large scale wagon, and that while some sections preferred and continued in their so-called 'prairie schooners,' but the sight was tame to use carts, mainly, others had commenced using wagons. compared with this. I thought of a remark I once heard my friend Crosby make to the effect that he 'thought the approach OF SLEDS of a train of cars drawn by a powerful engine was a magnifi- Henry's History of the Lehigh Valley says that about 1783, cent sight to behold,' and I thought to myself if he could see a "farmers from a distance generally awaited good sledding in road lined by two-story houses, moving to the music of the winter as the most convenient manner of transportation. Very steady tread of teams of eight powerful oxen, he would have frequently the streets of Easton presented a very busy scene, regarded the sight equally magnificent." 500 sleds either standing in the streets or passing through them, and sometimes from 15,000 to 20,000 bushels of grain were re- ECONOMIC RELATION BETWEEN CARTS AND WAGONS. ceived by the merchants in one day." Even at the present In England during the closing years of the eighteenth cen- time, in the mountainous districts and the lumber regions of tury and early portion of the nineteenth, a huge wagon ap- Pennsylvania, and various northern states, most of the local proximating in size to the Conestoga wagon, was in general hauling is done in the winter. FREIGHT AND PASSENGER WAGONS-LIGHT VEHICLES. THERE was a considerable period during which relative by day and night, and such wagons were used in many of the light vehicles led to the adoption of the cus- southern emigration movements. tom of using freight wagons for the transportation of passen- gers to an extent which can hardly be realized now. It was MOVEMENTS BETWEEN PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK. not only in ordinary trips of farmers with wagon-loads of pro- Early common-carrier lines for transporting freight between duce to adjacent markets, and in emigration movements, that Philadelphia and New York, through New Jersey, also com- members of the family or neighbors or friends were carried in bined freight and passenger movements in the same wagons. wagons partly devoted to freight, but the early common-carrier The following advertisement relating to movements between enterprises combined passenger and freight traffic in the same Burlington and Amboy, appeared in Andrew Bradford's Phila- wagon. In England the custom was well established during delphia Mercury of March, 1732:- the last century of devoting a portion of the large and heavy "This is to give notice unto gentlemen, merchants, trades- wagons, used mainly in gathering up freight, to passengers, men, travelers, and others, that Solomon Smith and James who were, presumably, generally such persons as would in the Moore, of Burlington, keepeth two stage wagons intending to present day travel in emigrant or third-class cars. In the emi- go from Burlington to Amboy, and back from Amboy to Bur- gration movements by which eastern farmers obtained new lington again, once every week or oftener if that business homes in the western states, and by which western families presents. They have also a very good store house, very com- crossed the plains, the same wagon that carried the household modious for the storing of any sort of merchants goods free goods generally carried women, young children, and infirm old from any charges, where good care will be taken of all sorts of persons, while the vigorous husband and half-grown boys were goods." Of the stage wagons used by this line to carry passen- expected to make a large portion of the journey on foot. This gers it is said that they had no springs. method was a type of customs prevailing in agricultural dis- In 1765 another line began to start twice a week, but no in- tricts supplied with wagons, yet comparatively destitute of light crease of speed was claimed. In 1766 a third line was estab- vehicles, during a large portion of the first half of the nineteenth lished, the proprietors of which set forth, as one of its attrac- century. In the Southern states a wagon was extensively used tions, that it had good stage wagons, with the seats set on springs," during the early years of this century which provided unusu- and that it would go through in two days in summers and three ally complete facilities for the accommodation of passengers in winter. These wagons were called Flying Machines, and Digitized by Google The Dangerous Ford. The Tardy Ferry, Rural Wooden Bridge, Primitive Drawbridge. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google FREIGHT AND PASSENGER WAGONS-LIGHT VEHICLES. 57 that title came into general use among the rival stage proprie- It is hoped that as these stages are attended with a consid- tors. erable expense for better accommodating passengers, that they From 1765 to 1768 the New Jersey legislature made an at- will meet the favor of the public, and whoever will be pleased tempt to raise funds by lottery for shortening and improving to favor them with their custom shall be kindly used and have the great thoroughfares of that colony, but the effort was not due attendance given them by their humble servants, John successful. Governor Franklin, alluding to the roads in a Butler, Francis Holman, John Thomson, and William Walter." speech to the assembly, in 1768, said that "even those which SCARCITY OF LIGHT VEHICLES. lie between the two principal trading cities in North America are seldom passable, without danger or difficulty." The roads Watson's Annals says that "an aged gentleman, who died in were probably improved to some extent during the next few the fever of 1793, said he could remember when there were years, as John Mersereau announced a "flying machine" in only eighty four-wheeled carriages kept in all the province of 1772, which was to leave Paulus Hook three times a week with Pennsylvania. In Philadelphia there were, in 1761, three a reasonable expectation that passengers would arrive in Phila- coaches, two landaus, 18 chariots and 15 chaises, making a total delphia in a day and a half. This, however, was found to be of 38 vehicles. In 1772 the number had increased to 84, and a too rapid a pace to be maintained, for he required two days for list of improved or pleasure carriages in 1794 shows that in that the journey in 1773-74. year they were reported to consist of 33 coaches, 137 coachees, The use of "stage wagons, with the seats set on springs," and 35 chariots, 22 phaetons, 80 light wagons and 520 chaises and 'flying machines," probably marked a transition era, when sulkies." passenger traffic was gaining sufficient importance to require In 1796 there were owned in Philadelphia 307 four-wheeled that those who embarked in it should either abandon freight carriages and 553 two-wheeled vehicles. We can scarcely rea- business altogether or make it a subordinate feature. lize now that the use and ownership of a light vehicle for Of vehicles intended exclusively for the transportation of pas- making journeys by farmers was formerly considered as scarcely sengers the number owned by private individuals was very prudent or proper. The United States Gazette of 1813 winds small, as riding on the back of a horse continued to be the up a jeremiad about the ruin of the country on account of usual and favorite method of persons in presumably good cir- extravagance by saying that "even the farmers want carriages." cumstances for making journeys in nearly all sections of the The sensation produced by George Washington, near the close country until the nineteenth century was well advanced. of the eighteenth century, when he traveled through various At an early period a line for the carriage of goods and pas- parts of the United States in a coach, may have been height- sengers was put on the rival road in New Jersey, leading be- ened by the fact that he used a coach during an era when few tween Philadelphia and New York, via New Brunswick, and in persons possessed them; and the amusing old definition of re- 1734 Bordentown was made the southern terminus of a line spectability in England, which made that attribute hinge on the the proprietors of which promised to be in New York, "once possession of a gig, may have originated in the fact that bad a week if wind and weather permit, and come to the old roads, a low state of the mechanic arts, and relative impecuni- slip." In 1744 stage wagons between New Brunswick and osity among all classes, combined to make such ownership a Trenton ran twice a week. In October, 1750, a new line was significant outward sign of wealth and luxurious habits. established, the owner of which resided at Perth Amboy. He PASSENGER MOVEMENTS ON EARLY TURNPIKES. informed ladies and gentlemen "who have occasion to trans- The charter of the first important turnpike company granted port themselves, goods, wares, or merchandise, from New York in the last decade of the eighteenth century provided for tolls to Philadelphia, that he had a stage boat well fitted for the on every chariot, coach, stage wagon, or chaise, and the same purpose, which, wind and weather permitting, would leave or similar tolls, sometimes with a few minor additions, are con- New York every Wednesday for the ferry at Amboy on Thurs- tained in laws relating to ferries of an earlier date. In a law day, where, on Friday, a stage wagon would be ready to pro- relating to turnpike tolls, passed in Pennsylvania in 1810, ceed immediately to Bordentown, where they would take charges were authorized on "every sulky, chair, chaise, with another stage boat to Philadelphia." He claimed that passages one horse and two wheels," and on "every chair, coach, phaeton, could be made in forty-eight hours less time than by any other chaise, stage wagon, coachee, or light wagon with two horses line, but he still kept them from five to seven days on a journey and four wheels." By a singular change in customs, which now made in two hours. Another line was started in 1751 occurred some years later, the most important revenue on which laid special stress upon the superiority of its passage some of the turnpike companies subjected to similar provisions boat between Amboy and New York. It is described as having was finally derived from a class of vehicles not designated in a fine commodious cabin, fitted up with a tea-table, and sundry their charters, viz., pleasure carriages of various kinds drawn by other articles. In 1756 a stage line between Philadelphia and one horse and having four wheels. They seem to have been New York, via Trenton and Perth Amboy was established either unknown or exceedingly scarce in this country before which aimed at making the journey in three days. The ad- the present century, and all vehicles intended for passenger vertisement of this enterprise, published November 6th, 1756, movements presumably belonged to one of two classes; either is as follows:- two-wheeled vehicles drawn by one horse or four-wheeled vehi- "Notice is hereby given that we, the subscribers, John Butler, cles drawn by two or more horses. Another subdivision might of Philadelphia, at the sign of the Death of the Fox in Straw- be based on the number of persons they were intended to ac- berry Alley, begins his stage on the Tuesday, ninth of this commodate. The two-wheeled and one-horse vehicles were instant, November, from his house, and will proceed with his either sulkies in which one person could be conveniently wagon to the house of Nathaniel Parker, at Trenton Ferry; seated, or a two-wheeled chair, chaise, or gig, having a seat and from thence the goods and passengers to be carried over wide enough to accommodate two persons. The four-wheeled the ferry to the house kept by George Moschel, where Francis vehicles, as a rule, always had at least two seats and frequently Holman will meet the above John Butler and exchange their more. passengers, etc., and then proceed on Wednesday through The efforts of inventive genius have very greatly improved Princetown and New Brunswick to the house of Obadiah Aries coach, carriage, and wagon building. Every portion of all in Perth Amboy, where will be a good boat with all conve- classes of vehicles has been greatly advanced and many new niences necessary, kept by John Thomson and William Walter, shapes and forms have been introduced. Independent of a for the reception of passengers, etc., who will proceed on Thurs- host of substantial additions several great fundamental changes day morning without delay for New York, and there land at have been made which continue to materially affect the char- Whitehall, where the said Walter and Thomson will give acteristics of nearly all wheeled vehicles. One of the most attendance at the house of Abraham Bockeys until the Mon- important of these relates to springs. Before the present cen- day morning following, and then will return to Perth Amboy, tury very few steel carriage springs were used in this country, where Francis Holman on Tuesday morning following will and the modern form of elliptic springs was only invented in attend and return with his wagon to Trenton Ferry to meet the early part of the nineteenth century. Presumably the John Butler, of Philadelphia, and there exchange their passen- favorite method of guarding passengers against concussions on gers, etc., for New York and Philadelphia. rude roads was hanging the bodies of coaches on strong leather 8 Digitized by Google 58 SPRINGS AND OTHER IMPROVEMENTS. supports, and this system continued to be used extensively thus considered cannot be too large. In practice, however, during a large portion of the present century. Leather straps they are limited by weight, by expense, and by convenience. or supports to promote the comfort of passengers had been Springs were in all likelihood applied at first to carriages, used for centuries, and steel springs had been extensively em- with no other view than to accommodute travelers. They have since ployed as a substitute for them in this country and England been found to answer several important ends. They convert for a considerable number of years before all percussion into mere increase of pressure; that is, the col- lision of two hard bodies is changed, by the interposition of THE USE OF STEEL SPRINGS one that is elastic, into a mere accession of weight. Thus the on an extensive scale, on vehicles intended mainly for the carriage is preserved from injury, and the materials of the road transportation of freight, became at all general. This last- are not broken; and in surmounting obstacles, instead of the named change has probably done more than any other single whole carriage with its load being lifted over, the springs allow thing to improve freight vehicles. The significance of this im- the wheels to raise, while the weights suspended upon them provement can, perhaps, be best described by the following are scarcely moved from the horizontal level. So that, if the reference to testimony taken before a select committee of the whole of the weight would be supported on the springs, and House of Commons on steam carriages, in 1831, which was re- all the other parts supposed to be devoid of inertia, while the printed by the House of Representatives, at Washington, in springs themselves were very long, and extremely flexible, this 1832. In response to the question, "Have you paid any atten- consequence would clearly follow, however much it may wear tion to the general nature and advantages of wheels and springs the appearance of a paradox, that such a carriage may be for carriages, the draughts of cattle and the form of roads?" drawn over a road abounding in small obstacles without agita- Davies Gilbert, a member of the committee, made remarks tion, and without any material addition being made to the which embrace these extracts:- moving power or draft. It seems, therefore, probable that, "Taking wheels completely in the abstract, they must be under certain modifications of form and material, springs may considered as answering two different purposes. First, they be applied with advantage to the very heaviest wagons. transfer the friction which would take place between a sliding The advantages consequent to the draft, from suspending heavy body and the comparatively rough, uneven surface over which baggage on the springs, were first generally perceived about it slides, to the smooth, oiled perphiries of the axis and box, forty years since on the introduction of mail coaches. where the absolute quantity of the friction, as opposing resist- The extensive use of wagons suspended on springs, for convey- ance, is also diminished by leverage in the proportion of the ing heavy articles, introduced within these two or three last wheel to that of the axis. years, will form an epoch in the history of internal land communi- "Secondly, they procure mechanical advantage for over- cation not much inferior, perhaps, in importance to that when mail coming obstacles in proportion to the square roots of their coaches were first adopted; and the extension of vans, in 80 short diameters, when the obstacles are relatively small, by increasing a time, to places the most remote from the metropolis, induces the time in that ratio, during which the wheel ascends; and a hope and expectation that, as roads improve, the means of they pass over small, transverse ruts, hollows or pits, with an preserving them will improve also, possibly in an equal degree; absolute advantage of not sinking proportionate to their di- 80 that permanence and consequent cheapness in addition to ameters, and with a mechanical one, as before, proportionate facility of conveyance, will be distinguishing features of the to the square roots of their diameters. Consequently, wheels Macadam system." SPRINGS AND OTHER IMPROVEMENTS. A LMOST all light and heavy freight wagons now used in marked degree arises from the fact that all classes of wheeled American cities are provided with springs, and by their vehicles are now intended almost exclusively for relatively use a great gain is effected in the speed at which wagons can be short movements, consisting largely of trips to and from rail- moved, in the weight that a horse or a given number of horses way stations, instead of being frequently called into requisition can draw, and in the diminution of the shock and pressure to for comparatively lengthy journeys, such as were often made which roads and pavements are subjected. A large proportion in carriages and wagons before railways were constructed, and of the light freight vehicles used in country districts are also this change in requirements has been accompanied with furnished with springs, and the extensive use of such vehicles marked improvements in methods of construction and a large and of carriages has led to the general abandonment of the number of additions to the classes of vehicles manufactured. custom common in many sections until the nineteenth century was well advanced of conducting many minor freight move- CHANGES IN AMERICAN VEHICLES. ments on horseback. Of the changes made in this country some of the most im- Aside from the radical improvements effected by the sub- portant are those which relate to the extensive substitution of stitution of steel springs for leather straps, and the application four-wheeled vehicles for two-wheeled vehicles to be drawn by of steel springs to freight wagons of various classes as well as one horse; to the extensive use of springs under wagons in- to carriages, great advances have been effected during the tended mainly for the carriage of light freight, but which by nineteenth century in connection with the materials and having springs, can make journeys with greater rapidity than shapes of various parts of carriages, and the entire range of would be possible without their aid, and carry heavier loads coach and wagon appliances. with a given number of horses; to the introduction of cabs, Independent of the changes in external forms which vary hansoms, and omnibuses; to the improvement of stages; and with every freak of fashion, great advances have been made to the organization of a large number of coach-building estab- by adopting contrivances for preventing lubricating material lishments by which all classes of demands and the most luxu- from escaping; in substituting iron for wood in parts of vehicles rious tastes can be gratified. where great strength is required; in improving axles, wheels, The gig, chair, or chaise, a light two-wheeled vehicle, was the and the methods for fastening spokes to wheels; in increasing favorite pleasure carriage to be drawn by one horse up to a the facilities for turning within a short space; in designing period when the nineteenth century was well advanced. The vehicles specially adapted to a great variety of purposes; in famous description of the Deacon's one-horse shay, by Oliver arranging covers and providing for raising, lowering, and tem- Wendell Holmes, announces that it was manufactured in 1715 porarily removing them; and in all the details of all the features so perfect and well balanced in all its parts that it remained in of their mechanical appliances. good running order for exactly one hundred years and then In the aggregate, these advances have made immense addi- suddenly fell to pieces. This might be accepted as a figurative tions to the utility of wheeled vehicles and the number used description of the fate of the class of vehicles it represented. has increased with great rapidity. The "wonderful one-horse shay" was constructed on the theory One of the influences affecting these improvements in a that each place should be made "uz strong uz the rest." Digitized by Google SPRINGS AND OTHER IMPROVEMENTS. 59 In many sections changes have occurred analogous to those summer and fall, and the display of these is especially large depicted in the following statement made by a Minneapolis and elegant. T-carts, dog-carts, village-carts, stand-up phae- carriage dealer to a reporter in 1885:- tons, and every style of small wagons were included. A pe- "The changes in my business in the last twenty-five years," culiarity of this year is the new ruby color, a shade bordering said a pioneer carriage dealer, "illustrate the whole growth on maroon. Trimmings in this color and in green and blue and development of the country in that time. The first things were those most largely used. Striping continues to be of all we sold, I remember, were heavy transfer wagons, such as were possible shades." suited to carrying heavy loads, and would last a long time. We IN RURAL DISTRICTS, did not think of selling anything else in those days. The ap- where the number of persons who can afford to use very ex- pearance of that handsome barouche which you see yonder pensive carriages is comparatively limited, useful vehicles of would have given us as much surprise as it would one of the various classes have been extensively introduced, which com- painted warriors who roamed the prairie. About all the trans- bine strength and adaptation to rough roads, and springs, that portation except that by river was by means of these wagons, avoid excessive jolting, with comparative cheapness. In some drawn by the stout horses of the pioneers. But times are regions buckboards, holding two, four, or nine passengers, have changed. The roads became better, and such strong vehicles long been a favorite conveyance. In others the dearborn main- were not needed. Moreover, with the advent of more railroad tained a protracted ascendency. In others light wagons with lines, the teamster's occupation gradually dwindled. Strong springs used generally in moving light freight, such as deliver- wagons gave place to those of a lighter build. In time, too, the ing barrels of flour and carrying small quantities of grain to a farmers began to indulge in luxury. They bought light spring mill, are frequently pressed into service for short passenger wagons with which to go to town and church, and for a while movements. In others a modification or close imitation of the trade was brisk in light wagons. But the country was growing army ambulance is used, which combines, in a marked degree, all the time, of course, and soon there arose quite a demand for strength and adaptability to rough roads, with an avoidance of buggies. The farmers and trades-people, you see, were grow- uncomfortable jolting. ing wealthy. Finally we abandoned the sale of heavy wagons INCREASE IN NUMBER OF WAGONS AND CARRIAGES. altogether, and dealt only in buggies, carriages, and sleighs, and The increase in the number of carriages and wagons used their furnishings. That little story, sir, marks the growth of has been even more noticeable than the improvements in their this section of the country from a wilderness to a land of plenty. construction. Instead of railways diminishing the number of Perhaps you do not appreciate all the art there is in the make-up common road vehicles they seem to have had the opposite of a fine carriage and its accoutrements. A business man with effect. This, at least, seems to be a natural deduction from the an income of $5,000 a year can now ride out in more real style following statements, compiled from census statistics, relating than Cæsar could. There is more art in his outfit. Take our to the manufacture of carriages and wagons in the United phaetons, rockaways. They are simply the perfection of me- States:- chanical art. If they were handled rightly, I do not see why No of Persons they should not wait and go in pieces all at once, as did the establish- Wages paid. Carriages Value of raw Value of Census em- annual year. ments. deacon's shay. And as to winter equipage, just step to the ployed. produced. material. product. 1840 92 2,274 13,321 $1,708,741 window and look out." 1850 1,822 14,000 95,000 12,000,000 The reporter obeyed and, while entertained by the conversa- 1800 7,234 37,457 $13,547,356 270,000 $12,008,675 35,927,192 tion of the loquacious dealer in carriages, watched the gay pro- 1870 11,944 56,294 21,749,625 800,000 23,385,683 67,003,730 cession of winter merry-makers go by. There were cutters The compendium of the tenth census (1880) gives the number worth $50, and large double sleighs worth $500. Their furnish_ of establishments engaged in manufacturing carriages and ings were all that wealth and a desire for comfort and even wagons as 3,841, with $37,973,493 capital, employing 43,630 luxury could suggest. Drawn by sleek, high-stepping steeds, males above 16 years, 273 females, and 1,491 children and with silver or brass-mounted trappings, they made a moving youths, paying $18,988,615 in wages and $30,597,086 for mate- and highly attractive picture. With immense crimson plumes rials. Their annual product is estimated at $64,951,617. A and luxurious robes, with a driver in livery perched up in front, reference is made to wheelwrighting. The number of estab- and the fascinating Minneapolis beauty behind, there was little to be desired. lishments reported under that head was 10,701, with a capital THE VARIETY OF FINE CARRIAGES of $10,641,080, employing 16,108 persons, paying $5,074,799 for wages, and $6,703,677 for materials, and the annual value of manufactured is also indicated by the following newspaper no- products was $18,892,858. Reference is also made to black- tice of a display recently made by a prominent New York smithing, a considerable portion of which is devoted to making manufacturer:- and repairing carriages and wagons. The number of establish- "There never before was shown 80 comprehensive a variety ments was 28,101, with a capital of $19,618,852, employing of carriages, embracing all classes of vehicles and all peculiari- 34,526 persons, paying $11,126,001 in wages and $14,572,363 for ties of taste. A special effort was made, and with signal suc- materials. The annual value of their products was $43,774,271. cess, to show the late adaptations of the eight-spring apparatus. It is supposed that the number of carriages and wagons of It figures in victorias, broughams, landeaus, phaetons, vis-a-vis, all descriptions now made and sold, annually, exceeds 1,000,000, and other wagons, and makes a superb mounting, as light and and their value is approximately about $100,000,000. The variety as graceful as a hammock. Spider phaetons will continue to of carriages, including shapes, styles, and sizes is probably about be popular this year, and a number of these, making a stylish 1,000. Important centres of carriage-making industries include turnout, were shown. There was a large variety of ladies' driv- Concord, New Hampshire; Amesbury and Belchertown, Massa- ing phaetons, and many handsome shapes of that usually un- chusetts; New Haven and Bridgeport, Connecticut; Troy, New lovely vehicle, the landeau. Coupés and other closed carriages York; New York city; Newark, New Jersey; Philadelphia; Wil- were also exhibited in large numbers. Many patterns were mington, Delaware; Pittsburgh; Chicago, and various other shown in wood and iron, so that the quality of material and cities. There are, indeed, few cities or large towns in the workmanship might be fully observed. United States in which a large number of carriages and wagons "Among the special exhibits was a lithe, little sulky that are not produced. One of the largest wagon-making establish- weighed only thirty-seven pounds, and is warranted to endure ments is located in Indiana, and from its works a large number the strain of the fastest possible speed. It is braced with steel of wagons are forwarded to western states and territories as couplings wherever the strain is apt to be severe. A magnifi- well as to interior districts of seaboard states. cent tandem cart is displayed, which has just been made on the order of a well-known resident of Fifth avenue. A four-in- COMBINED EFFECT OF IMPROVEMENTS OF ROADS AND VEHICLES. hand coach in wood and iron is shown, in which the massive- It would be impossible to apportion with exactness credit for ness of this wagon, as well as its wonderful running qualities, the progress achieved in diminishing the time required for are revealed. There were also a host of two-wheelers of all given journeys made in carriages or stage-coaches, and in in weights, adapted for every sort of horse, from the pony to the creasing the amount of freight that can be drawn in vans or coach horse. Light-weight wagons will be in extensive use this wagons, between those who improve roads and those who im- Digitized by Google TRANSPORTATION OF PASSENGERS IN STAGES. 61 traveler must rise and make ready, by the help of a horn lantern From Philadelphia to Chester, 15 miles £0 5a. 0d. and a farthing candle, and proceed on his way over bad roads, From Chester to Queen of France (a total of 22 miles from sometimes getting out to help the coachman lift the coach out Philadelphia, where passengers dined), 7 miles £0 2a. 6d. of a quagmire or rut, and arrived in New York after a week's Queen of France to Wilmington, 6 miles £0 2a. 6d. Wilmington to Christiana bridge, 10 miles £0 3a. 4d. hard traveling, wondering at the ease as well as the expedition Christiana bridge to Elk, 12 miles £0 4s. 2d. with which our journey was effected." Elk to Susquehanna, 16 miles £0 7s. 6d. Later in the last century a decided improvement had been effected, as shown by the following advertisement in the Co- Philadelphia to Susquehanna, 66 miles £1 5a. od. lumbian Centinel for April 24th, 1793: "Boston and New York Susquehanna to Baltimore, 37 miles, gratis. stages. The subscriber informs his friends and the public that The passengers sleep the first night at Christiana bridge." he, in company with the other proprietors of the old line of It will be seen that the principle of charging a higher rate stages, has established a new line from Boston to New York for for short movements than for longer ones was adopted by this the more rapid conveyance of the mails. The stage carriages line to the extent of moving passengers over more than a third of this new line will be small, genteel, and easy, in which but of the distance gratis, probably to meet water-route compe- four inside passengers will be admitted, with smart, good horses, tition. and experienced and careful drivers. They will start from Bos- The announcements were headed by a picture of the post- ton and New York on the first Monday in May, and continue coach carriages of that day. They resembled very large dear- to run three times a week until the first of November, and will borns or market wagons, with round tops covered with canvas. leave Boston every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday at four The driver was seated at the front, his feet outside of the body o'clock A. M., and arrive at New York in three days and a half of the wagon, resting on a foot-board. The vehicle was drawn from their departure. They will leave New York on the same by four horses. days at one o'clock P. M., and arrive at Boston on the fourth Of a journey made by Josiah Quincy, from Philadelphia to day from their departure at seven o'clock P. M. The number Washington, via Lancaster, the following entry occurs in his of passengers being so small, conveyance 80 agreeable and diary:- rapid, the price for each passenger will be 4d. per mile, with 14 "February 10th, 1826.-At three o'clock this morning the light pounds of baggage gratis, and as the proprietors have been at of a candle under the door and a rousing knock told me that it such great expense to erect this line, they hope their exertions was time to depart, and shortly after I left Philadelphia by the will give satisfaction and receive the public patronage." Lancaster stage, otherwise a vast, illimitable wagon, with seats Besides the above "Fast Line," the proprietors advertise an- without backs, capable of holding some sixteen passengers with other line, occupying four days for the trip, the price being 3d. decent comfort to themselves, and actually encumbered with per mile per passenger, with 14 pounds of baggage gratis, and some dozen more. After riding till eight o'clock, we reached for every 150 pounds of baggage the same as a passenger. the breakfast house, where we partook of a good meal, and In 1818 took up Messrs. Story and Wheaton. We then proceeded THE EASTERN STAGE COMPANY through a most beautiful tract of country, where good fences was chartered in the state of New Hampshire. This was a and huge stone barns proved the excellence of the farming. notable event, and probably had a marked influence in en- The road seemed actually lined with Conestoga wagons, each couraging the development of the famous Concord coaches. drawn by six stalwart horses, and laden with farm produce." The capital stock was fixed at first by the company at 425 In a statement made to a Washington correspondent of the shares, of one hundred dollars each, and the charter extended New York Sun by Colonel John E. Reeside, son of James for twenty years. The main route of this line in 1818 was as Reeside, the first of the heavy mail contractors in the United follows: A coach left Portsmouth for Boston at 9 o'clock A. M., States, he said that from 1827 to 1836 he carried passengers dined at Topsfield, and then through Danversport and Salem and the mails between Philadelphia and Baltimore, during the to Boston, and back the same way the next day, dining at season of navigation as follows: From Philadelphia to New Newburyport. In 1825 the directors had established a sinking Castle, Delaware, by steamboat; from New Castle in coaches fund, and had carried $1,000 to that account, had declared a across the peninsula, sixteen miles, to Frenchtown, and then to semi-annual dividend of four per cent., and had created 75 new Baltimore by steamboat. shares, making up the full 500 allowed by the charter. The In the winter, when navigation was closed, two stage lines second dividend for this year was six per cent., and in 1826 were run from Philadelphia to Baltimore. The time between eleven per cent. was divided. In 1828 the shares were at a Philadelphia and Baltimore by the Wilmington line was usually premium of $50, and a semi-annual dividend of eight per cent. twenty-four hours, but when the roads were bad sixty hours on $150 was made. In 1830 the company was incorporated in were frequently consumed. By the river route the usual time Massachusetts, with a capital of $100,000. In 1832 it was run- was eleven hours. About 1829 or 1830 the New Castle and ning coaches from Concord to Portsmouth, from Dover by two Frenchtown Railroad was built. The cars used on this line routes to Newburyport, from Portsmouth to Newburyport, were simply the Troy coach bodies swung on straps and elliptic Salem, and Boston, from Salem to Haverhill and Lowell, from springs, and placed on trucks, and drawn by horses driven tan- Gloucester to Ipswich, and from Lowell by two routes to New- dem. This was one of the first railroads in the United States buryport. In 1833 the company was free from debt, and owned on which steam was used. 500 horses, with equipment to correspond. In 1834 the stock MOVEMENTS BETWEEN PHILADELPHIA AND PITTSBURGH. stood at over $200 a share, par being $100. In 1835 the com- pany was paying from $8,000 to $9,000 in tolls annually, and Colonel Reeside also states that in 1828 he began to carry the mails between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. There were two owned a large amount of turnpike, bridge, bank, and hotel stock. It was over this line that Henry Clay was carried from lines owned by Reeside, Slaymaker & Co., one carrying the let- Pleasant street in Salem to the Tremont House in Boston in ter mail; called "The Good Intent." The other, carrying the newspaper mail, was known as "The Telegraph." "The Good sixty minutes, and upon this route Daniel Webster was carried from Boston to Portland, to sign the Ashburton treaty, at the Intent" ran by the way of Harrisburg, Chambersburg, Somer- rate of sixteen English miles an hour. set, and Mount Pleasant to Pittsburgh; "The Telegraph" by the way of Columbia, York, Gettysburg, Chambersburg, Bed- MOVEMENTS BETWEEN PHILADELPHIA AND BALTIMORE. ford, and Greensburg to Pittsburgh. "The Good Intent" made The Philadelphia Independent Gazetteer, of January 2d, 1788, the run from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh in fifty-two hours, contains an advertisement of Greshom, Johnson & Co., of "the while "The Telegraph" consumed seventy-two hours. In 1834 Philadelphia, Baltimore and Eastern Shore Line of Post-Coach the speed of "The Telegraph" line was brought up to that of Carriages," which announces that carriages will set out in Fourth "The Good Intent," for which additional pay amounting to street, nearly opposite the Old Indian Queen Tavern, during the $12,000 a year was given by the department. winter, on Mondays and Thursdays of every week, at ten o'clock In Mr. W. Hasell Wilson's Notes on the Internal Improve- in the forenoon, and arrive in Baltimore on Wednesdays and ments of Pennsylvania, published in 1879, he says:- Saturdays in good season for dining. In the issue of July 12th, "An announcement was made in the Pittsburgh papers, of 1788, the rates of fare are given, thus:- May 1831, that Reeside, Slaymaker & Co. had, with their usual Digitized by Google 62 TRANSPORTATION OF PASSENGERS IN STAGES. enterprise and public spirit, established four lines of stages to horses of the best kind, each horse had a set of harness, each run through to Philadelphia; the first, in two and a half days; team had its driver, each driver had his whip, water bucket, the second, in four days, both of them daily; the third to start grease bucket, and stage horn, and the stages ran on stage tri-weekly, and the fourth to run daily in four days, by the way time, 80 each driver would know when the stage was due at his of Blairsville, Huntingdon, and Lewistown. This was consid- stand. The driver would always have his horses harnessed in ered at the time a great advance upon the previous traveling time, and when he heard the driver on the road coming blow- facilities. The writer well recollects the advent of the fast mail ing on his horn, 'Molly, Put the Kettle On,' he would have his line, to run through in two and a half days. The coaches were team on the spot ready to take the coach on. They kept the built as light as possible consistent with strength, and carried stages running all the time, Sundays not excepted. but six passengers each. The four-horse teams were carefully These coaches varied in size, having a capacity for carrying selected, and changed every ten miles. As the sound of the six to fourteen passengers, though when it was a fourteen-pas- horn announced the approach of the stage to the changing senger coach, two had to be deck passengers. This line carried station, the fresh horses were brought out, each in charge of a through passengers for ten cents a mile; way passengers were groom, and the change was effected, and the coach rolling charged twelve and a half cents a mile. away before the passengers hardly realized what was being Every coach that left Augusta or Mobile had in it a way box, done. The contrast with the old order of things was so marked in which was a way bill, and on that bill every passenger regis- as to excite a good deal of wonder and astonishment along the tered his or her name; when they took passage, any person route." could have access to that bill by going to the driver at the stage COMBINED RAIL AND SLEIGH MOVEMENT BETWEEN PHILADELPHIA stand, for it was the duty of every driver to see that every pas- AND NEW YORK. senger's name WHS registered and the fare paid, and if any In reference to a winter substitute for staging, viz., riding on driver found a passenger on who had not paid his fare it was sleds or sleighs, Mr. S. W. Roberts said, in an address to the his duty to collect it or put him off. Pennsylvania Historical Societv:- This line was laid out in sections, each section had an agent, "On the 14th of February, 1836, I left Philadelphia at 5 P. M., and these agents would travel over their sections about once in and was fourteen hours going to New York with the Great every fifteen or twenty days, but would go when the drivers Southern Mail, although the sleighing was good. We rode in were not expecting them. It was also the agents' duty to pay an open sled, or box on runners, and the four passengers sat on the drivers and pay. for forage, for harness, etc., to look after the mail bags. The fare from Philadelphia to New York was the condition of the stables and teams, and to see that all was six dollars. My recollection is that we rode fourteen right, for if any driver had not accounted for all money re- miles in a railroad car, from Elizabethtown to Jersey City." ceived from every passenger, the agents settled with such de- STAGE MOVEMENTS FROM ALBANY TO WESTERN NEW YORK. faulter by deducting the amount behind from his wages, besides all damages caused by fault of such driver, and put him on the Thurlow Weed's autobiography says: "Very few of our citi- road to leave. zens possess information, other than traditional, of the mode The line was about four hundred miles long, it carried the of travel between Albany and the western part of New York United States mail at a considerable cost, and when a trip was even as late as 1824. Those who step into a railway car at Al- lost it was no little item to the contractor. This line of stages bany at seven o'clock in the morning, and step out to get their ran for five years, and was a great advantage to the country dinner at Rochester at two o'clock P. M., will find it difficult to which it ran through." believe that within the memory of by no means the 'oldest STAGE-COACH MOVEMENTS ON THE CUMBERLAND ROAD. inhabitant' it required, in muddy seasons of the year, seven nights' and six days' constant traveling in stages to accomplish One of the greatest theatres of prolonged stage-coach activity, the same journey; and yet that was my own experience in involving the use of superior vehicles and teams, was the Cum- berland road, which for a number of years was a leading avenue April, 1824. of travel between the Atlantic and western states, and especially "We left Albany at seven o'clock in the evening, and traveled for movements between Wheeling and Baltimore. In describ- diligently for seven nights and six days. The road from Albany to Schenectady, with the exception of two or miles, was ing these movements, a Washington, Pa., correspondent of the Philadelphia Press says:- in a horrible condition, and that west of Schenectady, until we we reached 'Tripes,' or 'Tribes Hill,' still worse. For a few "At various times four companies engaged in staging. They were the National Line, Good Intent, June Bug, and the Pioneer. miles, in the vicinity of Palatine Church, there was a gravelly road, over which the driver could raise a trot, but this was a Of the few surviving drivers, none recollect how the 'June Bug' Line received its name. Relays were established at a distance luxury experienced in but few localities, and those far between. of from ten to twelve miles, and there are some records of quick Passengers walked to ease the coach several miles each day and each night. Although they did not literally carry rails on their changing that would make a modern Jehu turn green with envy. shoulders to pry the coach out of ruts, they were frequently An old driver still boasts of harnessing his four horses in four minutes, and of changing teams before the stage ceased rock- called upon to use rails for that purpose. Such snail-paced movements and such discomforts in travel would be regarded ing. Ponderous trunks were strictly forbidden, each passenger as unendurable now; and yet passengers were patient, and some being limited to fifty pounds of baggage, and there was careful of them even cheerful, under all those delays and annoyances. weighing in those days. Each stage's complement consisted in That, however, was an exceptional passage. It was only when not more than nine passengers. As many as fourteen coaches we had 'horrid bad' roads that the stages 'drew their slow have traveled together with their 100-odd passengers. If there length along." was a mail coach among them, the 'toot,' 'toot' of the driver's horn added to the gaiety of the scene; and when a wayside inn OF SOUTHERN STAGE LINES AND STAGE TRAVELS IN 1834 was reached, and the passengers disembarked for refreshments, A writer in the Dooly (Ga.) Vindicator says: "As a great what joyful recognition, uncorking of bottles, and the like were many of the young people of these days have but a faint idea there! In those days through mail coaches left Wheeling at 6 how the public traveled in old times, some forty-nine years ago, A. M., and just twenty-four hours later dashed into Cumberland, I thought I would, for their information, give them, through Md., having traversed a distance of 132 miles. Occasionally the columns of the Vindicator, a few dots, by commencing there were delays, but these were not permissible upon the back in 1834, when there were no railroads in Georgia. About completion of the Baltimore and Ohio road to Cumberland. A the end of 1834, Messrs. John and Richard Stockton, of Virginia, way mail coach, which both deposited and received mail at all started a line of stage coaches from Augusta, Ga., to Mobile, stations, left Wheeling at 7 A. M. each day. Despite its extra Ala., passing through this, Dooly county, and through Vienna. duties, it managed to overtake the through mail before enter- It was arranged for the stages to run every other day, the stands ing Cumberland. Ohio river steamboats have arrived at Wheel- or points where teams were changed were from ten to fourteen ing as late as 10 A. M. with passengers booked for the train to miles apart, according to the facilities for entertainment, except leave Cumberland at 6 o'clock the next morning. One hun- on long drives, which were from twenty to twenty-five miles dred and thirty-two miles up hill and down hill, fording rivers apart, and at each one of these stands they kept a team of four and crossing mountains, but connection must be made; and it Digitized by Google TRANSPORTATION OF PASSENGERS IN STAGES. 63 was, though at a heavy cost to the company. Such fast trips, the Rocky mountains to Salt Lake. In 1815-16 my father was however, could only be indulged in by the wealthier classes. concerned in the first line of coaches crossing the Alleghany "The stage drivers were ambitious. A true test of their mountains and carrying the mails. In 1852 the first mail coach mettle was the delivery of the President's message. The let- crossing the Rocky mountains was owned by myself and William ting of contracts by the Post-Office Department hinged on these McGraw. The contract for carrying the mails across the Rocky deliveries, and if a driver failed to make good time it meant mountains was terminated by Indian hostilities, culminating in the cancelation of the contract with his employers, and the what was known as the Harney war." transfer to a rival company. Dave Gordon, a noted driver, ORIGIN OF THE PHRASE "CHALKING HIS HAT," OR THE FREE- once carried the President's message from this point to Wheel- PASS SYSTEM. ing, a distance of 32 miles, in two hours and twenty minutes. He changed teams three times in this distance. Bill Noble, The Washington Critic says: "The first man to introduce the still living, and further afflicted with a cancer on the face, hat-chalking business in this country was Mr. Reeside, father claims to have made the best time on record. He professes to of Mr. J. E. Reeside, of Washington. Away back in the days have driven from Wheeling to Hagerstown, Md., 185 miles, in of Old Hickory, the first-named gentleman, in connection with fifteen and a half hours. others, was the great Star-Route contractor of the Union. Mr. "In 1852 coaching began to decline. In that year the Balti- Reeside and his friends ran lines of stage coaches from this more and Ohio Railroad was completed to Wheeling, and there- city to all the leading points in the west and south-west. Mr. after stages to and from Cumberland were propelled by two Reeside was agent of the company for this city, and knew all horses instead of four. Now it has dwindled down to an aged- the M. C.'s from the sections named. Occasionally he would looking coach, which plys daily between here and Brownsville, take a liking to some Representative or Senator, and would 24 miles east. The iron horse enters both places, and this relic tender him a free ride to his home when Congress adjourned. of olden days contents itself with a local traffic. The dog trot Now, the old man was mighty strict with his drivers and of to-day is a miserable contrast to the quick time of thirty-five agents, holding them pecuniarly responsible for the fare of or forty years ago. Then drivers' orders were to make the everybody who got onto the coaches. To prevent his agents time or kill the horses. Teams were driven ten miles at a full being imposed upon by forged passes, the old man devised a run. If a horse dropped he was quickly unharnessed, and if peculiar hieroglyphic. The M. C. would have his name printed unable to travel further was drawn aside, and the journey was on the inside of his hat, and Mr. R. would take a piece of chalk resumed." and write his hieroglyphic on the outside of the hat. In a description of movements over the Cumberland road, In a short time Mr. R.'s mark became known on all the lines, furnished to the New York Sun by Colonel Reeside, he stated and a man with that mark on his tile could ride all over the that in 1836 he turned his attention to the connections from west and south-west gratis, because, as the drivers expressed Baltimore westward. The National road between Cumberland it, 'the old man's chalked his hat.' Thus Mr. R. became the and Wheeling being then about completed, he placed lines forerunner of all the chalk-daubing now in the United States. upon that route to make the connection between the terminus This is a fact, as the writer had it from the lips of Mr. J. E. of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad at Frederick and the Reeside, who has seen his father sling-the chalk many a time steamboat service on the Ohio river at Wheeling, and the stage in days long gone by." lines running west into Ohio and Indiana. He reduced the THE PRIMITIVE WESTERN STAGE COACH, time of transit from Baltimore to Wheeling to about forty-eight dating back to 1830, was described as follows in the Chicago hours. The road being new, the stone just broken, the teams Magazine: "It was a great, ugly, inconvenient, incommodious employed usually consisted of five horses, three in the lead and vehicle, built with an eye to service, without a thought of ele- two at the wheel. There was a strong opposition between the gance. The wheels were of oak, with spokes like a Polynesian lines of Reeside and Stockton, and it was frequently the scene war-club, thickly tired, and with a hub like a hogshead. Upon of spirited races between the rival lines. At that date most of the axle-trees was a common cart body, with seats laid across. the freight for the west was conveyed from Baltimore and There was no tongue to the coach, but a pair of shafts, and one Frederick to Wheeling and points in the west beyond, with horse alone- did the duty, or mayhap a tandem. Hoop-poles the old-fashioned Conestoga wagon, which, together with the were bent over from side to side, and a rough board behind, numerous droves of cattle, sheep, and hogs driven to market, fastened to the coach by a pair of great leathern straps, carried frequently caused great obstruction to the stage coaches in the baggage of the passengers." getting by and through them. Those were the days of the good old-fashioned roadside inn, where venison steaks, hot THE CONCORD COACH. waffles, corn cakes, and coffee were the bounteous repasts Of the stages generally used in the new western states and served up to the hungry traveler. territories about 1865 Albert D. Richardson says: "The mail Competition being very great at that time for the possession coach or hack built in Concord, N. H., is known as the Con- of the mail contract, Amos Kendall, then Postmaster-General, cord wagon. It is covered with duck or canvas, the driver designed a wagon for the purpose of carrying the mail, inde- sitting in front, at a slight elevation above the passengers. pendent of passenger travel, which was tried but a short time Bearing no weight upon the roof, it is less top-heavy than the and then laid aside, and the mail placed upon the ordinary old-fashioned stage coach for mud-holes and mountain sides, coaches. It frequently required three or four coaches to trans- where to preserve the centre of gravity becomes, like Falstaff's port it, there being often as many as fourteen lock bags and instinct, 'a great matter.' Like human travelers on life's high- seventy-two canvas sacks. way, it goes best under a heavy load. Empty, it jolts and In 1846 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad reached Cumber- pitches like я ship in a raging sea. Filled with passengers, and land. The travel over the National road was then greatly in- balanced by a proper distribution of baggage in the 'boot' be- creased. Competing stage lines were put on, and it was no hind, and under the driver's feet, its motion is easy and elastic. unusual thing to see from fifteen to twenty coaches leave and Excelling every other in durability and strength, this hack is enter Cumberland twice a day. There was a corresponding used all over our continent and throughout South America." increase of the traffic by wagons, so that the saying of "Forty Quite a variety of vehicles, however, were pressed into the wagons in a day entering Wheeling" became a proverb. The service of stage proprietors. A writer, in describing the stages great stream of travel between the east and the west poured of Montana, says: "If there is a prettier street picture of ani- over the National road from that time on for several years. mation than a red Concord coach, with six spirited horses in In 1852 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad reached the Ohio bright harness, and a good reinsman on the box, we have not river, and it remained for the son of the father who started the seen it. But it was not always clean Concords and six prancing first line of stage coaches across the Alleghany mountains with horses. There are the jerkeys and mud wagons, with two and the daily mail, to carry the last mail for the east by coach into four horses, and passengers packed in like sardines, or footing Wheeling. it through the mud at the rate of two miles an hour, in the After 1852," says John E. Reeside, "I began to run coaches dark background of memory on which the bright picture is through Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri, and across the plains and painted." Digitized by Google 64 EARLY AMERICAN RAILWAY PROJECTS. STAGE-COACH MOVEMENTS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. teriors were adorned with fantastic figures, and the entrance In 1860, by traveling in stages during a large portion of each doors were on the sides of these vehicles. Subsequently the day and night, but halting forty-five times for intervals of from door for entering was placed in the rear, connected by a strap four to five or six hours, the journey was made from St. Joseph, with the driver's box, 80 that he could know when any one was Missouri, to Great Salt Lake, in 19 days, the distance being entering or leaving the vehicle, and two horses were used in 1,126 miles, and the average rate of speed nearly sixty miles a nearly all cases, the only exceptions being very large omni- day. buses, capable of seating about thirty or more passengers, and Hall's Guide to the Great West, published in 1865, says of a used mainly in social excursions or moving persons between journey to Virginia City, Montana:- railway stations. As one omnibus line after another in large "One route is by the overland stage from Atchison, Kansas, cities was supplemented by street cars, the old vehicles were or from Omaha, Nebraska, to Salt Lake and Montana. The usually painted anew in gorgeous colors, and pressed into ser- distance to Salt Lake is 1,255 miles and to Virginia City 500 vice in the suburbs, or in country towns and country hotels. miles further, requiring at least 17 days' and nights' continuous The charges for an omnibus ride, varying in length from a few travel in a coach generally crowded to its utmost capacity, with squares to several miles, were originally a shilling. Subse- only 25 pounds of baggage allowed to each passenger, except quently they were reduced to five cents in some cities and six by paying $1.50 for every additional pound. The stage fare to cents in others. Virginia City is $600; the price of meals on the way is from $1 One of the varieties in usages relating to cabs has been to $2 each. These high rates, more than double what they transitions from one horse to two-horse vehicles, followed by a were a year ago, are in consequence of the troubles with the failure or abandonment of one-horse vehicles, and subsequently Indians, who for a time completely broke up the line between by their reappearance in new shapes. The two-horse coaches the Missouri river and the mountains." The fare named, of are used largely in connection with funerals, and an important $600 for 1,755 miles, is a little more than 34} cents per mile. portion of their revenue is derived from this service. On the The same work says that Holliday's and Butterfield & Co.'s other hand, the employment of one-horse vehicles has been stages left Atchison daily in 1865 for Salt Lake. Time 12 days, considered one of the steps necessary to cheapen local carriage fare $150. This was about 12 cents per mile, and supposing transportation. The rates usually charged for a two-horse that the additional $450 required for the journey to Virginia coach for carrying one or two passengers not exceeding one City, of 500 miles beyond Salt Lake, applied exclusively to mile, or between principal hotels or stations, was $1. The one- payment for that journey, it was at the rate of 90 cents per mile. horse vehicles usually render the same service for 25 cents. The Ben Holliday stage lines, in operation in 1865 west of The published rates of the Chicago Gurney Company in 1885, the Missouri, were probably then the most extensive and most which correspond closely to the rates charged by the Hansom skillfully conducted stage routes in the world. The main line Cab Company of that city and similar organizations elsewhere, ran from Atchison, Kan., to Placerville, Cal., a distance of were as follows:- ONE MILE 1,913 miles, and there were, besides, important branches lead- ing from Omaha to Fort Kearney, from Denver to Central One mile or less, from any stand, each passenger 25 City, Col., and from Salt Lake City to Idaho. The average Between principal hotels and depots, each passenger 25 speed, continued night and day, including stoppages for meals, TWO MILES. was between five and six miles an hour. The coaches were of One passenger, from any stand 50 the regular Concord pattern, with three comfortably cushioned Two passengers 75 seats, and similar in appearance and accommodations to the Three or four pessengers $1 00 best style of coaches formerly used on first-class stage routes in THREE MILES. the east. Except in times of unusual difficulty, the coaches One passenger, from any stand 75 moved with great regularity, the schedule time being as par- Two passengers $1 00 ticularly made as on a railway. Three or four passengers 25 In above rates no charge made for one stop or wait of five OMNIBUS, CAB, AND GURNEY MOVEMENTS. minutes, but for a stop or wait of ten minutes the charge will A class of vehicles, intended for hire, that have been exten- be 15 cents; for fifteen minutes, 20 cents; for twenty minutes, 25 sively used are stages or omnibuses, and cabs, coaches, han- cents. soms, and gurneys, employed mainly in large cities and towns. No charge for ordinary hand-baggage. The omnibuses have been supplanted by street cars to such an SERVICE BY THE HOUR. extent that few of them are now running on their old routes. One or two passengers 75 Like a number of other adjuncts of transportation, their rise, Three or four passengers $1 00 decline, and fall as principal agencies of local passenger move- Time counted both ways from stand whether gurney returns ments in great cities extended over a period of about a quarter empty or otherwise, and no service performed for less than the of a century, beginning about 1830 on some routes, and a few price of one hour. years later on others. Charges made for fractions of an hour after the first hour. Some of the first omnibus lines were drawn by four horses, Passengers desirous of using the gurney by the hour should and had such names as the Lady Clinton, Lady Washington, make it known to the driver when engagement is made, other- Phoenix, Red Bird, Yellow Bird, and Blue Bird. Their ex- wise the charges will be by the mile. EARLY AMERICAN RAILWAY PROJECTS. CONCEPTIONS OF OLIVER EVANS, JOHN STEVENS, AND ROBERT ica at the period when Evans first conceived his plan of a FULTON. steam-road wagon, and he was obliged to look, but in vain, for I' would be difficult to trace each stage of the proceedings a field of practical utility, to turnpikes or a slight modification that finally led to the establishment of railways in the of them. He nevertheless was an ardent, although unsuccessful, United States. At some periods few things were attempted advocate of steam railways, and he was the first citizen of the which were not imitations of something that had previously United States who combined with such advocacy positive proofs been done in Great Britain. But this rule had notable excep- of ability to devise a machine capable of moving itself and ad- tions, the first of which was the invention of a high-pressure ditional weight by steam power, over ordinary streets or roads. engine, which, under favorable circumstances, could presum- In a letter published in Niles' Register, dated November 13th, ably have been developed into a successful primitive locomotive, 1812, Oliver Evans describes at length the steps he had com- by Oliver Evans, an able and successful inventor, at an earlier menced, soon after 1772, to construct steam wagons, and to date than any equally important forerunner of the locomotive organize methods for applying them to useful service. He had been devised elsewhere. There were no railways in Amer- makes this reference to what was probably his most remark- Digitized by Google Fulton's Ferry System, 1812. Burr Bridge. Wernwag's Bridge Construction. COMMISSION ПРИТ Suspension Bridge. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google EARLY AMERICAN RAILWAY PROJECTS. 65 able original discovery: At length a book fell into my hands fifteen miles an hour, on good, level railways, on condition that describing the old atmospheric steam engine. I was astonished I have double price if it shall run with that velocity, and to observe that they had 80 far erred as to use steam only to nothing for it if it shall not come up to that velocity. form a vacuum to apply the mere pressure of the atmosphere I have been highly delighted in reading a correspondence be- instead of applying the elastic power of the steam for original tween John Stevens, Esq., and the commissioners appointed by motion; the power of which I supposed irresistible. I renewed the legislature of New York, for fixing on the site of the great my studies with increased ardor and soon declared that I could canal proposed to be cut in that state. Mr. Stevens has taken make steam wagons." a most comprehensive and very ingenious view of this import- He states that in 1786 he petitioned the legislature of Penn- ant subject, and his plan of railways for the carriage to run sylvania for the exclusive right to use his improvements in upon removes all the difficulties that remained. I have had flour mills and steam wagons in that commonwealth, and that the pleasure, also, of hearing gentlemen of the keenest penetra- the committee to whom his petition was referred heard him tion, and of great mechanical and philosophical talents, freely very patiently while he described his mill improvements, but give in to the belief that steam carriages will become very use- were led to think him insane by his representations concerning ful. Mr. John Ellicott (of John) proposed to make roads of sub- steam wagons. He then made a similar application to the stancessuch as the best turnpikes are made, with a path for each legislature of Maryland, which resulted favorably, mainly on wheel to run on, having a railway on posts in the middle to guide the ground that the grant could injure no one, and the en- the tongue of the wagon, and to prevent any other carriage from couragement proposed might lead to the production of some- traveling on it. Then, if the wheels were made broad and the thing useful. He describes interviews with various prominent paths smooth, there would be very little wear. Such roads merchants or other capitalists, in which he explained his ideas might be very cheaply made. They would last a long time, and plans, and unsuccessfully solicited pecuniary assistance to and require very little repair. Such roads, I am inclined to be- give them practical effect. He says that in 1800 or 1801 he lieve, ought to be preferred, in the first instance, to those pro- constructed a small stationary engine for grinding plaster, posed by Mr. Stevens, as two ways could be made, in some parts which fully demonstrated the correctness of his theories. As of the country, for the same expense, as one could be made an additional and unanswerable demonstration, he cites the with wood. But either of the roads would answer the purpose, success of the effort he made in 1804 to propel by steam through and the carriages might travel by night as well as in the day." the streets of Philadelphia his machine for cleaning docks. This crude conception of a possible railway is followed by Of this he says: "It consisted of a large flat, or scow, with a this striking prophecy of the actual course of events:- steam engine of the power of five horses on board to work ma- "When we reflect upon the obstinate opposition that has chinery to raise the mud into flats. This was a fine opportu- been made by a great majority to every step towards improve- nity to show the public that my engine could propel both land ment; from bad roads to turnpikes, from turnpikes to canal, and water carriages, and I resolved to do it. When the work from canal to railways for horse carriages, it is too much to was finished I put wheels under it, and, though it was equal in expect the monstrous leap from bad roads to railways for steam weight to two hundred barrels of flour, and the wheels fixed carriages, at once. One step in a generation is all we can hope with wooden axle-trees for this temporary purpose in a very for. If the present shall adopt canals, the next may try the rough manner, and with great friction, of course, yet with this railways with horses, and the third generation use the steam small engine I transported my great burthen to the Schuylkill carriage. I do verily believe that the time will come river with ease; and when it was launched in the water I fixed when carriages propelled by steam will be in general use, as a paddle-wheel at the stern, and drove it down the Schuylkill well for the transportation of passengers as goods, traveling at to the Delaware, and up the Delaware to the city, leaving all the rate of fifteen miles an hour, or 300 miles per day." the vessels going up behind me at least half-way, the wind In a work published in or about 1813 he repeated in a still being ahead." more emphatic manner, some of the ideas expressed above. This remarkable demonstration of He said: "The time will come when people will travel in stages moved by steam engines, from one city to another, almost as THE PRACTICABILITY OF STEAM WAGONS, fast as birds fly, fifteen or twenty miles an hour. A as well as steamboats, by a single machine, at that early period, carriage will set out from Washington in the morning, the pas- was one of the greatest triumphs of superior inventive and me- sengers will breakfast at Baltimore, dine at Philadelphia, and chanical skill ever achieved. But either lack of faith or lack of sup at New York, the same day. To accomplish this two sets capital prevented the immediate fruition which Mr. Evans so of railways will be laid, so nearly level as not in any place to richly deserved, notwithstanding the continuance of appeals, deviate more than two degrees from the horizontal line, made which he forcibly describes in the following extracts:- of wood or iron or smooth paths of broken stone or gravel, "Some wise men undertook to ridicule my experiment of with a rail to guide the carriages, SO that they may pass each propelling this great weight on land, because the motion was other in different directions, and travel by night as well as by too slow to be useful. I silenced them by answering that I day; and the passengers will sleep in these stages as comfort- would make a carriage, to be propelled by steam, for a bet of ably as they now do in steam stage boats." $3,000, to run upon a level road against the swiftest horse they would produce. I was then as confident as I am now that such COLONEL JOHN STEVENS, OF HOBOKEN, velocity could be given to carriages. On the 26th of whose advocacy of a railroad instead of a canal is referred to September, 1804, I submitted to the consideration of the Lan- by Oliver Evans, was the first American who combined a very caster Turnpike Company, a statement of the cost and profits early championship of railway improvements with persistent of a steam carriage to carry 100 barrels of flour 50 miles in 24 and judicious efforts that finally led to important practical re- hours,-tending to show that one such steam engine would sults. He commenced advocating the construction of railways make more net profits than ten wagons drawn by ten horses in New York about 1810, and in 1811 applied to the legislature each, on a good turnpike road, and offering to build such я of New Jersey for the first American railway charter, which carriage at a very low price." was granted in 1815. When the agitation of schemes for con- In a practical test of such a proposition Mr. Evans would, of structing a canal to connect lake Erie with the Hudson seemed course, have been obliged to encounter difficulties similar to to be assuming a practical shape in 1812, Colonel Stevens those which confronted other inventors who endeavored to pro- urged the New York commission of inland navigation, of which mote the use of steam engines on turnpike roads, and he Gouverneur K. Morris was chairman, to construct a railway, recognized the force of the conclusion which was one of the instead of a canal, as a connecting link between those great great secrets of the extraordinary success achieved by G channels, and, although his suggestions were rejected Stephenson, viz.: That the rail and the locomotive 8. direct public attention to the practicability of regarded as man and wife. ways, and they embodied the first clear con- Indications of this conviction are furnished by the d extensive railway. The comprehen- extracts from Mr. Evans' communication of 1819. may be inferred from the fact that his "I am still willing to make a steam carr' hed in February, 1812, was as follows:- 9 Digitized by Google 66 EARLY AMERICAN RAILWAY PROJECTS. "Let a railway of timber be formed, by the nearest practica- ant, or, from whatever other cause or motive, should it be suf- ble route, between lake Erie and Albany. The angle of eleva- fered to remain unheeded, I still have the consolation of having tion in no part to exceed one degree, or such an elevation, performed what I conceive to be a public duty." whatever it may be, as will admit of wheel carriages to remain stationary when no power is exerted to impel them forward. CHARTER FOR THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD GRANTED IN 1823. This railway, throughout its course, to be supported on pillars Failing to secure favorable consideration from Congress, he raised from three to five or six feet above the surface of the probably increased his efforts to secure a railway charter from ground. The carriage wheels of cast iron, the rims flat with the state government of New Jersey, authorizing a road from projecting flanges, to fit on the surface of the railways. The Trenton to New Brunswick. At all events, his efforts to obtain moving power to be a steam engine, nearly similar in construc- such a charter were successful in 1815. But he seems to have tion to the one on board the Juliana, a ferryboat plying between been unable to speedily obtain a sufficient amount of capital to this city and Hoboken." construct the proposed line, and his next step was to construct This conception closely resembled the New York elevated a short experimental railway, at his own expense, at Hoboken railways, and although it differs widely from the method of in 1820. In 1818 or 1819 he addressed a memorial to the legis- construction subsequently adopted by the lengthy steam lines, lature of Pennsylvania, recommending the construction of a it was far in advance of the plans that had then been suggested railway from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, and in 1823 he se- by other inventors. cured, in conjunction with other corporators, who were citizens He supported his theory of the practicability of such a road of Pennsylvania, the passage of an act by the Pennsylvania by the following reasons: Its expense would be no greater than legislature authorizing the construction of a line from Phila- that of an ordinary turnpike road with a good coat of gravel delphia to Columbia. on it; it could be built in one or two years; its elevation would The law was approved on March 81st, 1823. It is entitled an remove the timber, of which it was composed, from danger of act to incorporate a company to erect a railroad from Phila- decay; and travel could never be impeded on it even by the delphia to Columbia, in Lancaster county, the terminal points deepest snows; it would be free from the casualties to which being those between which the first important turnpike in the canals were liable, and the expense of transportation would be United States was constructed. The proposed title of the cor- far less than on a canal. poration to be created was, "The President, Directors, and In discussing the speed that could be obtained by passenger Company of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company." The pre- trains he said that he should not be surprised at seeing steam amble is as follows: "Whereas, it hath been represented by carriages propelled at the rate of 40 or 50 miles an hour. In John Stevens, in his memorial to the Legislature, that a rail- reference to freight movements he estimated that a train of 160 road from Philadelphia to Columbia would greatly facilitate tons could be drawn at a speed of four miles per hour, and that the transport between those two places, suggesting also that the actual expense of transporting a ton over the entire line he hath made important improvements in the construction of would be fifty cents. He also made a detailed estimate of the railways; and praying that in order to carry such beneficial cost of such a road as he proposed, having brick pillars, 400 to purposes into effect, himself and his associates may be incor- the mile, with timber ways and iron bar rails four inches broad porated." The corporators were John Connelly, Michael Baker, and one-half inch thick. He made the cost per mile as follows:- Horace Binney, Stephen Girard, Samuel Humphreys, of Phila- Bar-iron plates $7,603 delphia; Emmor Bradley, of Chester county; Amos Ellmaker, Brick pillars 1,600 of Lancaster city; John Barber and William Wright, of Co- Timber ways 1,500 lumbia." The section relating to the charges authorized was as fol- $10,708 lows: "That on the completion of the said railroad, all trans- Or, for the whole 300 miles $8,210,900 portation on the same, of whatsoever nature or kind, shall be For reducing elevations, etc. 500,000 carried on and conducted by and under the superintendence $3,710,900 and direction of the said John Stevens, or of his legal repre- At a much later period, probably about 1835, attempts were sentative or representatives; and it shall and may be lawful made to build a few railways in accordance with these plans, for said John Stevens and his legal representative or repre- in south-western New York and north-eastern Ohio, but such sentatives to charge and receive for freight, on and for the projects were soon abandoned mainly on account of the perish- transportation of goods, wares, and merchandise, at a rate not able and insecure nature of wood as a supporting material and exceeding seven cents per mile on each and every ton thereof the inability to secure a sufficient amount of capital to purchase passing westward, and three and a half cents per mile on each iron supports. and every ton weight thereof passing eastward on the said rail- Thwarted in his attempt to secure a favorable consideration road; but on all single and detached articles, weighing less than from the New York commissioners, Mr. Stevens published his a ton, it shall and may be lawful to charge and receive, on the suggestions in pamphlet form in 1812, and made an earnest transport of the same, an advance not exceeding twenty per effort to secure aid from the Federal Government for the pur- cent. on the rates as above established." pose of having an experimental railway built, by which the The financial scheme contemplated by this charter was feasibility of his plans could be tested. He claimed that for the novel. Subscriptions of stock were to be invited in the usual moderate sum of $3,000 such a test could be made. In the in- manner; but the total number was not to exceed six thousand troduction to the description of his plans, he said: "But I con- shares of one hundred dollars each, 80 that it was probably sider it (internal improvement by means of railways), in every supposed at that time that this primitive railroad might be point of view, 80 exclusively an object of national concern that constructed on a line now occupied by one of the most expen- I shall give no encouragement to private speculations until it sive and profitable lines in the United States at a cost of about is ascertained that Congress will not be disposed to pay any eight thousand dollars per mile. As it was uncertain whether attention to it. Should it, however, be destined to remain un- the cost would exceed the sum derived from share subscrip- noticed by the General Government, I must confess I shall feel tions, or fall below it, the charter contained a section relating much regret, not 80 much from personal as from public con- to the capital of the company, which was as follows: "That on siderations. I am anxious and ambitious that my native coun- the completion of said railroad the president and directors are try should have the honor of being the first to introduce an hereby required to ascertain precisely the amount of the sum improvement of such immense importance to society at large, total of expenses incurred in the construction of the same, and and should feel the utmost reluctance at being compelled to said sum total shall constitute the existing capital of said rail- resort to foreigners in the first instance. As no doubt exists in road company." Another strange feature of this charter was my mind but that the value of the improvement would be duly a provision which, perhaps on account of a supposition that appreciated and carried into immediate effect by transatlantic Stevens should possess special rights in the new enterprise governments, I have been the more urgent in pressing the sub- analogous to those enjoyed by a patentee, declared that after ject on the attention of Congress. Whatever then may be its dividends on amount of capital stock, amounting to three per fate, should this appeal be considered obtrusive and unimport- cent. quarterly, or twelve per cent. per annum, were paid to Digitized by Google EARLY AMERICAN RAILWAY PROJECTS. 67 the stockholders, all profits exceeding that liberal return An appeal is now, therefore, made to the enlightened pa- should be retained by the said John Stevens or his legal repre- triotism and to the enterprising spirit of the good citizens of sentative or representatives. If the company did not earn Philadelphia to step forward, and, by an advance of five dollars more than twelve per cent. per annum on cost of road, and each, to place the contemplated improvement beyond all pos- thus provide an excess out of which Stevens was to be paid for sibility of doubt or uncertainty. his labors, the charter provided that "in every such case the said That the stock will, from the start, yield more than legal in- John Stevens, or his legal representative or representatives, terest, there cannot be a shadow of a doubt, That it will, shall be paid such compensation for his or their services, ultimately, and at no distant period, yield 12 per cent. per during each year, as may be agreed upon by the said John annum, is equally certain. Stevens, or his legal representative, and the said president, The contemplated railroad will differ from turnpike roads in directors, and company of the said railroad company." these very important particulars: The actual expense of trans- This charter led to no immediate practical results, and the portation on the railroad will be reduced to one-quarter of what charter was repealed in 1826. But little was known at that it now is on the existing turnpikes. But the most essential time of railway operations, and the difficulties of procuring point of difference, as it regards stockholders, is, that the whole the requisite capital under the plan proposed were insurmount- of the emoluments to be derived from the transportation of able. The stipulations mentioned above, however, throw an commodities, and from the conveyance of passengers, will go interesting light upon the ideas prevailing in regard to rail- to the railroad company, whereas the turnpike company re- ways in the most advanced circles in 1823. ceives only a toll. The expense of repairs will bear no propor- EARNEST BUT UNSUCCESSFUL ADVOCACY OF THE FIRST PROPOSED tion to that incurred on turnpike roads. The railroad too will PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. be equally good at all seasons of the year. This circumstance The failure was due mainly to the lack of confidence among gives to a railroad a decided superiority also over a canal, capitalists, which has postponed the completion or prevented which continues, for months, during the winter season, locked the construction of many other lines proposed at later dates. up by frost. An evidence of the persistence and ability with which Colonel But when, in the progress of improvement, the power of Stevens advocated this project is furnished by the following steam shall be substituted for that of horses, transportation public letter, published in 1823, which was doubtless one of the will most assuredly be afforded at much less than on a canal. agencies that gradually prepared the public mind for the However extraordinary this opinion may appear, by a recur- effective support of railway schemes:- rence to calculation, it is, nevertheless, capable of demon- "PHILADELPHIA, 1823. strative proof. And when this great improvement in transpor- "SIR: It is now generally admitted that a railroad is not a tation shall have been extended to Pittsburgh, and thence into mere visionary project, but is actually practicable. An erro- the heart of the extensive and fertile state of Ohio, and also to neous idea has, however, prevailed among its opponents, that the great western lakes, Philadelphia may then become the it is only practicable to short distances, and that the con- grand emporium of the western country. templated extension of a railroad to a distance of 73 miles is Should the subscription for the shares be speedily filled the ridiculous. road from Philadelphia to Columbia may with ease be finished As the railroad will, throughout its course, be, in its con- before the next winter, and thus the stockholders will derive an struction, exactly similar, it is only in its deviations from a immediate interest on their stock. horizontal line that any difference in the progressive motion I am, sir, your obedient servant, of carriages thereon can take place. The charter contains a JOHN STEVENS." provision that the railroad in its progress shall in no part rise One of the passages of this public letter shows that in addi- above an angle of two degrees with the plane of the horizon. tion to advocacy of lengthy through railway lines extending in Now let us suppose that a section of the intended railroad New York from the Hudson to lake Erie and in Pennsylvania be constructed in the immediate vicinity of the city, of one from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, Colonel Stevens also recom- mile in extent, in the progress of which elevations of two de- mended that railway companies should furnish cars and motive grees do actually occur. Should it, however, be practicable, power. He was the inventor or constructor of the successful on such section of the intended railroad, to cause loaded car- steamboats which entered into rivalry with those made by riages to move forward and backward, without encountering Robert Fulton. any impediment or difficulty, would it not be presumable that ROBERT FULTON'S PROPHECY. the effect would be precisely the same were a similar road to It is a curious fact that Mr. Fulton had also reached the con- be extended ever so far? Such an experiment, then, would clusion that railways could be made advantageous avenues of not fail to produce conviction in the minds of the most in- lengthy transportation movements at a very early period. It credulous. is reported that when he was journeying over the Allegheny As a further illustration of the practicability of the proposed mountains, in a stage coach, to Pittsburgh, in 1811, he said:- railroad, it would be barely necessary to notice the rapid pro- "The day will come, gentlemen, I may not live to see it, gress this important improvement has recently made in the though some of you who are younger will probably-when island of Great Britain. If, in the narrow limits of 2r miles in carriages will be drawn over these mcuntains by steam engines, length and 12 miles in breadth, in the immediate vicinity of at a rate more rapid than that of a stage on the smoothest Newcastle, no less than 450 miles of railroad have, within a turnpike." very short period of time, been formed, why should it not be The fact that the earliest serious advocates of railways in the practicable to erect one extending only 73 miles? The con- United States had been extensively engaged in steamboat or templated formation of a railroad from Manchester to Liver- steam engine operations is suggestive. It indicates a logical pool, between which large towns there now exists a spacious connection between schemes for conducting transportation by canal, demonstrates very forcibly its feasibility and great utility. steam, in steamboats, on water, and on railways with the aid of The expense of the contemplated railroad is estimated at locomotives; shows that the early American railway advocates about $5,000 per mile. One thousand shares, then, at five possessed superior ability; and also foreshadows such transitions dollars each, would be sufficient for the construction of one of prominent and active men from one of these fields of activity mile of the road. to the other, as have occurred. Digitized by Google 68 COLLIERY AND QUARRY RAILROADS. COLLIERY AND QUARRY RAILROADS. men who above all others best repre- Stephenson constructed his locomotive, and in 1816 he in- and practical talent of the United vented a new rail and chair. On September 27th, 1825, the States applicable to transportation, during the early decades of railway from Stockton to Darlington was opened for traffic. the nineteenth century, viz., Oliver Evans, John Stevens, and An interesting condensed statement of the gradual develop- Robert Fulton, adopted advanced views, their dissemination ment of tramways in England is furnished in the following ab- was a slow process, and actual demonstration of the superior stract of a paper read before a meeting of the Amalgamated utility of crude railroads or tramways, on which horse power Society of Railway Servants of Great Britain, in which Mr. was used, as avenues for moving freight and passengers, was Clement E. Stretton, C. E., an honorary member, traced the probably the most powerful agent in educating the public mind, growth of British railways from 1630 to 1830: About the former and securing the assistance of capitalists for railways. year a Mr. Beaumont took the lead in a movement to facilitate The advantages of primitive railroads or tramways began to the conveyance of coal from the mines to the points of ship- elicit a limited amount of discussion among the members of ment by means of wooden ways, consisting of cross sleepers American societies engaged in promoting internal improve- placed about two feet apart, upon which were nailed wooden ments about the beginning of the nineteenth century. At that planks or rails six feet long and about four inches wide. This time colliery roads, over which vehicles were moved on rails, pioneer of progress also introduced four-wheel wagons to run had been operated for more than a century and a half in Great on the wooden ways, instead of the ordinary two-wheel carts. Britain. Considerable improvements in the mode of their con- Like most men, however, who attempted to make innovations struction had been commenced, and were still progressing. The on British methods, Beaumont lost his fortune in the attempt, state of English tramway development, as it then existed, and and emerged from his reforming schemes reduced to poverty. as it may have been known to intelligent American students of Although the inventor. of wooden ways obtained only loss and such subjects, is typified by the fact that the Register of Arts, a annoyance from his improvement of transportation facilities, work published in Philadelphia in 1808, contains several arti- his invention outlived him, and was improved by being cov- cles on iron railways (or tramways), one of which describes the ered with sheet iron, to prevent the attrition caused by the iron- Penrhyn Railway, a line six miles and a quarter in length, di- shod wheels. This was 'plating' the rails, from which the word vided into five stages, built mainly for the purpose of hauling platelayer comes, the appellation still borne by all trackmen in slate. It is stated that on this railway "two horses will draw Britain. The transition from plated wooden rails to rails made twenty-four wagons one stage six times a day, and carry 24 tons of cast iron was easy and natural where iron working was de- each journey, which is 144 tons per day. This quantity used veloping. The rails for 150 years after this form of track was to employ 144 carts and 400 horses; so that the 10 horses will, first tried were flanged, so as to keep a vehicle with plain wheels by means of this railway, do the work of 400." Illustrations on the track. are published of the cars used and of the rail. One of the greatest improvements was introduced, 1789, by Another article in the same publication is on the utility of Mr. William Jessop, when constructing a railroad at Lough- iron railways, and describes the result of a series of experi- borough, in Leicestershire. This engineer decided to abandon ments, made on August 14th, 1799, at a colliery at Measham, the flat wheels and flanged rails, and to introduce iron rails with in Derbyshire, England, "for the purpose of obtaining ocular flat top, and wheels with a flange cast upon the tire. Mr. Jes- and satisfactory proof of the utility of iron railways." It says sop's rail was known as the 'edge rail,' because the wheels ran "the result of the experiments was nearly thus: One horse, of upon the upper edge. These rails were of cast iron, 8 feet long, the value of £20, on a declivity of an iron road five-sixteenths having a single head 11 inches wide. They were of the 'fish- of an inch in a yard, drew twenty-one carriages or wagons, belly' pattern, that is, deeper in the centre than at the ends, it laden with coals and timber, amounting, in the whole, to being considered that it combined the greatest strength with thirty-five tons, overcoming the vis inertia repeatedly, with the least expenditure of material. They were fastened to cross great ease. The same horse, up this acclivity, drew five tons sleepers by iron pins or bolts passing through a projecting base with ease; he also drew up the road, where the acclivity was 1ª at the ends of the rails. It was soon found that the cast-iron of an inch in a yard, three tons." projections were broken off, and the rails rendered useless, as Similar performances at another adjacent colliery are re- there was then no way of fastening them. This led to a great ported, and it is stated that on the road on which they occurred, and important improvement. The base was removed from the 'the rails are three feet long each, 33 pounds weight, and cal- rail itself, and cast as a separate 'chair or pedestal.' The plan culated to carry two tons on each wagon, laid four feet two of bolting the chair to the sleeper, and fastening the rail by inches wide, on stone or wood sleepers, placed on a bed of means of a key driven between it and the chair, is in use in sleck, 80 as to fix it solid and firm. The expense of completing England to this day. one mile of such a road, where materials of all descriptions lie The long wrought-iron rail was first introduced about the be- convenient, and where the land lies tolerably favorable for the ginning of this century, and gradually pushed out its cast-iron descent, will be £900 or £1,000 per mile, single road, fenced, &c., predecessor. exclusive of bridges, culverts, or any extra expense in deep cut- The usual width of the old wooden and cast-iron tramroads ting or high embankments. Rails are made from twenty to forty practically determined the gauge of our present railways. The pounds per yard, agreeable to the weight they have to bear." usual width or gauge of these old tramroads was five feet over all, that is, including the width of the two rails, and, as Jessop's GRADUAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE PRIMITIVE ENGLISH RAILROADS. edge rails and the Killingworth tramroad had rails 11 inches Smiles' Life of George Stephenson states that in 1630 Master wide, the width of two such rails deducted from 5 feet leaves 4 Beaumont laid down wooden rails from his coal pits, near New- feet 81 inches between the rails, or what we now consider the castle, to the river side. In 1738 iron rails were first laid down national gauge. George Stephenson saw no reason to alter the at Whitehaven. In 1789 Jessop introduced at Loughborough gauge. Therefore, he adopted 4 feet 84 inches for the Stockton the cast-iron edge rails, and flanches cast upon the tires of the and Darlington, and Liverpool and Manchester railways, and, wheels, 80 as to keep them in the track. In 1800, at Little Eton, when consulted as to the gauge for the Leicester and Swanning- Derbyshire, Outram used stone sleepers. From his name is ton, and the Canterbury and Whitestable railways, he replied: derived the term "tramways." In 1802 Trevethick invented 'Make them of the same width. Though they may be a long and patented his railway locomotive. In 1812 Blenkinsop's way apart now, depend upon it they will be joined together engine worked at Leeds, drawing 33 coal wagons at the rate some day.' The 'fish-belly' rails, fifteen feet long, were of three and three-quarter miles per hour. In 1815 George adopted for all these lines." Digitized by Google COLLIERY AND QUARRY RAILROADS. 69 IMPORTANCE OF THE EDGE RAIL. from his quarries in Nether Providence (not Ridley), and built Of the advance made by Jessop, 1789, by which flanged October, 1809, as shown by the original draft made by John wheels were substituted for flanged rails, a distinguished Eng- Thomson. The original map was presented to the institute by lish engineer forcibly says that it "was an organic change Dr. Ash, who procured it from J. Edgar Thomson, president of which has been the forerunner of the great results accom- the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, son of the draughtsman." plished in modern traveling by traveling by railway. You The third railroad or tramroad in the United States was proba- may easily imagine the condition to which our railways would bly one constructed on Falling's creek, Chesterfield county, Vir- be reduced if they were constructed on the principle of street ginia, about ten miles from Richmond, soon after 1810, to fur- tramways; how they would be obstructed by slight impedi- nish transportation facilities for a powder mill. Of this work Mr. ments, and how difficult the construction of junctions would Thomas A. McKibben, of Baltimore, in a letter to the Chicago be rendered, by considering how the speed and convenience of American Engineer, dated July 1st, 1886, says that it was devised railway traveling would have been retarded if it had not early by George Magers, and that "it was about a mile long, and run been discovered that the rail should be lifted clear of the ground, between the magazine and the mill. It was down a grade to and the guide put upon the wheel instead of the rail." the magazine, and I estimate from my uncle's remarks that the gradient was about 8 feet in 100. Cross ties or floor joists THREE GREAT RAILWAY INVENTIONS. were laid, and the rails, of hard wood, were laid about an It is a remarkable fact that previous to this time no one ordinary wagon gauge. One rail was grooved, and the other seems to have seriously thought of using railways for miscel- tongued. The rails were cut out of the solid timber, and be- laneous traffic. The locomotive or steam wagon had received tween them a flooring, securely fastened to the cross ties, was consideration, and steam had even been experimentally ap- laid the entire length of the road. The country was very hilly, plied to land transportation at low rates of speed, but the drift and at one point on its length it passed over a valley about a of inventive effort continued to be towards steam wagons or quarter of a mile wide. Across this valley the inventor erected vehicles adapted to common road or turnpike movements until an immense trestle some 75 feet high. My uncle says it was some years after the edge rail and flanged wheel had been an immense piece of work, securely braced in every conceiv- devised. It would be difficult to designate any three general able way. The wagon that ran upon it was very large, 18 or ideas which, above all others, helped to promote railway con- 20 feet long in the body, running upon low wooden wheels struction, to a greater extent than this Jessop edge rail, Oliver about two feet in diameter, composed of double plank of hard Evans' high-pressure locomotive, and George Stephenson's fa- wood, cross-grained to each other, and securely fastened. The vorite doctrine that the railway and locomotive should be in- wheels one side were tongued, and the others grooved, to suit separably wedded, like man and wife. their respective rails, and there was a lever or brake to control In view of the relative antiquity of crude colliery and quarry the speed down to the magazine. When the car was unloaded railroads in England, it is rather surprising that the construc- it was hauled up again by a stout rope winding on to a huge tion of similar lines, even for short distances, does not seem vertical drum, operated by the water-wheels at the mill. My to have been attempted anywhere in the United States until uncle has no recollection of how they signaled to the mill for near the close of the first decade of the nineteenth century. the return trip, or whether they run the car on time. THE FIRST AMERICAN RAILROAD Mr. George Magers died in Chesterfield county, and was buried in a church-yard, near the court house, in 1818. My was probably a short one built by Silas Whitney on Beacon uncle returned to Baltimore in 1823, and at that time the rail- Hill, Boston, in 1807. It is claimed, however, that this was way was still in use, but only as a curiosity, as the mill blew up preceded in the same locality by an incline plane used to draw in 1819. The railway was not affected by the 'blow up,' and bricks in 1795, which had as part of its appliances a wooden the people around the country used to visit it, the hands living tramway, of about two feet gauge, on which loaded cars were in the neighborhood operating it for their own amusement forwarded to the foot of Beacon street, while empty cars were making excursions on the road." drawn to kilns at the top of Beacon Hill. The fourth tramway is said to have been built at Bear Creek At one time it was believed that the first of such lines was Furnace, Armstrong county, Pa., in 1818. Its tracks consisted constructed by Thomas Lieper, in Delaware county, Pennsyl- of wooden rails. The fifth was probably one laid in Nashua, vania, which it was alleged was finished in 1806. But it seems N. H., in 1825, and the sixth, the Quincy Railway, in Massa- to have been erroneously antedated, and a controversy relating chusetts, about four miles in length, built in 1826, to haul to this subject resulted in the publication of the following state- granite to the port of Neposit. ments: A millwright from Scotland, named Somerville, who The construction of the had seen tramways in his native land, was employed by Mr. Thomas Lieper to lay a track sixty yards in length, at a grade QUINCY RAILROAD of one inch and a half to the yard, and this experimental track was suggested and superintended by Gridley Bryant, who was a was laid down at the Bull's Head tavern in Philadelphia, in builder and contractor of Boston, and the owner of the quarry September, 1809. A memorandum book of Mr. Lieper's shows containing the stone he desired to remove to tidewater by the that in May, 1809, he made estimates of the cost of a line from railway, which stone was to be used in the Bunker Hill Monu- his quarries, and in January or February, 1810, Mr. Lieper ment. Chiefly on account of interest in that patriotic under- estimated that a railroad three-fourths of a mile long, leading taking, the means for constructing the road were advanced by from his quarries to the landing place on Crum creek, had cost, Colonel T. H. Perkins. The plan adopted was to lay stone including the survey, $1,592,43. It had then been completed sleepers across the track eight feet apart, upon which wooden under the direction of Mr. John Thomson, father of J. Edgar rails, six inches thick and twelve inches high, were placed. On Thomson, who subsequently became president of the Pennsyl- the top of these wooden rails, iron plates three inches wide and vania Railroad Company. A minute of the proceedings of one-fourth of an inch thick, were fastened with spikes. At a meeting of the Delaware County Institute of Science, held crossings of public roads stone rails were used instead of wood, on February 1st, 1873, embraced the following: "Mr. John M. on the top of which large iron plates firmly bolted to the stone Broomall read Dr. Joshua Ash's answer to the question, 'when were placed. It is said that the road continued to serve the and where was the first railroad built in the United States?" It contemplated purpose for more than a quarter of a century gave credit to the road built by Thomas Lieper to move stone with very slight expenditures for repairs. Digitized by Google 70 KNOWLEDGE OF RAILWAYS IN 1825. KNOWLEDGE OF RAILWAYS IN 1825. LABORS OF THE PENNSYLVANIA SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF will bear. In our mountainous state, if railways shall be INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. adopted, they must pass over numerous elevations, some of THE earnest advocacy of railways by such men as Oliver them abrupt, and many of them so formed as to render their John Stevens, the success of primitive railroad reduction impossible. or tramway experiments in several places, the growing interest The foundations for the reception of the iron rail will next in railway improvements that was manifested in England, and require your attention. Climate must enter materially into the the general progress of this country, created a strong desire in decision upon the question how the foundation of a railway some influential and important circles to obtain more definite shall be made in Pennsylvania; and the differences between knowledge than had previously been available of the exact na- the moist and moderate winters of England, and the deep ture of the English railways. One of the outgrowths of this snows, sudden and hard frosts, variable temperature, and long state of affairs was the organization in Philadelphia, in Decem- continuance of our winters, must have your consideration, and ber, 1824, of the "Pennsylvania Society for the Promotion of attention in these examinations. Without entering into the Internal Improvements in the Commonwealth." At the outset subject particularly, but submitting it, with great deference, to it contained forty-eight members, each of whom subscribed one your consideration, we would remark that if masonry could be hundred dollars, to form a fund for the immediate promotion avoided in the construction of the foundation for the iron rails; of the object in view, and the further sum of ten dollars an- if wood, however large in size, and great in quantity can be nually. Efforts were speedily commenced-to expand the sphere employed here, the influence of our climate upon the work of its operations by increasing the number of members, and would be less injurious. In relation to the construction obtaining assistance from numerous friends of internal im- and form of the road and rails, we desire you to ascertain every provement, which were successful. Early in 1825 the society mode which is now in favorable use in England, Scotland, and resolved to send William Strickland, Esq., to Europe to collect Wales. It is said that recent improvements have been made information relating to valuable improvements in the construc- in the form and position of the rails; and that different forms tion of canals, roads, railways, bridges, steam engines, and vari- are used for different purposes. How railways are crossed by ous industrial arts. The instructions to Mr. Strickland, explana- wagons heavily laden, how wagons pass when proceeding in tory of the views and wishes of the society, are dated March opposite directions, what means are taken for the protection of 18th, 1825. They are signed by the following members of the railways from injury by wheels not properly constructed to pass acting committee: Matthew Carey, Richard Peters, jr., Joseph upon them, and how their wagons and their carriages are con- Hemphill, and Stephen Duncan. They are somewhat lengthy structed, and of what materials? Upon all these subjects we and elaborate, entering minutely into details, but their general ask particular information, accompanied with drawings which scope, aside from references to investigations of methods for will make the same easily understood and employed. making coke and iron, which he was directed to institute, is The expense of railways will be a subject of careful and par- indicated by the following extract:- ticular investigation. In your statements under this head you "It is not a knowledge of abstract principles, nor an indefinite will inform us of the separate cost of each part, distinguishing and general account of their application to the great works of accurately between the charges for the formation of the line Europe, we desire to possess through your labors. What and the preparation of the foundation, and the expense of the we earnestly wish to obtain, is the means of executing all those materials employed. works in the best manner, and with the greatest economy and Locomotive machinery will command your attention and certainty; and for these purposes you will procure and exhibit inquiry. This is entirely unknown in the United States, and we in your reports, all that will enable those who shall undertake authorize you to procure a model of the most approved loco- the formation of canals, railways, and roads, and the construc- motive machine, at the expense of the society." tion of bridges, to perform the work, without such persons MR. STRICKLAND'S REPORT. having the science by which such works were originally Mr. Strickland continued to make reports from time to time, planned and executed. To use a term which is familiar to you his first report on railways and locomotive engines being dated as an architect, we desire to obtain working plans of the best June 16th, 1825. He also obtained a model of an English loco- constructed canals, and their locks and inclined planes; of rail- motive of that period, which he brought or forwarded to this ways, and all means of using them to advantage; of roads and country, and which presumably embodied the first accurate of the mode of their formation and preservation; and of the and detailed representation of that important device that had construction of bridges. To be more definite on this head, we ever been exhibited in the United States. It has long been one desire that you furnish such minute and particular descriptions, of the standard curiosities of the Franklin Institute. While he plans, drawings, sections, estimates, and directions, as, possessed was abroad the controversy in regard to the relative merits of of them, that these works may be executed in Pennsylvania, railways and canals, which continued for a number of years to without the superintendence of a civil engineer of superior form a pivotal feature of American transportation struggles skill and science." The instructions also requested that his and efforts, was attracting an increasing degree of attention. first efforts should be directed to railways. This fact led the society to address a letter to Mr. Strickland, The amount of knowledge possessed in 1825 in the most en- on September 19th, 1825, which contains the following extract:- lightened circles in the United States in regard to railways is "Canals and railways present the most important of all sub- indicated by the specific instructions relating to them, from jects for your attention. Upon every matter connected with which we extract the following: "Of the utility of railways, and both you will be expected to be well informed; and if you shall their importance as a means of transporting large burdens, we have to decide between them you must be able to furnish the have full knowledge. Of the mode of constructing them, and facts and circumstances by which the decision shall be pro- of their cost, nothing is known with certainty. You will. duced. Much excitement prevails in this state upon the ques- bear in mind in your investigations of this subject that we tion whether railways are superior to canals, and the inquiries have, as yet, no complete railway in Pennsylvania; and you that are in progress in relation to them are in the hands of will, therefore, 80 exhibit your facts, as that they may be un- men of ingenuity and well disposed to the cause of internal derstood by reference to the drawings which you may make, improvement. It is, however, feared by many that the ques- and which shall accompany your report. tion between canals and railways will have an injurious influ- Commencing in your examinations with the plans observed ence in Pennsylvania, as it will divide the friends of the cause in making surveys and forming the line of the route of the rail- of improvement, and thus postpone, if not prevent, the com- way, it is desired that you ascertain with precision the greatest mencement of the work. The importance of correct informa- angles of ascent (grades) which the profitable use of railways tion in relation to them is thus greatly increased." Digitized by Google RAILWAY PROGRESS FROM 1825 TO 1830. 71 Mr. Strickland shortly afterward returned to Philadelphia, thority, Mr. W. Hasell Wilson, in his notes on internal im- and in 1826 his "Reports," illustrated by large and handsome provements in Pennsylvania, says that "at that time railways plates, was issued. The information furnished by this publica- were only beginning to attract attention for purposes of general tion rendered useful service in connection with a number of traffic, and the information given in relation to them was neither improvements, and especially canals. But a competent au- full nor important." RAILWAY PROGRESS FROM 1825 TO 1830. THE last half of the third decade of the nineteenth century promised to be a magnificent success. Whatever might be was an eventful period. It formed an era during which said of railways theoretically there was little or no positive sufficient changes in the prevailing sentiment were effected to knowledge in regard to their utility as avenues for miscellan- make 1830 a vigorous starting point in railway improvements eous traffic. Indeed their sturdiest advocates scarcely ventured in several sections of the country. Up to 1825 all actual work to recommend them except for rapid passenger movements, had been confined to a few crude railroads. Shortly after the and for the transportation of light and costly descriptions of publication of Mr. Strickland's reports, the line of the Mauch freight that could afford to pay high charges to ensure rapid Chunk Railroad was built for the purpose of carrying anthracite movement. A stage had been reached in which it was ac- coal, and when it was finished, in 1827, it formed the longest knowledged by advanced thinkers that there were some routes and most important work of the kind then existing in the over which railways could be profitably constructed, but it was United States. Other railway or tramway lines were built soon for a protracted period difficult to secure means to build new after or about the same time, for similar purposes, the leading lines that were not intended to be used mainly as substitutes object being to furnish cheap transportation between coal mines for the portages, or connecting links between water courses, of located on elevated mountain regions, and adjacent canals built primitive Indian and colonial overland movements. on the lower level which corresponded with that of the rivers The Baltimore and Ohio, however, was designed as a rival of from which water supplies were drawn. the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal at the outset. They both be- These works required inclined planes, on which rails were came urgent applicants for state aid from Maryland, and an laid, and a contrivance of that kind was used by the Lehigh animated struggle was prosecuted between those corporations, Coal and Navigation Company at the early period of 1820. which embraced lengthy discussions of the merits of the rela- Inclined planes formed a very important feature of all railway tive methods. A strong point in favor of railways, which was projects intended to provide routes for mountainous districts, probably of sufficient importance to determine doubtful con- and the extent to which they should be substituted for heavy tests in their favor, was the success of the first two English grades continued to be a debateable question for a lengthy lines used for general traffic, the Stockton and Darlington, period. The original inclined plane at Mauch Chunk may, opened in 1825, and the Liverpool and Manchester, opened therefore, perhaps be considered as an important adjunct or in 1829. forerunner of the early railways. A short railway was built Neither the Mauch Chunk, Schuylkill, or Delaware and Hud- about 1827 in Schuylkill county to provide a connection be- son lines could have been expected to give much of an impetus tween coal mines and the Schuylkill Canal. And on the rail- to railways intended for miscellaneous public uses. They were way connecting coal mines of north-eastern Pennsylvania with mere adjuncts of canals intended mainly for the movement of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, in 1829, the first American coal It was natural that the first railway work of considerable work of a genuine locomotive, imported from England, was consequence should be commenced for this purpose, and per- performed. haps equally natural that none of the pioneer coal railways There were other contemporaneous events of considerable were lengthy, inasmuch as the belief then was nearly universal significance, three of the most important of which were the that cheap transportation could only be secured on natural or passage of an act by the Pennsylvania legislature, in 1828, artificial water routes, and the main cost of coal at the place of which provided for the construction of a railway, by the state consumption is made up of charges for moving it. Of the of Pennsylvania, to extend from Philadelphia through the city FIRST RAILWAY IN THE SCHUYLKILL REGION, of Lancaster, to Columbia, and thence to York; the incorpora- Coal and Iron and Oil says: "It was not until 1827 that rails tion of the Baltimore and Ohio Railway, to extend from Balti- were used in the (Schuylkill) mines, and up to 1829 the coal more to some eligible point on the Ohio river, by Maryland was carted over common mud roads from the mines to the and other states, in 1827 and 1828; and the incorporation of the canal. Abraham Pott, of Port Carbon, was the first to build Charleston and Hamburg Railway, in South Carolina, in 1827. a model railroad in the Schuylkill region. It led from his SHORT RAILWAYS AS FEEDERS OF CANALS. mines to the canal, a distance of half a mile. Soon after the The completion of the first important railway in this coun- Mill Creek Railroad was built from Port Carbon to the Broad try and the first use of the locomotive, were the result of labors Mountain, about the present town of St. Clair. The distance of canal companies, or of parties who wished to reach their is about three miles. The cost was $3,000. This was in 1829." lines, and this fact may have had a bearing on the protracted A historical sketch of Pottsville states that in 1825 the Schuyl- discussion relating to the rival merits of railways and canals as kill Canal was opened to Mt. Carbon, then a suburb of Potts- channels of communication over a given route. It has already ville, and in 1826 and 1827 Abraham Pott built a railroad ex- been shown that the proposition of John Stevens to construct a tending half a mile in length near Pottsville. The railway was railway instead of a canal as a main artery between eastern and made of wooden rails, laid on wooden sills, and was successfully western New York was ignored by the New York commission- operated in carrying coal, which, previous to that time, was ers in 1811. And although he recommended the construction of hauled in wagons to the canal, and thence sent to market. In a railway between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh to the legislature 1829 the directors of the Schuylkill Canal came to Pottsville, of Pennsylvania before 1820, that body, in its subsequent action and viewed this primitive road in operation. They were taken in deciding upon a main line of public improvements between by surprise when they saw thirteen railroad cars loaded with 1} those cities, does not seem to have deemed railways worthy of tons each, and they were shocked when Mr. Pott, the projector serious consideration, except for the parts of the route pro- of this corduroy railroad, told them that in less than ten years posed on which canal construction would have been unusually a railroad would be in operation along the line of their canal. difficult and expensive, which were the regions between Phila- After events proved that he was right in everything except as delphia and Columbia, and the acclivities of the Allegheny to time, for it was not until 1842 that the first train passed over mountains. To secure even this concession in favor of rail- the extension of the Philadelphia and Reading Rs ways was difficult. Canals had been tested and rendered profit- Mt. Carbon. able in some localities, and the Erie Canal, of New York, The Pottsville Board of Trade, in replying Digitized by Google 72 RAILWAY PROGRESS FROM 1825 TO 1830. of a committee of the legislature of Pennsylvania relating to ficient to defray the cost of only seven miles of the canal which coal, said: "Previous to the erection of any of the public rail- it was once intended to construct over part of the route." roads our enterprising fellow-citizen, Abraham Pott, constructed It was on a portion of this railway, between some of the in- a railroad from his mines, east of Port Carbon, to that place, clined planes mentioned, that making a half mile. This served as a model, and may be termed THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVE SERVICE the beginning from which all originated." was performed in the United States or the western continent, THE MAUCH CHUNK RAILWAY. and it is a notable fact that this experiment was so unsatisfac- Professor Silliman, in Notes of a Journey to Mauch Chunk, tory, chiefly on account of the imperfect nature of the railroad, published in 1830, in referring to the Mauch Chunk Railway, the excess of the weight of the engine over the weight pre- says that Mr. Josiah White, then the leading spirit of the com- scribed in the order given for it, and the limited scope for loco- pany which had constructed this pioneer line, "states, in a motive performances on the short spaces between the inclined public document, that their railway alone had saved them planes, that the pioneer of a mighty race of steam giants was $50,000, but that he does not think it economical, on account speedily discarded as a thing of no real utility in the surround- of the wear and tear, to travel over railways faster than six ings to which it was applied, after doing all that could reason- miles an hour with heavy loads, unless with passengers and ably be expected. valuable goods, which will bear heavy tolls, 80 as to reimburse Of this locomotive experiment, a modern account says: "In the expense of repairs, which is of course greater as the motion 1828 John B. Jervis, chief engineer of the Delaware and Hud- is more rapid. Still, he is of opinion that a railroad may be son Canal, sent his assistant, Horatio Allen, to England to in- constructed sufficiently solid, strong, and true to admit of a vestigate the application of steam to land transportation. Allen motion of sixty miles an hour for a short time." became convinced that Stephenson's ideas were destined to Professor Silliman says the Mauch Chunk Railroad was built revolutionize commerce, and he, therefore, bought for the canal in three months after the wood used in its construction was company three engines to be used on the initial railway in the growing in the forest. A Baltimore and Ohio committee, which United States. In May, 1829, the first of the engines was landed inspected it, thought it a very simple affair. here; was put together by Allen, and exhibited at the foundry Mr. Josiah White formed such an unfavorable opinion of for some weeks. It was queer-looking enough, having four railways, on account of the necessity for frequent and expen- wheels connected by side rods. Vertical cylinders on each side sive repairs, which was developed on the short line he had of the rear end of the boiler communicated motion to a vast constructed, and the high cost of movement as compared with walking beam, attached to the side rods of the driving wheels canals, that he continued to be a firm advocate of the latter by other long iron rods. The engine was, indeed, so covered class of improvements, and insisted upon the reconstruction of with rods and joints that it resembled a vast grasshopper. Hav- the canal after it had been nearly destroyed by a freshet, at a ing been delivered at Honesdale in due season, on the 9th of time when the substitution of a railway would have been ad- August, 1829, Allen had it put on the track, consisting of hem- visable. lock stringers or rails, in section, 6x12 inches, on which bars THE DELAWARE AND HUDSON RAILWAY. of rolled iron, 21 inches wide, and one-half inch thick, were Of the very early coal railways in Pennsylvania the longest spiked. The hemlock rails were supported by caps of timber and most important was that constructed by the Delaware and ten feet from centre to centre. The engine weighed seven in- Hudson Canal Company. A statement published in 1829, by stead of three tons, as had been agreed upon. The rails had Jacob S. Davis, says: "The Lackawaxen Canal, constructed by been warped, and as the road crossed the Lackawaxen river, the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, extends from after a sharp curve, on a slender hemlock trestle, which, it was Honesdale down by the eastern and northern side of the believed, would not support the engine, Allen was besought not Lackawaxen river to its mouth, descending 371 feet by 37 locks. to imperil his life on it. He knew there was danger, but, am- The Delaware and Hudson Canal is connected with its lower bitious to connect his name with the first locomotive in America, extremity, and extends down the eastern side of the Delaware he determined to take the risk. He ran the engine up and river to Carpenter's Point, and thence to Kingston on the Hud- down along the coal dock for a few minutes, and then invited son river. The Lackawaxen Canal is 20 feet wide at bottom, some one of the large assembly present to accompany him. 32 feet at top, and 6 feet deep. The boats that navigate the Nobody accepted, and, pulling the throttle valve open, he said canal, are 70 feet long, 8 feet 7 to 8 inches wide, and carry 25 good-bye to the crowd, and dashed away from the village around tons. From Honesdale a railroad extends up the valley of the the abrupt curve, and over the trembling trestle, amid deafening west branch of the Lackawaxen; and crossing the river near cheers, at the rate of ten miles an hour. The Stourbridge Lion, the mouth of Vanauken brook, it continues in a western direc- as the engine was named, was attached, after the trial, to trains tion through Canaan township, and across the Moosic moun- of coal cars, and drew them satisfactorily on the docks; but it tain at Rig's Gap to Carbondale, being 16 miles in length; could not be employed to advantage on 80 slight a railway, overcoming an elevation and descent of 1,812 feet, by 8 inclined which could not be fitted to the engine on account of the ex- planes, one of which is near the mouth of Vanauken-two on pense required. The Lion was, therefore, placed in a shanty the eastern and five on the western side of the mountain. At on the docks, and stayed there for years. Finally it was taken the head of last inclined plane is erected a building containing to pieces, its boiler being carried to Carbondale, and put in a a stationary steam engine, for the purpose of assisting the foundry, where it is still in use. The other two engines shared. wagons in the ascent and descent." the same fate." George W. Smith, writing in June, 1828, says: "The company THE CHARLESTON AND HAMBURG OR SOUTH CAROLINA RAILWAY. have excavated a canal from the Hudson to the Delaware, in Mr. Horatio Allen, the hero of the first locomotive trip in the state of New York. Thence the route of 29 miles, up the America, had received the appointment of chief engineer of Lackawaxen to the forks of Dyberry, is in Pennsylvania. At what was first known as the Charleston and Hamburg Railroad, this place the canal terminates, at a distance of 105 miles from and subsequently became the South Carolina Railroad, a short the Hudson, and 33 from the Great Bend, on the Susquehanna. time before that trip was made, and he states that in September, It is in contemplation to form a connection between these 1829, he was at Charleston, South Carolina, to enter upon his points by a railway, to be constructed by another company not new duties. The South Carolina Railway completed the con- yet incorporated. struction of a portion of their line during the early years of From the forks of the Dyberry to Carbondale, a distance of the third decade of the nineteenth century, and preliminary or 15 miles nearly, a railway is being constructed with timber experimental operations had been commenced previous to 1830. rails, guarded by iron bars, and resting on stone supports. It A southern journal states that "the original charter of the com- is calculated for the employment of horse power and locomo- pany was obtained from the South Carolina legislature in 1827, tive engines on the more level portions, and for stationary books of subscription being opened in February of that year. The steam engines on the inclined planes. The estimate for these earliest projectors of the road were Alexander Black, Tristan 15 miles of railway, including all the machinery, is $178,228 Tupper, William Aiken, George Bennett, and others, who or- (the greater portion of which has been expended), a sum suf- ganized the company in May, 1828. In those days the railroad Digitized by Google BUFFALO RECHESTER UTICA FEET SCHENECTABY ALBANY Eric Canal. MILES 2200 2000 BEAIRSVILLE JOHNSTOWN 1800 1400 PITTSBOROM HOLLIDAYSBURB 1600 HUNTINGDON 1200 4. LEWISTOWN HARRISBURG 1000 FLET COLUMBIA 800 600 400 270 130 Main Line of Pennsylvania Canals and Railroads. MILES GLEVELAND NEWARK CHILLIGHTNE FEET APORTMENTH sie See the R " N Ohio Canal. MILES 2000 2000 2100 2200 2000 1880 IGOO 1400 1200 1000 PITTSBURGH are WILLIAMSPORT HARPONS PERRY 400 200 WASHINGTON Chesapeake and Ohio, as Projected. MILES MAUGH сивик AMPORTER " FREE . 400 MILES Diemal Swamp Canal. 100 ALLENTOWN BETWLENEM 200 EASTON FACT NO Lehigh Navigation. MILES PROFILES OF PROMINENT CANALS. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1830 TO 1840. 73 was a thing of the future, and the originators were met on (flat iron) were transported from the ship. In June, 1829, a every side with jeers and ridicule. They did not seem them- meeting of the stockholders was held and directors were au- selves to have any clear idea of the extent and scope of the thorized to begin work on the road between Charleston and project which they were undertaking, and the fear of ridicule Hamburg. At this time the company had received about five made them pursue their plans in secret. In February, 1829, hundred tons of rails, and the legislature had advanced $100,000 they made an experiment. They built one hundred and fifty in the way of a loan. feet of railway track, very crude it was, in Wentworth street, On the 1st of April, 1830, one mile of the South Carolina Charleston, and procured a four-wheeled car upon which they Railroad had been laid and the first train was started over it. placed forty-seven bales of cotton. A mule was hitched to the The 'train' consisted of a cranky four-wheel car which carried car and drew the load with ease. This was a revelation. It de- thirteen persons and three tons of freight. It was propelled by veloped the drawing capacities of the mule to an extent that means of a large square sail, which was rigged up on a mast had never been dreamt of before and inspired the conspirators and accomplished a speed of fifteen miles an hour." with renewed confidence and hope. They began to entertain Of the construction of interior portions of the South Carolina the idea of running a railroad between Charleston and Augusta Railroad, the story is told that when a lot of wheelbarrows with mule power, and saw 'millions in it.' Emboldened by this arrived in a district where they were to be used by slaves, they experiment, two months later one hundred and seventy feet of commenced operations by carrying the wheelbarrows on their track was laid on Chisholm's wharf, and upon this the rails heads. RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1830 TO 1840. PREPARATIONS FOR RAILWAY ADVANCES. some of the early railway operations. At all events, it helped to WHILE the perind between 1825 and 1830 was peculiarly train men in the operation of steam engines, to increase the movements which laid the groundwork for amount of available mechanical knowledge relating to the ap- preparations for railway construction, it can scarcely be said plication of steam to transportation either on water or on land, that any railway intended for miscellaneous traffic was com- and to give to some of the ramifications of early American rail- pleted and in successful operation in the United States before way affairs the benefit of better training at the outset than would 1830. That is, therefore, the year from which the growth of otherwise have been available. Such good fortune certainly the American railway system is generally dated, and about awaited the early New Jersey railroads, which called into their that time, or a few years later, real or imaginary difficulties service members of the Stevens family, who had been experi- were sufficiently overcome to render railway projects of one menting with or operating successfully steamboats for more than kind or another a subject of serious consideration in nearly all a score of years, and who were enabled, by this experience, to the localities in which the growth of traffic, population, wealth, materially increase the practical value of their labors in the new and intelligence, and the absence of adequate water routes gave field of effort in which they won new honors. to such schemes a rational hope of success. The progress of American steamboating from 1807 to 1830 is The canal, stage-coach, turnpike, and steamboat were each indicated by official statements, which show that the reported and all well advanced in their essential features when the rail- number and tonnage of steamers of all classes constructed was way first appeared. It came as the rival and adjunct of facilities as follows:- No. Tonnage. gradually developed up from low to high points by the slow but From 1807 to 1820, inclusive 128 25,797.77 steady progress of centuries, and it came to stay, because all From 1821 to 1830, inclusive 385 65,211.60 these antecedent appliances failed to satisfy the public require- Up to and including 1820 there had been built on the western ments. Before the railway there was a long series of prepara- rivers 71 steamers, measuring 14,207.53 tons; 52 steamers, mea- tions. Turnpike, canal, and stage-coach companies had famil- suring 10,564.43 tons, had been built on the Atlantic coast, ex- iarized investors with the corporate combinations necessary to clusive of New England; 4 steamers, measuring 921.84 tons, ensure railway success. Many advances had been made in including one steamer of 298.57 tons, built on lake Champlain, mechanical progress, and notably in the improvement of the had been built on the lakes; and one of 218.84 tons had been steam engine, which had been successfully applied to various built at Mobile. Up to and including 1830 there had been built on purposes, and especially to transportation in steamboats and the western rivers 296 steamers, measuring 51,506.65 tons; 183 steamers. Carriages, coaches, and wagons had also been greatly steamers, measuring 83,667.88 tons, had been built on the At- improved, and turnpikes promoted the use of superior vehicles. lantic coast, exclusive of New England, and 11 steamers, mea- By 1830 many of the preliminary obstacles had been cleared suring 2,208.64 tons, had been built on the northern lakes. away, and a number of the conditions necessary to secure suc- After 1830 progress in the construction of steamboats on the cess had gradually been established. In addition to the cor- western rivers, principally at Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and Louis- porate training furnished by various companies, the state of ville, continued to be rapid, but the business was subjected to New York had set an example, in her zealous support of the considerable fluctuations, growing out of variations in the de- Erie Canal, which other commonwealths were disposed to fol- mand for new transportation facilities or other causes. low. The United States government had built the national The number of steamers built in New England from 1817 to road, and advanced some money to canal schemes. Thus sev- 1830 inclusive, was 18, of an average tonnage of about 112. eral possible methods of obtaining the means necessary to con- Before 1830 linès of steamboats had commenced running in struct important lines had been suggested, and there was a fair New England which connected ports of Maine and Boston. prospect that promising routes might be supported either by The first steamer was introduced on lake Ontario in 1816; a private capital, or city or state subscriptions. steamer was launched on lake Erie in 1818, which traded as far The fact was also clearly recognized that neither steamboats, westward as Mackinaw, Michigan, but was wrecked before the turnpikes, nor canals would fully provide for all the transporta- close of the year; several other lake steamers were built and tion requirements of the country. There were thriving inland operated before 1820; and during the third decade eight addi- districts which could not be advantageously reached by any de- tional lake steamers were constructed. scription of natural or artificial water courses. Steamboats were introduced on several of the eastern rivers PROGRESS OF STEAMBOAT MOVEMENTS. and especially on the Delaware soon after the successful opera- The success which had finally attended steamboat operations, tion of the Clermont on the North river in 1807. and the large number of districts in which steamboats had In 1820 the steamers in service along the Atlantic coast were been introduced in the United States before active efforts to pro- distributed as follows:- mote important railway construction were commenced, must AT NEW York-The' on on Long Island have afforded considerable incidental aid, in various ways, to sound, between New Y , New Haven, 10 Digitized by Google 74 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1830 TO 1840. changing in 1822 to Providence. The Richmond, Chancellor duced and operated extensively before railways were constructed Livingston, Paragon, and Car of Neptune on the Hudson, from in contiguous inland districts, the steamboat being very fre- New York to Albany, and the Fire Fly to Newburgh. The quently the pioneer or predecessor of the locomotive. Olive Branch, New York to New Brunswick. The Swift, from But much as steamboats had done up to 1830, and a few years New York to Elizabeth. The Franklin, from New York to later, they were not meeting all requirements. The time had Shrewsbury. The Atlanta, from New York to Elizabethtown evidently come when it was not merely desirable to increase Point. The Bellona, from New Brunswick to Staten Island, the number of steamboats on the Atlantic coast, the lakes, and and the Nautilus, from New York to Staten Island. western rivers; to utilize the canals then in existence, and to AT PHILADELPHIA.-The Pennsylvania and Atna were run- increase their number; but also to construct railways. ning from Philadelphia to Bordentown. The Philadelphia, RAILWAYS COMPLETED OR PROGRESSING IN 1836. from Philadelphia to Trenton. The William Penn and Bristol, from Philadelphia to Bristol. The Superior and Vesta, from In H. S. Tanner's American Traveler or Guide Through the Philadelphia to Wilmington, and the Baltimore and Delaware, United States, published in Philadelphia in 1836, the favorite from Philadelphia to New Castle. routes of travel of that era are described at length, and the fol- AT BALTIMORE.-The United States and Philadelphia were lowing list of railways then completed, or in course of construc- running from Baltimore to French Town. The Virginia and tion, is given under the heads of the different states, viz.:- Norfolk to Norfolk; the New Jersey to Elkton; the Maryland to ALABAMA.-A railroad is now in progress from Decatur, in Easton; and the Eagle and Surprise were on no regular routes. Morgan county, to a point 10 miles below Tuscumbia, on the AT WASHINGTON-The steamer Washington ran to Fred- Tennessee. Length, 62 miles. ericksburg, and the new steamer Potomac, built at Norfolk, DELAWARE-The New Castle and Frenchtown Railroad ex- was put upon the route between these two ports. tends from New Castle to Frenchtown. Length, 16,180 miles. AT NORFOLK.-The steamers Roanoke and Richmond ran A railroad to extend from Wilmington to Downingtown, in between that port and Richmond. The Powhatan, Petersburg, Pennsylvania, is proposed. and Sea Horse were also on routes from that port. GEORGIA.-Alatamaha and Brunswick Railroad, 12 miles in AT SAVANNAH.-The steamer Enterprise, 152.10 tons' burden, length. was running to Charleston and river ports in that vicinity. KENTUCKY.-Lexington and Ohio Railroad, commences at On the Atlantic coast the notable event had also occurred, in Lexington, passes through Frankfort, and thence to shipping 1819, of fitting out the steamer Savannah, which had crossed point, near Louisville. Length, 85 miles. the ocean, partly by the help of her sails, sailing from Savannah LOUISIANA.-The New Orleans and Pontchartrain Railroad, 5 to Liverpool in twenty-five days, during eighteen of which her miles long. engine was worked. She was the first steamer to cross the At- MARYLAND.-Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, extends from Bal- lantic. A steamer was built, and operated for three years, to timore to Point of Rocks, on the Potomac, 67 g miles from Bal- ply between New York, Charleston, Havana, and New Orleans, timore. This road is to be continued to the Ohio river. A which made her first trip in 1820, and which was successful in road of a single track extends from the main line to Frederick, regard to safety and speed, but unprofitable financially. 31 miles. Baltimore and Susquehanna Railroad, commenced The number and tonnage of new steamboats or steamers con- in 1830, is to extend to York, Pennsylvania. Length, when structed on the Atlantic coast, in New York, Philadelphia, and completed, 76 miles. Another railroad is projected, to extend Baltimore districts, from 1821 to 1830 inclusive, was as follows:- from Baltimore to the Susquehanna at Port Deposit, and thence Year. No. Tonnage. to unite with the Oxford Railroad, of Pennsylvania, which in- 1821 6 668.30 tersects the Columbia Railroad about 40 miles from Philadel- 1822 4 862.31 phia. Baltimore and Washington Railroad. Length, 37% miles. 1823 4 636.97 This work is now completed. 1824 13 2,230.68 MASSACHUSETTS.-Worcester Railroad, 43 miles in length. It 1825 15 2,837.75 1826 23 4,434.29 is proposed to continue this road to the Connecticut, and to 1827 14 3,081.36 construct a branch to Milberry. Boston and Providence Rail- 1828 24 2,826.63 road. Length, 43 miles. Boston and Lowell Railroad, length 1829 15 3,399.04 25 miles, now in progress. Quincy Railroad, used for trans- 1830 13 3,126.12 porting granite from the quarry in Quincy to Neponset river. On western rivers steamboat construction previous to 1830 Length, 3 miles; branches, 1 mile. had been more rapid than in any other section. The progress Mississippi.St. Francisville and Woodville Railroad, 26 miles was specially rapid from 1817 to 1830. It is stated that from 1817 in length. Vicksburg and Clinton Railroad, length 37 miles to 1827 there were built at Cincinnati 52 steamers, measuring (proposed). 9,306.61 tons. From about 1814 to about 1824 there were built NEW JERSEY.-Camden and Amboy Railroad, commences at at Pittsburgh 30 steamers, measuring 5,698.78 tons. From 1815 Camden, opposite Philadelphia, and terminates at South Am- to 1825 there were built at Louisville 35 steamers, measuring boy. Length, 61 miles. Paterson and Hudson River Rail- 6,032.26 tons. From 1825 to 1830 the official records of con- road, from Jersey City, opposite New York, to Paterson, on the struction of steamers on the western rivers in the Pittsburgh, Cin- Passaic. Length, 16,300 miles. It is proposed to extend this cinnati, and Louisville districts show the following aggregates:- road to the Morris Canal. New Jersey Railroad, commences Year. No. on the last-mentioned railroad, about 2 miles from Jersey City, Tonnage. 1825 18 3,065 79 and terminates at New Brunswick. Length, 28 miles. 1826 35 6,563.76 NEW York-Mohawk and Hudson River Railroad, from Al- 1827 33 5,244.61 bany to Schenectady, 16 miles. Schenectady and Saratoga Rail- 1828 19 3,043.05 road, from Schenectady to Saratoga Springs, 20 miles. Catskill 1829 36 7,561.53 and Canajoharie Railroad, from Catskill to Canajoharie (now 1830 33 4,811.15 in progress), 70 miles. Ithaca and Owego Railroad, 29 miles. These western river steamers were then running principally Harlem Railroad, on Manhattan Island. Rochester Railroad on the Ohio and Mississippi, but they were also traversing to (now in progress), from Rochester to a point below the Falls of some extent various tributaries of the Mississippi. It is stated Genesee. Schenectady and Utica Railroad (now in progress). that the Virginia, a stern-wheel boat, arrived at Fort Snelling, Length, 80 miles. Bath Railroad, from Bath to Crooked Lake, near the Falls of St. Anthony, in 1813. In 1817 a steamboat 5 miles. Rochester and Batavia Railroad (now in progress), 28 touched at St. Louis, and proceeded up the Missouri to explore miles. Troy and Ballston Railroad (now in progress), 22 miles. that river. In the natural order of advancement, after steam. Several other roads are proposed in different parts of the state. boating was fully established on the Ohio and Mississippi, steam- NORTH CAROLINA.-Railroads are projected to extend from boats were rapidly introduced on all the navigable tributaries of Fayetteville to Cape Fear river; from Wilmington, through those rivers, and, generally speaking, on them, as on all other Fayetteville and Salisbury, to Beattysford, on the Catawba, a navigable waters of the United States, the steamboat was intro- distance of 250 miles; and several others. Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1830 TO 1840. 75 PENNSYLVANIA-State Railroads-Columbia Railroad, extends Augusta; entire length, 135,700 miles. It is proposed to con- from Philadelphia to Columbia, on the Susquehanna. Length, struct a branch to Orangeburg, and thence to Columbia, &c., 81100 miles. Allegheny Portage Railroad, from Hollidaysburg and another to Barnwell Court House. to Johnstown, forms the connecting link between the Central TENNESSEE.-A railroad from the town of Randolph, on the and Western divisions of the Pennsylvania Canal. Length, Mississippi, to Jackson, in Madison county, 65 miles, and one 36,100 miles. Railroads constructed by joint stock companies.- from Nashville to New Orleans, are proposed, and measures for Mauch Chunk Railroad, from Mauch Chunk to the coal mines, insuring their early completion have been adopted. 9 miles. Room Run Railroad, from Mauch Chunk to the coal VIRGINIA.-Manchester Railroad, extends from Manchester mine on Room Run, 5,280 miles. Mount Carbon Railroad, from to the coal mines. Length, 13 miles. Winchester Railroad, Mount Carbon to Norwegian valley, 7,33 miles. Schuylkill Val- extends from Harper's Ferry to Winchester. Length, 30 miles. ley Railroad, from Port Carbon to Tuscarora, 10 miles; branches Petersburg and Roanoke Railroad, extends from Petersburg, in of the preceding, 15 miles. Schuy lkill Railroad, 13 miles. Mill Virginia, to Blakely, at the foot of the Roanoke Canal, in North Creek Railroad, from Port Carbon to the mines near Mill Creek. Carolina. Length, 59,100 miles. A branch of this road leaves Length, including branches, 7 miles. Mine Hill and Schuylkill the main line about 10 miles from Blakely, which extends to Haven Railroad, from Schuylkill Haven to the coal mines at the head of the rapids of Roanoke. Length, about 12 miles. Mine Hill. Length, including two branches, 20 miles. Pine Portsmouth and Roanoke Railroad, commences at Portsmouth, Grove Railroad, 4 miles in length. Little Schuylkill Railroad, opposite Norfolk, passes in a direct course, intersects the Peters- from Port Clinton to Tamaqua, 23 miles. Lackawaxen Rail- burg road 6 miles from Blakely, and terminates in the Roan- road, from Honesdale to Carbondale, 161 miles. West Chester oke a short distance below the Petersburg branch. Length, 80 Railroad, from the Columbia Railroad to West Chester, 9 miles. miles. Richmond and Petersburg Railroad (now in progress). Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railroad, (about 7 Length, 21 100 miles. Richmond and Fredericksburg Railroad miles of this road are completed; a new route to Norristown, (now in progress). Length, 64 miles. Belleplain Railroad, ex- leaving Germantown to the north-east, has been adopted.) Ly- tends from Fredericksburg to Belleplain, situated on a branch kens Valley Railroad, from Broad Mountain to Millersburg. of the Potomac (in progress). Length, 11 miles. Several other Philadelphia and Trenton Railroad, 261 miles in length. Cen- railroads are proposed. tral Railroad, from the vicinity of Pottsville to Sunbury, 41100 The reported number of miles of railway constructed in the miles; Danville branch, 7 miles long; whole length 51,000 miles. United States in the third decade was 2,264.67. Of this mileage, Oxford Railroad, now in progress, extends from the Columbia the amount completed in each of the years named was as fol- Railroad to the Maryland state line. Reading Railroad, to ex- lows: 1830, 39.80; 1831, 98.70; 1832, 191.30; 1833, 115.91; 1834, tend from Norristown to Port Clinton. 213.92; 1835, 137.82; 1836, 280.08; 1837, 348.38; 1838, 452.88; 1839, RHODE ISLAND.-Stonington Railroad, now in progress, ex- 385.88; total, 2,264.67. tends from Stonington, in Connecticut, to Providence, 46 miles Of these railways, the mileage located in New England was in length. A company has been incorporated to construct a 356.68; in Middle states, Delaware, Maryland, and a few West- railroad from Providence to Norwich, in Connecticut. ern and North-western states, 1,399.89; Southern states, 487.35; SOUTH CAROLINA.South Carolina Railroad, commences at South-western states, 20.75. The following table shows the num- Charleston, and terminates in the town of Hamburg, opposite ber of miles completed by each company in the years named:- NUMBER OF MILES CONSTRUCTED BY EACH CONSTRUCTING COMPANY IN EACH YEAR OF THE FOURTH DECADE. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1836. 1887. 1838. 1889. Decade. Boston and Albany (portions of its lines) 31.60 12.50 20.33 54.53 118.96 Boston, Clinton, Fitchburg and New Bedford 11.10 11.10 Boston and Lowell 25.75 25.75 Boston and Maine 7.00 10.00 17.00 Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn 52.05 2.22 54.27 Eastern (of Massachusetts) 13.42 15.02 28.44 Nashua and Lowell 14.25 14.26 New York, New Haven and Hartford 36.00 36.00 New York, Providence and Boston 46.15 46.15 St. Croix and Penobscot 2.00 2.00 Whitefield and Jefferson 2.75 2.75 Total in New England states 356.68 Atlantic Avenue 9.68 9.68 Baltimore and Ohio 15.00 46.50 11.00 12.00 84.50 Cayuga and Susquehanna 34.61 34.61 Corning, Cowanesque and Antrim 14.81 14.81 Cumberland Valley 50.50 17.82 68.32 Detroit, Grand Haven and Milwaukee 13.00 13.00 Elmira and Williamsport 24.20 24.20 Franklin 5.85 5.85 Harrisburg. Portsmouth, Mt. Joy and Lancaster 25.00 9.00 1.54 35.54 Jeffersonville, Madison and Indianapolis 22.00 22.00 Lake Shore and Michigan Southern (portions of its line). 33.00 9.09 18.00 60.09 Lehigh Valley (portions of present line) 19.85 23.97 2.00 45.82 Little Schuylkill Navigation Railroad and Coal Co 20.00 20.00 Long Island 15.28 15.28 Michigan Central 29.50 7.80 37.30 Mill Creek and Mine Hill Navigation and Railroad Co 3.80 3.80 Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven 10.00 4.20 2.50 16.70 Morris and Essex 22.07 22.07 New York Central and Hudson River (portions of its line). 17.00 3.00 77.66 3.00 26.02 53.10 179.78 New York and Harlem 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 7.00 Northern Central 8.60 57.10 65.70 Paterson and Hudson River 15.07 15.07 Pennsylvania (portions of its present line purchased from the state of Pennsylvania) 32.39 48.00 13.50 93.89 Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown 3.00 17.20 20.20 Philadelphia and Reading 1.40 55.06 17.00 Philadelphia and Trenton 26.44 Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore 7.25 1.41 93.00 2.00 Digitized by Google 76 PROGRESS IN VARIOUS SECTIONS. 1880. 1831. 1882. 1888. 1884. 1835. 1836. 1837. 1838. 1889. Decade. Plymouth 3.00 3.00 Rensselaer and Saratoga 20.82 4.40 25.22 Sandusky, Mansfield and Newark 15.25 88.75 54.00 Saratoga and Schenectady 12 81 6.59 19.40 Schuylkill Valley Navigation and Railroad 11.00 11.00 Trenton and Delaware Bridge Company 0.19 0.19 United New Jersey Railroad and Canal Company 34.17 27.00 26.08 44.91 132.11 Washington Branch Railroad Company 31.00 31.00 West Chester Railroad Company 5.20 5.20 Total in states of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michi- gan, Indiana, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, and District of Columbia 1,399.89 Chester and Lenoir Narrow-Gauge Railroad Company 34.54 34.54 Georgia Railroad and Banking Company 37.00 27.00 64.00 Petersburg Railroad Company 31.68 27.32 59.00 Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac 59.75 59.75 Richmond and Petersburg 22.50 22.50 Seaboard and Roanoke 78.56 78.56 South Carolina Railroad Company 10.00 52.00 75.00 137.00 Winchester and Potomac. 32.00 32 00 Total in Southern states 487.35 Clinton and Port Hudson 20.75 20.75 Total in South-western states 20.75 Total in each year 39.80 98.70 191.30 115.91 213.92 137.82 280.08 348.38 452.88 385 88 2,264.67 A few of the early companies are not included in this list. slight inaccuracies in dates, but with these exceptions the table Some of the unimportant primitive lines have been abandoned; is presumably substantially correct, as it is compiled from the for the name of the original constructing company there has data furnished to the United States Census Bureau in 1880 by been substituted, in some instances, the name of the present the companies then operating the existing lines. Some of the operating company; and there are probably a few omissions or early coa! railroads of Pennsylvania are not included in the list. PROGRESS IN VARIOUS SECTIONS. NEW ENGLAND AND NEW YORK RAILWAYS. Stockbridge to the city of Hudson, 30 miles. These roads have THE following was reported to be the result of the operations all been constructed, and are managed by companies." the prominent Massachusetts roads in 1839:- The state of New York pursued a peculiar policy in reference Length Cost Cost Total Total Divi- to railways at that time, inasmuch as it was unwilling to permit Name. of of per ex- re- dend. road. road. mile. penses. ceipts. P. ct. rivalry with the Erie Canal, and lines located near that canal, Boston and Lowell. 252 $1,608,476 $62,465 $92,151 $241,220 8 which were subsequently incorporated into the New York Cen- Boston and Provi- tral system, were at first not permitted to carry any freight. dence 41 1,782,000 43,460 93,562 313,907 8 Subsequently they were allowed to carry freight on condition Boston and Wor- that they paid on it precisely the same tolls that would have cester 441 1,799,225 40,433 126,384 231,807 61 been due to the state if it had been carried on the canals. After East'n (incomplete). 25 1,306,196 32,655 53,174 125,623 43 years of persistent efforts to secure state aid for railways the Taunton branch 11 250,000 22,791 40,711 58,018 6 Nashua and Lowell. 141 353,662 24,321 29,885 friends of the New York and Erie finally secured the passage 55,053 of an act in 1837 providing that the commonwealth should fur- Total 161 $7,099,589 nish $3,000,000 towards construction, in the ratio of dollar for Of the receipts, $682,387 were derived from passengers, and dollar, or with the understanding that as the company ex- $343,240 from freight. The fact that these roads commenced pended $100,000 they were to receive $100,000 from the state. paying liberal dividends at an early date, thus affording proof Previous or up to 1840 the company had received $400,000 of financial success, did much to awaken a hope that similar under this arrangement, and at that time 222 miles of the road results would be secured elsewhere. The line of greatest signifi- were under contract. Portions of the route now occupied by cance in New England in 1839 was the Boston and Worcester, the New York Central were then either operated or being con- and its proposed extension, the Western, which, combined with structed by nine companies. Some of these companies had other links, subsequently became the Boston and Albany, and achieved remarkable financial success. The Mohawk and thus furnished a link, with portions of the existing Vanderbilt Hudson, notwithstanding its deprivation of freight traffic, and system, by which Boston expected to secure superior rail con- the extra expenditures arising from the fact that it had been nections with the lakes and the Western states. Of the exist- an experimental line, with unnecessary inclined planes, was ing Boston and Albany system, 118.96 miles were completed dividing 12 per cent. per annum, and accumulating a surplus. in 1839. The Utica and Syracuse had realized a net revenue of 10 per A message of the Governor of the state of New York stated cent. during the six months ended December 31st, 1839. that at the close of 1839 the railroads of that state consisted "of a continuous line of railroad from Albany to Auburn, 170 miles, NEW JERSEY IMPROVEMENTS-THE CAMDEN AND AMBOY. (which was owned and operated by four distinct companies;) The progress of the transportation movements in New Jersey a similar line from Lockport to Lewistown and Buffalo, 47 is set forth in a report of the joint board of directors to the miles; a railroad from Rochester to Batavia, 35 miles; a rail- stockholders of the Delaware and Raritan Canal, and Camden road from Schenectady to Saratoga Springs, 21 miles; a railroad and Amboy Railroad and Transportation Companies, presented from Troy to Ballston Spa, 25 miles; a railroad from New York at a meeting held on January 29th, 1840. After labors con- to Harlem, 8 miles; a railroad from Brooklyn to Hicksville, on tinued during a period of ten years this was the first detailed Long Island, 27 miles; a railroad from the termination of the report issued, and it not only announced that the canal and west branch of the Chemung Canal to the Tioga Railroad, in railroad were completed, but that the pecuniary results and Pennsylvania, 14 miles; a railroad crossing the ridge between prospects were eminently satisfactory. It is scarcely to be ex- the Susquehanna at Owego and the Cayuga lake at Ithaca, 29 pected that stockholders of the present day would be entirely miles, and a railroad from the line of Massachusetts at West satisfied if detailed statements were only submitted at intervals Digitized by Google PROGRESS IN VARIOUS SECTIONS. 77 of ten years, especially while construction was progressing, but $96,551, both being managed by the same company. Many of it has rarely happened that equally profitable results have been the statesmen of the day, however, continued to favor canals. announced, either at long or short intervals. The report in- They seem to have always had a partiality for water routes vited the closest scrutiny into expenditures of millions, and the when questions involving expenditures of public money were cost of the works is reported to be $6,064,953.42, while the share agitated. capital was $2,900,000, the balance being borrowed at an aver- DELAWARE AND MARYLAND IMPROVEMENTS. age interest of 6 per cent. Of the public results secured it says: The New Castle and Frenchtown, the first railway in Dela- "Formerly the passage between Philadelphia and New York ware, and one of the first in the United States, formed an im- - occupied from eleven to twenty hours, and was performed with portant link in a through north and south route. The Phila- great personal discomfort and no small hazard of limb and life. delphia, Wilmington and Baltimore supplied useful railway Merchandise was transported from city to city at great expense facilities to portions of Delaware and Maryland, as well as to of insurance as well as of freight, and subject to all the difficul- sections of south-eastern Pennsylvania. ties, uncertainties, and danger of a coasting voyage. Now pas- In Maryland the Baltimore and Ohio, and the Baltimore and sengers are carried from city to city, during the most inclement Susquehanna, the latter being the progenitor of the Northern seasons, in from six to seven hours, and with nearly the same Central, had been started by private companies, at a very early comfort as they enjoy at their own firesidos. Merchandise is period, and liberally aided by financial assistance in the shape transported in less time, with less expense, and with an entire of loans or stock subscriptions of the state of Maryland and saving of insurance." The Delaware and Raritan Canal was the city of Baltimore. By the close of 1839 the Baltimore and referred to as a work of 65 miles in length, which was adding Susquehanna had extended its lines into Pennsylvania, and the year after year greatly to the value of the agricultural interests Baltimore and Ohio had a fair start towards the extension of of New Jersey, and which would probably have its revenues its lines to the Ohio river. materially increased after the completion of the Reading rail- IMPROVEMENTS IN PENNSYLVANIA AND SOUTHERN AND WESTERN road to the anthracite coal region. Of the financial results the STATES. report states that during the previous six months there was a profit of 7 per cent., and a table was published to show that The number of miles of railway in operation, and number of during the previous seven years there had been an annual in- locomotives in 1839-40, in the states named below, was reported crease of the profits of the companies of 20 per cent., and that in 1840 by Chevalier DeGerstner, who had come to this country if this ratio continued during the succeeding seven years, a for the express purpose of examining the American railway dividend of 28 per cent. per annum would then be earned. system, visiting nearly all the lines, and who was then said to The statement of financial results from 1833 to 1839 inclusive, possess more information on that subject than any other per- embraced the following record:- son, to be as follows:- No. of railroads, Total No. of Year-from Jan. 1st to- including Gross receipts. Gross expenditures. Net gain. unfinished lines. length. locomotives. December 31st, 1833. $468,142 50 $287,091 90 $181,050 60 Pennsylvania. 40 5761 114 December 31st, 1834 546,993 54 313,261 69 233,731 87 Virginia 10 341 42 December 31st, 1835 679,463 63 317,491 76 361,971 87 North Carolina 3 247 11 December 31st, 1836 770,621 28 363,344 90 407,276 38 South Carolina 2 136 27 December 31st, 1837 731,995 24 359,510 44 372,484 80 Georgia 4 2111 17 December 31st. 1838 754,989 89 355,249 10 399,740 79 Florida 4 584 5 December 31st, 1839 685,329 76 258,043 48 427,286 28 Alabama 7 51 3 The report refers to an arrangement with the Philadelphia Louisiana 10 62 20 Mississippi 5 50 8 and Trenton Railroad Company, made in June, 1836, "by which Kentucky 2 32 2 the receipts of the companies were amalgamated, 80 as to divide Ohio 6 39 1 an the shares of the companies, share and share alike, and to Indiana 2 20 2 equalize the dividends." It states that this arrangement had Michigan 10 114 8 been attended with the most beneficial results. It was one of Illinois 11 23 2 the first instances, if not the first, of a consolidation of railway lines located in adjacent states. 116 1,9004 262 The report is signed by James Parker, chairman of the joint A considerable number of the railways then in operation board, and the following directors: R. F. Stockton, Robert L. continued to use horses or mules as a substitute for locomo- Stevens, Abraham Brown, John C. Stevens, W. McKnight, J. tives. Kaign, G. D. Wall, B. Fish, J.S. Green, J. W. Mickle, J. Nelson, The longest continuous line of railroad then in operation in J. R. Thomson, E. A. Stevens. Pennsylvania (and one of the longest in the United States), ex- One of the remarkable paragraphs of the report, in a per- tended from Philadelphia to Greencastle, a distance of 163 sonal point of view, is the following: "Although we cannot at- miles. The only lines in Pennsylvania on which locomotives tempt to name all the individuals from whom we have obtained were then used, and the number on each, was as follows: advice and assistance during the progress of our labors, still we Philadelphia and Columbia, 36; Allegheny Portage, 17; Phila- may not overlook the important and invaluable aid we have delphia, Germantown and Norristown, 8; Philadelphia and received from one of the directors, (now absent,) Mr. John Trenton, 5; Philadelphia and Wilmington, 4; Harrisburg and Potter, of New Jersey, formerly of South Carolina. To his en- Lancaster, 8; Cumberland Valley, 8; Franklin, 1; Beaver Mea- terprise, firmness, and public spirit are the public, as well as dow, 6; Hazleton branch, 3; Sugar Loaf Summit, 1; Little ourselves, more indebted, perhaps, than to any other individual Schuylkill, 5; Pottsville and Danville, 2; Williamsport and for the successful issue of your affairs." Elmira, 1; Blossburg and Corning, 2. Another feature of the report which excited much attention, In Pennsylvania, in 1839, $18,050,450 had been expended on and probably had much to do with the practical abandonment railways, of which sum about one-third represented the cost of of canal construction by companies, was its explanation of the the state railways, the Philadelphia and Columbia, and the fact that the railway had been quite profitable, while the canal Portage road. This was considerably more money than had had done very little more than pay expenses. In six years then been expended for railways in any other state. The bulk the gross receipts of the railways of the company had been of the private capital had been invested in roads leading to or $4,169,492; expenses, $1,966,901; net income, $2,202,591. During from the anthracite coal regions, and most of these undertak- the same period, from 1834 to 1839, inclusive, the receipts of ings, in turn, were comparatively short lines, connecting the the Delaware and Raritan Canal were $306,895; expenditures, mines with canals. The most extensive of the new coal roads, $210,344; net income, $96,551. As the canal had cost $2,829,769, however, the Philadelphia and Reading, of which 541 miles and the railway but little niore, it did not require much argu- were opene TA then graded, was a much ment to satisfy investing projectors that it was better to sup- more ambit h as it aimed at carrying port a class of undertakings which had yielded $2,202,591 net coal by r to Philadelphia, in profit during six years than a class which had yielded only con ich had previously Digitized by Google 78 PROGRESS IN VARIOUS SECTIONS. monopolized that traffic, and on account of this threatened cases where state or city aid had been granted, peculiar diffi- competition the stock of the Schuylkill Navigation Company culties had sprung up, and in other cases the results were not had declined greatly in market value. Independent of the entirely satisfactory for various reasons. It seems to rarely coal roads and the state roads, the Philadelphia, Germantown require much experience to convince some of the parties inter- and Norristown; Cumberland Valley; West Chester; Philadel- ested that railways are not invariably an unmixed blessing. phia and Wilmington, which formed the link in Pennsylvania At the close of 1839 there was no extensive continuous inter- of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore; the Philadel- nal improvement of a single given character and ownership phia and Trenton, which formed the Pennsylvania branch of extending through a number of states except the National the New Jersey railway system; the Harrisburg and Lancaster, road, a superior turnpike, which had been constructed by ap- now part of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and Williamsport and propriations of the United States government, made during a Elmira, connecting a portion of northern Pennsylvania with period of about thirty years. The only other extensive con- southern New York, were in operation. The Cumberland Val- tinuous systems under a single management were the New ley, and Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown, although York canals and the main line and branches of the Pennsyl- finally very successful, were at an early stage of their history vania system of internal improvements, which incidentally in- regarded as very unpromising enterprises. Of the Philadel- cluded two railways that were about 120 miles in length. But phia, Wilmington and Baltimore it was reported in 1839 that the necessary means for both these undertakings were ob- its net income was $194,503, which was considered sufficient to tained from state treasuries, and mainly through the proceeds justify a liberal dividend. Philadelphia had also built three rail- of the sale of state bonds. No private company up to that ways within her limits, to be operated chiefly, if not exclusively, time possessed sufficient capital or credit to construct a con- with animal power, which had an aggregate length of six tinuous railway of considerable length, and in the absence of miles. The Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad had cost state aid it would then have been useless to attempt to build $48,780 per mile, and the Allegheny Portage road $50,450 per such lines. The longest route of continuous land travel, inter- mile, and they were two of the most expensive roads that had spersed with occasional steamboat trips and staging, but made then been built in the United States. The estimated cost of up largely of railway links, was on the great north and south the Reading was also unusually large, being at the rate of mail route, extending from Boston to New Orleans, near the $45,000 per mile. But nearly all the other roads were com- Atlantic seaboard and gulf of Mexico, but ambitious efforts paratively cheap, and the estimated cost per mile of all the were then, as in all subsequent periods, generally directed to- railways in Pennsylvania then finished, and in process of con- wards the improvement of lines and systems extending west- struction, was $27,130 per mile. ward, and the prominent competitors for western traffic, to be RAILWAYS IN SOUTHERN AND WESTERN STATES. won by railway extensions included Boston, New York, Phila- Of the railways in operation in Virginia, North and South delphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and Savannah. Carolina, and Florida in 1839, all used locomotives except two A distinguished Frenchman, Monsieur Chevalier, who visited short lines. While the mileage then in operation in those states this country in 1838, said of the great public works then pro- was 994, there was an additional mileage of 301 graded, and gressing in the United States that "they must have for their 3801 projected, making the total mileage in those states, com- objects:- pleted and contemplated, 1,6754. The amount of capital that First. To bind the shores of the Atlantic with the country had been expended on construction was $18,442,000, and the west of the Allegheny; that is to say, to connect rivers, such as estimated additional amount necessary for completion was the Hudson, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, the James river, $7,770,000, making the total cost $26,212,000, and the average or bays, such as the Delaware or the Chesapeake, either with cost per mile $15,644. the Mississippi or its tributary, the Ohio, or with the St. Law- These lines were the first to form continuous systems of con- rence, or the great lakes, Erie and Ontario, whose waters are siderable magnitude, one of which extended from Fredericks- conveyed by the St. Lawrence into the sea. burg, Va., to Wilmington, N. C., a distance of 304 miles, and Second. To establish communications between the valley of another from Fredericksburg to Raleigh, N. C., a distance of the Mississippi and that of the St. Lawrence; that is to say, be- 2271 miles. tween one of the great tributaries of the Mississippi, such as The railroads in operation in Alabama, Louisiana, Missis- the Ohio, the Illinois, or the Wabash, and lake Erie or lake sippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky in 1889 had an aggregate mileage Michigan, which lakes of all those which have an outlet by the of 195, but 421 additional miles were graded, and 5321 projected. St. Lawrence extend furthest south. The amount of capital already expended was $9,621,000, and Third. To connect the north and south poles of the Union, the estimated amount necessary to complete the unfinished New York and New Orleans. lines was $9,613,000, a total of $19,234,000, and an average cost Independently of these great systems of public works, which per mile of $16,750. are in progress of construction, and even in part executed, there The length of the railroads in operation in Ohio, Indiana, exist secondary groups of lines of transportation, having for Michigan, and Illinois was 196 miles; additional mileage graded, objects either to facilitate access to centres of consumption or 533; not yet constructed, 2,0924, and the aggregate length of the open outlets to certain centres of production. The first of this projected systems was 2,821} miles. The amount of capital class of cases embraces different works, canals, or railroads, expended had been $5,523,640, and the estimated additional which leave the great cities as centres, and radiate in different amount necessary for completion was $27,114,500, making the directions around them. The second comprises such works as total cost $32,638,140, and the average cost per mile $11,568. have been executed to bring into market different coal fields." Of the completed mileage of these states, 56 were operated with The first single line in the United States to attain consider- horse power, and on 140 miles locomotive engines were run. able length was that of the South Carolina Railroad Company, or the South Carolina and Hamburg road. In 1833 it had 137 THE GENERAL RESULTS. miles in operation, and it constructed the first continuous 100 It will be seen that up to 1840 no continuous road of con- miles of railway that were built in any part of the world. In siderable length had been completed by any single company, 1834 active efforts were being made to extend its system to and most of the mileage existing at the end of the fourth de- Louisville and Cincinnati. cade represented detached enterprises, which either served The largest amount of mileage embraced in any of the con- purely local purposes or acted as connecting links between tinuous existing systems which was finished in 1839 was that natural or artificial water-courses. The germ of great systems, reported by the New York Central, consisting of 179.78 miles, however, had been established, and notably of the Pennsyl- but at that time this mileage was owned and controlled by a vania, New York Central, and Baltimore and Ohio. A number number of distinct companies. of the lines constructed by private companies had, at the out- A much larger amount of the mileage now controlled by the set, greatly disappointed the expectations of their projectors, Pennsylvania was in operation in 1839, and it includes the follow- and proved unprofitable. Some schemes, after being well ad- ing lines, viz: Cumberland Valley, 68.32; Elmira and Williams- vanced, were abandoned for years on account of financial port, 24.20; Harrisburg, Portsmouth, Mount Joy and Lancaster, stringency arising from the panic of 1887. In some of the 35.54; Jeffersonville, Madison and Indianapolis, 22.00; Northern Digitized by Google EARLY RAILWAY FINANCIERING. 79 Central, 65.70; Philadelphia and Columbia, etc., 93.89; Philadel- cidents and complications. The changes effected and fore- phia and Trenton, 26.44; Philadelphia, Wilmington and Balti- shadowed were 80 numerous and momentous that in many more, 103.66; United New Jersey Railroad and Canal Company, localities a new point of departure in rural chronology was 132.11; West Chester, 5.20; total, 444.95 miles. furnished by the time the railroad was built. There were a The Baltimore and Ohio mileage in 1839 consisted of 84.50 variety of trials and vicissitudes, industrial revolutions, fortunes miles on its main line and 81 on the Washington branch. made and lost, distressing accidents, some parties highly pleased The Boston and Albany mileage was 118.96. and others terribly indignant, and often an influx of immi- It would be idle to attempt to describe the particular events grants who followed in the wake of the advancing line, some that made up the history of any of the lines that gradually of whom became permanent residents. For some communities familiarized the inhabitants of one section after another with and individuals the railway did much, for others comparatively a tangible idea of a railroad. Wherever engineers and con- little, and to a few it may have been a positive injury. But tractors prosecuted their labors vigorously the process of filling there was no line which did not serve one of the chief ends of up valleys, making deep cuts in elevated regions, and bridging modern life by promoting the greatest good of the greatest streams and rivers, excited wonder and led to a variety of in- number affected. EARLY RAILWAY FINANCIERING. T° form an adequate conception of the financial arrange- CAPITALISTS WHO RECEIVED NO AID WHATEVER FROM ANY OF ments of the early railway lines it is necessary to consider THE STATE GOVERNMENTS, various peculiarities of the period extending from 1830 to 1840. and the success of a few of such lines, despite the follies and The success of the Erie Canal, completed in 1825, had created failures briefly referred to above, together with the ability a strong popular feeling in favor of state aid to internal im- of some of the railway lines which had received aid in the provements, and at the same time had made a number of shape of state loans to meet the corresponding interest obliga- states more favorably disposed to large grants of money, in the tions, had an important effect in promoting the revival of con- shape of appropriations, loans, or stock subscriptions, to canals fidence in railway enterprises. and river improvements, than to railways. Canals and river It was an exceedingly difficult thing, requiring an immense improvements, indeed, found much favor from a number of amount of persistent effort, to secure the money necessary legislators at times when they would not seriously consider to construct any lengthy or extensive line, without state propositions to aid the construction of railways. aid. The most notable achievement of that kind, during The friends of the latter class of improvements, however, the period under consideration, was the completion of the were very persistent in their efforts, and finally secured Delaware and Raritan Canal and the Camden and Amboy STATE AID, IN VARIOUS SHAPES, Railroad and its branches, by the United Company of New for some of the lines that were being constructed, especially Jersey, not only without advances from New Jersey, but under such as were believed to be of state significance, from a con- conditions which ensured the payment of a considerable sum, siderable number of commonwealths. annually, into the treasury of that state, and the establishment As years progressed, with large annual expenditures for of these enterprises on a basis which rendered them profitable canals, railways, and other internal improvements, the burden to their owners and afforded satisfactory security to their of state debts rapidly increased, and the growing pressure of creditors. About one-half the original cost of these works was this burden was so much intensified by the panic of 1837 that contributed by stockholders, and the remaining half, or about shortly after 1840 a great fall occurred in the price of the bonds $3,000,000, raised by a loan negotiated in England by Com- of a number of states, which represented, in a large degree, the modore Stockton. It was the largest sum that had then been cost of canals and railways. advanced by foreign capitalists to any American transportation Closely interwoven with this subject was the company that was not backed by state credit. Another fact, relating to this enterprise, which had an important bearing on SYSTEM OF STATE BANKING subsequent railway development, was that it was the railway then pursued. After the refusal of Congress to recharter the branch of their undertaking which made the profits and sus- United States Bank each commonwealth chartered all the tained their credit, inasmuch as the canal, although one of the banks located within its boundaries. Nearly all these banks best ever constructed, scarcely paid more than its operating were authorized to issue paper money. A few of them were expenses during the ten years which followed its completion. granted banking privileges chiefly for the purpose of enabling them to provide means for constructing railways. The amount DEMORALIZING EFFECTS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF INTERNAL IM- of specie in the country was comparatively limited, and the PROVEMENTS BY STATES. credit of many of the banks was at such a low ebb that their Of the general effect of state advances to construct improve- notes could not be passed or used at places distant from the ments, during an era when New Jersey pursued the opposite point of issue unless a heavy discount was paid. policy of entrusting similar works to incorporated companies The real foundation of a large proportion of the entire alone, Commodore R. F. Stockton, writing in May, 1864, in financial system of the country was the credit of the various defence of the New Jersey system, said:- states, represented by state bonds which had been sold in the "The experience of several states in the management of financial marts of this and other countries, and this credit was railroads and canals has proved that politicians could not do as steadily being weakened after the panic of 1837, partly by the well for the state with the public works as they could do for commercial collapse which then occurred; partly by the folly, themselves. New Jersey, although importuned by many to corruption, and extravagance intermingled with a number of take charge of the Delaware and Raritan Canal and the Cam- the canal and railway projects; partly by the excess of imports den and Amboy Railroad, seems to have determined to give over exports, and partly by abuses of the rickety system of herself ample time to reflect upon the policy of managing the state banking. The final result was a terrible financial explo- railroad and canal through the instrumentality of politicians, sion, which broke many of the banks, deranged nearly every or leaving them, as at present, in charge of incorporated com- branch of business, reduced the revenues of the struggling rail- panies. I will venture to say, however, without claiming to be way companies, and which was specially injurious to a number a prophet, that it will probably be a far distant day when the of the lines which had been constructed with money obtained will find it conducive to the public welfare from stockholders and loans, and without any aid whateve onrietorship and management of any from state governments. T well know that every railroad. It was a fortunate circumstance that a considerable pron "re reserves to the state the right tion of the early railway mileage was undertaken by for on payment of cost. And Digitized by Google 80 EARLY RAILWAY FINANCIERING. this brings me to a brief reference to some of those moral and ten other companies, the largest item of which was $800,000 to political considerations, which much more than the question the Delaware and Hudson Canal. of dollars and cents, determined the action of New Jersey in IN PENNSYLVANIA 1830 and 1831. In 1830 the people of New Jersey were for the most part an agricultural people; there was not then any city there were, in 1839, two railways which had been constructed but Newark, which had grown to be beyond a respectable outright by the state, and were then operated by it to the ex- village, and Newark was only a thriving manufacturing town; tent of keeping up the roadway and furnishing motive power, the farms were small, and wealth was confined to a very limited while private individuals or companies supplied the cars used. number; the habits, tastes, and manners of the people were They were the Philadelphia and Columbia and the Allegheny plain and frugal, and morality and virtue held in high esteem. Portage, which formed important links in the main line of The rapid growth of wealth and corruption in the neighboring railways and canals connecting Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. states had not contaminated the simplicity and republican The state also owned a small amount of railway stock; one of equality which everywhere prevailed in New Jersey. But the the lines it aided was the Cumberland Valley, and another the public men and reflecting minds in New Jersey had perceived Franklin; but these outlays represented a comparatively trivial the demoralization and deterioration of virtue, which already investment, or only a few hundred thousand dollars, and the began to be flagrant in those states in which lavish expendi- thirty-eight companies which at that time had either com- tures for internal improvements, and vast state patronage, in- pleted or were constructing railway lines were obliged to secure cidental to state management of public works, had taken place. nearly all the capital they expended from stockholders or Particularly they had marked the headlong and reckless pre- creditors. So far as railways were concerned there had been cipitancy with which corrupt demagogues had plunged the expended upon their construction in Pennsylvania, up to the noble state of Pennsylvania into the vortex of enormous debt. end of 1839, $18,050,450, of which sum $5,850,000 had been ex- This career of profligacy and crime was viewed in New Jersey pended by the state on its state railways, and all the remaining with horror and disgust. Had New York, Pennsylvania, outlay, except a few hundred thousand dollars represented by Ohio, Virginia, and Indiana adopted the policy of New Jersey state stock subscriptions or appropriations, had been provided they would not probably have been the scenes of such stupen- by private companies. dous profligacy as have characterized their legislatures within Although the state railways of Pennsylvania failed to prove the last quarter of a century." profitable ventures to the commonwealth, they did not form a The companies which were probably next in importance to burden of considerable magnitude, but her large outlay for the New Jersey companies in establishing the fact that rail- canals, much of which was wholly unremunerative, a number ways, unaided by state loans or appropriations, could be made of the canals even failing to pay operating expenses, were lead- profitable undertakings, if they were judiciously located, were ing influences in precipitating the collapse of credit which re- some of the sulted from a failure to provide for the prompt payment of interest on her state bonds, that led to a decline in the price of EARLY MASSACHUSETTS AND NEW YORK LINES, those bonds to little more than one-third of their face value. and notably the Boston and Lowell, which was reported to be, They were quoted in 1842 at 40, and at one time were sold at at the time of its completion, the best-constructed line in the 33 cents on the dollar. As Pennsylvania had a larger state United States, and a line doing an unusually large amount of debt than any other commonwealth (but by no means as large profitable freight and passenger business. As it ran between a debt in proportion to population and intrinsic wealth as some Boston, the leading New England seaport, and Lowell, a manu- of the western and south-western states), her temporary failure facturing centre of rapidly increasing importance, it probably to meet interest obligations was one of the most serious of bore a closer resemblance than any other early American line many contemporaneous shocks to American credit. But the to the phenomenally successful English line between Liver- manly action of her citizens and legislators, after they fully pool and Manchester, and derived from this resemblance the comprehended the situation, in providing by an onerous tax most important elements of its success. Early New York lines, system for the payment of her debts did much to restore confi- dence in American securities. which now form part of the New York Central system, were built wholly by private capital, and most of the early New Eng- MARYLAND, land lines were also placed on a profitable basis soon after their like Pennsylvania, suffered much more severely from invest- completion. The stock of the New Castle and Frenchtown sold ments in canals than in railways. Of a total debt of more than at a considerable advance on par value soon after it went into fifteen millions of dollars, more than seven millions had been operation, and equal good fortune attended the South Carolina sunk in the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, and one million in Railroad, which at the outset had only received state aid to the the Susquehanna and Tide-water canals. Unlike Pennsylvania, limited extent of a loan of $100,000. she had agreed to advance considerable sums, in the shape of Neither Massachusetts nor New York commenced granting state bonds, to railways managed by railway companies, but as state aid to railways at a period as early as it was granted in she took the precaution to provide that these bonds should not some of the other states, but they were finally induced to ex- be sold for less than their par value, many of the bonds had tend such assistance to a limited amount some years after their not been disposed of before the crash came. The portion of legislatures had turned a deaf ear to the first appeals of en- the state debt in 1842 which represented bonds given to aid thusiastic projectors. railways, some of which had been sold, while others were not Before 1842 Massachusetts had loaned credits to railway com- disposed of, was as follows: Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, panies to the extent of $5,555,000, of which $4,205,000 was to $3,697,000 (of this, $3,000,000 had not been sold); Baltimore and secure the extension of the Western (now part of the Boston Washington, $500,000; Baltimore and Susquehanna (now the and Albany) to the North river, which was intended to obtain, Northern Central), $2,223,731.65; Eastern Shore, $151,744.13; by connections with the lines then rapidly being united, which Annapolis and Elk Ridge, $219,378.41. The state bonds of parallel the Erie Canal, and now form part of the New York Maryland were quoted in 1842 at 60. Central, a through rail connection with Buffalo, and thus an important share of the growing trade of the Western states. VIRGINIA Exclusive of this loan of credit to railways, the other funded adopted the policy of subscribing for two-fifths of the stock of debt of Massachusetts was only $1,365,500, and in 1840 she had all her chartered railways as soon as the other three-fifths of 3834 miles of railway completed, which had cost $15,329,192, the stock supposed to be necessary to secure construction were an average of $40,024 per mile, and which was constructed subscribed by private individuals. Under this system, 369 miles mainly by the money provided by stockholders who were of railway were in operation in 1839, and 28 miles in course of nearly all receiving dividends ranging from five to seven per construction. The total cost of all lines was $5,451,000, an cent., the average rate being 7} per cent. average of $14,772 per mile. The most expensive line extended In New York, shortly after 1840, the system which began from Richmond to Petersburg, 221 miles in length. It had with a loan of state credit of $3,000,000 to the New York and cost $31,111 per mile. The state debt of Virginia in 1842 was Erie Railroad, had extended to loans aggregating $2,235,700 to $6,994,307, which was incurred principally for improving the Digitized by Google On the Towpath. Canal Lock. Steam/Canal Boat. -- Laid up for the Winter. Ascending Digitized by Google Digitized by Google EARLY RAILWAY FINANCIERING. 81 navigation of rivers, turnpikes, railroads, and canals, None of The aggregate amount of her state bonds were reported to be in the market in 1842. ALL THE STATE DEBTS IN 1842 NORTH CAROLINA was $207,564,915, and their market value in that year was was comparatively slow in commencing railway operations. $105,184,595, being a depreciation of 46} per cent. State bonds Aside from the completion of a short line called the Experi- then furnished favorite subjects for speculation at stock boards mental, 11 miles in length, leading from Raleigh to stone very much as railway securities do now. Railway stocks were quarries, she had no completed railways before 1840; but early only dealt in to a moderate extent, but even then the few stocks in that year two roads were finished, the Raleigh and Gaston, that were frequently bought and sold were subjected to notice- 841 miles in length, and the Wilmington and Raleigh, leading able fluctuations. Niles' Register, of August 8th, 1840, gives from Wilmington to Weldon, 161 miles in length. The latter the following table of changes in the New York market in that road was reported to be the longest line completed by a single year:- April. May. June. July. Aug. 1. company that had been built in the United States. It was also Harlem Railroad 454 451 41 411 36} distinguished by having an uninterrupted straight line of 47 Utica Railroad 1221 131 miles in length. As the state of North Carolina had no debt in Boston and Providence Railroad 96 921 931 984 92 1842, it presumably furnished little or no financial aid to the New Jersey Railroad 774 831 802 981 92 railways constructed within her boundaries. They were cheap Stonington Railroad 13 174 151 18 181 roads, the total cost of her 247 miles being $3,163,000, and the Syracuse and Utica Railroad 1001 114 119 121± average cost $12,806 per mile. A large proportion of the state debts were contracted for the IN SOUTH CAROLINA purpose of constructing canals and railways, but the outlay for canals was considerably greater than the sums advanced by the a peculiar policy prevailed. In one important respect it resem- states to the railways, and the ultimate losses on canal invest- bled the course pursued in New Jersey, inasmuch as all the ments were much larger. It was estimated in 1842 that from railway operations within the state were to be undertaken by 1820 to 1838 the legislatures of the several states had authorized one company. It built the Charleston and Hamburg, without debts aggregating $60,201,551 for canals, nearly all of which any other state aid than a loan of $100,000; but when branches became unremunerative as an investment, while they author- were commenced, one of which led to Columbia, the state capi- ized debts for railways amounting to $42,871,084, a large por- tal, additional state assistance was granted. This was supple- tion of which proved remunerative as an investment. mented by further aid, or a promise of it, to the amount of several millions of dollars, when the project of constructing an EFFECTS OF STATE AID. extension to Cincinnati and Louisville was organized. It took With 80 many elements of danger environing the financial the shape of a new company, to be called the Louisville, Cin- system of the country, including broken banks, depreciated cinnati and Charleston, which theoretically or actually became state credit, commercial derangements, and unprofitable opera- the purchaser or possessor of the property of the South Caro- tions of a number of the private canal and railway companies, lina Railroad. The scheme was vigorously agitated, but did not the pioneer railway projectors were reared in a stern school. materialize with the rapidity anticipated, probably on account In view of the great possibilities of state aid, which existed of the neglect or refusal of the adjacent states of North Caro- during the third decade of the nineteenth century, it is not lina, Tennessee, and Kentucky, through whose territory the surprising that they made many adroit and earnest appeals to line was to run, w respond to the appeals made to them for the legislatures of a number of commonwealths for financial state aid. assistance. IN GEORGIA One of the lessons which many of the events of the epoch the state had largely or wholly provided for the construction of helped to enforce was that the best method of advancing rail- one railroad, and others were undertaken by private companies, ways was to prove that they could be made paying institutions, to which banking privileges had been accorded for the purpose without state aid, if they could be assured of reasonably just of assisting them to raise the necessary capital. This last de- treatment from state legislatures. vice had been proposed in Massachusetts, at a comparatively The roads which depended upon their own resources from early period, to promote the construction of the Western Rail- the outset were relieved of embarrassing obligations, and, as a road, in which her citizens were deeply interested, but it had rule, all the early railways which were started on a sound been rejected in that state mainly on account of political reasons. basis, judiciously located, well managed, and which were not In Georgia it was probably more successful than in any other subjected to peculiar misfortunes, became finally successful, state, and under it the operations of the Georgia Railroad and although the outlook at the end of the fourth decade was by Banking Company, and the Central Railroad and Banking Com- no means encouraging. Charles Ellet, jr., in a work published pany, of Georgia, were vigorously prosecuted. shortly after 1840, in commenting upon the railways then com- pleted, and in course of construction or extension, said that SOUTH-WESTERN AND WESTERN STATES. "some few have thus far sustained themselves, and distributed In south-western localities, and notably in Mississippi and considerable dividends. The receipts of some others are suf- Louisiana, where railway operations were coupled with bank- ficient to keep them in repair, and pay the interest on the loans ing privileges, the combination seems to have been particularly incurred for their construction; but of the balance, having an unfortunate, as some of these institutions figured prominently aggregate length of some two thousand miles, the capitals may in lists of broken banks. be regarded as positively sunk, and many of the companies as Aside from these experiments, Indiana and Michigan each insolvent." He contended that a principal cause of the failures undertook the construction of short state railways, and Michi- was a disproportion between the character of the works com- gan commenced the construction of three lines which were to pleted and the labors to be performed, and said that "they have an aggregate length of 486} miles, and to cost $6,446,000, make costly roads, build expensive superstructures, rear ex- and this state temporarily operated a line of about 38 miles in travagant edifices to contain their cars and engines, run heavy length by furnishing not only the roadway and motive power, locomotives, and use carriages almost as capacious as dwelling but also the cars and agencies, 80 that Michigan acted in the houses, to carry as many passengers as could, without much fullest sense as a common carrier for her citizens. Indiana inconvenience, be drawn in a hand-cart. If railroads do not and Illinois plunged heavily into debt for internal improve- sustain themselves, it is not because they are railroads, but be- ments, and Illinois was specially rash in attempting the con- cause great roads have been constructed where little ones only struction of a number of railway lines which she was unable to are required. The power contrived to turn a grist mill finish. One of the results of these ventures, and other un- would make but small dividends if applied to turn a churn." toward events, was that in 1842 Indiana had a state debt of In a number of instances where state aid was of vital $15,000,000, which was selling at 20 per cent. of par value; consequence. and where political or partisan considerations, Illinois, a state debt of $17,643,601, which was selling at 18 per to the views and designs of men who cent. of par value; and Michigan, a state debt of $5,611,000, deeply affected practical man- which was selling in 1842 at 20 per cent. of par value. 'gh a series of years were 11 Digitized by Google 82 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. unsatisfactory. There were necessarily many secret proceed- stacles to the complete success of some of the promising early ings in connection with the construction and operation of all lines. It is difficult to find any one who was actually familiar the state works, whether canals or railways, and if the veil with the practical operation of state works, who does not, when could be lifted which hides the real nature of some of the trans- questioned in regard to them, either speak in terms of contempt actions of by-gone eras, it would be easier to explain why ex- or disparagement, or shrug his shoulders, and say that partisan tensive state supervision, control, or interference created ob- considerations were paramount in some important affairs. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. A S a railway is an embodiment of engineering and mechan- order, and that its patrons were unnecessarily subjected to ical science applied to land transportation, it follows that onerous charges for this purpose. He replied that constant its efficiency depends largely upon the degree or amount of endeavors were made to keep down such expenses. He was skill applied to the service of any particular line or system. then asked what would be the result if these expenses were The entire combination of expedients is the outgrowth of cen- very greatly reduced, to which query he replied that in a com- turies of scientific inquiry, ingenious investigations, and expen- paratively short time they would have no railway. sive practical tests. In early railway construction the know- Another prominent idea, which has proved to be erroneous, ledge relating to many details was comparatively limited, and but which was probably founded on previous experience with in numerous cases lack of means prevented the adoption of the turnpikes that were seriously injured or worn out by heavy the best methods that had been suggested. There was, besides, wagons, was that it was very desirable that a great scarcity of trained assistants and of useful mechanical LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS SHOULD BE AS LIGHT AS POSSIBLE. appliances, as well as of capital. The railway was but im- perfectly understood, even by those who were best informed in It was only by slow degrees that advances were made in 1830, and for some years later. One of the ablest and most increasing the weight of rolling stock, but they have been 80 celebrated of the civil engineers who entered into useful and steady and continuous on every progressive line that they form prolonged service at an early day, said to the writer that he a leading feature of new developments. At the outset, as in all looked back with amazement, not unmingled with consterna- subsequent stages, conflicting views, variations in amount of tion, at the density of his own ignorance when he first began available capital, or the requirements of anticipated traffic, to assume heavy responsibilities. The pioneers have recounted and other causes, led to the adoption of diverse mechanical many incidents illustrative of the deficiencies and drawbacks systems, but all were more or less imperfect to an extent which under which they labored. Strictly speaking there were no can scarcely be appreciated by those whose conceptions of a railway civil engineers, and no thoroughly competent repre- railway are based on familiarity with first-class lines of the sentatives of dozens of distinct and complicated pursuits and present day. For such ideals, tinder-box cars, puny locomo- professions which have since been developed, and which each tives, strap rails, and pine-board stations, with their natural require elaborate special training. The entire profession of accompaniments, must be substituted by those who want to civil engineering is of comparatively modern origin, and in form correct impressions of primitive lines. the United States when railway construction commenced, two DIFFERENT PLANS OF CONSTRUCTION of the principal directions in which reliable assistants were were tried on different roads, and frequently on different sec- sought and found were among men who had gained experience tions of the same road. in locating canals, or men skilled as military engineers, either The highest state of development is probably represented by through instruction gained at West Point, or connection with the best style of construction used on the Philadelphia and various descriptions of governmental works. The canal opera- Columbia Railway, inasmuch as it was built by the state of tions which had preceded railway construction were of great Pennsylvania, and suffered less from impecuniosity, at the time service in training civil engineers and contractors; and a custom of construction, than any contemporaneous enterprise. Of the adopted of permitting officers of the United States army to tracks of this line, which was completed in 1834, and portions temporarily enter into the service of railway companies with- of which were opened for travel in 1832, Mr. W. Hasell Wilson, out forfeiting their positions, materially increased the supply who was employed as one of the assistant engineers in survey- of available talent of a high order. Training as land surveyors ing and constructing it, in his instructive notes on the Internal also proved useful, and the American faculty of rapidly becom- Improvements of Pennsylvania, says:- ing expert in new fields of effort, helped materially to advance "The length of the road (which had n double track) being raw recruits into useful leaders. But for some time there was a 8110 miles, there were 163,20 miles of single track, exclusive of great scarcity even of instruments and implements which would sidings and crossings, of which 6 miles were laid with granite now be considered indispensable, as well as of thoroughly- sills, plated with flat iron bars, 21 inches in width by five-eightlis trained men adapted to all intricate or difficult branches of of an inch in thickness; 18 miles with wooden string pieces railway construction and operation. From the outset, and plated in a similar manner; 2 miles with stone blocks and edge largely up to the present day, one emergency or requirement rails, having stone sills extending across the track at intervals after another was developed, which could only be fully met by of 15 feet; and 137 lb miles with stone blocks and edge rails, means or measures for which there was no clearly defined pre- having wooden cross-ties intermediate, except on some of the cedent, and railway men of all grades were subjected, to an embankments, where the edge rails were secured to cross-ties immense extent, to the necessity of learning their most valuable supported on longitudinal mud-sills. The English gauge of 4 lessons in the stern school of rugged experience. feet 81 inches was adopted for this road, and the tracks were So far as theories had been developed, they were often more placed 4 feet 6 inches apart. The granite sill track, which was likely to be fallacious than correct. A notable instance of this similar to that laid on the eastern portion of the Baltimore and is furnished by the title given to the main track and appurte- Ohio Railroad, and in regard to the permanency and efficiency nances. It is styled of which great expectations had been formed, proved an entire PERMANENT WAY, failure. Although the sills were bedded on a stratum of broken partly in harmony with the idea that the structure would, by stone one foot in depth well rammed, it was found impractica- the free use of stone and iron, be imperishable. Experience ble to keep them either to an even surface or to gauge, and soon demonstrated that of all descriptions of roads ever con- after a very short period of use, the iron bars began to work structed, railways exceed all others in exacting requirements loose, curling up at the ends and forming what were termed for incessant supervision and constant repairs. In one of the 'snake heads.' The wooden track was also liable to the defect frequent legislative investigations of modern periods, a manager last mentioned, and as the timber soon commenced to decay, of an important western railway was told that his company was it became unsafe, especially for locomotives. In the course of spending entirely too much money in keeping its road-bed in a few years all of the flat bar track was replaced by T rails laid Digitized by Google EARLY RAILS, SILLS, AND STONE BLOCKS. 83 upon cross-ties. The edge rails, of which the greater portion were to be worked by means of ropes, flat bar-rails were laid of the road superstructure was formed, were rolled of the upon string-pieces of timber. Wigan pattern, three and a half inches in depth, with the Great care was taken in the drainage of the road-bed, and a bottom and top surfaces parallel, weighing 41} pounds per large number of culverts and drains were built, there being 159 yard. Cast-iron chairs of 15 pounds weight, were secured to passages for water under the railroad. It was found, by expe- the blocks or ties placed three feet apart, and the rails secured rience, that the track must be tied across with cross-ties, or it in the chairs by wrought-iron wedges, one on each side. The could not be kept from spreading, and many such ties were put rails were at first ordered in lengths of 15 feet for straight lines, in between the stone blocks. The attempt to construct a per- and 9 feet for curves, under the supposition that they would be manent railroad track, containing no perishable material, was, too rigid to adapt themselves to a curve; but it was very soon in this case, a failure. We were striving to build a great public discovered that they could without difficulty be forced into work to endure for generations, and, as it turned out, it was curved lines, and that the longer the rail the more easily this superseded by something better in about twenty years." could be effected; cousequently the 15-feet rails were taken for Jonathan Knight, chief engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio, the curves, and the 9-feet rails made use of on straight lines. in one of his publications in 1832, referred to the Columbia and Subsequently the rails were all procured in lengths of 18 feet, Philadelphia Railroad as being built on the English plan, laid and placed so as to break joint, with a cross-tie every 9 feet. with heavy English rail, "upon cast-iron chairs and stone The rails, which were procured from the Ebbw Vale Iron blocks, and it also includes inclined planes and their ma- Works in Wales, cost upon the wharf at Philadelphia prices chinery, and other very expensive work, and especially of ranging from $44} to $50} per ton. The iron was of such ex- bridges, having to traverse the country across the streams. cellent quality that the old rails remaining after the road came This railway is estimated at $28,173 per mile. The construc- into possession of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company in the tion is of the most expensive character, and it has been planned year 1857, was rerolled into rods for blacksmith purposes. with a view to great permanency, and for the use of heavy loco- As the road was intended to be operated by horse power, and motive engines." so used for several years, the space between the rails of each Of the plan first tried on the track was filled in with broken stone or gravel to form a horse BALTIMORE AND OHIO, path." a report on railways made by a committee of the New York Of the method employed in legislature in 1832, said:- CONSTRUCTING THE PORTAGE RAILROAD, "The most approved method of constructing railways is on which was also a work of the state of Pennsylvania, commenced the plan adopted by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Com- in 1831, and opened in 1834, to form a connecting link between pany. A line of road is first graded, free from short curves, canals east and west of the crest of the Allegheny mountains, and as nearly level as possible. A small trench is then formed Mr. Solomon W. Roberts, who was one of the engineers, for each track, which is filled with rubble stone, on which are says:- laid blocks of granite or other suitable stone (in the place of "The laying of the first track and turnouts, with a double wood), which will square about one foot, and of as great length track on the inclined planes, was contracted for on the 11th of as can be obtained. The upper end and inner surfaces of each April, 1832. The rails used weighed about forty pounds per track are dressed perfectly even, as well as the ends of the lineal yard, and they were rolled in Great Britain. The haul- blocks at their joinings. Bars, or plates of wrought iron, near ing of them in wagons from Huntingdon, on the Juniata, was a an inch in thickness, are then laid upon these blocks or rails, laborious work. The rails were supported by cast-iron chairs, in a line with the inner surfaces, and fastened to the stone with weighing about thirteen pounds each, the chairs being placed iron bolts or rivets, entering about four inches in holes fitted to 3 feet apart from centre to centre, with a wrought-iron wedge in receive them, and at a distance of about 18 inches. The dis- each chair. In most cases these chairs rested upon, and were tance between the two tracks, for the wheels, should be about bolted to, blocks of sandstone, containing 31 cubic feet each, and five feet." imbedded in broken stone. These stone blocks were required As on most other important roads, various modes of con- to be 2 feet long, 21 inches wide and 12 inches deep. They cost struction were adopted on the Baltimore and Ohio. In addi- about 53 cents each. On high embankments a timber founda- tion to the granite-sill method, six miles of single track were tion was used, with cross-ties and mud sills, which stood much composed of stone blocks and wooden string pieces, and a better than the stone blocks. On the inclined planes, which considerable part of the line rested on wooden sleepers (or ties). EARLY RAILS, SILLS, AND STONE BLOCKS. DETAILED DESCRIPTIONS OF THE METHODS USED ON THE PHILA- three inches in depth below the iron, and for six inches across DELPHIA AND COLUMBIA RAILROAD. the stone, exclusive of the chamfering. THE exact nat nature and cost of the methods adopted on the BROKEN STONE-The broken stone, the particles of which and Columbia Railroad are shown by the fol- must not be larger than a cube of two inches, are to be kept lowing data extracted from a note-book in which Mr. W. Hasell clear from earth, clay, or other material. Wilson commenced writing, in 1831, such information as he TRENCHES-The trenches are not less than two feet in width, considered valuable, while he was acting as principal assistant and twenty-two inches in depth, below the top of the sill, ex. engineer on that road, under the direction of his father, Major cept where the stone sill is wider than one foot, and where John Wilson, chief engineer:- rock occurs in the trench. In the former case, the trench is made of such width as to admit of four inches of broken stone Description and Estimate of Granite Railuay, as Laid on the on each side of the sill; in the latter, the depth will be such as Columbia and Philadelphia Railway. to allow four inches of broken stone under the sill. SILLS.-The sills are in lengths of not less than three feet; the LAYING.-The broken stone are placed in layers of three size, one foot square, or containing not less than a square foot inches, each layer well compacted with a heavy rammer. The in the cross section, none, however, being less than eight inches sills are then laid, and bedded with a heavy rammer. in depth; the shape as nearly square as possible; the bed and THE HOLES are then drilled to correspond with the holes on upper surface, particularly, ought to be parallel. The upper the bars, and to suit and position of the track, not surface is dressed for about five or six inches, to afford a smooth less than three and nth, and five-eighths in bearing for the iron. That part of the sill outside of the iron is diameter. No hol hes of the end of reduced to the same level, but not 80 smoothly. The ends of a sill. The plugs hole exactly, the sills are dressed square, 80 as to be in contact for at least but not requi spiked on, Digitized by Google 84 EARLY RAILS, SILLS, AND STONE BLOCKS. and the inner edge of the sill chamfered off, in width two inches, 352 stone sills, at $3 1,056 00 and in depth one inch and a half. 2,816 stone blocks, at 65 cents 1,830 40 THE HORSE PATH is filled in, and the earth sloped from the 2,347 perches of broken stone, at $1.25 2,933 75 back of the sills, to turn off the water collecting on the surface. 1,760 yards laid, at $1 1,760 00 Road crossings 606 00 THE IRON BARS are in lengths of fifteen feet, two and a quar- 404 cubic yards excavation, at 12} cents 50 50 ter inches in width, and five-eighths of an inch in thickness. 3,520 pieces of canvas, at 2 cents 70 40 The spikes are three and a half inches in length, and three- eighths of an inch square, the heads fitting the countersink of $12,568 85 the bar. Estimate for One Mile, Without Stone Sills, as Laid. Estimate for One Mile of the Granite Railway, as Completed by Robinson, Iron, as above $4,075 00 Carr & Co. 931g tons hauled, at $3 280 20 3,520 stone blocks, at 621 cents 2,200 00 23 tons of flat-iron bars, at $41 $943 00 90 00 2,067 perches of broken stone, at $1.25 2,583 75 900 pounds of spikes, at 10 cents 48 00 1,760 yards laid, at 75 cents 1,320 00 Hauling 24 tons, at $2. Road crossings 195 78 10,560 feet of granite sills, at 874 cents 8,950 00 138 00 Removing earth 202 75 Extra hauling of sills Canvas 70 40 10,560 feet laid (including broken stone), at 33 cents 3,484 80 Removing earth 150 00 $10,927 88 Crossings 150 00 Description and Estimate of Edge Rails on Stone Blocks and Locust 320 rods of horse path, at $1.32 422 40 Sills, as Laid Between Columbia and the Intersection of the West Average of extra work, building drains, grading, and dress- ing road 803 00 Chester Railway. BLOCKS.-Granite, limestone, or sandstone, 22in 16in. X12in. $10,179 20 SILLS.-Locust 71 feet long, 6X8 inches, laid 15 feet apart, and Description and Estimate of a Wooden Railway. on the flat side; in the curves they are placed 9 feet apart. The SILLS.-The sills are chestnut, white oak, or chestnut oak, rails are not joined on the sills, but on the nearest blocks, but seven and A half feet in length, and of such size as to square not opposite. A cross trench is dug for each sill, and filled with seven inches; dressed flat on the under side, and notched on broken stone, which, on the embankments, is continued out to the upper. the edge of the bank, thereby serving as a drain. Between the TRENCHES.-The trenches are four feet apart, from centre to rails, the space is filled up with earth to a level with the top of centre, one foot in width, sixteen in depth (making twenty-four the blocks. The holes in the blocks are drilled six inches in inches to top of wooden rail), and eight feet in length. depth, and one and a half inches in diameter, then plugged RAIL.-The wooden rail is yellow pine, six inches square. with red cedar, which is previously bored through the centre, The keys are of white oak or yellow pine, one foot in length, half an inch in diameter, the bolt being five-eighths. two inches in height, and one inch and a half thick, tapering Estimate for One Mile of Edge Rails on Stone Blocks and Locust Sills; to three-quarters. Prices Averaged from Contracts Completed. In notching the sills for the rail, there must be left at least 6410 tons of edge rails, at $50 $3,240 00 three inches of a bearing under the rail. 23 tons of chairs, at $39 920 40 Estimate for One Mile of Wooden Railway as Completed. 5 tons of bolts and wedges, at $97 485 00 93,20 tons hauled, at $8 747 20 23 tons of flat iron bars, at $41 $943 00 352 locust sills, at $1.80 633 60 900 pounds of spikes, at 10 cents 90 00 2,816 stone blocks, at 90 cents 2,534 40 710 splicing plates, at 31 cents 24 85 2,000 perches of broken stone, at $1.25 2,500 00 Hauling iron 96 00 1,760 yards of workmanship, at 85 cents 1,496 00 37 thousand feet of scantling GX6, at $29 1,073 00 Six road and farm crossings, at $13 78 00 1,320 sills, at 50 cents 660 00 2,816 pieces canvas, at 2 ceuts. 56 32 1,334 perches of broken stone, at $1.12} 1,500 75 1,800 cubic yards excavation, at 15 cents 270 00 320 rods laid. at $2.26 723 20 1,400 cubic yards embankment, at 20 cents 280 00 320 rods horse path covered, at 50 cents 160 00 Removing earth 301 00 $13,240 92 Extra work 32 68 Description and Estimate of Edge Rails on Wooden Cross Sills and $5,604 48 Bearing Timbers. Edge Rails on Stone Blocks and Stone Sills, as Laid Between Broad THE BEARING TIMBERS are white oak, 10x12 inches, and in Street and Schuylkill River. lengths of not less than 20 feet, laid edgewise, and notched BLOCKS.-The blocks are of granite, twenty inches in length, down two inches, every three feet, to receive the cross sills. sixteen in width, and twelve in depth; depth of holes, six At the joinings of these timbers, there is a tenon 4 inches inches; diameter, one inch. thick, and the whole width of the timber, laying horizontally SILLS.-The transverse sills are of granite, six and a half feet across the centre of the stick, and projecting six inches with a in length, and twelve inches square. These are placed at the mortice (to fit) on the opposite stick, secured by a wooden pin. joining of the bars, about fifteen feet from centre to centre. The sills are 71 feet long, 6X8 inches, of white oak, or chestnut, TRENCHES.-The trenches are twenty-eight inches wide, and except at intervals of 15 feet on the straight lines and 9 feet on twenty-four inches deep (from the top of the block). the curves, where they are of locust. They are laid on the flat LAYING.-The broken stone are placed in layers of three side, and secured to the bearing timbers by wooden keys. inches, well rammed; the blocks and sills then laid, three feet Estimate for One Mile of Edge Rails Upon Bearing Timbers and Sills, with apart from centre to centre. They are then drilled, the chairs Locust Sills at Every Fifteen Feet. fastened on, and the iron bars laid and keyed. The broken 64,40 tons of edge rails, at $50 $3,240 00 stone are now rammed around the blocks and sills, and the 23,00 tons of chairs, at $39 920 40 horse path filled in. 5 tons of bolts and wedges, at $97 485 00 THE IRON is the same as that used on the Wigan railway, the 93,4 tons hauled, at $8 747 20 rail weighing forty-one and a quarter pounds to the yard. Be- 852 locust sills, at $1.80 633 60 tween the chair and block a piece of canvas is inserted (the 1,408 white oak sills, at 80 cents 1,126 40 10,771 feet lineal of white oak timber, at 25 cents 2,692 75 size of the chair), soaked in tar. 960 perches of broken stone, at $1 25 1,200 00 Estimate for One Mile of Edge Rails on Stone Blocks and Sills, as Completed. 1,760 yards of workmanship, at 70 cents 1,232 00 64,40 tons of iron bars, at $41 $2,656 80 Six road and farm crossings, at $13 78 00 23,lb tons of chairs, at $37. 1,800 cubic yards excavation, at 15 cents 270 00 873 20 1,400 cubic yards embankment, at 20 cents 280 00 5 tons of bolts and wedges, at $109 545 00 93,20 tons hauled, at $2 186 80 $12 905 35 Digitized by Google EARLY RAILS, SILLS, AND STONE BLOCKS. 85 It will be seen that the estimates given above relate to six WOODEN "RAILS," STRING PIECES, OR STRINGERS. styles or variations in construction. The word sills is some- In a large proportion of the very early railroads wood was times used to indicate wood or stone which performed functions extensively used of such shapes and patterns that, in the rail- similar to those now entrusted to ties, especially when they way language of that day, it was generally called "rails." are called cross sills, and sometimes to indicate a continuous Some of the primitive lines did not even have these wooden foundation on which rails were laid; and the relatively small rails covered with flat iron bars, and they were called wooden number of cross sills (or ties) used, indicates that at the outset rail-roads, a term which was also frequently applied to the the danger of the tracks spreading was not fully realized. It forms of construction in which the wooden rail was plated is somewhat surprising, too, to note how nearly one of the with iron bars. Timber rails were an article of commerce. systems adopted approximated to modern methods in the Considerable quantities were sent from South Carolina and matter of creating a foundation of broken stone, and using North Carolina to be used on the early railways in Pennsyl- wooden cross sills or ties. vania. Their dimensions were sometimes 5X9; and sometimes "SNAKE HEADS." 5 inches wide and 7 deep, and they were usually plated with flat iron bars. The dimensions of these bars was frequently a A large proportion of the early railway tracks represented matter of considerable importance. When the bars were close imitations of a style adopted by early coal roads, consist- narrow and thin it was found that under the pressure of heavy ing of bars of iron spiked on stringers of wood, and this style loads, the bars would bend and sink into the wooden rail. To was 80 extensively employed, and continued in use in some obviate this effect, a small sheet of zinc was sometimes placed sections for such a protracted period, that "snake heads" be- beneath the ends of the iron rails. The wooden rails, string came one of the recognized and most important of early rail- pieces, or stringers, rested frequently on wooden ties which way perils. This term was suggested by the liability of the iron were then called sleepers. bar to become loosened from its fastenings as a train moved The following description of an early road of a class which, over it, and it would sometimes suddenly turn upward with while it did not represent the highest rank, was very much sufficient force to pierce the bottom of cars, and occasionally better than a number of inferior roads, was published in 1832, injure passengers, or throw a train from the track. As it was in the notes appended to Mr. G. W. Smith's American edition not until near the middle of the fifth decade of the nineteenth of Wood's Treatise on Railroads. The account was furnished century that iron rails were manufactured in this country, ex- by Messrs. Kughler and Dundas:- cept a few cast-iron rails and flat bars, it was necessary to "The Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven Railroad was begun import all rolled-iron rails that were used here, and this opera- in June, 1829, and finished, the main line, in June, 1830, and tion, together with the large amount of iron required even by the remainder in June, 1831. The main line commences at the edge rails then used, necessitated a greater expenditure Schuylkill Haven, and extends 10} miles along the west branch than could be afforded by many of the earlier companies. of the river Schuylkill, through the Mine Hill Gap. At the Horatio Allen, chief engineer of the South Carolina Rail- fork of this branch with the west-west branch of the river, 6 road, which had 10 miles in operation in 1830, and increased miles from Schuylkill Haven, a branch of the railroad extends this mileage by 52 miles in 1832, and 75 miles in 1833, and along the last-mentioned arm of the river, 31 miles of a double which for a time enjoyed the distinction of being the longest track, and one mile of a single track, but graded for a double continuous railway in the United States, and the first to use a track, making 14 miles of a double track, and one of a single, locomotive of American construction, says of this road, that or 15 miles in the whole. The company have disbursed for all "it was of the age of wooden rails capped with iron. Confi- expenses, in completing this work, $181,165. The width of the dence and capital had not yet reached the growth to make an track is 4 feet 81 inches. The sleepers (white oak) are 4 feet iron track of the most modest weight per yard a possibility, apart, from centre to centre, and average 10x8 inches. The and steel rails were as unthought of as the telegraph. On wooden rails (white oak) are 4X7 inches. The iron rails are 11 timber rails, 6-inch X12-inch section, iron bars inches wide by half an inch thick. The curves are in no in- were spiked. The wood was the southern pine, the hard, resi- stance of a radius less than 400 feet, but generally 500 feet. The nous surface of which was as suitable for the iron bars as wood grades do not exceed 30 feet to the mile, except on two inclined could be." planes, the first of which is 80 feet to the mile; the second 150 The South Carolina was one of the first companies to substi- feet to the mile. The sleepers rest on stone rubble work, in tute edge or iron rails for iron bars or plates over its entire line, three parallel lines, from one end of the road to the other. as this course was adopted a few years after the completion of There are 50 bridges, each of 28-feet span. The highest em- the road. The desire of engineers and managers to secure such bankment is 21 fect, and the decpest excavation 31 fect. There an advance was very general, as they fully appreciated its im- are 12 culverts, and several minor bridges and drains. portance, and explained the advantages derived from its use in COST. the way of saving operating expenses, but the difference in Sleepers, 40,000 in number $8,000 cost of construction, when comparatively heavy edge rails were Rails, 800,000 feet, at $12 (per thousand) 9,600 used, was at one time estimated at about $6,000 per mile, and Bridges, making and putting up fifty, 28 feet in the clear, 32 this outlay was too great to be borne by most of the early com- feet long, at $80 4,000 panies. The result was that flat bars continued to furnish the iron Iron for rails 20,000 for many tracks during a protracted period. In 1839 all the New Laying the sleepers and rails, and fixing the iron on and York railways, except the Long Island, used flat bars. All dressing 15,000 the railways in Pennsylvania used iron plates or bars, varying Filling the horse path with stone 3,500 in dimensions from 11 XI, on short early mine roads, to 21 XI, Making and filling the trenches with stone, 35 miles, 18 inches deep and wide 6,500 except the state railways; the Norristown line, which at that The stone work, abutments, wing walls. and piers of the time used 40-pound rail; the Philadelphia and Reading, which bridges, with about one mile of slope wall 25,000 used 45-pound rail; the York and Wrightsville; Buck Mountain; Grading double track, 15 miles, including powder, tools, and Little Schuylkill and Susquehanna; Beaver Meadow extension; wagons. 75,000 and West Branch, a road leading from Schuylkill Haven to Engineering salaries-interest and incidentals 13,015 Mine Hill. All the railways of Virginia, North and South Total $181,615 Carolina, Georgia, and Florida used flat bars, varying in dimen- This is as near the actual cost as can be obtained." sions from 2x} to except the South Carolina, and por- It will be perceived that in this statement the wood on which tions of the Georgia and Central roads, of Georgia. All the the iron rested was designated "rails," while the iron with railways of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and which they were plated was described as "iron for rails." Kentucky used flat bars, except the Pontchartrain, of New Or- leans; the Mississippi; the Vicksburg and Jackson, and the ORIGIN OF THE T-RAIL. Grand Gulf and Port Gibson. All the railways of the Western The imperfections of the snake-head rails and of the states used iron bars or plates except the Madison and In- English substitutes for them suggested to an Amerie dianapolis. Robert L. Stevens, of Hoboken, who was the son of Digitized by Google 86 EARLY RAILS, SILLS, AND STONE BLOCKS. Stevens, the prominent early American advocate of railways, opening, in September, 1830, was of wrought iron, divided into an improvement in rail construction which is the progenitor of fish-bellied sections, each section being supported by a cast-iron the present T-rail. It is stated that when Mr. Robert L. Stevens, chair, to which it was secured by a wooden wedge. The form who was actively identified with the construction of the Camden was derived from the old cast-iron fish-bellied tram rail, cast in and Amboy Railroad, "was on the ship, on his way to Europe single sections, each about 36 inches long. This wrought-iron to order the 'John Bull,' in 1830, he devoted a considerable rail was afterwards improved by making its bottom straight amount of time to whittling out cross-sections of what he uniformly throughout its length. thought would be a good kind of iron rails to lay on the rail- Mr. Stevens' invention consisted in adding the broad flange road. The best rail then known was the T-rail without any on the bottom, with a base sufficient to carry the load, and base. This style had been adopted by all the most important shaped 80 that it could be secured to the wood below it by roads in Europe. Owing to its peculiar shape, it required a spikes with hooked heads; thus dispensing with the cast-iron chair on every cross-tie or stone block, as the case might be. chair, and making the rail and its fastenings such as it now is Stevens was the first man to design the rail which he termed in common use. In the year 1836 and frequently afterwards the H-rail-in other words, a rail with a base which could be he spoke to me about his invention of this rail, and told me spiked with 'hook-headed' spikes directly to the bearing." that in London, after unsuccessful applications elsewhere in Rails made in accordance with this pattern were laid down upon England, shortly after the opening of the Liverpool and Man- the Camden and Amboy when it was first constructed, and chester Railroad, he had applied to Mr. Guest, a member of methods were also adopted for joining or splicing the rails which Parliament, who had large rolling mills in Wales, to take a represent a great advance on the systems then generally pre- contract to make his rail for the Camden and Amboy Railroad, vailing. Of these rails a report of the company says that they of which he was the chief engineer; that Mr. Guest wished to were of the I form invented by Mr. Stevens, 3} inches high, 21 take the contract, but considered that it would be impracticable inches on the upper running surface, and 31 inches in width to roll the rail straight; that, finally, Mr. Guest agreed to go to on its base, weighing 42 pounds to the yard. Wales with him and make a trial; that great difficulty was at The writer has been credibly informed that Mr. Stevens en- first experienced, as the rails coming from the rolls curled like countered great difficulty in his efforts to induce a British snakes, and distorted in every imaginable way; that, by perse- rail mill to make rails of the improved pattern he had devised. verance, the rail was finally successfully rolled; and that Mr. He was obliged to assume the whole responsibility of the Guest took the contract. The Camden and Amboy Railroad, scheme, to pay all the extra expenses, and to give heavy laid with this rail, was opened October 9th, 1832, two years after security to guard the works against all description of damages the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railroad. Of this that could possibly be inflicted on the rail works by this inno- I was a witness. vation, which was evidently regarded as dangerous, or at least This rail, long known as the old Camden and Amboy rail, highly imprudent, and likely to prove disastrous to all con- differed but little, either in shape or proportions, from the T-rail cerned. The supposed grounds for such adverse views must now in common use, but weighed only 36 pounds to the yard. have made a deep impression, for a long period elapsed before For the next six or eight years after the opening of the Camden the use of T-rails became approximately universal, although and Amboy Railroad this rail was but little used here or abroad, some companies adopted the T-rail a few years after it was first nearly all the roads built in the United States using the flat iron used on the Camden and Amboy. The T-rail became widely bar, about 21 inches by 4 inch, nailed to wooden rails, and the known as the Vignoles rail, rather than the Stevens rail, because English continuing to use the chair and wedge. a European engineer, Mr. C. B. Vignoles, hastened its intro- My uncle always regretted that he had not patented his in- duction on European railways, using them on English roads vention. He mentioned to me, upwards of forty years ago, during the progress of construction to an extent that gave to that when advised by his friend, Mr. F. B. Ogden, the American them the title of contractors' rails. consul at Liverpool, who was familiar with the circumstances A recognition of the usefulness of the improvement must of his invention, to patent it, he found that it was too late, and have been comparatively rapid, because by or before 1840 the that his invention had become public property. H- or T-rail was in use on all or portions of the following Ameri- Yours, truly, FRANCIS B. STEVENS." can lines, viz.: Camden and Amboy; Philadelphia and Reading; Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore; Long Island; por- DIVERSITIES IN PERMANENT WAY. tions of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, on which In addition to the plans of construction heretofore referred flat, plate, or bar-iron rails had originally been laid; on import- to, various modifications were adopted in different localities, ant New England roads, including the second track of the Bos- the most important of which were rendered possible by the T- ton and Lowell, Boston and Worcester, Boston and Providence, or H-rail. The Boston and Lowell used, in its first track, edge Providence and Stonington; New Castle and Frenchtown; Wash- rails which were not parallel, but of the fish-bellied pattern, i. e., ington branch of the Baltimore and Ohio, and portions of the their bottoms were slighly curved, as the body of a fish is curved, Georgia Railroad. 80 that the amount of iron used was greatest at the points most In a description of the Camden and Amboy Railroad, con- distant from the rail joints. Where the H- or T-rail was used tained in Mr. George W. Smith's appendix to Wood's Treatise numerous chairs ceased to be indispensable, as this rail, unlike on Railroads, and published in 1832, the following reference is the edge rail, was self-supporting, and the use of chairs was made to the T- or H-rails used: "The rails are of rolled iron, 16 generally confined to places where the rails were united. A feet long, 21 inches wide on the top, 3} inches at the bottom, greater number of sleepers or ties than had originally been and 81 deep; the neck half-inch thick. The weight is 209 considered desirable were put down in the tracks of some pounds = 39{e pounds per yard. They are secured by clamps roads. On the Boston and Providence sleepers of white cedar of iron, riveted at the extremity of each bar. The rails are at- were laid down 3 feet apart from centre to centre. They were tached to the stone blocks and sleepers by means of nails or seven feet long and six inches thick, and rested on broader sills pins at the sides, driven into wooden plugs. Chairs are dis- of hemlock. On the Philadelphia and Reading, on which H- pensed with." rails, weighing 45} pounds per yard were used, the rails were The following interesting letter relating to this subject is pub- laid upon white oak sleepers, or cross-ties, seven feet in length, lished in Mr. J. M. Swank's census report of 1880, on iron and and of a uniform depth or thickness of seven inches. They steel manufactures, the writer of the letter being A nephew of were laid 31 feet apart from centre to centre, and each Mr. Robert L. Stevens:- sleeper was laid upon a prism of broken stone, deposited in a "HOBOKEN, NEW JERSEY, May 31, 1881. trench 14 inches deep, 12 inches wide, and 9 feet long across DEAR SIR: In answer to your letter of the 27th instant I will the line of the track. At the rail joints the rails rested upon say that I have always believed that Robert L. Stevens was the cast-iron chairs, let into the sleepers by means of notches cut inventor of what is called the T-rail, and also of the method of for that purpose. The chair was six inches square at its lower fastening it by spikes, and I have never known his right to the surface, where it was five-eighths of an inch in thickness. invention questioned. There were bolts, with nut screws attached, to hold the ends of The rail of the Liverpool and Manchester Railroad, on its the two rails to the chair. The bolt and nut weighed 7 ounces, Digitized by Google TUNNELS AND BRIDGES. 87 and the chair 10} pounds. The chairs, and the rails, at the two inches wide, base six inches, and height one inch and points where they rested on sleepers, were spiked down, with three-quarters. Holes are punctured in the flanges on both spikes six inches in length, with stems three-fourths by five- sides, about eighteen inches apart, to secure the rail (without eighths of an inch. In a mile of track of the Philadelphia and chairs) to the sleepers, by means of screws eight inches long. Reading, built in accordance with these requirements, there To prevent the sleepers from spreading, there are, at every were 563 bars of iron, weighing 71 tons; 563 chairs, weighing fifteen feet, iron ties across the railway, spiked down at each 5,910 pounds; 7,882 spikes, weighing 4,524 pounds; 1,126 screw end of the sleepers." bolts and nuts, weighing 481 pounds, and 1,689 sleepers. The In this description the term sleepers was used to designate entire cost of the single track as laid, was reported to be $7,617 "longitudinal, continuous sleepers of Memal timber kyanized, per mile. As the road was intended, from the outset, for ex- thirteen or fourteen inches wide, by six and a half or seven ceptionally heavy traffic, it was much more substantially built, inches thick, which are firmly bedded on the ground, pre- in every respect, than was usual at the time of its construction, viously made even and well rammed. On the top of the and the rails proved to be very serviceable. sleepers are laid the rails." Another feature was an effort On portions of the Western (of Massachusetts), which were to give the outer edge of the rail a slightly higher altitude than being constructed about 1840, a mode was adopted which differs the inner edge, for the purpose of making the surface of the in some important respects from any of those heretofore de- rail correspond as closely as possible with the conical shape scribed. The rails were of the U or bridge pattern. A con- of the car wheels. Other railways endeavored to accomplish temporaneous description says: "The rails are of wrought iron, that object at comparatively early periods, but the results were rolled in lengths of fifteen feet, and made hollow. The top is usually not satisfactory. TUNNELS AND BRIDGES. THE existence of mountains, and mountain ranges or spurs, the second of the American railway tunnels, being commenced all the Atlantic states, which constituted such a serious soon after the completion of the Portage tunnel, and the first barrier that during a considerable portion of each year they tunnel in this country on which shafts were sunk. The resident were often impassable, was an obvious fact, and where pioneer engineer was Mr. W. Hasell Wilson, and his note-book contains railways were so located and environed that summits could not an interesting description of all the details connected with the be evaded by a circuitous route it was necessary that a choice construction, from which we extract the following statement:- should be made between very heavy cuts, tunneling, or ascend- Final Estimate of Section 54. James Appleton, Contractor. ing and descending relatively steep declivities either by the use of inclined planes or locomotives. The assistance obtained in Rock excavation of tunnel, 21,713 yards, at $5.80 $125,935 40 solving such difficult problems from American improvements Rock excavation of shafts, 881 yards, at 20 cents 17,620 00 Rock excavation of ends, 22,126 yards, at $1 22,126 00 in the locomotive was of incalculable value. While tunnels Slate excavation of ends, 2,968 yards, at 25 cents 742 00 had some earnest advocates, their great expense led at the Embankment, 12,620 yards, at 16 cents 2,019 20 outset to postponement in nearly all cases where any available Vertical walling, 4,799 perches, at 80 cents 3,839 20 substitute could be found. There was, however, a tunnel built Masonry of drains, 122 perches, at $2 244 00 on the Portage Railroad in 1832, which is said to be the first Masonry of end faces, 464 perches, at $6 2,784 00 railroad tunnel in the United States. It passed through a spur Masonry of slope wall, 32 perches, at $1.50 48 00 of the Allegheny, and it was 901 feet in length, 20 feet wide, Opening drain through tunnel 1,600 00 and 19 feet high within the arch, 150 feet at each end being Clearing tow path (of adjacent canal) of material thrown down 1,114 00 arched with cut stone. Walling top of shafts 70 00 Mr. H. S. Drinker's elaborate work on tunneling, published Fencing around south end of tunnel 55 55 in 1878, furnishes a list of nearly three hundred tunnels in the Clearing centre line over hill 77 00 United States, with their length and date of construction. Only Ditching 32 20 a comparatively small number were commenced or completed Leveling along foot of vertical wall 18 70 before 1840, but the railway tunnels of that era embrace, in Forming path through tunnel 12 20 addition to the Portage, the following:- Backing parapets at end faces, 50 00 A tunnel built by the Baltimore and Ohio, named Doe Gully, Timbering soft vein in tunnel 150 00 Clearing out slip in deep cut at north end 20 00 located about sixty miles west of Harper's Ferry, for the pur- Removing stone thrown into canal 50 00 pose of avoiding a circuitous bend of the Potomac river. It Patterns for arches 6 55 was built in 1839-41. Its length was 1,207 feet, and its cost Laying drain at south end 60 00 was $98,426. Another tunnel was built by the same company, Wood work of drain 20 00 at Harper's Ferry, in 1839-40, 86 feet in length, which cost Marble tablets 44 00 $4,386. A tunnel built by the New York and Harlem, called Constructing cribs in river t) convey materials on 200 00 "Old" Harlem Tunnel, in 1836-37, 844 feet in length. A tun- Damage to Garrigues' factory by blasting 54 21 nel built by the Harrisburg, Portsmouth, Mount Joy and Lan- $178,992 21 caster Railroad Company, on a line which now forms part of RAILWAY BRIDGES AND VIADUCTS. the Pennsy Railroad system, in 1835-38, named Elizabeth- town, 900 feet in length. The Black Rock Tunnel, built by the It was manifestly necessary to provide bridges for the passage Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company, in 1835-37, near of small streams, and even over streams of considerable width, which were not navigable, bridges were constructed; but over Phoenixville, 1,932 feet in length, which cost $178,992. The Flat Rock Tunnel, built by the same company, at Manayunk, the early long bridges trains could only be moved at very low in 1840, 937 feet in length. The Pulpit Rock Tunnel, built by rates of speed, and over some of the navigable streams, now the same company, in 1839-41, at Port Clinton, 1,637 feet in crossed by many trains daily, ferry-boat operations were con- length, which cost $116,728. The Summit Tunnel, built by the tinued for many years. Catawissa and Williamsport Railroad, at Summit Station, in Stone bridge-building had been practiced for centuries, and a number of very durable stone bridges had been erected over 1838, 1,050 feet in length. The Sherman's Tunnel, built by the during the turnpike era. The skill and avail- same company, in 1838, 377 feet in length. eveloped was pressed into railway service at THE BLACK ROCK TUNNEL. and other considerations permitted. Of It will be seen by the above list that the Black Rock tt viaducts, built about 1832, which built by the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company eny Portage Railroad, Mr. Solomon the largest tunnel constructed during the fourth decad Digitized by Google 88 TUNNELS AND BRIDGES. "The Horseshoe-bend, or Conemaugh viaduct, is still stand- Broad and Callowhill streets, in Philadelphia. After being used ing, and is used by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company as a as part of the state works from the time of its completion, in part of its main line, and it is, I believe, almost the only struc- April, 1834, until the construction of a line leading to Market ture of the old Portage Railroad now in use. It is a substantial street, this bridge and its eastern rail connection were sold to and imposing piece of masonry, about seventy feet high, and the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company, and subse- with a semi-circular arch of eighty-feet span. The chief en- quently used by that company in facilitating the movement of gineer had prepared a plan for a bridge of two arches, each of passenger and miscellaneous freight trains from the Broad fifty-feet span, but afterwards adopted the plan of the present street depot of its main line. In August, 1886, the receivers of structure. It was designed, and its erection superintended, by the Philadelphia and Reading obtained authority to replace me, and the work was done by an honest Scotch stone-mason, this bridge with an iron structure, to be built by the Phoenix named John Durno, who was afterward killed by falling from Iron Company. As stated above, the wooden superstructure, another high bridge. The arch is three and a half feet thick at which rendered continuous service for more than fifty-two the springing line, and three feet at the crown. The arch stones years, was built in accordance with a modification of the Burr are of light-colored sandstone, and the backing of silicious lime- plan, and this plan, intermingled with some modifications, fur- stone, found near the spot. The sandstone was split from the nished designs for a large proportion of the important wooden erratic blocks, often of great size, which were found lying in the bridges of the period of its erection, as well as of the wooden woods, on the surface of the ground. The contract price for the bridges built across important streams in Pennsylvania by turn- masonry was $4.20 per perch of twenty-five cubic feet, and the pike or bridge companies for some years previous to the com- work was remarkably well done. The face stones were laid in mencement of the construction of important railways. mortar made from the silicious limestones, without the addition The Schuylkill bridge was designed by Major John Wilson, of any sand. The cost of the viaduct was about fifty-five thou- chief engineer of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, and sand dollars, and by building it a lateral bend of about two miles the construction was superintended by Mr. W. Hasell Wilson, was avoided. The embankment at the end of the viaduct was principal assistant engineer. Mr. Frederick Erdman was the sixty-four feet high. Since that work was done, iron bridges bridge inspector, a position for which he was well qualified by have taken the place of such structures." previous experience in the performance of similar duties for Of the bridgesand viaducts on the Philadelphia and Columbia the Schuylkill Navigation Company. The contractors were Railroad, Mr. W. Hasell Wilson, in his notes on Internal Im- Dodd, Bishop & Brittin. The width of the river at the point provements in Pennsylvania, says:- of location was about 850 feet, and at the eastern shore the "There were twenty-two railway bridges or viaducts, con- river was about twenty-five feet deep. As the bridge possesses structed with stone abutments and piers, surmounted by tim- great historic interest in this and many other localities, on ber superstructure; and thirty-three overhead bridges for public account of the important and prolonged service it has ren- and farm roads. The following were the most important dered, and as the methods pursued and the items of cost illus- structures:- trate more fully than any other attainable data, particulars Schuylkill viaduct, having seven spans, the clear lengths of relating to important bridge building during the first half of which between the piers were, two of 122 feet each, three of 135 the fourth decade, in this country, the following extracts from feet each, and two of 137 feet each. The abutments and piers the note-book of Mr. W. Hasell Wilson, commenced in 1831, were constructed of coursed and hammer-dressed masonry, are appended:- from the bottom of the foundations, which were on rock, with the exception of the western abutment and two adjacent piers, Specifications for the Bridge over Schuylkill River. which were founded upon hard gravel. Five of the piers were "The bridge is to stand on six piers and two abutments, in the river and required coffer dams; one of them stood in 26 which are to be founded on the solid rock, made perfectly feet depth of water. The wooden superstructure was 1,045 feet level, and constructed of dressed rubble stone, not less than in length by 49 feet in width, with four trusses on a modifica- twelve inches in thickness, laid in courses. The stones are to tion of the Burr plan, having a passage way of four feet in the be of the best quality and subject to the inspection of the engi- middle for foot travelers, and one of 18} feet on each side for neer; they shall be hammer dressed, squared, and laid in full railway and common road respectively. The height of the mortar, arranged in such manner as to form a system of head- bridge floor above ordinary water line was 38 feet. ers and stretchers (the headers to be not less than three feet), Valley Creek viaduct consisted of four spans of 130 feet each the filling up to be of stones of the best quality, properly con- in clear, with a height from water to floor of 60 feet. nected with bond stones. East Brandywine viaduct had four spans of 89 feet each in [Here follow a number of minute directions relating to the clear, with a height of 30 feet. foundations of the piers, the piers, and abutment walls. The West Brandywine viaduct had a length of platform of 835 piers were to be 22 feet thick, and 63 feet 6 inches long at the feet, divided into six spans, resting upon abutments and piers base, exclusive of the angular points or heads, which were to of coursed masonry. The railway tracks rested upon the upper extend from the foundations to high water mark.] chords of the trusses, at an elevation of 72 feet above the water The construction of the wooden superstructure must be in of the creek. strict conformity to the plan exhibited by the engineer, the Pequea viaduct was one span of 130 feet. contractor furnishing all materials, whether of wood or iron. Mill Creek viaduct comprised four spans with a total length The platform or floor to be supported by four wooden arches of 550 feet, and a height from water to floor of 40 feet. trussed and constructed as represented in the drawing, placed Little Conestoga viaduct had a superstructure 804 feet in vertically on the piers and abutments, at such distances from length, elevated 47 feet above the stream. each other as to admit of two passages of 18 feet 6 inches each All of the above-named bridges were constructed according in the clear, and one of 4 feet in the clear, between the arch to a modification of the Burr plan. pieces, which, together with the thickness of the said trusses, The viaduct over Big Conestoga creek had a superstructure make the whole thickness of the bridge 49 feet 8 inches. The on the Town lattice plan, 1,412 feet in length, at an elevation height of the truss from the bottom of the chord to the top of of 60 feet above the water line. The spans were of various the plate is to be 17 feet. The king-posts are to be 10x20 lengths, the longest being 120 feet. inches above the shoulder, and 10x8 inches in the waist, ex- The abutments and piers of all the viaducts, except those at cept that part above the arch, which shall be large enough to the Schuylkill river and West Brandywine creek, were con- saddle 21 inches on the other arch pieces. The queen-posts to structed of rubble masonry." be of white pine, 10x15 inches above the shoulder, and below the step, and 10X9 inches in the waist, to saddle 21 inches on BRIDGE CROSSING THE SCHUYLKILL RIVER NEAR PETERS' ISLAND. the arch pieces, as heretofore described and as represented in The most important of the bridges referred to above was that the drawing No. 5. The carry braces to be of white pine, leading from the foot of the inclined plane, on the west bank 9X10 inches. The stay braces of white pine 5x10 inches. of the Schuylkill, to the eastern side of that river, where a con- The chords of white pine, 8X14 inches, and in such lengths as nection was formed with the railway leading to the junction of required by the bill of timber, furnished by the engineer. The Digitized by Google Primitive Sledge. Mountain Sted. Rural Jumper., Wood Sled. Modern Sleigh. Digitized by Google the structed BRIDGE The 111060 leading from of the Schuylk nection WILS formed Digitized by Google TUNNELS AND BRIDGES. 89 arches of white pine, 8x18 inches at the crown, 8X24 inches Extra dowels and clamps 287 38 at the foot, placed on each side of the king- and queen-posts as Extra cement in piers 84 00 represented in No. 5. The plates of white pine, 10x12 inches, Extra coping on pier heads 108 00 the scarfs of which shall not be less than 4 feet long. The Extra coping on piers 441 00 Laying double track of rails 1,302 girders or floor beams of white pine, 9X15 inches, placed as Inside painting 1,394 65 represented in figure 3, one in every three of which shall pass Timber furnished for other work 240 48 through the whole width of the bridge, without scarfing; the Pumps furnished for other work 16 00 ends of the girders to be secured to the posts by spikes, 4-inch Extra timber, iron, and workmanship 3,521 60 square, and 15 inches long. The joists of white pine, 5X7 $133,946 571 inches, placed at distances of two feet from centre to centre. The floor plank for side-ways of white pine, 3 inches thick, 191 It will be seen that, in contrast with modern prices for similar feet long, clear of sap and other defects, about one foot wide; work, the bridge was a marvel of cheap construction. The the floor plank for the middle way 5 feet long, 3 inches thick. masonry, costing $4.37} per perch, could scarcely now be re- The tie-beams, connecting the plates in upper part of bridge, placed for less than $15, and the platform, costing $30 per 1,000 6X12 inches, to project one foot over the plates. The side lineal feet, would now probably cost twice that sum. During a braces of white oak, 41 X5 inches, to be secured by mortices, series of years the Philadelphia and Reading made numerous tenons, and spikes as the engineer may direct. The horizontal repairs, decaying or weakening portions of the structure being braces in floor and roof of white pine, 6X6 inches, secured at replaced, but no material change was made in any of the im. each end or joint by mortices, tenons, and keys. The rafters to portant features of the bridge. be 3x5 inches, supported by a ridge plate in centre, and by TOWN LATTICE BRIDGES. purlins and raising plates, 6 inches square, as represented in While work on the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad was Figs. 5, 7, and 8. The shingles of Carolina cedar, 30 inches long, progressing, the Town lattice plan was attracting an increased to be dressed and laid on black oak lath, 9 inches to the degree of attention, and it was adopted as the superstructure of weather; the outside studding for the reception of the weather the viaduct over the Big Conestoga creek. Its leading merit boarding to be of white pine, 3x4 inches, placed 2 feet apart was relatively small cost, as thick plank were substituted for from centre to centre, in a perpendicular position. The weather heavy timbers. Under ordinary conditions, it was generally boards to be of white pine, 1 inches thick, put on in regular found to possess sufficient strength, and it was used, during a courses, to be planed on both sides, the studs also to be planed. comparatively brief period, in the progress of railway con- Over each end of each pier, the bridge to be finished as repre- struction in Pennsylvania and other states. Its power to resist sented in fig. 2, with Venetian windows; sky-lights of 4 feet some forms of wind pressure, however, was not fully sufficient, square to be placed over each side of the roof, in the centre of and it was succeeded by more satisfactory methods. each span. All the timbers of the bridge above the floor, ex- cept the upper beams and rafters, to be planed smooth. PROTECTION OF WOODEN BRIDGES. From an intermediate point between, and on a line with the Great importance was formerly attached to the covering of footings of the arches, two braces shall extend to the intersec- expensive wooden bridges with a substantial roof which served tion of the arches and chords, as represented in Figs. 5 and 6, as a protection. The passage of locomotives created serious at which point an iron bar, two inches square, shall pass through danger of the destruction of these roofed wooden bridges by the whole width of the bridge; and at the footings of said braces fire, and several safeguards were adopted. One was to employ upon the pier, together with those of the arches, cast-iron shoes a watchman, charged with the duty of passing over a bridge shall be placed, as represented in the drawing. At the inter- immediately after each train movement, and he carried a section of the arches and posts, together with those of the bucket of water in his hand for the purpose of extinguishing chords and posts, iron screw bolts, 11 inches square, are to pass any incipient conflagration. Large tubs or half-hogsheads, through them, and to be secured by a nut, worm, and screws. filled with water, were placed at convenient points on each The joints or scarfs of the chords to be at least four feet long, bridge to serve as reservoirs. Another, which was enforced on and secured as represented in the drawing. Each end of the the Schuylkill bridge for a considerable period, was to inter- bridge is to be finished with six Grecian Doric columns, entab- dict locomotives, all cars being drawn over the bridge by horses lature, and pediment, which, together with the outside of the or mules to and from the western bank, where the connection bridge, shall be painted with three coats of white lead. with the inclined plane was made. It is understood that all the above work, whether of wood, DRAW BRIDGES. stone, or iron, shall be executed in a faithful and workmanlike manner, without omitting anything which may not have been A description of the Raritan viaduct on the New Jersey Rail- expressed in the above specification, and that the bridge, when road, says that it was on Col. Long's plan, 1,700 feet in length, completed, shall be in conformity with the plans heretofore in spans from 112 to 145 feet reach. Depth of truss, 22 feet; referred to. width between hand rails on top, 31 feet; piers, 7 in number, [Here follows a description of the particulars in which there which, with the two abutments, are faced with sienitic granite. had been deviations from the specification. They relate almost The structure is of two stories; the lower floor resting upon the exclusively to the piers, and state that the length of spans in bottom of the trusses, of which there are three, supports a clear between the footings of arches, commencing at west end roadway to accommodate common carriages. The railway re- of bridge, was as follows: Nos. 1 and 2, each 122 feet; Nos. 8, 4, poses on the top of the trusses, supported by joist bearers 4 feet and 5, each 135 feet; Nos. 6 and 7, each 136 feet.] apart. The chairs, holding the rails, rest on strong pieces, 4 The foundation of all the piers was solid rock, except two, inches thick by 11 wide, pinned down to the upper floor, which which rested on hard gravel. Their height varied from 46 feet latter performs the office of a roof. The braces of the truss to 59 Γo feet. framing abut upon pieces of thin sheet iron, introduced into the points. At a depth of 9 feet from the tops of the piers and Final Estimate, Schuylkill Bridge, Dodd, Bishop & Brittin, Contractors. abutments, there is an offset of 9 inches, upon which are footed 19,100± perches masonry, at $4.37} $83,563 59 the shore braces that assist in supporting the trusses. 1,050 feet lineal of platform, at $30 31,500 00 There are four distinct sliding draws, two in each story. The 260 cubic yards excavation, at 8 cents 20 80 railroad draws move back into the place of a section which 1,002 cubic yards rock excavation, at 60 cents 601 20 slides sideways, out of the way, while the common road draws 2,475 cubic yards embankment, at 12} cents 309 371 roll on, opening over the part of the bridge back of them; a Coffer dam at east abutment, extra 3,619 50 Coffer dam at Pier No. 2, injured by ice movable platform connecting the draws with the floor of the 1,000 00 Coffer dam at Piers 4, 5, and 6, extra size 3,500 00 bridge, being raised up from it by means of lever beams, when 1,700 perches rip raps, at $1.25 25 00 the draw is about to be opened for the passage of vessels. The Covering piers in winter spans of the draws are each 30 feet, and those in the railroad Fencing at $3,000 to $4,000 each. 12 Digitized by Google 90 INCLINED PLANES. INCLINED PLANES. O NE of the subjects which attracted much attention at the of a penny." Knight estimated in 1832 that in this country it outset was inclined planes, and the extent to which they was probable that an engine, capable of conveying 30 tons of should be avoided or adopted. As the primitive locomo- freight 120 miles in a day, will cost, including interest, repairs, tives possessed very limited power as hill-climbers, and were renewals, engineering attendance, and fuel, from $9 to $15 per mere pigmies in contrast with their successors in size and day, according to the price of fuel at the place demanded; and capacity, it seemed at one time to be absolutely necessary that the cost per ton per mile, in the one case, will be t of a cent, railways intended to traverse mountainous countries over and in the other something less than 1 of a cent-more ex- routes which necessitated heavy grades should be supple- actly .417 of a cent." In brief, as locomotives were improved mented by inclined planes, on which stationary engines would the utility of inclined planes diminished. furnish the motive power. It was in accordance with this The necessity of overcoming heavy grades by some methods idea that some of the earliest coal railways, and especially the is so imperative in all the mountainous portions of this coun- Delaware and Hudson, were supplied with inclined planes, try that the field of railway usefulness, and the limitations to and that such adjuncts were originally provided at both ends of the speed and cheapness of railway movements, would have the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, and on the Portage been greatly restricted if the power of locomotives to draw rela- Railroad. It should be remembered that each of the important tively heavy loads over steep grades had not been greatly in- improvements in locomotives that helped to increase their creased by American expedients and invention. power to ascend steep grades diminished the necessity for in- The nature of the delays and increase of expenditures caused clined planes. by the enforced use of inclined planes may be inferred from the As the Portage Railroad was used to cross the summits of statement of Mr. Solomon W. Roberts that, on the Portage the Allegheny mountains, it was the most important under- Railroad, "at the head of each plane were two engines, of taking of the kind in this country, and in the world, at the about thirty-five-horse power each; and each engine had two period of its construction. Of this road Mr. Solomon W. Rob- horizontal cylinders, the pistons of which were connected with erts says: "There were eleven levels, so called, or rather grade cranks at right angles to each other, which gave motion to the lines, and ten inclined planes, on the Portage, the whole length large grooved wheels, around which the endless rope passed, of the road being 36.39 miles. The planes were numbered east- and by which the rope was put in motion. The engines were wardly from Johnstown, and the ascent from that place to the built in Pittsburgh, and could be started and stopped very summit was 1,171.58 feet in 26.59 miles, and the descent from quickly. One engine only was used at a time, but two were the summit to Hollidaysburg was 1,398.71 feet in 10.10 miles." provided, for the greater security. Hemp ropes were at first The planes were all straight, and their lengths and elevations, used, and gave much trouble, as they varied greatly in length together with the length of the grade lines or levels, which were with changes in the weather, although sliding carriages were worked first by horse power, and subsequently by locomotives, prepared to keep them stretched without too much strain; but are stated in the following table:- wire ropes were afterwards substituted, and were a great im- Length. Rise. Feet. provement." Level No. 1, from Johnstown to Plane No. 1.. 4.13 miles. 101.46 In the absence of inclined planes, horse power was some- Plane No. 1, ascending eastward 1,607.74 feet. 150.00 times used on the heavy grades of early roads, even after loco- Level No. 2. ascending eastward to Long Level. 13.06 miles. 189.58 motives drew trains on level portions of such lines. Plane No. 2, ascending eastward 1,760.43 feet. 145.40 In the famous work of Charles Dickens, entitled American Level No. 3, ascending eastward 1.40 miles. 14.50 Notes, he gives the following description of his Plane No. 3, ascending eastward 1,480.25 feet. 130 50 Level No. 4, ascending eastward 1.90 miles. 18.80 JOURNEY OVER THE PLANES OF THE ALLEGHENY PORTAGE Plane No. 4. ascending eastward 2,198.94 feet. 187.86 RAILROAD. Level No. 5, ascending eastward 2.56 miles. 25.80 Plane No. 5, ascending eastward 2,628.60 feet. 201.64 "We left Harrisburg on Friday. On Sunday morning we Level No. 6, ascending eastward to Summit arrived at the foot of the mountain. which is crossed by rail- Level at Blair's Gap 1.62 miles. 19.04 road. There are ten inclined planes, five ascending and five descending; the carriages are dragged up the former, and let 1,171.58 slowly down the latter, by means of stationary engines; the Fall. Feet. comparatively level spaces between being traversed, some- Plane No. 6, descending eastward 2,713.85 feet. 266.50 times by horse, and sometimes by engine power, as the case Level No. 7, descending eastward .15 miles. 0.00 demands. Occasionally the rails are laid upon the extreme Plane No. 7, descending eastward 2,655.01 feet. 250.50 verge of a giddy precipice; and looking from the carriage Level No. 8, descending eastward .66 miles. 5.80 window, the traveler gazes sheer down, without a stone or Plane No. 8, descending eastward 3,116.92 feet. 307.60 Level No. 9, descending eastward 1.25 miles. 12.00 scrap of fence between, into the mountain depths below. The Plane No. 9, descending eastward 2.720.80 feet. 189.50 journey is very carefully made, however, only two carriages Level No. 10, descending eastward 1.76 miles. 29.59 traveling together; and while proper precautions are taken, is Plane No. 10, descending eastward 2,285.61 feet. 180.52 not to be dreaded for its dangers." Level No. 11, descending eastward to Holli- PORTAGE RAILROADS AND THEIR USES. daysburg 3.72 miles. 146.71 The application of a number of the early railways to 1,398.71 poses similar to those served by portages in the India STATIONARY ENGINES vs. LOCOMOTIVES. primitive American systems of transportation, was probably In regard to the economic considerations involved in the use better illustrated by the Portage Railroad than any other line, of inclined planes and stationary engines, Jonathan Knight, and this fact presumably suggested its name. Soon after its said in 1832: "So recently as the beginning of the year 1829, construction it was applied to the novel purposes described in the relative economy of the stationary and locomotive systems, the following statement: "In October, 1834, Jesse Chrisman, upon level railways, or upon those but slightly inclined, was from the Lackawanna, a tributary of the North branch of the warmly contested in England, and the question was not put to Susquehanna, loaded his boat, named 'Hit or Miss,' with his rest until the recent improvements in the locomotive engine wife, children, beds, furniture, pigeons, and other live stop took place." He added that on the Liverpool and Manchester and started for Illinois. At Hollidaysburg (on the east Railway, after the improved engines (of Stephenson) were used, a high ridge of the Allegheny), where he expected to as it was found that "the expense per ton per mile, by these en- boat, it was suggested by John Dougherty, of the <. gines, will be .164 of a penny, and by the stationary system .269 Transportation Line, that the whole concern c Digitized by Google RAILWAYS AS PUBLIC HIGHWAYS. 91 hoisted over the mountain and set afloat again in the canal. teams, would drag us, two or three cars at a time, to the hitch- Mr. Dougherty prepared a railroad car to bear the novel bur- ing ground. 'Your clearance, captain,' would cry the familiar den. The boat was taken from its proper element and placed voice of Thomas Holiday or James McKee. After satisfying on wheels, and under the superintendence of Major C. Williams them that this was the train entitled to pass, they would attach the boat and cargo at noon on the same day began the progress our cars to a hempen rope by means of a hempen stop. (In over the rugged Allegheny. All this was done without disturb- after days wire rope and iron chains took the place of these). ing the family arrangements. They rested a night on the top Two cars being drawn up, the process was repeated until the of the mountain, descended the next morning into the valley entire train had arrived at the top of the planes." of the Mississippi, and sailed for St. Louis. After this incident FIRST ASCENT OF AN INCLINED PLANE BY A LOCOMOTIVE. boats were so constructed that they could be divided into sec- tions and hauled over the railroad on trucks without breaking In the reminiscences of Mr. W. Milnor Roberts, one of the bulk, but they were not extensively used until about 1840. distinguished early American railway engineers, which he read Cars were also used which could be lifted from their trucks and at a meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in loaded on boats of special construction." May, 1878, he said:- "In 1836, my friend William Norris, invited me to meet a METHOD OF OPERATION. number of gentlemen to witness a promised performance of At a meeting, held in 1885, of Juniata boatmen, at Hollidays- one of his locomotives, namely, to take a passenger car (eight- burg, Captain D. H. Boulton read a paper describing the travel wheeled), with fifty persons in it, up the Schuylkill inclined on the Portage Railroad, which contained the following state- plane, at the rate of ten miles an hour. The first morning this ment:- experiment was to be tried it was found that some malicious or "The cars were loaded at Hollidaysburg, freight lifted from humorous individual had greased the track, which prevented the gunwale to the cars by main strength. As many of you the test for that time, but shortly after, when the grease had remember, if we worked hard all night, and started off in the been removed, his locomotive actually performed as he had morning, we had the pleasant assurance that, if we were 80 for- promised. A careful record of the performance was printed tunate as to get over our thirty-six miles of road that day, we in a quarto pamphlet at the time, but I have not seen it for a would have the privilege of loading in the Johnstown freight great many years. One of the passengers was an English house the next night, sometimes working seventy-two hours officer, who (as Mr. Norris afterward told me), when he related consecutively in busy seasons. This we called 'a bad run.' When the occurrence in England, was not credited, the railroad loaded, they were hauled by teams to Gaysport. The official savants on the other side having already 'decided' that the in charge was not then called conductor, but captain. We limit of locomotive possibilities stopped very far short of 422 were all captains. He having received from the collector's feet per mile rise, which was the grade of the Schuylkill plane. office his passport or right of way (the cars were weighed by The length of this plane was about half a mile." H. A. Boggs, or some other weigh master of the honest old Other notable performances in hill-climbing of American commonwealth), we were ready to start. A boat loaded from locomotives, constructed by various builders, occurred at later ten to twelve cars. This made two trains of five or six cars dates, and after the fact became well established that locomo- each, and was taken in charge by two men. The front car was tives could ascend grades as heavy or even heavier than those the lever car. The brakes were wooden blocks drawn down on on which inclined planes had been constructed, few or none of top of the wheels by means of a long pole at the side of the car. these devices were applied to new roads intended for miscel- It was a rare thing to have more than one lever car to a train. laneous traffic, and those in existence were supplemented by We now attach to an engine, and are hauled to the foot of Plane tracks available for locomotives as speedily as possible. This No. 10 up a fifty-foot grade by Barney McConnell or Eli Yoder. remark, however, does not apply to some of the coal or other Here Galbraith, McCormick, or Gardner, with their strong mining roads. RAILWAYS AS PUBLIC HIGHWAYS. HORSE POWER vs. LOCOMOTIVES. The earnest champions of railway improvements intended THE roadwation being constructed, the next important con- for general use speedily became satisfied that the locomotive related to the nature of the vehicles and mo- was an indispensable adjunct. The prevailing feeling in such tive power to be used. In some cases very intricate questions circles is well expressed by an early advocate of railways, who arose in connection with this subject. They gained complexity said: "The public in general entertain wrong impressions re- from the fact that there were no precedents for a transporta- specting railways. They never hear them mentioned without tion system adapted to miscellaneous traffic that combined with recurring to such as are seen in the neighborhood of coal pits control and ownership of the road control and ownership of and stone quarries. But such improvements have taken place vehicles, and the power by which they were propelled. In this that they are no longer the same thing; besides which, a rail- respect, the modern railway, in its relations with the public, way without a locomotive engine is something like a cart with- has established an innovation of enormous industrial and out a horse, a trade without profit, or a canal without water." financial significance. The gradual approaches towards the PUBLIC HIGHWAY THEORIES. ascendency of this system form one of the most import- ant features of railway development. 'At the outset nearly Of the operations on the Portage road, before locomotives every imaginable divergence in practice was represented by were used, Mr. Solomon W. Roberts says: "The experiment of the operations of some one or more of the numerous lines. In working the road as a public highway was very unsatisfactory. some cases, where the use of horse power had originally been Individuals and firms employed their own drivers, with their contemplated, and had actually commenced, there were seri- own horses and cars. The cars were small, had four wheels, ous struggles against the substitution of locomotives, which, it and each car would carry about seven thousand pounds of was soon seen, would be incompatible with a continuance of freight. Usually four cars made a train, and that number horse power; and on the railways constructed by the state of could be taken up and as many let down an inclined plane at Pennsylvania, after it had solved the first difficulty by exclud- one time, and from six to ten such trips could be made in an ing horses, and providing locomotives to furnish motive power, hour. The drivers were a rough set of fellows, and sometimes all the vehicles or cars used in moving freight or passengers very stubborn and unmanageable. It was not practicable to continued to be owned by individuals, firms, or private cor- make them work by a time-table, and the officers of the railroad porations until the commonwealth disposed of her public had no power to discharge them. My memory recalls the works, after her railways had been in operation under state case of one fellow who would not go backward, and could not management for nearly a quarter of a century. go forward, and so obstructed the road for a considerable time. Digitized by Google 92 RAILWAYS AS PUBLIC HIGHWAYS. It resembled the case of two wild wagoners of the Alleghenies, which the vehicle was to pass. The supposed analogy, there- meeting in a narrow mountain pass, and both refusing to give fore, between the railroad and the chartered turnpike, over way. Our nominal remedy was to have the man arrested, and which any one could drive his own vehicle on payment of the taken before a magistrate, perhaps many miles off, to have him authorized toll, or between the railroad and the public high- fined, according to the law, a copy of which I used to carry in way, built and maintained at the public expense-an analogy my pocket. which misled some of the earliest projectors of railroads-en- When the road had but a single track between the turnouts, tirely disappeared." a large post, called a centre post, was set up half-way between NECESSITY OF EFFECTIVE REGULATIONS. two turnouts, and the rule was made that when two drivers met on the single track, with their cars, the one that had gone be- Theoretically, the railways of some states are still legally yond the centre post had the right to go on, and the other that declared to be public highways, and on many lines numerous had not reached it must go back to the turnout which he had cars belonging to individuals, freight organizations, or other left. The road was, in many places, very crooked, and a man railway companies are constantly passing. But the right to could not see far ahead. The way the rule worked was this: impose appropriate restrictions relating to the condition of When a man left a turnout he would drive very slowly, fearing these foreign cars is never seriously questioned, and its exer- that he might have to turn back, and, as he approached the cise is absolutely necessary to ensure safety. centre post, he would drive faster and faster, to try to get be- Railroading is the practical application of the best attainable yond it, and thus to drive back any cars that he might meet, mechanical and engineering devices to the science of land and in this way cars have been driven together, and a man transportation. Unlike all previous systems for promoting killed by being crushed between them. We had no electric that great end, it combines approximately equal attention to telegraphs in those days." the road to be traveled, or the permanent way, on the one He also states that when a bill was pending in the state hand, and the vehicles to be used and the motive power by legislature to authorize the purchase of locomotives, he was which they are to be propelled, on the other. The physical journeying in a horse car towards Harrisburg, on the Philadel- welfare of mankind hinges on the degree of success with which phia and Columbia Railroad, and says: "Two gentlemen were transportation problems are solved to a greater extent than on sitting opposite to me who were members of the legislature the result of mechanical labors of any other kind, because from Chester county, one being a senator. The car stopped, cheap and rapid movement of persons and property is the and a man spoke to my traveling companions, saying that he most vital element of all forms of progress. Railroads repre- hoped they would oppose the bill to authorize the canal sent the first effort to construct and maintain thoroughly commissioners to put locomotives on the road and control the effective avenues for great inland movements, inasmuch as motive power. The senator said that it should never be done their successful operation requires that prompt and thorough with his consent. Thereupon, as the car drove on, I proceeded repair and maintenance of the line traversed which never was, to argue the matter, but with poor success; the reply being, and probably never will be, secured on highways owned and that the people were taxed to make the railroad, and that the managed by one set of persons or authorities and used mainly farmers along the line should have the right to drive their own by vehicles belonging to a large body of miscellaneous owners. horses and cars on the railroad, as they did their wagons on At the same time, under appropriate restrictions, it has been the Lancaster turnpike, to go to market in Philadelphia; and found mutually advantageous for each of many lines to grant that, if they were not permitted to do it, the railroad would be a right of way and to furnish motive power to cars of other a nuisance to the people of Lancaster and Chester counties. lines, and there have been times and contingencies in which It required time to overcome this feeling." the idea of confining the use of a railway exclusively to cars of the company owning it has been enforced to an injurious extent. SUPPOSED ANALOGY BETWEEN RAILWAYS AND TURNPIKES. A report on internal commerce of the United States for 1876 Similar difficulties sprang up in other quarters. A distin- says:- guished lawyer, George Ticknor Curtis, referring to this subject "Many of the abuses and evils which have sprung up with in 1880, said:- the railroad system are traceable to the fact that railroads have "I remember-for I am old enough to have witnessed the never been, and, perhaps, in the nature of things never can origin and growth of the whole railroad system of this country, become, free highways in the sense in which the term 'free' being already a student-at-law before any railroad had been put applies to navigable waters and to wagon roads. When rail- into operation in America-that the ideas of the first projectors roads were first introduced, it was supposed that they could be of the railroads in New England, and of the public, as to the operated in the same manner as other public highways; but it use that would be made of them, were exceedingly crude. The was soon demonstrated that upon an avenue of commerce the earliest charters granted in Massachusetts contain traces of an pathway of which is no wider than the wheel of the vehicle expectation that the company would lay down the rails, and which moves upon it, not only the road itself but the entire that the public would somehow drive their own carriages equipment and motive power must be placed under the con- over them. In this imperfect conception of what was to trol of one central organization. The peculiarities of the rail- be done, the railroad, it was supposed, would be operated road as a public highway are based upon this mechanical like a chartered turnpike, the proprietors having the right to feature, and to it may be directly traced almost every question take tolls of those who should drive their own carriages over which has arisen respecting the relations of the railroad to the the road. It was not until a later period, after the English public. The circumstance just alluded to gave to the railroad example was better known, that it was seen here, that a rail- system certain marked characteristics of monopoly, and at an road could not be worked like a chartered turnpike, or like a early day serious apprehensions were entertained as to the public highway; that it would be impracticable to admit the abuses which might arise in the course of the development of carriages of individuals to pass over the rails; that the com- the system. But the popular demand for railroads at almost pany which built the road must operate it; and that individuals any cost set at rest all these fears. Some of the evils encoun- of the public must stand in the same relation to this new tered have in the progress of events worked out their own species of common carrier, that they occupy in regard to all cure, some have been adjusted by legislation and by the courts, common carriers, and must make contracts for the transporta- some have been corrected by the railroad companies them- tion of their persons or property, by a carrier who would own selves, while others remain unsettled, constituting what is the vehicle and the propelling power, as well as the road over termed 'the railroad problem of the day." Digitized by Google EARLY LOCOMOTIVES. 93 EARLY LOCOMOTIVES. R AILWAY construction never fails to excite intense interest by the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company in 1828-29, two in the communities in which the startling process of were similar to the famous Rocket. They were first put in making an approximately level road by deep cuts, high em- working order at the West Point Foundry, in New York, at bankments, expensive tunnels, and the erection of lengthy via- which establishment the first American engine ordered for ducts or bridges, is witnessed for the first time, and after the actual service was constructed, but the English locomotives line has become a fixture the next object to excite curiosity bear little outward resemblance to that engine, which was the and attract earnest attention is the locomotive. "Best Friend," used on the South Carolina Railroad. PIONEER AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES. At that day, as at all subsequent periods, the locomotive was Current histories of locomotive development in the United pre-eminently a progressive machine, improvements being fre- States usually speak of imported English locomotives as the quently made, and it is supposed that a number of the early basis of all practical operations in this country. In one sense, English locomotives sent over to this country, soon after the this view may be correct, but it scarcely does justice to the arrival of those forwarded to the Delaware and Hudson, were ideas developed and labors performed here. The great sensa- of the Planet type. It represented important improvements tion made by the successful effort of Oliver Evans, in the early on the Rocket, which won the prize offered by the Liverpool part of the century, to endow a steam engine with power to and Manchester. As the Planet type may perhaps be regarded move itself over the streets of Philadelphia, typified the germs as the model of practical American locomotive construction, to of much that was first accomplished in England, not on account a greater extent than any other type, the following contempo- of priority of invention, but because requisite financial aid was raneous description of its first public performances, which lacking here, and attainable there. Mr. Horatio Allen, who originally appeared in a Liverpool paper, is republished here:- ordered and ran the first locomotive ever used on an established "On Saturday last (4th December, 1830), the Planet engine, American railway, in an interesting sketch, written in 1884, of Mr. Stephenson's, took the first load of merchandise which has the first five years of the railroad era, says: "As early as 1780, passed along the railway from Liverpool to Manchester. The and before Watt had perfected and introduced the condensing team consisted of 18 carriages, containing 135 bags and bales of engine, Oliver Evans had matured his plan of a high-pressure American cotton, 200 barrels of flour, 63 sacks of oatmeal, and engine, and had applied it to do work as a stationary engine. 34 sacks of malt, weighing altogether 51 tons, 11 cwt., 1 quarter. It is of interest to know that the boiler which Oliver Evans To this must be added the weight of the wagons and oil-cloths, constructed and used was a multitubular boiler, but differing viz., 23 tons, 8 cwt., 3 quarters. Tender, water, and fuel, 4 tons, from the multitubular boiler now the established boiler of the and 15 persons on the team, 1 ton, making a total of exactly locomotive in the particular that in the Evans boiler the water eighty tons, exclusive of the weight of the engine, about 6 tons. was in the tubes, and the products of combustion passed be- The journey was performed in 2 hours and 54 minutes, exclud- tween the tubes, whereas in the present locomotive boiler the ing three stoppages of 5 minutes each (only one being neces- products of combustion pass through the tubes, and water sur- sary under ordinary circumstances), for oiling, watering, and rounds them. What was accomplished by Oliver Evans had taking in fuel; under the disadvantages also of adverse wind, all the elements of a permanent success. Had Evans had a and of a great additional friction on the wheels and axles, owing Boulton, as Watt had a co-operating Boulton, or a Pease, as to their being entirely new. The team was assisted up the George Stephenson had his Pease, as a co-operator, the high- Ramhill inclined plane by other engines, at the rate of 9 miles pressure steam-engine would have had a position from that an hour, and descended the Sutton incline at the rate of 161 time of great interest to the country, and, through this coun- miles an hour. The average rate on the other parts of the road try, to the world; but no such aid coming from individual or was 121 miles an hour, the greatest speed on the level being 15} state, vainly applied to, there is only the record of what might miles an hour, which was maintained for a mile or two, at dif- have been-another of the many cases where the inventor was ferent periods of the journey." ready, but the age was not." Mr. George W. Smith's appendix to Wood's Treatise on Rail- Another locomotive was made by an American citizen before roads, published in 1832, in referring to engines which were any English locomotives were imported. In George W. Smith's probably of the Planet description, and also early American notes to Wood's Treatise on Railroads, published in 1832, refer- locomotives made at the West Point foundry, says:- ring to the tubes used on the Rocket engine, made for the "A locomotive of the latest pattern (made by Robert Stephen- Liverpool and Manchester Railway, he says: "Boilers, contain- son, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England), has been imported by ing flues or tubes, filled with water or heated air, have repeat- the New Castle and Frenchtown. The spokes of the wheels edly been used for steam engines, and frequently proposed for are wrought-iron tubes, bell-shaped at their extremities; the locomotive engines. Their lightness and efficiency obviously rim and hub cast on them-the union being effected by means adapted them to this purpose. In 1825 Mr. John Stevens, of of boring. The wheels are encircled by a wrought-iron tire and Hoboken, New Jersey, constructed and used a locomotive en- flange-the latter is very diminutive, and will require enlarge- gine, the boiler of which was entirely composed of tubes of ment. The weight of the engine is not adapted to a railway of an extremely small diameter, filled with water." slender proportions, composed of timber and light rails. Soon after railway construction. had advanced to the stage A locomotive, weighing 12,742 pounds, made by R. Stephen- that created a demand for locomotives, several Americans de- son, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, was tried on this road signed and partially or wholly constructed them in accordance by the company. The wheels are of wood, the tires wrought with plans that differed in important respects from contempo- iron. The weight injured the railway. Another locomotive, raneous English machines. The pioneers of this class include also owned by the company, made at West Point, weight 6,7584 Peter Cooper, Long and Norris, and Phineas Davis. pounds, wheels 4 feet 8 inches in diameter, is in use; the aver- age speed, with a load of 8 tons, is 15 miles per hour, although IMPORTED ENGLISH LOCOMOTIVES. 30 miles per hour have been accomplished with this load on There had, however, been in England, during a score of years, the railway. efforts to construct locomotives, intermingled to a moderate Three locomotives are now in operation on the South Caro. extent with their practical use, and a succession of improve- lina Railroad; one of them is supported on eight wheels-it was ments, which had been tested in working operations, chiefly on made at West Point." colliery railways, before any American railway companies had The very early eight-wheeled locom- was finished lines with the intention of using steam power, and it presumably constructed in complia: of was natural that the first machines intended for actual service Horatio Allen, chief engineer of the should be imported. Of the three English engines purchased to the effect that by distributing Digitized by Google 94 EARLY LOCOMOTIVES. on eight wheels the pressure upon the light wooden railway thread. When this engine arrived in this country it was the would be diminished. most perfect locomotive in the world. It had been built by George Stephenson's firm as an improvement on the Planet, DEFECTS OF ENGLISH LOCOMOTIVES. which, built in 1830, was the first engine which had the com- The best of the English engines of that day were not intended bination of horizontal cylinders, multitubular boiler, and the for use on the fragile wooden rails, the heavy grades, and sharp blast pipe. The 'John Bull' was the first engine running in curves of American lines, and as they were made to burn coke, this country which possessed these three essential features of a and not wood, and were not provided with the spark arresters locomotive, for lack of which earlier engines in both countries necessary for wood-burning locomotives, they failed to serve were comparative failures." the intended purpose to the desired extent. Modifications were MR. DRIPPS APPLIES A PILOT TO THE JOHN BULL LOCOMOTIVE. evidently needed to compensate for the difference between the In preparing the John Bull and fourteen other engines of fragile, cheap, and crooked heavy-grade American lines, and similar design, the machinery of which was ordered and made the expensive and relatively solid, straight, and level English in England, for actual service, Mr. Isaac Dripps, who had from lines, and for the difference between wood- and coke-burning the outset and during a protracted period the direction of locomotives. One of the first of the improvements, which has motive power on the Camden and Amboy, adopted a peculiar since been almost universally used on American locomotives, device to enable the rigid English locomotives to turn curves, was the introduction of the locomotive truck, or bogie, of four which differed from that devised by Mr. Jervis, but was also wheels, underneath the front of the engine, which was sug- very effective. It consisted in the placing of two small wheels gested by Mr. John B. Jervis, one of the most distinguished of under a projection of the locomotive which corresponds in the early American civil engineers, when the first American location with the modern cow-catcher, and formed the pilot. locomotives intended for actual service were being constructed As an aid to this device, in facilitating the turning of curves, at the West Point Foundry. Its particular object was to sup- one of the forward driving-wheels of the locomotive was so port and govern the machine in running over curves. It is arranged as to move around the axle instead of turning with claimed that a similar device was embraced in a design of a it. By these ingenious arrangements the curve-turning diffi- locomotive by Long and Norris in 1829. An excellent substi- culty was completely overcome, not only on the John Bull but tute was also applied by Mr. Isaac Dripps to the English loco- on fourteen other engines of a similar pattern, which remained motives imported by the Camden and Amboy. Many other in active service for about a score of years. improvements were introduced from time to time, and the Another locomotive, called John Bull, was used on an early work of changing details is always progressing, with varying New York railroad. The Baltimore and Susquehanna (now results. But the increased aid attained in traversing uneven or the Northern Central) imported an English locomotive, called poorly constructed roads, by the use of the forward trucks or the Herald, at an early date. Orders for a few other English bogies, the power to ascend heavy grades, and the construction locomotives continued to be intermingled with contempor- of spark arresters, were among the most notable of early Ameri- aneous orders for American machines during several years, can achievements, and they were soon succeeded by numerous and at the outset considerable inconvenience and disappoint- useful inventions, which had the general effect of increasing ment resulted from the failure of the English works to adopt the strength, speed, and power of locomotives, as well as their devices necessary to meet the difficult conditions existing on weight. The alteration or construction of locomotives was at- most of the early American lines, and from the lack of the re- tempted, in a crude fushion, at various places. In a few cases quisite facilities for satisfactory work in pioneer American the foundation was laid for gigantic establishments, while in shops. other instances the novel undertaking was abandoned. While EARLY AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES. these native industries were being developed a few additional On the portion of the Baltimore and Ohio first constructed locomotives were also imported from England. One of the and on various other early lines, notably the Mohawk and earliest of these imported locomotives was probably brought Hudson, the Philadelphia and Germantown, the Camden and here for use on the New Castle and Frenchtown Railroad, and Amboy, and Philadelphia and Columbia, horse power was one of the most famous is still in existence, and it is claimed originally used to draw cars. The South Carolina Railroad is that at the time it was manufactured it was the best engine said to be the first railway in this or any other country which that had been made. It is the John Bull, ordered by Mr. was constructed from the outset with the understanding that Robert L. Stevens, for the use of the Camden and Amboy, in locomotives only were to be employed, but even on it vehicles the fall of 1830, and built by Robert Stephenson & Co., New- drawn by horses were used to a limited extent before locomo- castle-on-Tyne. It arrived at Bordentown, New Jersey, in tives were procured. As the first section of the Baltimore and August, 1831. A trial trip was made early in September, 1831, Ohio abounded with sharp curves the question arose whether, and an exhibition of its powers before members of the legisla- on such a line, locomotives could ever be successfully sub- ture of New Jersey in November of that year facilitated the stituted for horses. The prevailing opinion in England at that passage of a bill granting to the company the privilege of using time was that locomotives could neither ascend heavy grades locomotive power. This locomotive was exhibited at the Cen- nor turn very sharp curves. It was mainly to demonstrate that tennial Exposition in 1876, and at the Railway Exposition in this view was erroneous, and that the curves on the Baltimore 1883, and it has since been permanently deposited in the Na- and Ohio were not too sharp to permit the use of such forms tional Museum at Washington. It was in active service for of a locomotive as could be constructed, that Peter Cooper more than thirty years. made a locomotive which, although it was 80 diminutive that The following statements relating to this engine are attributed it was little more than a working model, fully accomplished its to Mr. J. Elfreth Watkins, who had charge of the railway curi- intended purpose. It is generally regarded as the first Ameri- osity department of the National Museum at the time they can locomotive, and probably was, if the previous efforts of were made: "This engine when it arrived in the country was Evans and Stevens, heretofore referred to, are not considered. substantially as it now is-with inside cylinders, four driving- A locomotive of a size adapted for continuous service was also wheels, and multitubular boiler. The driving-wheels originally made by Long & Norris, which was probably designed and may had cast-iron hubs, and locust spokes and felloes, and a tire or may not have been completed before about five inches wide and flanged, shrunk on like the tire of an ordinary cart-wheel. There was no head-light, no bell, and THE TRIAL TRIP OF THE COOPER LOCOMOTIVE. no pilot. The steam-pipes were inside the boiler, and the dome That trial trip was made on August 28th, 1830, and a con- was right over the fire-box. In the dome was a lock-up safety- temporaneous account which, it is said, was written by Ross valve, which the engineer could not reach. There was no cab, Winans, published in the Baltimore Gazette, of September 2d, and no tender came with the engine. To take its place, when 1830, says it "tested a most important principle, that curva- the first experiments were made, a tender was made of an ordi- tures of 400 feet radius offer no material impediment to the nary construction car, with a whisky barrel to hold the water, use of steam power on railroads when the wheels are con- which was fed to the engine through hose made by a shoe- structed with a cone on the principles ascertained by Mr. maker out of leather, connected with the tank by waxed Knight, chief engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Digitized by Google EARLY LOCOMOTIVES. 95 Company, to be applicable to such curvatures. The engineers to movements in England, says: "Now we have seen what Eng- in England have been so decidedly of opinion that locomotive land was doing, let us see what was going on in the United steam engines could not be used on curved rails, that it was States. Col. S. H. Long, of the United States Topographical much doubted whether the many curvatures on the Baltimore Corps of Engineers, and William Norris, Esq., a gentleman of and Ohio Railroad would not exclude the use of steam power. acknowledged scientific attainments, were at this very time ex- We congratulate our fellow citizens on the conclusive proof perimenting in the building of locomotives; and as early as which removes for ever all doubt on this subject, and estab- May, 1829, they designed a locomotive to burn anthracite coal. lishes the fact that steam power may be used on our road with The engine was arranged with two driving-wheels, five feet in as much facility and effect as that of horses, and at a much re- diameter, placed in front of the fire-box; the cylinders outside, duced expense." the front part of the engine resting upon a four-wheel truck, PIONEER LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. turning and resting on a centre bearing, in connection, and made Outlines of the history of the successful and enduring loco- fast to a bolster running across the truck frame. The pecu- motive works have been published, and if the rule of the sur- liarity of the boiler was in the arrangement of the tubes, there vival of the fittest can properly be applied to such subjects, it being two sets, and between which was a space of some twenty would be difficult to give too much credit to the men identified inches, forming a combustion chamber for the gases and with the establishment and continuance of the Baldwin Loco- smoke. There was also attached to the boiler a fan-blower, motive Works, and Rogers' works at Paterson. But it is no- driven by the exhaust steam, which was operated upon by the ticeable that there were a number of pioneers who have left no engineman at pleasure. This was used to produce artificial business successors to eulogize their labors and perpetuate their draught. Long & Norris built an engine called the mcmories. Colonel W. Milnor Roberts states that when he was Black Hawk, which performed with only partial success on the instructed by the directors of the Cumberland Valley road (of Boston and Providence Railroad, also upon the Philadelphia which 50.50 miles were in operation in 1836) to procure the and Germantown road in 1830. William Norris was undoubt- construction of a number of locomotives, "there were compara- edly the original designer of the accepted and adopted Ameri- tively few locomotive manufactories in the United States, and can locomotive, and to him alone belongs the credit of having they were on a small scale," and that he "went to Alexandria, built the first, and most thoroughly successful locomotive in Virginia, where there was a locomotive establishment, and the United States. His plans were unlike anything then made a contract for locomotives to be delivered in a few known. The cylinders were placed outside, as in the Rocket, months." He adds: "I then went to New Castle, and made a using wrought-iron frames, with the expansion, also a four- contract for another locomotive, and then took the boat for wheel pivoting, centre-bearing truck, also four eccentrics. Philadelphia. There were two locomotive works in that city, These were the distinguishing features of William Norris's Baldwin's and Mr. Norris'. Baldwin had so much work in pro- locomotive. In December, 1830, Long & Norris patented portion to his force that he could not engage to deliver any in chilled driving-wheel tires, with different modes of fastening the time named. I made a contract with Norris for two at the tire to the centre, also the introduction of a heater, for first, and two more afterwards. I then proceeded to Boston heating the feed water before entering the boiler. January and Lowell, and I thought the Lowell road better than any I 17th, 1833, they originated and patented the four eccentrics had yet traveled on. Lowell, even then, was a great manufac- and four eccentric rods, for working the valves of locomotive turing town, although comparatively in its infancy. I admired engines. December 30th, 1833, they also originated and the appearance of the town, manufactories, crowds of girls, and patented the double valve, using the auxiliary valve as a cut- the fine machine shops. Major Whistler was very obliging in off, to work the steam expansively. In 1835, William Norris showing me through the works, which, for that early period in (who was then alone, Col. Long having withdrawn all interest railroading, were on a large scale, and well worth seeing. He from the firm), commenced the construction of an engine after soon informed me that they were so overrun with orders that his own ideas, based upon mechanical principles and science, they could not attempt to make any engines for our company. with fixed opinions, he having seen, examined, and experi- I then returned to Philadelphia and Carlisle, and then to New mented with all known plans and proportions of locomotives Castle, where I tested the engine, and found it to work satisfac- in England and this country, looking closely to the very life torily." and main spring of the engine, the valve motion and its ap- He also says that he witnessed the "first experiment of ap- pendages. This engine, the crowning point of all his efforts, plying steam to a trumpet. This was between 1831 and 1883," was produced, and proved itself most successful, having per- and that it was his impression "that this preceded the intro- formed a duty far beyond his most sanguine expectations. duction of the locomotive steam whistle." The George Washington ascended the inclined plane upon the The fact that Mr. Roberts found a locomotive establishment Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, which is a grade rising at New Castle, with which he made a contract, at that period, one in 14,10 feet, or 359 feet per mile, taking up a load of some was due to the circumstance that locomotives forwarded from 53 persons, seated in two passenger cars, repeatedly coming to England for use on the New Castle and Frenchtown Railroad a stand on the grade, and again moving off with the load. After had first been landed at that point, and their machinery put reaching the summit the engine was turned round, and came together there, and this New Castle and Frenchtown Railroad down head foremost, stopping in its descent. Here was a tri- was one of the first lines in the United States, if not the first, umph, and to this day no other locomotive has ever attempted on which regular passenger movements in cars drawn by loco- such a feat. Notice was made of it in the public journals of motives were commenced, as it was an important link in a England, copied from the Philadelphia papers, which was ridi- favorite Atlantic coast through route between northern and culed by all, calling it a Munchausen story, yet the English en- southern sections of the country. It was chartered February gineers could not be convinced of the fact until William Norris, 7th, 1829, and opened in 1832, and a portion of the road now in 1839, sent a single locomotive to England to run upon the forms part of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore. Birmingham and Gloucester Railway, which performed a greater The Boston and Lowell Railroad, which he refers to as one of duty upon the Lickey inclined plane than he guaranteed. This the best of the early lines, was chartered June 8th, 1830, and caused the confirmation of я further order for 16 additional opened June 26th, 1835. The main line extended from Boston ones, which were built by William Norris in Philadelphia, and to Lowell, and was 26.35 miles in length. One of the most im- shipped to England in 1839 and 1840. This was a great tri- portant of the early locomotive works of New England was umph for an American engineer. It led to extended orders, established by Hinckley & Drury in Boston. and for several years afterwards William Norris continued to send from his workshops in Philadelphia some 170 engines to THE LONG & NORRIS AND NORRIS LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. France, Germany, Prussia, Austri- Belaium Italy, and Saxony. In connection with early locomotive construction, the works The performance of the Norri ^key incline started by Col. Stephen H. Long and William Norris in Phila- was so successful that the fix andoned, delphia, deserve special mention. Septimus Norris, in a com- and the working power of 1 4-1ced, munication dated Philadelphia, May 23d, 1856, and published in comparatively, to so sm^" om- Colburn's Railroad Advocate, of June 14th, 1856, after referring pany advanced £5 Digitized by Google 96 EARLY LOCOMOTIVES. The Norris works held a leading position for a number of the Charleston and Hamburg Railroad Company, and the en- years in the magnitude of their operations, the speed of their gine bore his name, and was completed February 18th, 1834. locomotives, and readiness to adopt important improvements. It was on six wheels, one pair being drivers, four and a half feet in diameter, with half-crank axle placed back of the fire- BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. box, and the four front wheels combined in a swiveling truck. Although the first American locomotive continuously used in The driving wheels, it should be observed, were cast in solid actual service was probably built at the West Point Foundry bell metal. These wheels soon wore out, and the experiment for the South Carolina or Charleston and Hamburg Railroad, was not repeated. This locomotive weighed seven tons and Mr. Baldwin a few years later received an order to construct one eight hundredweight. About the same time other orders were engine for that road, which, it is said, was his second locomotive received, and five locomotives were completed in 1834. These intended for actual service, the first having been built for the early locomotives were the type of Mr. Baldwin's practice for Germantown or Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown road some years. The subsequent history of the various improve- in 1832. Of this first Baldwin locomotive, which was called Old ments is identical with the history of locomotive engineering Ironsides, it is stated that its weight was 5 tons; driving wheels, in this country. 54 inches in diameter; cylinders, 91 <18 inches, and that wood Patents were taken out or held by Mr. Baldwin for the vari- was used for spokes and rim of the wheels, as well as for the ous improvements to his locomotives September 10th, 1834; frame of the engine. It closely resembled the English locomo- June, 1834; April 3d, 1835; August 17th, 1835; December 81st, tives, but the Baldwin works soon began to adopt important 1840; August 25th, 1842, and many at more recent dates. Four- improvements, some of which were invented by Mr. Baldwin, teen engines were constructed in 1836, forty in 1837, twenty- and others purchased from other inventors. A sketch of the three in 1838, twenty-six in 1839, and nine in 1840. During all Baldwin works contains the following reference to the period these years the general design continued the same, but three between 1830 and 1840:- sizes were furnished, as follows:- "The founder of the establishment was Matthias W. Baldwin, First class.-Cylinders, 121 in.; weight, loaded, 26,000 who learned the jewelry trade in 1817. He had a small shop, pounds. but in 1825 went into partnership with David Mason, a machin- Second class.-Cylinders, 12x16 in.; weight, loaded, 23,000 ist, in the manufacture of bookbinders' tools and cylinders for pounds. calico printing. In devising a steam engine which should oc- Third class.-Cylinders, 101 X16 in.; weight, loaded, 20,000 cupy the least space in his shop, Mr. Baldwin, about 1830, hit pounds. upon an upright engine of so novel and ingenious a form that The financial troubles of 1836 and 1837 had their effect on the attention was immediately attracted to it, and Mr. Baldwin re- demand for locomotives, as will be seen in the decrease in the ceived orders for others of the same pattern. This original number built in 1838, '39, and '40. In May, 1837, the number stationary engine is still in good condition, and is carefully pre- of hands employed was three hundred, but this was reduced served at the works. In 1829-30 the use of steam as a motive weekly. April 9th, 1839, Mr. Baldwin associated himself with power on railroads had begun to engage the attention of Ameri- Messrs. Vail and Hufty, and the business was conducted under can engineers. A few locomotives had been imported from the firm name of Baldwin, Vail & Hufty until 1841, when Mr. England, and one had been constructed at the West Point Hufty withdrew, and Baldwin & Vail continued the construc- Foundry, in New York city. To gratify the public interest in tion of more powerful locomotives, and Mr. Baldwin, after care- the new motor, Mr. Franklin Peale, then proprietor of the ful consideration of the subject, took steps to supply a 'geared Philadelphia Museum, applied to Mr. Baldwin to construct a engine,' and the success of the first locomotive constructed miniature locomotive for exhibition at his establishment. With under his new patent of 1840 was unprecedented. Only one of the aid only of the imperfect published descriptions and sketches these was, however, built. The problem of utilizing more or of the locomotives which had taken part in the Rainhile com- all of the weight of the engine for adhesion remained, in Mr. petition in England, Mr. Baldwin undertook the work, and on Baldwin's views, unsolved." April 25th, 1831, the miniature locomotive was put in motion EARLY LOCOMOTIVES ON COLUMBIA AND PHILADELPHIA RAILROAD. on a circular track, made of pine boards covered with hoop One track of the Columbia and Philadelphia Railroad was iron, in the rooms of the museum. Two small cars, containing formally opened throughout its entire length, so as to be avail- seats for four passengers, were attached to it, and the novel able for the use of locomotive power, in April, 1834. The loco- spectacle attracted crowds of admiring spectators. motive used was the Black Hawk. The distinguished official In the same year, 1831, Mr. Baldwin received an order from passengers, including the canal commissioners and a number the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railroad Com- of members of the legislature, were conveyed from Columbia pany, whose line was operated by horse power, for a locomo- to Lancaster in fifty-five minutes, and on the following morn- tive. He undertook the work, and, guided by an inspection of ing at eight o'clock the journey from Lancaster was commenced. the parts of an English locomotive, and by his experience with A contemporaneous account states that the "train arrived at the Peale model, finally completed an engine which was chris- the Gap at ten, passed with ease the works there constructed, tened 'Old Ironsides,' and tried on the road November 23d, and arrived at the head of the inclined plane near the Schuyl- 1832. It was put at once into service, and did duty on the kill at half-past four in the afternoon, having made the trip in Germantown road and others for over twenty years. The eight hours and a half, all stoppages for taking in water, receiv- Ironsides was a four-wheeled engine, modeled on the English ing and discharging passengers, and incidental delays included. practice of that day, and weighed something over five tons. If it be borne in mind that the engine is one of very limited The price of the engine was to have been $4,000, but some power, that the number of passengers was large, the weight of difficulty was found in procuring a settlement. The company cars and baggage very considerable, and that the passage was claimed that the engine did not perform according to contract, made under the disadvantages inseparable from first attempts, and objection was also made to some defects in it. After these all will concur in awarding to the engineer, and those in charge had been corrected as far as possible, however, Mr. Baldwin of the locomotive and train of cars, great praise for their skill finally succeeded in effecting a compromise settlement, and re- in effecting 80 successful and gratifying an issue of the under- ceived from the company $3,500 for the machine. The Iron- taking." sides subsequently attained a speed of thirty miles per hour, Of the first locomotive Mr. Baldwin built for the common- and so great were the wonder and curiosity attached to it that wealth of Pennsylvania, which was called the Lancaster, and people eagerly bought the privilege of riding behind it. completed in June, 1834, and which weighed 17,000 pounds, it It was some time before Mr. Baldwin secured an order for was reported that it hauled at one time nineteen loaded burden another, but the subject. had become singularly fascinating to cars over the highest grades between Philadelphia and Colum- him, and he made the most careful examination of every im- bia. This was characterized by the officers of the road as an provement, and experimented for himself. By the time the "unprecedented performance," and it probably was, but in order for the second locomotive was received, Mr. Baldwin had estimating the magnitude of the service performed the fact matured this device, and was prepared to embody it in practi- should be remembered that the burden cars of that era were cal form. The order came from Mr. E. L. Miller, in behalf of very diminutive affairs, in contrast with their successors. Digitized by Google Mexican Cart. Cart with Wooden Wheels. Jersey Wagon of 1800. Conestoga Wagon. me. Truck Wagon. Express Wagon. Digitized by Google 1 Digitized by EARLY LOCOMOTIVES. 97 The locomotives used on the Columbia and Philadelphia period was $2 per day for engineers and $1.25 per day for fire- Railroad from 1839 up to a period some ten years or more later men, the time paid for being that in which actual service was were obtained from various manufacturers, viz., M. W. Bald- performed, and all accounts being verified by affidavits. The win, Richard Norris & Sons, and Eastwick & Harrison, of Phila- total payments for that month were $990 for engineers and delphia; Dotterer & Son, of Reading; John Brandt, of Lancaster; $674.36 for firemen. Of the twenty engineers two were em- and Ross Winans, of Baltimore. ployed on a night line, two on a fast line, and sixteen in run- All the engines in use in 1839, and for some time later, had ning "burden" or freight trains. single drivers, none of them having more than a single pair of Of the forty men in service at that time, only five are known wheels, exclusive of the pony truck. During the period from to be living now (1886), and several were killed by accidents on 1839 to 1854 the weight of new locomotives obtained gradually the road. One of these accidents, by which an engineer and a increased from about seven tons to about fifteen tons. A lead- fireman lost their lives, led to the introduction of ing point of difference between the early Baldwin and Norris SAFETY CHAINS, CONNECTING THE LOCOMOTIVE AND TENDER, engines was the use of a crank axle on the former, and a straight axle on the latter. For some time opinions differed in regard on that road and others. The men were standing with one to the respective merits of these devices, and the final decision foot on the locomotive and another on the tender, when the was in favor of the straight axle, partly on account of the ex- coupling suddenly broke, and they fell to the ground, and were pense sometimes caused by the use of the crank axle, and run over by the train. Previous to that time the coupler fur- partly because it was believed that straight-axled engines could nished the only connecting link between the locomotive and be more promptly started. Three engines purchased from East- the tender. wick & Harrison also had straight axles. They were considered Another novel incident led to the swiftest locomotives on the road, and they were, therefore, THE INTRODUCTION OF SAND BOXES. employed in hauling passenger trains. During the fifth decade It occurred on a section known as Grasshopper Level, a few four-wheeled engines were introduced. The locomotives made miles east of the city of Lancaster, and happened during a sea- by John Brandt, at Lancaster, were very satisfactory. Two en- son when grasshoppers were so numerous that, in addition to gines procured from Ross Winans were known as crabs. They becoming a devouring pest on the adjacent farms, they im- were four-wheeled, had vertical boilers, and were specially in- peded, and in some instances temporarily prevented, the pro- tended for burning anthracite coal. They had the reputation gress of trains on the railway. One of the remedies adopted of 'pulling like elephants," but it was difficult to keep the flues was to keep men stationed on the track to sweep the grasshop- in proper order, leakages being frequent, and on this account pers off, as they accumulated in immense throngs, but the aid they were sometimes disabled on the road. derived from this expedient not being sufficient to fully meet As with all other early American locomotives there were no the emergency, arrangements were made for the first time on cabs in 1839, and when their introduction was proposed a few that road to provide sand boxes. years later, the locomotive engineers strongly objected to their use, for the reason that they believed the perils to which they THE PHINEAS DAVIS LOCOMOTIVES. would be exposed in case an engine was overturned or thrown An extract from an early report of the Baltimore and Ohio off the track would be materially increased by confinement in Railroad Company, which is published in Hazard's Register of a cab. April, 1833, gives a detailed account of the results of experi- One of the greatest of the early difficulties experienced in ments, continued during a period of 30 days, with a locomotive the repair shops at Parkesburg arose from the fact that the steam engine called the Atlantic, which had been constructed nuts and bolts used on the locomotives procured from a num- by Messrs. Davis & Gartner, of York, Pennsylvania, It is stated ber of different establishments were of different sizes and pat- that these experiments were made "for the purpose of ascer- terns, every bolt having its own corresponding nut, and the taining, practically and conclusively, the applicability of steam adoption of effective remedies for this multiplicity of sizes and power upon that road, and with the further view of testing its shapes proved very useful. comparative expense and advantages with animal power." The This difficulty was heightened by the tendency to unneces- engine is described as weighing 5} tons, exclusive of water, and sarily increase the number of establishments from which loco- as having two cylinders, of 10 inches diameter each, with a motives were purchased, by the pressure of political influence, stroke of 20 inches, and working on road wheels of 3 feet while state management prevailed. Other outgrowths of party diameter. Its performances consisted of drawing five cars, management were the actual or threatened dismissal of promi- weighing about 18 tons, at an average speed of about 12 miles nent employés for partisan reasons, the occasional purchase of per hour. But on several occasions a load of 30 tons, exclusive inferior bituminous coal, and an attempt to convert a locomo- of the engine and tender, was drawn 13 miles within an hour. tive into an anthracite coal burner which only resulted in This engine was designed specially for speed, and the report spoiling a good engine. said that the builders were then making a freight engine which THE PARKESBURG SHOPS was expected to draw 100 tons from 6 to 8 miles per hour. The Atlantic's performances were highly economical as compared were located midway between Philadelphia and Columbia, and with the horse power then used, as her daily labor involved all general repairs of locomotives were made at them for years. only an expense of $16; while the total expense of the animal The only provision at either end of the line was furnished by power needed to accomplish the same results was $33-a saving blacksmiths and helpers, who were in readiness to perform of $17 per day, or upwards of $500 per month. such labors as locomotive enginecrs considered necessary. This locomotive, Atlantic, was the outgrowth of the success- A pay roll of the Parkesburg shops for September, 1843, ful competition of Mr. Phineas Davis for a prize of $500 offered shows that the official title of the road then was the Columbia by the Baltimore and Ohio, in 1830, to the constructor of a and Philadelphia Railroad (although at a later date it was locomotive which would draw 15 tons, gross weight, 15 miles styled the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, and the report an hour. An engine previously constructed complied with of its superintendent for 1855 gives it that title). The number these conditions and its pattern was adopted, but the Atlantic of employés was 31, including one manager, Mr. Edwin Jefferies, was an improvement on the first machine. It is stated that one foreman, thirteen machinists, three blacksmiths, one cop- Mr. Davis was a Quaker, and that his first locomotive was com- persmith, two file makers, one pattern maker, three carpenters, menced in York in 1831 and taken to Baltimore in February, one stationary engineer, four assistants, and one watchman. 1832. He was made master of machinery of the Baltimore The aggregate amount of the pay roll of these 31 men for that and Ohio, and soon after completing the Atlantic he designed month was $1,087.88. the Arabian, exhibited at the Chicago sition of The pay roll of locomotive engineers and firemen employed 1883. Shortly before it was opened a bian on the Columbia and Philadelphia Railroad during the month appeared in the Washington Republi of August, 1843, shows that their number was 40-twenty engi- following extract:- neers and twenty firemen. The standard rate of wages at that "Then Mr. Davis designed th. time and for some years previous to and subsequent to that built at the company's shop 13 Digitized by Google 98 NOTABLE IMPROVEMENTS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. signer. It went into service June, 1834. It has been carefully struction, and foreman of foundry, blacksmith and machine taken care of and repaired, and, with very little difference, is shop. There was not another foreman beside in any depart- precisely the same engine that it was forty-nine years ago. It ment. The shop where the first locomotives were built was is a geared engine, having a vertical cylinder with walking 40x100, two stories in height. From thirty to forty men were beam. It has four driving-wheels, each thirty-six inches in employed. After five or six engines had been built the works diameter, or nearly one-half the size of the drivers used on were greatly extended, until they were 40 x200, three stories, modern passenger locomotives. The weight of the Arabian is of brick. Later, still further additions were made, and the de- thirteen tons, about one-third that of the modern locomotive. mand for engines came in from every direction, from the east, Its tractive power is 6,000 pounds. It used to have its fans con- west, north, and south." nected with the exhaust, but these became broken, and no An intelligent and experienced locomotive engineer, Mr. attempt has been made to restore them. With this exception George Hollingsworth, who commenced running a locomotive it is the same engine as when first made. It is in active service in 1838, when interviewed by a representative of the American at the Mount Clare yards, and works as well now as when first Machinist, in 1883, gave the following replies in regard to the put on the road. It was for many years a passenger engine, early English engines used on American roads, and the charac- drawing trains on both the Washington branch and the main teristics of the locomotives first built at the Rogers Locomotive stem. So far as could be learned it had never met with an Works:- accident, never jumped a rail or run off the track, with one "Q. What style were your English engines? exception. That exception was a notable one. Before it was A. They were of the John Bull type. All the boilers that finished Mr. Davis promised the workmen engaged in the were built in England for the Camden and Amboy folks were shops-some three hundred-to take them and their families built very nearly after that pattern. They were built with a on the train drawn by the Arabian as far as it went, then to go waist straight to the back of the furnace. The engines were to Washington and have dinner at Brown's (now the Metropol- all inside connected, but they were good running engines. itan) Hotel. The Washington branch was then opened nearly They were bad engines to work, though, for they were hard to to Bladensburg. The trip was made, William Duff being the reverse. They were built with a rock-shaft right in front of the engineer. Just west of Jessup's Cut, 131 miles this side of Bal- cylinders, and the drop hooks came right through to where the timore, the Arabian ran off the track. Mr. Davis was sitting shaft was, and there was nothing to catch but the straight hook with Mr. Duff when the accident occurred. The engine rolled and die. So when the engines were running you could not re- on its side. Neither Duff nor anybody else on the train was verse them. The V hook was a little better in this respect, and hurt, even in the least, but Mr. Davis. He was killed. There a figure 8 hook was better still. seemed to be a special fate in the matter. Nobody could ever But the link was what ended the trouble in reversing. These tell why the Arabian ran off the track. There was no evidence early engines did good work for their size. The parts were ever shown, although the fullest investigation was made, that made in England, and sent over here to be put together. Isaac any cause existed to throw it off." Dripps put up the principal portions of them. After the death of Mr. Davis, the construction of locomotives Q. What kind of engines were the Rogers works building was continued at Baltimore, by Ross Winans, at first in connec- when you knew them first? tion with a partner, and subsequently on his own account. He A. They were small inside connected engines, with one pair adopted a type which became popularly known as Ross Winans' of drivers and a four-wheel truck. They built very few of grasshoppers, and subsequently built "crab" engines. them. Mr. Rogers went to England on a visit, and when he came back they began building eight-wheelers, with two pairs THE ROGERS LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. of drivers connected. The first engines of this kind had the Horatio Allen relates that he urged the members of the main rod connected to the crank-pin outside the back drivers. firm which built the first locomotive at Paterson, New Jersey, They were outside connected engines. Mr. Rogers was one of to engage in that business. It was then known as Rogers, the first to advocate outside connected locomotives. Ketchum & Grosvenor, and the first locomotive, the Sandusky, Q. Had these engines long exhaust pipes? was built in 1837. This locomotive had been built for the New A. Yes; the long exhaust pipe was used for several years. Jersey Railroad and Transportation Company, but it was pur- Then, I think, old Jim Parks proposed the short exhaust pipe. chased by the Mad River and Lake Erie and shipped to Ohio. He was a coal-pit engineer. When they tried the short exhaust It had been commenced in 1835, after a considerable amount pipe first it did not do. The steam spread before it reached the of preliminary work before that year. In connection with smoke-stack, and caused back lash. Then they put in the pet- these efforts the Paterson, New Jersey Press, says:- ticoat pipe, and that made the short exhaust pipe work all "After the success of the 'Sandusky' was assured, the firm right. of Rogers, Ketchum & Grosvenor continued to build locomo- Q. Had you any steam gauges in those days? tives. The next one was built for the New Jersey Railroad A. No; we had nothing but the spring balance, connected and Transportation Company, and was named the 'Arreseoh, with the end of the safety-valve lever. They were Salter bal- No. 2.' This, which was larger than the 'Sandusky,' was also ance springs, imported from England. Then Orton, of Elm a success. For this, also, Mr. Swinburne made the plans, serv- street, New York, who was a pupil of Salter's, began making ing as draughtsman, pattern-maker, superintendent of con- these spring gauges, and he got all the trade." NOTABLE IMPROVEMENTS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. CABS, SPARK ARRESTERS, EQUALIZING BEAMS, ETC the English roads, because there coke was usually the fuel used, A N important improvement of American locomotives in while here wood, and frequently pine, fed the flames of the loco- addition to the bogie or locomotive truck and the pilot, motive. The outpouring of sparks was frightful. Even after devised by Mr. Dripps, was the construction of a comfortable wire screens and effective methods of arranging them were cab or sheltering place for the locomotive engineer. A number devised, it was sometimes difficult to obtain the requisite of improvements in wheels and tires were devised. Springs amount of appropriate material, and in this as in many other were applied to break the force of jars and shocks. Great matters, a series of new wants were developed for which no attention was also given to devices for arresting sparks, when adequate provision had previously been made. wood was used as fuel (which was the general custom), 80 as to The original American locomotives were nearly all wood- prevent the burning of haystacks, barns, and other buildings burners, and during a protracted period while spark-arresting adjacent to the tracks. Much trouble arose from the lack of inventions were undergoing a gradual process of evolution, satisfactory spark arresters, and many attempts to remedy this with occasional failures, a great amount of destruction and defect were made. Corresponding difficulties had not arisen on annoyance was caused on some lines. Interwoven with this Digitized by Google NOTABLE IMPROVEMENTS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE. 99 difficulty was a necessity for using smoke-stacks considerably cause it was considered too heavy for the line it was bought to higher than those now generally used,-too high, indeed, to serve, although the weight of this locomotive was only about pass under the roof of some wooden bridges or some overhead six or seven tons. Similar difficulties were encountered in at- bridges,-and to overcome this defect the smoke-stacks of some tempts to run six- or seven-ton locomotives over other roads. locomotives were jointed or hinged 80 that they could be The necessity of constructing locomotives of such limited lowered when trains were proceeding over or under bridges. size and capacity that they would not injure the fragile wooden- This requirement probably increased the danger that the loco- rail and strap-iron roads was so imperative that desirable im- motive would literally become a devouring engine. At all provements were postponed on this account. Nothing perhaps events it was customary on some of the covered wooden better illustrates the tendencies of this description which for a bridges for a watchman to follow every train, carrying a bucket time prevailed than the fact that in 1833 Robert Stephenson, of water for the purpose of extinguishing fires, and notwith- of England, wrote to Robert L. Stevens, of the Camden and standing this precaution some wooden bridges were burned. Amboy, a letter deprecating the general inclination in this Increase of power was another desideratum, and it was re- country to build light locomotives, and stating that he had ported in 1835 that the power of Baldwin engines then at work completed the design of an engine, of which he gave a sketch, on the Philadelphia and Columbia, was thirty-five per cent. which weighed nine tons, and was capable of hauling "one greater than that of two English engines which were also then hundred tons dead load sixteen or eighteen miles an hour on a in use. To Thomas Rogers, of the Rogers Locomotive Works, level." He solicited the aid of Mr. Stevens in effecting sales of is given the credit of several important devices, one of which such a locomotive. was making the driving-wheels of hollow cast iron, as a sub- Primitive ideas of what a locomotive should be are indicated stitute for the wooden wheels with iron tires, and another the by the fact that when the Baltimore and Ohio advertised for use of weights on the wheels to counterbalance the momentum American engines in January, 1831, it stipulated that "the en- of reciprocating parts. Joseph Harrison, of Philadelphia, in gine, when in operation, must not exceed three and one-half 1837, invented a useful method of distributing the weight of tons' weight, and must, on a level road, be capable of drawing, the engine evenly to the axle boxes by means of equalizing day by day, fifteen tons, inclusive of the weight of the wagons, levers. In connection with this improvement and the circum- fifteen miles per hour." stances that gave rise to it, a sketch of locomotive advance- The first annual report of the New York and Erie Railroad, ment says:- dated September 29th, 1835, after discussing the grades then "Mr. Henry R. Campbell, of Philadelphia, on February 5th, proposed for that projected line, and the improvements which 1836, secured a patent for an eight-wheel engine with four had been made in locomotives, and referring to elaborate in- driving-wheels connected, and a four-wheeled truck in front, vestigations by distinguished civil engineers, says: "The board and James Brooks, of Philadelphia, built for him such a ma- of directors now have the gratification of announcing to the chine, completing it May 8th, 1837. This was the first eight- stockholders the following result, to wit: That loads of sixty wheeled engine of this type, and from it the standard American tons gross (or, deducting the weight of the cars, forty tons net,) locomotive of to-day takes its origin. The engine lacked, how- may be drawn in a single train from the Hudson river to lake ever, one essential feature; there were no equalizing beams be- Erie, and at an average speed of from twelve to fourteen miles tween the driving-wheels, and nothing but the ordinary steel to the hour; that with the rate of speed augmented one-half, a springs over each journal of the driving-axles to equalize the locomotive engine will nevertheless suffice to transport two weight upon them. It remained for Messrs. Eastwick & Har- hundred passengers and their baggage; that no stationary en- rison to supply this deficiency; and in 1837 that firm constructed gine will be requisite to any part of the work; and that one, or, at their shop in Philadelphia a locomotive on this plan, but at most, two auxiliary engines (or pushers) will be requisite on with the driving-axles running in a separate square, connected the whole length of the line." to the main frame above it by a single central bearing on each In an economic sense, the great advance made in the loco- side. This engine had cylinders twelve by eighteen, four coupled motive which outstrips all others, is in the increase of the driving-wheels, forty-four inches in diametor, carrying eight of weight of the trains which each machine can draw, and in this the twelve tons constituting the total weight. Subsequently, respect, although a very creditable and remarkable improve- Mr. Joseph Harrison, jr., of the same firm, substituted "equal- ment had been effected prior to 1840, by which time some izing beams" on engines of this plan afterward constructed by locomotives weighed twelve tons, and drew several hundred them, substantially in the same manner as since generally em- tons, the main part of the desirable work, in the direction in- ployed." dicated, still remained to be done. INCREASE OF LOCOMOTIVE CAPACITY. LOCOMOTIVE POSSIBILITIES IN 1840. The limited powers of the very early locomotives, and the That much had been accomplished, however, in comparison nature of the first advances, are indicated by the fact that with the limited capacity and performances of 1830, is shown Jonathan Knight, civil engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio in by the records made and the claims set forth by rival manufac- 1832, said: In the year 1828 the power of the locomotive en- turers in 1840. The Reading railroad was then a favorite field gine was no more than sufficient to propel itself up an ascent for competitive effort, and some of the most notable achieve- of 1 in 96 at the rate of 10 miles an hour, without dragging any ments occurred on its lines. A statement of its superintendent, load after it. In the course of two years after, however, such Mr. A. Nichols, dated July 31st, 1839, said of a Baldwin loco- were the improvements made in this engine that it could draw motive that it had been in use fifteen months; that its perform- up that ascent a train of cars weighing, with their freight, 17 ance was in every way satisfactory, and that it "drew at one tons, at 10 miles per hour. At the same time, it could draw on time 45 cars, loaded with 150 tons of rails and iron, making in a level, at the same speed, 53,4 tons; at 15 miles per hour, 30 all 221 tons gross behind the tender, from Reading to Norris- tons, and at 20 miles per hour, 15 tons." town, 41 miles, in 3 hours and 41 minutes, running time." This It was considered quite a triumph for Mr. Cooper's Tom engine was presumably built in the early part of 1838. Thumb to draw a single passenger car of about the size and A Norris engine drew over the Boston and Worcester road weight of a small street railway car. Of Mr. Baldwin's first in 1840 a load of 150 net tons and 1,789 pounds, exclusive of 37 practical locomotive, a contemporaneous account of its trial cars and a tender, which added 90 tons and 820 pounds to the trip states that "there is every reason to believe that this en- weight drawn, and the movement was made partly over grades gine will draw thirty tons gross." of thirty feet to the mile, which, although they taxed the ca- One of the principal reasons why locomotives did not increase pacity of the locomotive severely, were overcome by the free in size and capacity more rapidly arose from the defective na- application of sand to the rails. This was considered an extra- ture of the railroads. It was feared that heavy locomotives ordinary achievement. would injure the roads then existing, and a striking proof of Another notable performance was reported of a locomotive the necessity for caution was furnished by the fact that the constructed by Eastwick & Harrison, a rising firm of locomo- Stourbridge Lion, after making a successful trial trip, was dis- tive builders, located in Philadelphia, which discontinued ope- carded, not on account of any inherent defect, but largely be- rations in the United States on account of strong inducements Digitized by Google 8n permitments Coumbia and Philadelphia, 26; Harrisburg 'adelphia and Trenton, 4; Philadelphia, schoylk. Cumberland Valley, 1; Heading. 2 In New York-Utica and Sche- and Paratoga, 2; Long Island 2; Ro. Bottain and Niagara Falls, 1. In Geor- and Banking Company, 12; Central Monroe Railroad and Banking Com- , Jersey Railroad and Transpor- and Somerville, 2; Morris in Wilmington and smith Cambina-Charleston and Hamburg, 6. and Yp-ilanti, 3; Adrian and Toledo, 2; 1. In Massachusetts.-Boston and Provi- HIMIN and W Decenter, 3. In Maryland.-Elkridge In Lovisiana.-Clinton and Port Hudson, Sex Orleans and Nashville, In Indiana.- and Indianapotin, 3. In Illinois-North Cross Road, 2 Mississippi, 1. In North nington, 1, and Raleigh, 2 In Florida.-Lake and at. Joseph's, 2 In Alabama.-Mobile and Cedar incombia and Decator, 1. In Connecticut-Housa- In West Indive-Leland of Cuba Railroad, 3. Total, in CARS OF THE EARLY LINES. Л the CAP building - , presible ." 2 more prmi- returned in the increased desirability of the cars the investment 11/0 condition Bun the construction A Incometice. world be profitable. Under these considerations it is recom- Miny individuals A4 Perm " shope them own an .? mended that a number of burthen cars shall be furnished with the voluctes work ... be mean on common conds. The first car springs in order to test their advantageous use on such cars." used for transporting passengers on an English mad resembled M amail loss cabon on wherele, and NAMA of the earlient American IMPROVEMENTS or THE BALTIMORE AND OHIO. CHEM were non much better. Another English device was in tit Of care used in early operations on the Baltimore and Ohio "P (ii) railway Briscke a platform on which passengers could Mr. George W. Smith, in his notes on Wood's Treatise on Rail- phice there own enrriages and it in them while they were mada, published in 1832, says: "The wheels of the wagons are traveling. Home of the heat of the primitive American pas- made in accordance with the old-fashioned plan formerly pur- senger enta were stage-bodies put on trucks adapted to the sued on some of the colliery railroads in Great Britain-the rulls, and n number of the expedients were of a less convenient fellow being elightly conical, and curving towards the flange; and appropriate character. Pictures of some of the early cars this has, however, been claimed as a new and important inven- represent stage-comehes, and others depict clumsy covered box- tion. The novelty of railroads in this country, has induced wagons, some of which had seats made of rough planks. many ingenious persons, connected with this railroad, to sub- mit to the public, through the press, a number of devices pur- DEVELOPMENT OF A NECESSITY FOR "SPRINGS." porting to be original; all of which (so far as they have been The National Car Builder says that "the care for carrying examined by the writer) are either in use, or have been pro- passengers on the Liverpool and Manchester road in 1830 were posed elsewhere, with two exceptions, namely, the mode of without roofs, the body consisting of floor sills, and side and oiling the friction wheel of the wagon, claimed by Winans, and end framing boarded up. There were no springs, and the the plan of oiling common axles by means of a cork floating journal-boxes were bolted to the sills. In the following year in oil; the latter was introduced by Colonel Long." springs were introduced for the purpose of protecting the rigid Other accounts of early operations at Baltimore state that in frame from the shocks of concussion. This improvement could December, 1828, Roes Winans exhibited in that city the model hardly fail to be suggested by the important service rendered of a car weighing about 125 pounds and running upon tracks. by springs in ordinary vehicles. The face of the car wheels It was repeatedly loaded with deposits of 5 cwt. and two men, were next made conical instead of flat, in order that they and the whole weight drawn by a piece of twine. This feat might get around curves more easily. A few years later came attracted much attention, as it was regarded as a remarkable the class carriages, designated as first, second, and third class, demonstration of advantages that could be derived from the the tirst having cushioned seats, but quite devoid of any special use of such anti-friction cars. crnamentation. In addition to these there were 'mixed' car- Another account says that the first car was like a market-car rigges so-called, having three compartments, the centre one on wooden wheels. The next was a nine-passenger coach, with being for first-class passengers and the other two for second leathern braces and springs. At a later date Ross Winans made ciass" an eight-wheeled passenger car which he styled the Columbus. In $ report of the Baltimore and Ohio for the year ended It was followed by novel devices, one of which was nicknamed September 30th, 1831, Jonathan Knight, chief engineer, says: by the workmen the Sea Serpent, and another the Dromedary, :: and been found absolutely necessary to the comfort of pas- and then by improvements of the eight-wheeled car embodied sempers. that carriages used for their conveyance should be in vehicles called Washington cars. mounted upon springs or upon some equivalent elastic fixture. Baltimore was one of the early centres of car improvements. And -lt! pars and concussions that would destroy the comfort of Of the first passenger car on the Baltimore and Ohio, a modern De passengers become increased with a load of stone, minerals, writer says that on this road "ran, first of all, a little, clap- ir if agreement products. or with any other loading having & boarded cabin on wheels, for all the world like one of those = than persons. and although the articles of traffic North Carolina mountain huts, with the driver perched on top By TUE - immaged. yet the effects upon the carriage and of the front portico-driver, because the motive power then mi vil re injurious The chief disadvantage to be appre- was one horse in tread-mill box." amaint mm springs is their cost, but should this be more than It was succeeded by something like a market car on wheels, Digitized by Google CARS OF THE EARLY LINES. 101 and subsequently by stage-coach bodies. An advance is de- pearance of a train of cars was 80 unique that in comparison scribed in the Baltimore American, of August 4th, 1830, as a with a train of the present day it was ludicrous in the extreme. device of Richard Imlay, of which that journal says that "the He added that one of the most remarkable of the early coaches body of the carriage will contain twelve persons, and the out- was used on the Charleston and Hamburg. This car was in side seats at either end will receive six, including the driver. reality a mammoth cistern laid on wheels. A door was cut in On the top of the carriage is placed a double sofa, running each end, and between the hoops were cut openings that served lengthwise, which will accommodate twelve more. A wire net- as windows. The seats were arranged longitudinally inside the ting rises from two sides of the carriage to a height which ren- car, which, as it stood on the rails, was an object of great ders the top seats perfectly secure. The whole is surmounted curiosity to Captain Grant, familiar as he thought he was with by an iron framework, with an awning to protect from sun or every form of railroad cars in use in those days. rain. The carriage, which is named the Ohio, is very hand- The following reference to these novel cars is made in the somely finished." report of the South Carolina Railroad (which had originally Cars similar to the above were run upon the Baltimore and been the Charleston and Hamburg), for the half year ending Ohio until a year or two later, when Ross Winans built what is June 30th, 1840: 'Another improvement, of perhaps greater reported to be the first eight-wheel car ever constructed for pas- importance, and which has originated with ourselves, is the sengers. It was a large box, with a truck of four wheels at barrel car-constructed both for passengers and freight. These either end, and seats on top, which were reached by a ladder are made with staves grooved and dove-tailed together, and at one of the corners. Several improvements on this device supported by six iron hoops two inches wide by half inch thick speedily followed, and the one which met with most general -doors at both ends. The passenger car is 30 feet long in the favor resembled a combination of three coach bodies into one, clear, with portico at the ends 21 feet long. The diameter in divided into three apartments, and entered by doors on the the centre is 9 feet, and at the ends 8 feet. The staves are 1t- side of each apartment. This device was succeeded shortly inch boards 5 to 6 inches wide, extending the whole length of afterwards, on the Baltimore and Ohio, by cars embodying the the car. There are 20 windows on each side, 15x30 inches, plan, which has since been almost universally adopted, of hav- glazed-the sash passing up overhead. The freight car, which ing doors only at the front and rear of the car, and with an has been in use about four months, is only feet long-but aisle between seats extending through the entire length of others are being constructed 30 feet long, and will carry about the car. 40 to 50 bales of cotton, or 15,000 pounds of other goods." Much importance was attached to inventions of Ross Winans, LIMITED CAPACITY OF FREIGHT CARS. which were reported to include the chilled-iron car wheel and other devices, which had a tendency to diminish friction. An The freight cars used on coal roads before passenger traffic engineer, writing in 1831, says: "A few years ago Tredgold esti- was commenced were of limited capacity. On the Mauch mated the friction at one in 130. N. Wood ventured as far as Chunk Railway each car weighed 16 cwt., and carried 32 cwt one in 200. Now the Winans car enables one pound to draw in addition. 450." Another account states that "the Winans wagon, On the Little Schuylkill, an early coal road of Pennsylvania, invented by an American, was the model used both in the the cars used carried three tons of coal. The wheels were United States and England. The wheels were three feet high, three feet in diameter, and two of them on one side were loose and the wagon ran with a friction, according to a statement on the axle, which also revolved. This arrangement was published at the time, of only 21 pounds to the ton. The adopted to lessen friction on curves. Stage-coach bodies were wagon would run, by its own gravity, on a railroad that inclines used for the conveyance of passengers. 5 feet 104 inches a mile, or one inch in 70 feet, which was con- Jonathan Knight, civil engineer of the Baltimore and Ohio, sidered one of the wonders of the age." in 1832, said: "As the most economical ratio of weight between An early account of a trial trip on the Little Schuylkill and that of a car and its load is 1 to 3, and as the weight of a car to Susquehanna Railroad, opened in November, 1831, says that carry 3 tons is 1 ton, we shall, therefore, on the present' occa- "two splendid pleasure cars, of Baltimore construction, con- sion, assume the proper weight of each car to be 1 ton, and its taining about sixty persons, propelled by two horses each, and freight 3 tons, as a general rule, upon great lines of railway." one of less dimensions, and lighter construction, with one horse, It is stated that "the first freight cars put on the Boston and and two trucks for burthen, also containing passengers," were Albany were made just large enough to hold two hogsheads of used. molasses, and one director, named Hammond, was considered An early description of cars says: "The railway cars or car- well nigh insane because he predicted that as many as eighty- riages are fitted with iron wheels, which, being cast in a chill, five such freight cars of that pattern would at some time be afford surfaces like hardened steel. Each wheel has a flange, needed between Boston and Albany. When the long cars were or projecting rim, of about one inch in depth, which runs first introduced it was the custom of the company to number below the rail plates on the inner side of the tracks, and which each end separately, 80 that the goods in one end of the car effectually prevents the wheels from leaving the rails." were billed under one number, and those in the other end were differently designated." THE FIRST EIGHT-WHEELED CAR IN THE UNITED STATES. One of the most distinguished of American engineers says: In connection with the claim of Ross Winans to the inven- "The cars first in use were small affairs. The 'burden cars,' as tion of an eight-wheeled car, and suits brought against various freight cars were then called, were boxes, a little larger than companies for an infringement of his patents relating to this their width, and had a wheel at each corner. Three or four subject, a protracted legal controversy sprang up during the tons made a load for one of them. Cars and engines have been sixth decade. It was reported that if his claims had been fully in course of improvement ever since the first were put on the sustained the amount of damages might have amounted to sev- track." eral millions of dollars, and that a quarter of a million of dol- TWO-STORY CARS. lars was spent in the various car suits. The final decision was "In 1831," said John Stephenson, the veteran builder of horse adverse to Mr. Winans, largely on account of evidence fur- cars, to a New York Tribune reporter, "I designed and built nished by Gridley Bryant, projector and constructor of the the first tram-car of the first railway for street service in this Quincy Railroad, built in 1826, to the effect that he had used country or abroad. The car consisted of three separate com- eight-wheeled cars in hauling extra heavy loads of stone on partments, each compartment holding ten persons, and being that road, which eight-wheeled cars he had formed by attach- entered by separate doors, on the side, from a guard-rail. Seats ing together, by a platform and ring bolts, such trucks as were were provided on top of the car for thirty more persons. The commonly used on his four-wheeled cars. car was very much like the English railway coach, though it BARREL-SHAPED CARS. was considerably lower. It was hauled by a team of horses, Captain John Grant, who was officially connected with the the conductor remaining outside on the rail, rain or shine. The Pontchartrain Railroad, running out of New Orleans, for a dis- company for which it was built was called 'the New York and tance of 51 miles, which was opened in 1830, says that on that Harlem road,' running from Prince street, on the Bowery, line the coaches were of every design and pattern, and the ap- along the line of the Bowery to Fourteenth street, thence Digitized by Google 102 CARS OF THE EARLY LINES. along itst list of the present Fourth svenue is Yorkville and ginia, in 1835, a report state that "new covers had been ob- Harven." tained," which indicates that the English practice of using This are of car. or washing similar. was introduced on a tarpauling was adopted, as a substitute for the box care. mumber of in early rd. #25 Does #:, :- horse-power was being Mr. W. Milmor Roberts. in his reminiscences of early rail- used 00 them A development of a Kentucky railway, opened ways, says: I think it was in 1835 that I went with Mr. Norris airest 182, B2?* :' as "ist cup MAKE IN, stories bigh, and very to Mr. Imlay's car shop. on Bush Hill, Philadelphia, to examine after The lower may Wis ind And, and M1 the first eight-wheeled passenger car, as I understood. I pro- apart for is of ladies and the wille the upper EVOTY, nounced it just the thing for the Columbia railroad. which being open, was generally compled 17 men; but in warm abounded in curves. Mr. Imlay remarked that I was the first weather HALY indies preferred v, ride up staire, as they called civil engineer who had said it would succeed. It was soon the up mory." after placed upon the Columbia railroad. I had the honor to have a similar car, which was placed on the road the same PASSENGER CARE OS THE INDEX AND AMBOY. year, named after me by the authorities in charge of the road, The first passenger care und on the Camden and Amboy without my knowledge or saying by your leave. Eight-wheeled were bell at Hoboken, of a style dosely resembling the Eng- passenger cars in those days were regarded as grand affairs." lirts compartment car of that right, or a three-bodied coach- About the period named. or soon afterwards, eight-wheeled Timy held about twenty-four persons, and presented a neat and passenger cars were placed on a number of the progressive attractive appearance. lines, and a few years later their use became quite general. MICELLANDOCS DEVICES. SLEEPING CARS. of the passenger car first placed on the West Chester Rail- Many accounts of the origin of the sleeping car have been road, a short branch of the Philade lpi.ia and Columbia, opened printed, but one of the earliest references to such a device is in 1332, a correspondent of a West Chester journal gave the contained in the following article, which appeared in the Balti- following account in 1879 "The first car put on the track was more Chronicle, of October 31st, 1838:- built in Wilmington, laward ,- four-wheeled one with five "The cars intended for night traveling between this city and seate inside, running across the whole width of the car. The Philadelphia, and which afford berths for twenty-four persons driver's weat was of equal length and but little elevated above in each, have been placed on the road, and will be used for the those inside. Each seat was ample for five persons. There first time to-night. One of these cars has been brought to this being a driver's seal at each end, the seating capacity was city, and may be inspected by the public to-day. It is one of sufficient for thirty-four persons besides the driver. Along the completest things of the kind we have ever seen, and it is each side, outside the car, was a platform nine inches wide, of beautiful construction. Night traveling on a railroad is, by affording standing room for twenty persons. After the thirty- the introduction of these cars, made as comfortable as that by four passengers had taken their places other comers were ad- day, and is relieved of all irksomeness. The enterprise which mitted only on sufferance, and although they paid fare they conceived and constructed the railroad between this city had to seek their own comfort,-rather a forlorn hope,-the and Philadelphia cannot be too highly extolled, and the only solace being the consideration of a ride on a railroad;-a anxiety evinced by the officers who now have its control in rlight improvement on 'riding on a rail.' There was not an watching over the comfort of the passengers, and the great apology for a spring about the car to relieve the monotony of expense incurred for that object, are worthy of praise, and the incessant jar. Passengers complained of the tremor causing deserve, and we are glad to find, receive the approbation of their heads to itch. The oldest physician now living in West the public. A ride to Philadelphia now, even in the depth of Chester, after he had ridden a few miles out and returned, gave winter, may be made without inconvenience, discomfort, or it as his opinion that the constant jarring might be productive suffering from the weather. You can get into the cars at the of concussion of the brain. A joker within hearing remarked depot in Pratt street, where is a pleasant fire, and in six hours that 'if Dr. T's theory is correct we shall soon be a community you are landed at the depot in Philadelphia. If you travel in of The car was drawn by one horse, of which John the night you go to rest in a pleasant berth, sleep as soundly as Griffith (old Griffy as he Wills familiarly called), was the driver." in your own bed at home, and on awakening next morning Of the care used on the Philadelphia and Columbia on the find yourself at the end of your journey, and in time to take day it was formally opened, in 1834, it is stated that "there your passage to New York if you are bent there. Nothing now were: two trains, each consisting of thirty four-wheeled cars, seems to be wanting to make railroad traveling perfect and each car seating sixteen persons, eight on a side." Some of complete in every convenience, except the introduction of there: care were constructed by stage-coach builders. dining cars, and these we are sure will soon be introduced." or the care which passed over the Portage Railroad about 183, Mr. W. Milnor Roberts who had charge of its operation, THE OLD TIOGA EIGHT-WHEELED PASSENGER CAR. ways - At the Chicago Railway Exhibition of 1883 one of the ex- "The Proizhe care were all four-wheeled, weighing from three hibits was an eight-wheeled passenger car built in 1840 for the u, them and M half met tons each, or *ix thousand to seven Tioga Railroad, by the Harlan & Hollingsworth Company, of thousand pounds. The passenger cars first used were of the Wilmington, Delaware. It had been in service from that time primitive formation, de signed and put upon the road by Mr. up to the date of the exposition, and its arrangements showed In Dixon, one of my arristant engineers. They seated com- that marked progress had been made in its construction, fortably twenty-five persons inside, and, like the interior of a although it lacked a number of useful modern improvements. modern street car, accommodated an indefinite number out- The National Car Builder, in noticing it, said:- ride." "The seats are of the same pattern as the common seats of On the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown Railroad to-day. Their frames are iron and their arms of walnut, the cars of the stage-coach pattern were at first used. Of later upholstering being plain and of leather. The body of the car devices one of its early employés Mays that the company has the following dimensions, viz.: 8 feet 4 inches by 6 feet 4 "adopted a new form of coach, more nearly approximating inches by 36 feet. The timbers are about the same as those the modern pattern of a steam railroad car. These were con- put in to-day, excepting that the end sills are into the structed by joining two of the old carriages together, making side sills. The body is supported by no sprin m the an eight-wheeled car, with a door at each end; and a passage ordinary rubbers in On the teks, way through the middle." which served for tw he whe of He adds that two of the new eight-wheel cars "were twin the bearings. The ordin cars, and were named the Victoria and the President. They bar and chain bra tion had each n bar room at one end and a Indies' saloon at the by means of a 10-i. the other. The body of the car WILS fixed up with seats along the supplied by two ca of the sides and in the middle. They were models of elegance and are no closets, lava, comfort." stove is furnished in Blue Of the freight cars used on the Petersburg Railroad, of Vir- winde Digitized by Google NOVEL INCIDENTS ON EARLY RAILWAYS. 103 dows being raised instead. This feature is, we believe, still to in 1867 on an accommodation train in an inferior old passenger be found upon some other roads. This antique car originally car on the Camden and Amboy, which had a side-door open- cost $2,000, and has a recorded mileage of 1,100,000 miles." ing, and which was particularly noticeable for the great va- riety of styles of lamps and lighting apparatus which had been ARRANGEMENTS FOR HEATING CARS. introduced at various stages of progressive improvements. On some of the early lines, in northern latitudes, no arrange- Either because they had successively failed, or for other rea- ments for heating the passenger cars, whatever, were made. sons, a resort to the early expedient was renewed, and the car Others had stoves, of which a writer in the Boston Transcript was again illuminated by two candles. gives this racy description: "And the stove! What a pleasure CAR SEATS. it was to hear the wood crackling and snapping, and to see the Of seats of some of the early cars it is reported that they glowing cheeks of the honest old stove, as he sat sedately and were plain pine boards, but transitions toward more comfort- without ostentation in the centre of the car, blushing in rustic able arrangements were soon commenced. On this subject the self-consciousness at being the cynosure of every eye, and the Boston Transcript says: "There were no soft, effeminate cush- wished-for Mecca of successive rows of shivering passengers, ions in those grand old days; no cunningly contrived easements from those in the remotest and most frigid corners of the car, to back and body and legs were imposed upon the traveler, to even to those who sit, freezing, but one seat removed! It was rob him of his manliness and his energy and his powers of re- hot enough, goodness knows, to the favored passengers whose sistance; everything was constructed upon heroic principles; seats abutted immediately upon the stove, but why there everything was so ordered that even death, at any time likely should have been heat nowhere else must ever remain a mys- and at all times probable, was robbed of half its terrors, and oft- tery. There was no hole or crevice through which the heat entimes looked upon with complacency, if not with longing." might escape, and no crevice or hole through which the out- side air might come in as an adulterant of the caloric; still was TREAD-MILL HORSE-POWER EXPERIMENTS. the heat concentrated in one place, and the coolness elsewhere At the very earliest stage of development on some of the disseminated. Hence it will be seen that there were two dis- lines several novel expedients were adopted. One was the use tinct climates in each car, instead of the monotonous tempera- of a car with sails, to be propelled with wind, which was soon ture of this day of heaters and kindred abominations." found to be too unreliable. Another, resorted to on the Balti- more and Ohio, the Charleston and Hamburg, and some of the DEVICES FOR LIGHTING CARS. New England railways, was the use of horse power created by It is doubtful whether, at the outset, any arrangements were the operation of a horse on a tread-mill, in the same car that made for lighting the interior of some of the passenger cars carried passengers. The object of this device was to gain used. But when the desirability of such an accommodation greater speed from horse power than could be extracted from was recognized it was considered sufficient, during a compara- horse movements on a track, but it was quickly abandoned. tively protracted period, to furnish one or more candles. Of On the Boston and Lowell such an experiment was specially an eight-wheeled car built in 1840, which contains many im- unfortunate, because, when a party of editors were riding in the provements, and probably all that had been general at that car it ran into a cow, and the passengers were thrown down the time, it is stated that "light is supplied by two candles, one at embankment, and afterwards had to endure many jokes about each end of the car." The writer remembers traveling by night being cowed. NOVEL INCIDENTS ON EARLY RAILWAYS. R AILWAY movements are at all times invested with deep in- ious to reduce expenses, even at the risk of subjecting rolling terest to those who are responsible for results, and the ope- stock to unnecessary wear and tear. A number of important rations on some of the early lines were peculiarly exciting on lines were built partly with aid, more or less liberal, from state account of the lack of experience, the absence of a number of or city governments, which was given chiefly for the purpose the appliances and safeguards which have since been consid- of drawing trade to some particular centre, and if this object ered indispensable, and the crude nature of the tracks, locomo- was promoted in a satisfactory degree other shortcomings were tives, and cars. usually condoned. An English Engineer forcibly says that "the railway of the OPPOSITION ENCOUNTERED. present day is in principle what it was at the outset; but it In addition to the usual forms of opposition which many differs in detail from the original as much or more than the modern rai:ways encounter, special causes of distrust and hos- skewer that fastened the dresses of the ladies in Queen Eliza- tility existed when the entire undertaking was novel. In por- beth's time from the pin of the present day, or the carpets of tions of Pennsylvania the fear that the use of horses would be this era from the rush floors of that. The progress has been greatly restricted was a leading incentive to active antagonism. gradual, but not slow." In other places champions of pre-existing canal systems desired SOME OF THE ORIGINAL DEFECTS to prevent rivalry. There were some localities in which the grew out of the peculiar circumstances under which the primi- adverse influence of rich stage proprietors was keenly felt, and tive lines were called into existcnce, and the ends they were their efforts to crush a dangerous and destructive competition designed to serve. One class of roads was intended mainly to materially increased the difficulties of some of the early pro- carry freight for the owners of the line, and if this purpose was jectors. In some instances stage routes and appurtenances served other matters were of comparatively little importance. that had been sold for large sums soon ceased to be profitable This remark applies to the early coal roads, and even on the after competing railways had been completed. There was also Philadelphia and Reading, which also engaged extensively in a considerable number of substantial and conservative citizens other business, it is stated that there was a period when coal who opposed the innovation on principle, although they reaped trains were given the right of way in preference to passenger a large share of the benefits conferred. Josiah Quincy, in dis- trains. There were also some roads, belonging to private com- cussing this phase of the pioneer railway movements, describes panies, which commenced operations under a system like that town meetings which passed resolutions denouncing projected adopted on the railways built by the state of Pennsylvania, viz., lines as incalculable evils, and he says that "the believer in companies did not aim at furnishing either passenger or railroads was not only to do the work and pay the bills for the freight ca. and only supplied the roadway and motive power. advantage of his short-sighted neighbor, but, as Shakespeare This limitation had an effect analogous to that arising from happily phrases it, 'Cringe and sue for leave to do him good.'' the application of a similar principle to turnpikes, inasmuch In Mr. George W. Smith's additions to Wood's Treatise on as the company might, in various contingencies, become anx- Railroads, published in 1832, he says that on the Baltimore and Digitized by Google 104 NOVEL INCIDENTS ON EARLY RAILWAYS. Ohio "an unfortunate cow (according to the inveterate habits In regard to the effect of the stone blocks and scarcity of ties, of these animals) crossed the road when a train was passing, the superintendent, Joseph B. Baker, in a report for the year end- and persisted in the attempt to arrest the progress of the car. ing November 30th, 1855, says: "Every exertion has been made The melancholy fate of this proto-martyr of the opposition, to keep the old portion of the south track in passable condition, excited great commiseration among some of the canal advo- and it is a source of satisfaction that we have been enabled to cates, who bewailed her untimely end in many a newspaper strengthen it, 80 as to allow the passage of the large and in- article. On the South Carolina Railroad a negro placed him- creasing business now thrown upon it. If the old rail (edge self on the top of the safety valve of the locomotive engine rail) had not been made of the best iron, it would have been during the absence of the engineer; it proved no seat of safety impassable long since. Wherever it was possible to put in ad- to him, and, resenting the indignity, blew poor Sambo sky-high." ditional cross-ties between the stone blocks, both in straight lines and curves, it has been done, and as long as the frost does DEFECTS OF THE TRACKS. not affect the ground the track will be reasonably safe, but in The plan of constructing railways on stone sills, which had hard-freezing weather the cross-ties are disturbed, and the stone been adopted in England, led to a serious derangement of the blocks remaining permanent, the rails are thus raised from the tracks, and materially increased some of the difficulties of early blocks, lessening the bearings, and sometimes causing the rail operations. The frost cracked and broke many of these solid to break when the train comes upon it. foundations, and the position of others was shifted, 80 that a The same effect is produced when the frost leaves the ground, new system of construction became necessary. All the early the bearings being merely reversed, the rail resting upon the devices were very defective, but the stone from which 80 much blocks, while the cross-ties sink below. This operation has had been expected proved even less satisfactory than the sup- been going on for the last twenty years, the engine making a porting wooden rails or stringers, which quickly decayed or waved line of the rails, and the repair men making them wore out. straight again, and it is no wonder that they cannot be relied The practice of sanctioning sharp curves was resorted to with upon for carrying with safety the present trade." extraordinary frequency, particularly on lines which were to HOW ROADS WERE OPERATED BEFORE TELEGRAPHIC COMMUNICA- be run by horse power at the outset. The chief reason for this TION WAS AVAILABLE. course originated in a desire to avoid the expense required for the construction of tunnels, bridges, and deep cuts or high em- As telegraphic communication available for railway service bankments, but the influence of citizens who favored the adop- was not established until about 1850, various methods were tion of particular routes for the promotion of private purposes adopted for ascertaining the location of belated trains and was also an important consideration. An account of an early relieving them. On roads on which comparatively extensive road in Kentucky says that "it is very crooked, because the movements were made a locomotive was kept ready for the engineers who surveyed it were averse to crossing streams on use of relief parties at all hours of the day and night. The bridges, SO they went around the streams, alleging that it was preparations for any probable emergency were as complete as an advantage to have the road crooked, SO the conductor could possible, but it will readily be seen that the absence of tele- look back, and see that his train was all right." graphic communication materially increased the difficulties of As flat iron bars were used as a substitute for iron rails on a operation, inasmuch as the first duty, when delays occurred, very large proportion of the mileage operated they furnished a was to start on a voyage of discovery, and it was necessary that fruitful source of anxiety and danger, and caused delays and all appropriate preparations for the commencement of such accidents of one kind or another, some of which were of a explorations at any moment should be constantly in a state of decidedly serious nature. An early conductor reports that on readiness. This system was in force on the Columbia and, the line with which he was connected "it frequently happened Philadelphia Railroad. When a passenger train failed to make that the strap rails would get out of place and curl up at the its appearance at about the proper time (there was no strict ends, forming 'snakes' heads.' Every train carried a good schedule, but engineers of passenger locomotives were ex- sledge-hammer, and whenever it passed over a loose rail and pected to be as expeditious as possible), a locomotive and left a snake's head in its wake, the conductor had to stop the crew were dispatched to its relief, and similar steps were taken train and hammer the loose rail into place." Sometimes a when freight trains were delayed. The task was entered into snake head would fly up, and the rail would go through the with a spirit similar to that which animated the volunteer fire- car and shatter it. Occasionally a passenger would get hurt. men of the olden time. The crew generally consisted of eight "Snake heads" were as prominent a feature of early railroad- or ten persons, who carried with them whatever was deemed ing as snags in steamboat operations on western rivers. The necessary to repair an injured locomotive or return it to the relative lightness of the locomotive and rolling stock, and im- track if it had been derailed, and as there was danger of a perfections of the track, made derailments or jumping the collision if proper precautions were not taken, some of the track comparatively common. The cars were, at the outset, crew were sent ahead when curves were approached to see destitute of springs, brakes, and buffers, and such appliances whether progress could be safely continued. After the belated were only supplied and improved by comparatively slow de- train was reached, if the difficulty arose from derailment, then much more common than at present, the usual phenomenon was grees. DIFFICULTIES ON EDGE RAILROADS. developed of passengers acting under the supposition that they had a much better understanding of the proper method of re- While the roads supplied with edge rails were decidedly su- turning a derailed locomotive to the track, than the men who perior to those on which strap rails were used, serious and con- devoted a large portion of their lives to such labors. If the stant difficulties arose on them, particularly from the keys or detention was caused by derangement of any portion of the wedges used to keep the rails in proper position in the chairs engine temporary repairs were made as quickly as possible. becoming loose; from the tendency of the stone blocks on which the chairs were placed to be shifted, and alternately elevated or PRIMITIVE SIGNALS. depressed by frosts or other atmospheric changes; from the dan- In the absence of the telegraph, and the lack of any estab- ger that rails would be broken; and from the frequency of tracks lished system of signaling, novel methods for conveying in- spreading, on account of the relatively small number of ties formation were devised. It is said that the New Castle and used. It was part of the system pursued on the Columbia and Frenchtown had a primitive telegraph system in operation as Philadelphia Railroad, while edge rails were used on it, to have early as 1837. A description of it says that "the poles were of track walkers constantly at work, by day and night, who were cedar, quite like those now in use, and had cleats fastened on specially charged with the duty of tightening the keys used in them, forming a sort of Jacob's ladder. The telegraphing was the chairs. Each mile was assigned to a man for such opera- done thus: The operator would go to the top of the pole form- tions during the day, and a man for night service. He carried ing his station, and with his spy-glass sight the next station in a leather pouch containing keys, 80 that substitutes for those the direction of the approaching train. If the train was com- which were lost or broken could be supplied, and a long-handled ing, and the signal showed a flag, it meant all is well. If a big hammer, to be used in tightening keys or wedges when they ball was shown, and no train in sight, it signified an accident, were loosened. or delay of the steamboat. These signals were methodically Digitized by Google I One-Horse Chaise. Family Coach of 1776. Stage Coach of 1820. Stage Coach of 1870. Modern One- and Two-Horse Vehicles. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google NOVEL INCIDENTS ON EARLY RAILWAYS. 105 exchanged until an understanding was had from one end of the ishes the chances of collisions, while the slow rate of travel road to the other." enables a locomotive to draw heavy loads without injury to the The methods of communicating intelligence from one part road." of the train to another, and of giving warnings or signals from HORSE POWER vs. STEAM POWER. the locomotive, have been greatly improved. One of the early During the period when transitions from horse power to engineers on the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore says locomotives were progressing, and some of the locomotives that on that road, before whistles were applied, "signals of dan- were not very reliable or powerful, there was considerable ger, &c., were given by raising the valve stem on the dome with diversity of opinion in regard to the merits of the two motive the hand, and allowing the steam to escape with a sudden, loud, powers. At that time stage-coach operations had been brought hissing noise." to a high state of advancement, and there were occasional trials One of the first conductors on the Philadelphia, Germantown of speed, in which, on account of a temporary disability of the and Norristown says: "The manner of stopping trains then, in locomotive or other causes, the iron-horse was beaten. Such contrast to the modern system of simply pulling a bell rope, an incident occurred in a trial of Peter Cooper's locomotive, was something altogether novel. The conductor ascended a on the Baltimore and Ohio, and there are reports of similar ladder to the roof of a car, and then ran forward to within hail- contests elsewhere. As the number of locomotives was very ing distance of the engineer, to whom he imparted the signal limited, the disability of an engine was, in some instances, verbally. There was a great deal of briskness required of a con- followed by a temporary resumption of the use of horses. ductor in the old days, and running along the tops of cars on a SLAYMAKER'S BULL. dark night was not as comfortable a task as one might wish for. There were no bell ropes, and the steam whistle had not been Reports of an incident on the Philadelphia and Columbia thought of." He also says: "The first practice of railroad sig- Railway, in which the right of way was contested by an irate nals that I remember was a system of conveying a sign to the bull, were widely circulated, and for years this singular conflict engineer by a movement of the fingers. For instance, if I and its results were often referred to as typical of the resistless wanted to stop at the Falls I held up one finger; Wissahickon, power of the locomotive. The story, as told by Henry Willis, two fingers; Conshohocken, three fingers, and 80 on." a gentleman who claims to have been a witness of the occur- On another road a device was used which enabled the en- rence, is as follows: "One mile east of Leaman Place, a farmer gineer, by running up a flag on the tender, to notify brakemen named Slaymaker, whose barnyard was at the foot of a thirty- that they should apply brakes. foot embankment, had a three-year-old bull, that showed its approval of railway matters by bellowing in the most unearthly DEFECTIVE BRAKE POWER. manner at each train, much to the amusement of the passen- Many troubles or inconveniences arose from defective brake gers. I had occasion to go to Parkesburg early one morning, power. At one time the chief reliance was upon the activity and with this intent took the four o'clock early freight, which of the engineman in checking the speed of the locomotive, was made up of twelve open cars, each loaded with four hogs- but this was often insufficient. It is stated that on the New heads of whisky, manufactured by Benjamin Herr, of Manor Castle and Frenchtown Railroad the braking of the train township, Lancaster county. Slaymaker's bull heard the en- when near the station-Frenchtown or New Castle-was done gine coming, got on the track, and headed for the enemy. I at the signal of the engineman by raising his safety valve. Then was on the engine at the time, and feared going over the em- the old colored servants (slaves) would rush to the train, seize bankment. I called to the engineer to open the throttle wide. hold and pull back, while the agent would stick a piece of wood The engine darted forward, and the bull met the enemy sooner through the wheel spokes. than expected, and was hurled to the bottom of the embank- Of the primitive brake power on the Philadelphia, German- ment. Cowcatchers were not in use then; simply a bumping town and Norristown one of the early employés of that com- block. Ever after the bull would shake his head and bellow, pany says that "the speed of a train was slackened by what but he gave us a wide berth." was termed a foot brake, operated by the pressure of a IMPECUNIOSITY. man's foot on a spring and lever." A New England writer refers to "those dear old hand-brakes, which gave one, when There are doleful accounts of the pitiful state of impecuniosity approaching his station, such a jolly stirring up and never let to which some of the lines were reduced. Cash being exhausted, up until he was landed wide awake on the platform." There and receivers' certificates not having been invented, when ope- was always rude jolting when trains stopped or started, and it rations proved unprofitable there was no basis for credit. An frequently was tantamount to a shock scarcely less severe than early employé of the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norris- would be caused on a superior modern train by a collision. town, which subsequently became one of the most profitable It is said that the primitive buffers on the New Castle and short lines in the country, reports that he was obliged to buy Frenchtown "were formed of the side sills extending past the grease to oil the axles with his own money. An old engineer end of the car, these ends being cushioned with hair covered on a New England road "relates how men were sometimes put with sole leather." on the tender, with a saw-horse and saw, to cut the wood to make steam for the trip, because there was no supply on hand, SUBSTITUTES FOR LOCOMOTIVE HEAD-LIGHTS. and no money and no credit to buy any. It is said that an Horatio Allen states that when the South Carolina Railroad official once gave up his gold watch as security when a train had one hundred miles of track prepared for use, operations was seized for debt while en route." over such an extensive line were then unprecedented. In Poverty, or lack of means, was a chronic complaint with making prospective arrangements for this unusual undertaking so many of the early lines, that if a few notable successes one of the first things that occurred to him was that the had not been scored, and if state and city governments had not locomotives would have to run by night as well as by day, and rendered timely aid to some of the most important enterprises, in the absence of a head-light he built an open platform car, the rapid extension of the system would have been jeopar- stationed in front of the locomotive, a fire of pine knots, sur- dized. It is probable that the life of a considerable number of rounded with sand, which furnished the requisite illumination unprofitable lines was only perpetuated, because, after large of the route traversed. On some of the other lines no sub- sums had been expended upon them, investors and creditors of stitutes for head-lights were used. But night trips were, as far various grades concluded that it was better to make additional as possible, avoided, and it was considered a hardship when the advances, even at the risk of losing the amount of the new carrying of mails necessitated them, and when no extra com- outlays, than to sacrifice the entire capital. pensation was given for such service. One of the current items of newspaper intelligence in Au- PAUCITY OF FREIGHT TRAFFIC. gust, 1840, was the following: "The Boston and Worcester One of the noticeable features of early operations on north- Railroad Company are preparing a very bright head-light with ern lines was the small amount of freight traffic. It was, powerful reflectors, to be placed in front of a locomotive, which relatively, easier to attract passengers than to obtain con- is to run on that road after night. The transportation of freight signments of merchandise or staple products, except on roads by night is a very material gain in point of time, and dimin- that traversed coal-mining districts or cotton-growing regions. 14 Digitized by Google 106 ECONOMIC RESULTS OF EARLY RAILWAYS. Of a prominent Massachusetts road it is reported that a motion gave them that keen, attentive watchfulness which admirably was made at an annual meeting to let the privilege of carrying fitted them for their new calling. They were called upon to freight on its lines to some responsible person for $1,500 a year. fill every conceivable position in operating railroads. They Of freight operations on the Baltimore and Ohio a report dated were promoted from time to time, and firemen soon becam, October 1st, 1831, stated that on thirteen miles of road in opera- engineers, baggagemen were soon collecting/fare, conductors tion since the previous January, only 5,931 tons of freight had were made superintendents, engineers were promoted to be been carried. During the same period 81,905 passengers had master mechanics, and 80 on through the whole list, and as been carried. fast as railroads were built the stagemen were called upon to The following statement of the early business of the Camden operate them. There was a great deal of ignorance in railroad and Amboy Railroad, located on one of the best natural routes management in those days, but not as much nonsense as there in the country, inasmuch as it was the leading thoroughfare is now." between two of the most populous cities of the United States, There was peculiar propriety in recuiting employés from the indicates at once the paucity of freight traffic (which was partly stage routes, as they were the principal sufferers in the way of due on this line to high charges and partly to the existence of losing previous employment by railway operations. In some convenient adjacent water routes), and the small amount of localities staging was combined with railroad operating by com- traffic of any kind that could be procured:- panies who made it part of their business to take up or put down Passengers. Merchandise. Receipts. Expenses. Net passengers at any convenient point in the towns or cities near Tons. earnings. 1833 their termini. This was done in Boston and Albany and prob- 109,908 6,043 $468,142 $287,091 $181,050 1834 105,418 8,397 546,993 313,261 233,731 ably other places, the system being applied to passenger traffic 1835 147,424 10,811 679,463 317,491 361,971 that is applied now to light freight traffic by the express com- 1836 163,731 12,508 770,621 363,344 407,276 panies which act in co-operation with railway companies. 1837 145,461 10,642 731,995 859,510 372,484 EARLY LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEMEN. 1838 164,520 11,765 754,989 855,249 399,740 1839 181,479 13,520 685,329 258,043 427,286 On some lines great difficulty was experienced in obtaining At a comparatively early period of the operations of this road reliable locomotive enginemen. On account of the exposure to it was considered an important event when the demand for which they were subjected before cabs were furnished, and cars to move freight increased to a requirement for forwarding comparatively low wages, few machinists who understood en- 90,000 pounds in a single day. gines cared to continue in the business. Smart young black- A serious obstacle to immediate success on many of the early smiths were found to be the best class to select from by some lines arose from the extent to which the practice of dispensing roads. In other districts young men trained as farmers, and with the aid of common carriers of any kind in land move- accustomed to miscellaneous farm labors, but not experts in ments had been rooted in many communities. Aside from the any class of mechanics, proved most serviceable. The duties travel on stage routes, and the hiring of teams to carry mer- imposed were in several respects peculiarly responsible and chandise over a few leading thoroughfares, nearly all those who onerous, inasmuch as the enginman was expected to understand wished to make journeys or move merchandise used their own the machine he was operating sufficiently well to give direc- teams or borrowed horses or vehicles. tions for a considerable proportion of the requisite repairs, which were often made by men who had no other training EMPLOYÉS OBTAINED FROM STAGE ROUTES. than as blacksmiths. Instances of defective knowledge on the Of the antecedents of the employés selected as trainmen on part of some of the inexperienced enginemen were by no means a number of the early railways, and especially those con- uncommon, and occasionally ludicrous blunders were made, structed in New England, Mr. William S. Huntington says that but, as a rule, a better comprehension of the locomotives used many of them had previously been connected with stage-coach was then necessary than is requisite now, on account of the operations. He says: "Some were employed as conductors, marked improvement in systems of repairing; and if a train others as station agents, baggage masters, firemen, etc., etc. was derailed it frequently became the duty of the engineman Their former occupation made them robust and their training to set matters right without aid from a wreck train. ECONOMIC RESULTS OF EARLY RAILWAYS. PREVENTION OF ICE AND FRESHET BLOCKADES. want of salt to save it, whilst pork is worth from $5 to $7 in this IT required years of continuous improvements to convert city. Coal would not then sell here for $15 or $16 per ton; nor railways into formidable competitors of water routes as oak wood at $9, and hickory at $13 per cord, as has been the cheap freight carriers of bulky products over long distances. case for two or three weeks past, if railroads were in general At the outset they were scarcely expected to assume such a use; but all kinds of business would move on regularly and be function. When they carried cheap and bulky articles at all it more equally divided throughout the year. Produce could was usually only over comparatively short distances to an ad- come to market as well in January as in July; and the farmer jacent canal, river, or seaport. They were, however, considered would not be obliged, in order to get his crop to market in the very desirable for passenger traffic over the rapidly increasing fall, to neglect preparing for the next." interior routes, for the movement of freight which required INCREASE OF THE VALUE OF REAL ESTATE. rapid transit, and also for the continuation of all classes of The most important of all the results of the construction freight movements during winter months when the rivers and of railways cannot be stated with absolute accuracy, inas- canals were closed by ice, or when freshets damaged canals, and much as they consist of the increase of population at given the temporary uselessness of water routes caused great scarcity points, advances in the price of property belonging to private of necessary articles. A vivid picture of the nature of some of owners, and development of new enterprises. Railways are the distress and inconvenience which railways were expected only benefited incidentally by these advances through the in- to diminish, and which they have practically abolished, is fur- crease in traffic they produce, while many individuals are en- nished in an article advocating the construction of the Erie riched, and the market value of lands at terminal points and Railroad, published in the Railroad Journal in January, 1832. districts traversed is greatly enhanced. One of the leading argu- It says: "It would prevent a recurrence of the state of things ments urged in favor of state aid to railways was to the effect which now exists in the city of New York. There would not that, however unprofitable such enterprises would be to their then be, as there now are, thousands of barrels of flour and owners, they were certain to greatly increase the value of land, other kinds of produce in proportion, frozen up in canal boats and that all the land-owners benefited should, therefore, be and in sloops on the Hudson; salt would not be now selling in obliged to indirectly assume some of the risks of such under- Albany for $2.50 per bushel, and pork at $2 per hundred for takings. There is no doubt that the cash value of the property Digitized by Google ECONOMIC RESULTS OF EARLY RAILWAYS. 107 of the entire country has been advanced by railways to a sum steamboats upon rivers was nearly exclusively up stream. The that very greatly exceeds the cost of their construction, and it speed upon common roads is less than one-third of that on has unfortunately happened that such gains of land-owners and railroads, the speed on canal boats only one-fourth. The citizens have often occurred on lines that were very unprofit- average speed on the whole voyage, which is obtained by able to stockholders. In other words, an expenditure of a few dividing the number of miles traveled by the time of motion, billions of dollars for railways has benefited other persons, who was 71 miles, or half the speed on railroads. The fare on have made no important investments in the securities of such steamboats and canal boats includes board, and is, therefore, enterprises, to the extent of many more billions of dollars. the cheapest, the stage fares are 40 per cent. higher than the A few of the early railway reports make interesting refer- railroad charges, and the average rate per mile for the whole ences to the increase in the value of the districts traversed, voyage was 5 r lo cents." which are presumably typical of similar results in nearly all The average speed of all American passenger trains, exclu- regions in which railways have been constructed. The report sive of stoppages, at the period mentioned, is probably stated of the Georgia Central, dated November 1st, 1839, for instance, with approximate accuracy in the record given above of 15 says: "In every case where a sale of real estate has taken place miles per hour. On some roads considerably higher speed was near the line, since the commencement of the work, the price attained. A southern railway report speaks of a rate of 22 miles has been much advanced, and in some cases to many times the per hour having been maintained for a considerable period, but amount that would have been demanded before the road was on account of the extra expenses necessitated, especially in re- projected. In some instances the amount paid to the pro- pairs to locomotives, this rate was reduced to 17 miles per hour. prietor of the land for pine timber for the construction of the Officers of various other roads respectively speak of passenger road has exceeded the price that the entire tract would have trains being run at the rate of 18, 20, and 25 miles per hour. sold for three years ago. In the absence of more extensive ex- David Matthews, superintendent of engines and machinery on perience as to the effect of the road on the value of lands in its the Utica and Schenectady, said in 1839: "We are five hours vicinity, that of others similarly situated may with propriety be crossing the road, eighty miles, including fifteen stoppages." invoked to aid us in our conclusions." The president of the Of speed on the Columbia and Philadelphia, for the year end- South Carolina Railroad Company, in his semi-annual report ing October 31st, 1837, its superintendent, Andrew Mehaffy, in of July 10th, 1837, says: "To give some idea of the advantages his annual report to the state of Pennsylvania, said:- derived by those not immediately connected with the company, "It is not denied that some discontent has existed at the low by the passage of the road through 80 great an extent of pine rate of speed on the road. But when it is known that the trip barren, a moderate estimate has been made of the additional of 82 miles is now made in precisely the same length of time value of these lands since the road was located, and it has been (viz., six and a half hours, including all stoppages consequent found that the advance within a mile of the road, and beyond to taking in fuel and water) as when a high rate was permitted, the influence of the towns at each end, not including anything the objection falls to the ground." within fifteen miles of either extremity, has been equal to the cost This rate of speed was a trifle more than 12.61 miles per of the original construction of the whole road." These statements hour. Mr. Mehaffy proceeds to say:- were but forerunners of many much more remarkable advances "Within the last month the undersigned visited some of the in value of real estate in various portions of the Union which most frequented roads in this part of the Union, for the pur- logically followed the construction of railways. pose of contrasting their operations and regulations with the PASSENGER TRAFFIC. one under his charge, and the result, as far as speed is con- The facilities furnished by railways were at first much more cerned, was decidedly such as to convince him of the propriety fully appreciated by travelers than by transporters. The nov- of the present management. Without wishing to disparage any, elty and unprecedented rapidity of journeys made in cars he is satisfied that, though more parade may be made by others, drawn by a locomotive, or even cars drawn by horses on a as great a degree of safety is not accomplished, nor as great an amount of work done." railway, presented 80 many elements of attractiveness that some persons traveled considerable distances by the old meth- On American, as well as the new foreign roads, the usual ods for the express purpose of securing an opportunity to ride result of a decided increase in the number of persons who a short distance on a railroad. All journeys that could be traveled over the various routes, after railway operations com- made by this new and popular mode were usually made in menced, was noticed, but even with these gains the total num- cars, even when they were over routes which necessitated fre- ber of passengers was comparatively small. quent changes to stages, steamboats, or canal boats. Short REGULATION OF FARES. railway links, which were steadily growing in length and im- In contrast with the amount of business transacted on cor- portance formed parts of all the great thoroughfares. The extent to which the old and new systems were inter- responding lines at the present day, the passenger receipts mingled, and the relative comfort and advantages of each, in seem insignificant, but the development on some lines was suf- 1839, is indicated by a statement compiled in January, 1840, by ficiently rapid to exceed the expectations of the projectors, and a foreign tourist who had made journeys aggregating 10,330 where the results were disappointing a remedy was sought in miles in length, during intervals between December 24th, 1838, some localities in a reduction of fares, and in others in an in- and January 14th, 1840. He states that he made 175 separate crease of the authorized charges. The general drift with New journeys, and that he had not met with a single accident of England lines was in the first of these directions, and with the smallest kind. He compiled the following tabular state- some of the southern lines towards the second. In March, ment:- 1840, the legistature of Virginia permitted the Petersburg road Time Charges for to advance the price of passage to 8 cents per mile. Similar Number occupied, Speed a single Average Manner of traveling of exclusive in miles place charge advances had been authorized in other Southern states, but the (conveyance.) miles of per (a person) per mile wisdom of enforcing them was in some cases questioned. For traveled. stoppages, hour. whole (cents.) hours. distance. instance, a report of the Louisville, Cincinnati and Charleston Railroads, steam power 3,329 219 15 Railroads, horse power. 215 36 $177 00 5 (the temporary successor of the South Carolina), published in 6 1840, states that there was "a feeling adverse to the increased Steamboats, upon rivers 2,220 2521 9 149 50 4PO charge on passengers between Charleston and Hamburg, autho- Steamboats, lake and sea 813 791 10 Stages and sleighs 2,949 602 418 207 50 7 rized by an act of the South Carolina legislature, and it is very Canal boats 375 96 3rd 17 20 41% questionable how far the higher rates now exacted have contrib- Sailing vessel 136 54 21 10 00 71b uted to an augmentation of income. The reports show 4,000 pas- Private conveyances 293 42 7 36 80 124 sengers less this, as compared with the previous year, and the reports on the Georgia road exhibit nearly the BANK Total 10,330 1,381 av. 71 $598 00 5-10 ficiency. To a certain extent, reduction of the In commenting upon these journeys the author said: "The freight and travel does stimulate to increase of receipt speed upon railroads is 50 per cent. greater than that of steam- income. Thus it has been ascertained from calculatic boats, to which I have, however, to remark, that the passage in locomotive, with power to convey 200 passengers, can Digitized by Google 108 ECONOMIC RESULTS OF EARLY RAILWAYS. a railroad at a cost of $1 per mile, or half a cent to each pas- Weight of No. of freight miles senger, provided the whole number could always be obtained. transported. per day. Tons. Two hundred passengers, therefore, at $5, or even $3, to Ham- Miles. Four horses will draw, in addition to the weight of burg, one-half or even one-third of the present charge, would the carriage or boats containing the load, on a be more remunerative to the share owners than the present common road in a wagon 1 12 daily average of some twenty-five or thirty passengers at $10 On a turnpike road, not exceeding five degrees of each." This fare of $10 was at about the rate of 7 1 0 cents per inclination, in a wagon 11 18 mile. On a railroad having a rise and fall of thirty feet (or A report of the superintendent of the Philadelphia and Co- one-third of a degree) to the mile, in eight cars 16 27 lumbia Railroad for the year ending October 31st, 1837, states On the Pennsylvania Canal, in two boats 100 24 that at that time the charges for passengers, per mile, on the The introduction of locomotive engines and Winans cars roads named below was as follows: Baltimore and Ohio, 3 cents; upon railroads, where they can be used to advantage, will Baltimore and Washington, 6; Portsmouth and Roanoke, 6; diminish the difference between canals and railroads in the ex- Boston and Providence, 5; Boston and Lowell, 3}; Mohawk and pense of transportation. But the board believe that, notwith- Hudson, 5; Petersburg, 5. standing all the improvements which have been made in rail- THE HORSE-POWER RAILWAYS. roads and locomotives, it will be found that canals are from two to two and a half times better than railroads for the pur- The first stage of railway development occurred on lines poses required of them by Pennsylvania." built with the expectation that they would be operated with horse power, as they were at the outset, leaving the question CANALS vs. RAILROADS. whether it should be supplanted by locomotives to be deter- A favorite saying of the advocates of canals as internal im- mined by the subsequent course of events. Before the money provements to be preferred to railways, was that a railroad necessary to construct these railways could be raised, either by occupied a middle ground between a good turnpike and a companies or states, it was requisite that the utility of such canal. Benjamin Wright, one of the earliest civil engineers in works should be demonstrated even if locomotives were never the country, said in 1831, after examining critically the canal used upon them. There was, accordingly, a considerable amount and railroad of the Delaware and Hudson company, he "found of discussion of this subject, and many conflicting statements that the expense on the railroads, not including any toll, would were made, relating to what horses could do or could not do, be about 31 to 3} cents per ton per mile; and on the canal, on railways, and the differences between the practical efficiency without toll, one cent to one cent and two mills per ton per of horse power as applied to turnpikes, railways, and canals. mile." Josiah White, superintendent of the Mauch Chunk The leading idea advanced by champions of the iron tracks Railroad and Lehigh Canal, made a similar comparison in hinged on amplications of the truism that they diminished reference to operations on those works. The weak point in friction to an extent that very greatly reduced the cost of their argument was that the railways they referred to were movement. Perhaps none of these publications presented the among the earliest constructed in the country, and being in- issues involved in this controversy, in a brief space, and the tended solely for the transportation of coal they were not fair COMPARATIVE COST OF DIFFERENT METHODS, representatives of railway possibilities. as they were then understood, 80 clearly as the following ex- Other points made in favor of canals were that they required tract from a report of the board of canal commissioners, of little intelligence on the part of those who operated them, that Pennsylvania, dated December 15th, 1831:- they would be open to any man who built a boat, and that those "To counteract the wild speculation of visionary men, and who used them could travel or stop, as they pleased, instead of to allay the honest fears and prejudices of many of our citizens, being obliged to adopt rates of speed dictated by managers. One who have been induced to believe that railroads are better than of Josiah White's general grounds of preference for canals, was canals, and consequently that for the last six years the efforts novel yet, in some respects, prophetic. He said: "I think it of our state to achieve a mighty improvement have been mis- rather fortunate for society that railroads are not of equal value directed, the canal commissioners deem it to be their duty to to canals, for a railroad can be taken anywhere; and, conse- advert to a few facts which will exhibit the comparative value quently, no improvement would be safe on their line, for the of the two modes of improvement for the purpose of carrying moment the improvement succeeded, it would be rivaled, so heavy articles cheaply to market, in a distinct point of view. as to destroy both, whereas we know the line and limits of Flour is now carried by the canal to Philadelphia from Lewis- our canals, by the supply of water, and graduation of the town, 211 miles, for 621 cents, and from Harrisburg, 150 miles, ground; 80 that all improvements thereon are safe against the for 40 cents a barrel; and gypsum is taken back for three dollars undermining of rivals. I should consider that, if the railroads a ton to Harrisburg, and five dollars a ton to Lewistown, there- superseded canals, they would, for the above reasons, render fore the freight (exclusive of tolls) is downwards 14} mills per the tenure or value of property as insecure as it would be ton per mile, and returning 7 mills per ton per mile; or on an without the protection of law." average both ways one cent and three-fourths of a mill per ton One of the principal topics discussed by advocates of the op- per mile for carriage. posing systems was the relative cost of construction-the On nine miles of railroad at Mauch Chunk, and on ten miles champions of the railways contending that canals would, as a of railroad between Tuscarora and Port Carbon, the carriage of rule, always be the most expensive, and this allegation being coal costs four cents, and the toll on the latter road is a cent denied by the advocates of canals. The instances were rare in and a half per ton per mile. which the cost of either of the proposed works did not greatly The comparison will then stand thus:- exceed estimates. On ten miles of railroad between Tuscarora and Port Carbon:- A large amount of data bearing on the relative utility of rail- ways and canals, as freight carriers, is furnished by documents Cents. Cents. Freight, per ton 40 published by Congress, by order of the committee on internal Toll on coal, per ton 15 improvements of the House of Representatives, in 1832. The -- 55 leading advocates on one side were the Baltimore and Ohio On ten miles of the Pennsylvania Canal:- Railroad, and on the other side the Chesapeake and Ohio Freight, per ton 102 Canal Company. Each of these corporations, through their Toll on coal at one-half cent per ton per mile 5 151 engineers and officers, collected a large amount of the informa- tion then pertinent to a discussion of the comparative merits 391 of canals and railroads. The president of the Baltimore and Being 391 cents difference in favor of the state canal for Ohio at that time was P. E. Thomas, and the chief engineer every ten miles of transportation. Jonathan Knight. The following table will exhibit the relative useful effects of One of the arguments favorable to railways advanced in Mr. horse power when employed on common roads, on turnpike Knight's reply to the elaborate argument previously made by roads, on railroads, and on canals:- champions of the canal system was embraced in a reference to Digitized by Google COST OF EARLY RAILWAY FREIGHT MOVEMENTS. 109 the fact that they had used comparatively old data, and that be 125 pounds. The railway will, therefore, have the advantage the railway cars, &c., had been materially improved since the of the canal, at a rate of speed best suited to the action of the tables referred to had been compiled. Special importance was horse. The effect of the railway is to that of the turnpike road attached to the reduction in friction effected by the Winans as 22 to 4." car. The significance claimed for these improvements was 80 LOADS DRAWN BY HORSES ON EARLY RAILROADS. great that Mr. Knight contended that, whereas an old table Experience soon demonstrated that a strong horse could cited by the canal advocates had estimated that a power of 100 draw on a level railroad a great deal more than ten tons. One pounds would move at the rate of 3 miles per hour 38,542 of the early instances recorded was a performance on the first pounds on a canal, and only 14,400 pounds on a level railway, portion built of the Baltimore and Ohio, in 1831. In describing with the new cars 40,000 pounds could be moved on a level it the Baltimore American said:- railway. Tables which give varying velocities and effects were "The experiment of the transportation of two hundred bar- cited, and Mr. Knight said: "From an inspection of the cor- rels of flour, with a single horse, was made on the railroad on rected tables (that is, corrected 80 as to make due allowance for Saturday with the most triumphant success. The flour was the benefits derived from an improvement in the cars, &c.), it deposited in a train with cars, and made, together with the will appear that when the velocity is 3 miles per hour it re- cars and the passengers who rode on them, an entire load of quires less power on the railway than on the canal to produce 30 tons, viz.:- an equal effect. From a strict calculation, it will be found that Tons. the power required will be equal when the velocity is 2880 miles 200 barrels of flour 20 8 cars per hour, or 4.2 feet per second." 8 Passengers 2 A leading feature of his argument consisted of his advocacy of the theory that resistance on a level railway with proper 30 cars is less than on water-while steam can be used more ad- The train was drawn by one horse from Ellicott's Mills to the vantageously on land than on an artificial water channel, and Relay House, 61 miles, in 46 minutes. The horse was then thus the actual force employed can be subjected to a greater changed and the train having again set out, reached the depot economy. Mr. Knight adds that "according to Tredgold, the on Pratt street in 69 minutes. The road between the Relay maximum of useful effect of the labor of a horse will be ob- House and the depot is a perfect level, except at three deep tained from a duration of six hours labor per day, at a velocity excavations, where an elevation of 17 to 20 feet per mile was of three miles per hour, and the mean power of traction will opened for drainage." COST OF EARLY RAILWAY FREIGHT MOVEMENTS. Two of the most important typical articles of through freight There was certainly not a very extensive basis for commerce on a number of roads were cotton on southern lines, and of any kind, either foreign or domestic. It continued to be a. flour on northern lines. It generally happened that the north- national lamentation that the value of many products was con- ern roads (except the anthracite railways) derived considerably sumed in vain efforts to get them to market. The proportion more revenue from passengers than from freight, while on most of articles moved from the point of production or its vicinity of the southern roads more revenue was derived from freight was smaller than at the present day, and the proportion of than from passengers. The actual cost and standard of charges products moved over considerable distances which were trans- for all classes of freight movements were very much higher ported over water routes was much larger than it has been than at the present day, 80 much higher, indeed, that the during recent years. quantity of products which would bear the inevitable cost of In 1840 the value of foreign imports into and domestic ex- rail movements was comparatively limited. ports from the principal commercial states was as follows:- Nearly all the freight moved consisted of articles produced Foreign Domestic on or near the route traversed, or merchandise forwarded from imports. exports. Maine terminal towns or cities. The usual diversion of nearly all the $628,762 $1,009,910 Massachusetts 16,513,858 6,268,158 trade previously conducted over considerable distances in heavy Rhode Island 274,534 203,006 wagons occurred, but an exception was noted by the superin- Connecticut 277,072 518,210 tendent of the Philadelphia and Columbia, after it had been New York 60,440,750 22,676,609 several years in operation, in the matter of whisky, as he stated Pennsylvania 8,464,882 5,736,456 that the tolls of the state and freight charges of car owners Maryland 4,910,746 5,495,020 were too high to furnish sufficient inducements to distillers to Virginia 545,085 4,769,937 transfer their business from the turnpike to the railroad. An North Carolina 252,532 387,484 South Carolina early Camden and Amboy report refers to an incident of an 2,058,870 9,981,016 Georgia 491,428 6,862,959 opposite character as an illustration of the rapidity with which Louisiana 10,673,190 32,998,059 new forms of local traffic were developed. It consisted of an Alabama 574,651 12,854,694 unexpected increase in the number of cars required for moving Florida 190,728 1,850,709 green corn from country districts to city markets. Unenumerated states 584,338 2,283,407 INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS IN 1840. $107,141,519 $113,895,634 The nation had not yet been trained into reliance upon ex- Of all the domestic products exported in 1840, only a tensive sales of surplus products at distant points, except in very small fraction were taken to the exporting points by connection with cotton, flour, tobacco, and a few other articles. rail. The great exporting centre of New Orleans had no in- Live stock was driven from place to place and not transported terior rail freight connections, and New York, which ranked in cars. The total annual value of all the exports of domestic second as an exporting city, was substantially in the same po- produce was usually a little more than one hundred millions of sition, the reliance for the extensive interior freight movements dollars, of which more than one-half was cotton, and generally of these two cities being upon natural or artificial water chan- tobacco ranked second on the list, and flour third. The census nels, and mainly the Mississippi, the Hudson, and the New returns of 1840 reported the product of iron at 286,943 tons; York canals. anthracite coal, 863,489; bituminous coal, 27,603,191 bushels; The census report of 1840 stated the population of the United wheat, 84,823,272 bushels; Indian corn, 377,531,875 bushels; States to be 17,068,666, including 6,100 persons on board vessels tobacco, 219,163,319 pounds; cotton, 790,479,275 pounds; and of war in the naval service. The number of persons employed the estimated value of all the manufactured goods produced in various industries was as follows: Mining, 15,203; agriculture, in the country in that year was $370,451,754. 3,717,756; commerce, 117,575; manufactures and trades, 791,545; Digitized by Google 110 COST OF EARLY RAILWAY FREIGHT MOVEMENTS. navigation of the ocean, 56,025; navigation of canals, lakes, and 8-wheel car at 30, and the load of a 4-wheel burthen car at 8 rivers, 33,067; learned professions and engineers, 65,236. The tons, we have the following results:- number engaged in railway pursuits was not stated. It was Road toll on an 8-wheel car, 4 cents per mile. perhaps considered too small to be worth mentioning. Road toll on 30 passengers, 30 cents per mile. Motive power toll on car, 2 cents per mile. FREIGHT CHARGES FOR EARLY MOVEMENTS BY RAIL. Motive power toll on 30 passengers, 30 cents per mile. A serious obstacle to the rapid increase of extensive rail Total toll for 30 passengers, 66 cents per mile, or 2.2 cents per movements of bulky freight, arose from the high standard of mile for each passenger, leaving 1.8 cents per mile to the owners charges then prevailing, which was necessitated by the actual of the car for every passenger. cost to railway companies of movements over imperfect lines, Road toll on a 4-wheel burthen car, 1 cent per mile. in small cars, drawn by locomotives of limited capacity. Road toll on three tons of dry goods, 12 cents per mile. A British writer states that the cost of transporting goods on Motive power toll on car, 1 cent per mile. the Liverpool and Manchester Railroad, during its early opera- Motive power toll on three tons of dry goods, 3.6 cents per tions, was $2.79 per ton for 32 miles, or nearly nine cents per mile. ton per mile. A similar standard prevailed on a number of Total toll on three tons of dry goods, 17.6 cents per mile, or American lines, and on some classes of articles these rates 5.86 cents per mile per ton to the owner of the car." were exceeded. The superintendent of motive power of the Columbia and The rates authorized by some of the early charters were ten Philadelphia Railroad, in a report for the year ending October cents per ton per mile on bulky articles, or ten cents per cubic 31st, 1837, said that the charges then imposed for carrying goods foot on articles of measurement, for a distance of one hundred on the other railways named below were as follows:- miles. The twelfth section of the charter of the Georgia Rail- For goods road and Banking Company was as follows: "That the said On the per ton per mile. Georgia Railroad Company shall atall times have the exclusive Cents. Baltimore and Ohio 41 right of transportation or conveyance of persons, merchandise, Baltimore and Washington 4 and produce over the railroad and railroads to be by them con- Winchester and Potomac 7 structed while they see fit to exercise the exclusive right; pro- Portsmouth and Roanoke 8 vided that the charge of transportation or conveyance shall not Boston and Providence 10 exceed fifty cents per hundred pounds on heavy articles, and Boston and Lowell 7 ten cents per cubic foot on articles of measurement, for every Mohawk and Hudson 8 hundred miles, and five cents per mile for every passenger." Petersburg 10 It was estimated during the first nine months of the opera- He also gave in that report the following estimate of the cost tions of the Baltimore and Ohio that the cost of transportation to the road or the state of freight movements: "The annual on that road was six cents per ton per mile. cost to the state of transporting a ton of freight has been fre- The Petersburg Railroad, one of the first lines constructed in quently inquired. From the closest calculation that has been Virginia, was prohibited by its charter from charging more made, it would seem that the expense of transporting one ton than 12} cents a mile on a ton of freight during the time the one mile in a train of twenty loaded cars, would be about eight road was being constructed, and after its completion it was for- mills, exclusive of the repairs, wear and tear of engines, and bidden to charge more than $8 per ton on merchandise carried supervision. The state now charges twelve mills, allowing only from Petersburg to Blakely, in North Carolina, a distance of 60 four mills for the expenses and all other contingencies." miles. This is at the rate of 13} cents per ton per mile. A NEW YORK ESTIMATE OF THE COST OF RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION. The cost of transportation to the operating company on the In 1835 a report on the subject of the actual cost of trans. Mauch Chunk Railroad, 9 miles in length, of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, which railroad was used mainly for portation by rail was made to the New York legislature, which was criticised at a later period, on the ground that it unduly the transportation of coal, all of which was carried down grade, magnified the necessary expense of such movements, and that for the year 1828, was reported as follows: Mules and horses the information it furnished was based on operations on roads cost 1] cents per ton per mile; hands, 11; repairing wagons, 1; unfavorably located. Subscquent events have conclusively oil, 1; total, 300 cents per ton a mile, full and one way, and proved that the estimates were much higher than the facilities the whole cost divided into the distance one way only. of improved roads would justify. The conclusions reached The tolls charged by the state of Pennsylvania, on the Colum- were of momentous importance, inasmuch as they formed a bia and Philadelphia Railway, for the use of the road and leading incentive to the enlargement of the New York canals, locomotive power, which was, of course, exclusive of the commenced in 1835 and completed in 1862, at an enormous charges imposed by owners of cars for freight movements, expense, on the ground that genuinely cheap transportation together with those charges, were described in an article could never be expected from railways. written for the Journal of the Franklin Institute of May, 1840, by Mr. W. Hasell Wilson, civil engineer, to be as follows:- DIFFERENCE OF RATES ON DIFFERENT LINES. "The rates of toll for the use of road vary from 6 mills to 4 In early railroading, as at all later periods, there have been cents per ton (of 2,000 lbs.) per mile. There are twelve different great variations in the freight charges imposed by different rates, the average of which would be 2 cents per ton per mile. lines, many of which grew naturally out of differences in their The lowest rates are for coal, stone, iron ore, vegetables, lime, cost, charter requirements, or other circumstances. The Balti- manure, and timber, and the highest are for dry goods, drugs, more and Ohio appears to have been one of the cheapest roads, medicines, steel, and furs. as it is stated that at an early stage of its history its charter On the United States mail the toll is one mill per mile for forbid freight charges exceeding four cents per ton per mile. every 10 pounds. On every passenger one cent per mile. In Sundry controversial points were agitated, some of which arose addition to these rates a toll is levied of one cent per mile on from contests relating to the respective merits of railways and each burthen car, two cents per mile on each baggage car, and canals as freight carriers, and others from disputes in regard to on every passenger car one cent per mile for each pair of the relative desirability of state and company management of wheels. railway operations. One of the results of state management of The motive power toll is, for each car having four wheels, one the main line of the Pennsylvania improvements, consisting cent per mile; for each additional pair of wheels 5 mills; for chiefly of canals, but supplemented by two railroads, was each passenger one cent per mile, and for all other kinds of alleged to be that the cost of transporting a barrel of flour from loading 12 mills per ton (of 2,000 lbs.). The owners of cars the Ohio river, or Pittsburgh, to Philadelphia in 1840 was $1.55. now charge $3.25 for every passenger and $7.50 for every ton of It had previously been reported, however, that in 1834 such merchandise conveyed the whole length of the road, they pay- movements were made for $1.12} per barrel. The charge of ing all tolls, which is at the rate of four cents per mile for passengers $1.55 is at the rate of about four cents per ton per mile for the and 9.14 cents per mile for a ton of goods. Taking the length of entire distance. the road at 82 miles, the average number of passengers to an Other results, which were referred to partly on account of Digitized by Google RIVALRY BETWEEN LAND AND WATER ROUTES. 111 their bearing on the state vs. company management question, miles (on the canals), or $22 per ton, or 6 cents per ton per are stated in the following extract from an article published in mile." the Railroad Journal, of January, 1840, which opposed the con- PROPHETIC VIEWS OF J. EDGAR THOMSON. struction of the projected New York and Erie Railroad as a In connection with the controversies relating to the relative state work:- merits of canals and railroads as freight carriers, in 1840, one "The state of Michigan opened 30 miles of the Central Rail- of the statements most frequently quoted by the advocates of road in January, 1838, and carries on the forwarding business, the latter class of improvements, was an extract from a report in all its branches, as well as the transportation of passengers, of J. Edgar Thomson, chief engineer of the Georgia Railroad giving bills of lading for flour, butter, turkeys, live or dead and Banking Company, whose lines had been constructed under hogs, &c., all under the direction of commissioners appointed his supervision, and which was beginning a prosperous career annually. There are, of course, no 'tolls,' and the cost of trans- under his management. In view of the immense influence he portation in 1838 was 371 cents per barrel of flour carried 30 subsequently exercised in verifying his statements they pos- miles, or 12} cents per ton per mile, while the Mohawk and sess a significance which can scarcely be overrated, and they Hudson Railroad, only 16 miles long, with three kinds and five will forever stand out like beacon-lights of truth amid many changes of power, charged, and we believe still charges, 6} cents shoals and quicksands of error. Mr. Thomson in this report, per barrel of flour, or very nearly 4 cents per ton per mile, one- dated April 29th, 1840, when the road was well advanced third of the price charged by the state of Michigan. This same towards completion, and its financial success seemed to be Mohawk and Hudson Railroad charges for light goods 6 cents assured, said:- per ton per mile, which it carries throughout the year at the " I can now state with confidence, that whenever the transportation rate of ten miles per hour for the very price charged on the is of a mixed character, such as agricultural products, general mer- Erie Canal for transportation during seven or eight months at chandise, and passengers, sufficiently large to justify the construction the rate of two miles per hour. The rate for light goods from of a good road, railways will be found to be not only the most ex- New York to Buffalo for 1839 was $1.20 per 100 pounds, and peditious, but the cheapest artificial medium of conveyance at present deducting 10 cents for the river, there remains $1.10 for 363 known." RIVALRY BETWEEN LAND AND WATER ROUTES. PAUCITY OF INTERSTATE-FREIGHT MOVEMENTS OVER ARTIFICIAL A principal effect of this restrictive or discriminating policy CHANNELS IN 1840, AND CAUSES WHICH CHECKED THEIR was a failure of lengthy lines to serve a leading end of their exist- GROWTH. ence. In other words, there were no extensive through or inter- state-freight movements of bulky articles over artificial land or THE States in 1840 transportation development in the United is peculiarly instructive in connection with water routes in 1840. The most important channels for such the projects then seriously discussed, and controversies that have movements were the New York canals, and official reports of agitated the country since that time, relating to the comparative their operations in 1840 show that in that year, out of a total cost on land and water routes of lengthy freight movements, and movement of 1,417,046 tons, in both directions, the proportion re- the sort of discrimination which fixes the charges for them at a ceived from other states was 214,456 tons, a little more than one- much lower rate per ton per mile than the rate imposed on seventh of the entire movement, and the value of all such re- short freight movements. ceipts, via Buffalo and Oswego, was only $7,877,358. The Penn- In 1840 the power to make such distinctions on a scale of sylvania main line had failed, most disastrously, to serve as a considerable national significance was vested chiefly in state favorite channel for east-bound through movements of bulky governments. The only two lines over which they could be western products. In 1835 the entire movement over the Port- made effectually were the New York canals and the main line age Railroad was only about fifty thousand tons, and although of the state of Pennsylvania, both of which were under the this may have been subsequently increased, the east-bound management of political officials, controlled, directly or in- through-freight movement over that road never reached con- directly, by legislatures; and every other railroad or canal then siderable magnitude. This was partly because the composite existing that was of sufficient length to engage extensively in character of the Pennsylvania main line, with its changes from through interstate-commerce movements had been assisted by canals to railroads, rendered it unable to compete in cost state loans or state stock subscriptions to an extent that would with the cheaper water channels of New York, and partly be- justify absolute control of the general subject of the relations cause the lakes furnished better feeders of traffic than the Ohio between through and local rates. river; but there was a comparatively small amount of east- It was, therefore, the right and duty of the people and their bound through movements on both these lines combined, and the direct agents to decide what those relations should be. If rates principal advantage, in a national commercial point of view, re- were adjusted on erroneous principles they suffered as tax- sulting from the construction of the main line of the Pennsyl- payers, because they were the chief financial supporters of all vania state works, hinged on the fact that it enabled Philadel- the railways and canals then existing, either by direct outlays, phia merchants to retain western trade which they would have such as those made by New York and Pennsylvania for con- lost without such aid. On account of the lower latitude in which structing their state works, or by indirect outlays, such as those the Pennsylvania canals were located, they could be opened made in various other states through subscriptions to stock, or earlier in the spring, and kept open later in the fall, than the loans of state bonds. New York canals, and they, therefore, furnished available chan- The practical decision generally reached on this question, nels of trade to Philadelphia and other portions of Pennsyl- in 1840 and for some years later, both by the state govern- vania during some weeks of every season at periods when New ments in imposing tolls, and most of the private companies in York did not possess similar advantages. their combined charges for the equivalent of tolls and freight, HOW THE GREAT WESTERN EMIGRATION MOVEMENT WAS MADE. was to impose a given rate per ton per mile, without regard to The following instructive and interesting account of the distance. This system had a thorough trial. The idea which method of conducting the emigration movement to the Missis- found enthusiastic advocates at a later period, that no distinc- sippi valley during the fourth decade is furnished in Flint's tions of the kind indicated should be made, or more especially History of the Mississippi Valley, published in 1832:- none in favor of long movements, was extensively tested, and "On account of the universality and cheapness of steamboat the results are known. Indeed a number of the prevailing and canal passage and transport, more than half the whole practices and prejudices were in favor of discriminations in number of immigrants now arrive in the west by water. This behalf of local trade and travel, and if decisions of the United remark applies to nine-tenths of those that come from Europe States courts had not severely checked such tendencies it would and the northern states. They thus escape much of the ex- be difficult to say how far they might have been carried. pense, slowness, inconvenience, and danger of the ancient, cum- Digitized by Google 112 RIVALRY BETWEEN LAND AND WATER ROUTES. brous, and tiresome journey in wagons. They no longer ex- canal may be said to accommodate a country 360 miles long perience the former vexations of incessant altercations with and 50 miles wide, on which the tonnage (or tolls) must now landlords, mutual charges of dishonesty, discomfort from new be regulated. modes of speech and reckoning money, from breaking down The man who resides 20 miles from Philadelphia, and 7 from carriages, and wearing out horses. Immigrants from the canal, should he convey a ton of goods by land, it would be Virginia, the two Carolinas, and Georgia still immigrate, after worth at least fifteen shillings, as it would employ a man and the ancient fashion, in the southern wagon. This is a vehicle two horses two days. almost unknown at the north, strong, comfortable, commodi- S. d. ous, containing not only a movable kitchen, but provisions and The carriage to the canal, seven miles, in like proportion 5 4 beds. Drawn by four or six horses, it subserves all the various Carriage on the canal. 4 0 intentions of house, shelter, and transport, and is, in fact, the 9 0 southern ship of the forests and prairies. The horses that con- Thus the saving would be six shillings, and the tonnage vey the wagon are large and powerful animals, followed by ser- (tolls) should increase to a certain sum on the first hundred vants, cattle, sheep, swine, dogs, the whole forming a primitive miles of canal, keeping much within the limits of land carriage, caravan, not unworthy of ancient days, and the plains of Mamre. then decrease as the boating increased, in order to draw the trade The procession moves on with power in its dust, putting to of the back country into the canal. shame and uncomfortable feelings of comparison the northern The expense of boating a ton 20 miles will be as follows: A family with their slight wagon, jaded horses, and subdued man, boy, and horse will convey forty tons 20 miles for ten though jealous countenances. Their vehicle stops; and they shillings, which is three pence per ton for 20 miles; but to scan the staunch strong southern hulk, with its chimes of bells, allow for contingencies, say four pence per ton for boating 20 its fat black drivers, and its long train of concomitants, until miles, the tonnage and boating on the 360 miles should then they have swept by. be regulated, perhaps, in the following order:- Perhaps more than half the northern immigrants arrive at present by way of the New York canal and lake Erie. If their Tonnage Miles. (or tolls.) Boating. Amount. destination be the upper waters of the Wabash, they debark at 8. d. s. d. a. d. Sandusky, and continue their route without approaching the 20 4 0 0 4 4 4 40 3 0 0 8 8 8 Ohio. The greater number make their way from the lake to 60 12 0 1 0 13 0 the Ohio, either by the Erie and Ohio or the Dayton canal. 80 16 0 1 4 17 4 From all points, except those west of the Guyandot route and 100* 20 0 1 8 21 8 the national road, when they arrive at the Ohio, or its navigable 120 19 8 2 0 21 8 waters, the greater number of the families 'take water.' Emi- 140 19 4 2 4 21 8 grants from Pennsylvania will henceforth reach the Ohio on 160 19 0 2 8 21 8 the great Pennsylvania canal, and will 'take water' at Pitts- 180 18 8 3 0 21 8 burgh. If bound to Indiana, Illinois, or Missouri, they build 200 18 4 3 4 21 8 220 18 0 3 8 21 8 or purchase a family boat. Many of these boats are comfort- 240 17 8 4 0 21 8 ably fitted up, and are neither inconvenient nor unpleasant 260 17 4 4 4 21 8 floating houses. Two or three families sometimes fit up a large 280 17 0 4 8 21 8 boat in partnership, purchase an 'Ohio Pilot,' a book that pro- 300 16 8 5 0 21 8 fesses to instruct them on the mysteries of navigating the Ohio; 320 16 4 5 4 21 8 and if the Ohio be moderately high, and the weather pleasant, 340 16 0 5 8 21 8 this voyage, unattended with either difficulty or danger, is ordi- 360+ 15 8 6 0 21 8 narily a trip of pleasure. A number of the wealthier emigrant By this system the country, at the extremity of 360 miles, families take passage in a steamboat." would deliver goods at Philadelphia for twenty-one shillings and FREIGHT TARIFFS PROPOSED BY ROBERT FULTON IN 1796. eight pence, which is the same as paid at the distance of one hundred miles, to which the land carriage to the canal must be Recurring to the main topic, of the deplorable lack of ex- added. But as such a system would open a market to the re- tensive through interstate-freight movements over all artificial mote country, every acre of ground within reach of the canal channels, which was largely due to the fact that no material would be more valuable, and the carriage to the canal must be distinctions were made in toll or freight charges to favor or borne for some years. But as population increased, and the encourage lengthy movements, it is a notable circumstance tonnage on the main line became productive, lateral branches that forty-four years before the period under discussion, long would be cut from the canal, and thus further improve the before a single mile of railway had been constructed, and when country, the tonnage (or tolls) on such branches being pro- canal improvements were only beginning to attract serious portioned, as before stated, according to the distance from the consideration, Robert Fulton, the pioneer of successful steam- city." boat operations, had clearly pointed out the necessity of such ELLET'S LAWS OF TRADE, SHOWING INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF OVER- distinctions or discriminations. CHARGES AND UNDERCHARGES. In a letter he addressed to Thomas Mifflin, Governor of Pennsylvania, in 1796, advocating the construction of a canal Other significant references to this subject were contained in between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, he very forcibly depicted a pamphlet devoted to it, entitled Laws of Trade, and a popular the necessity of lowering the charges per ton per mile on dis- explanation of its contents, published by Charles Ellet, jr., in tant movements, and practically constructed for this projected 1840. He was one of the most distinguished civil engineers of line a freight tariff analogous to those in force during late years that era. The detailed explanations are 80 abstruse that it is on many railway lines, but which few or none of the railway almost impossible for unprofessional readers to fully compre- or canal lines existing in 1840 had the wisdom to adopt. In hend them, or to recognize the force of the statements and this remarkable letter Mr. Fulton, in describing the system that arguments presented. One of the leading ideas advanced was should be adopted in connection with the management of a that the tax-payers of the states which had made large invest- canal extending from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, said:- ments in public works were then suffering pecuniarily, through If I proceed with this progressive and creative system till a avoidable diminutions of the revenue of those lines, and that canal reached Fort Pitt, which, with some bends, I will call 360 the country at large was not benefited to the extent that was miles, the country which the canal would accommodate would desirable and possible, on account of a failure to construct toll widen as it was more remote from Philadelphia. For instance, sheets in accordance with principles which, in some of their the man who lived 20 miles from Philadelphia might convey most vital features, substantially accord with those enunciated his goods 7 to the canal; the man at 40 miles distance might go This being within the limits of land carriage, the tonnage (tolls) must now 14 or 15 to the canal; at 60 miles, 20 to the canal, and 80 on, begin to decrease as the boating is increased. till at the extremity of 360 miles they would probably go 50 on t If the boats return without back carriage, the expense of boating, which on the 360 miles is six shillings, must be deducted from the tolls, and in propor- each side to the canal; hence, if I average the whole, such a tion on the various parts of the canal. Digitized by Google Oliver Evans. John Stevens. STATE Robert Fulton. George Stephenson. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google RIVALRY BETWEEN LAND AND WATER ROUTES. 113 by Fulton in 1796. Mr. Ellet, in defining the most judicious THE CONFLICT BETWEEN RAIL AND WATER CARRIERS. charge on articles of heavy burden and small value, contended The systems pertaining to freight charges briefly discussed that the charge at each point should be "proportional to the above, and plans for reducing the cost of railway freight move- ability of the article to sustain." This is only n paraphrase of ments, have an important bearing on the railway systems fairly the expression "what the traffic will bear," and Mr. Ellet ap- commenced and projected in 1840. There were few problems proached still nearer to that famous expression by speaking of then more earnestly discussed in engineering, commercial, and "the greatest tax for carriage which the commodity will bear." speculative circles, than the extent to which railways would His pamphlet probably had considerable influence in directing probably be able to compete with canals and rivers as freight the attention of railway managers to the importance of re- carriers. The groundwork of extensive practical tests of this modeling their tariffs in a way that would encourage and question had already been established, by the rapidly advancing greatly increase lengthy through movements of cheap and chain of railway connections running parallel with the Erie bulky freight. He was, perhaps, the first person in the United Canal; the commencement of the construction of the New States to lay down precise rules for the framing of toll sheets York and Erie Railroad; the earnest advocacy of the comple- and freight charges on internal improvements, and some of his tion of lines which would furnish railway connections between views might be advantageously adopted by those who have the city of New York and Albany, and thus parallel the North since carried the principle of cheapening lengthy movements river; the near approach of the Reading railroad to the Schuyl- to excessive and injurious limits. kill anthracite regions for the purpose of competing with the To promote ease of explanation he adopted a distinction be- Schuylkill Canal as a coal carrier; the completion of the Phila- tween freight and toll, which makes his remarks applicable to delphia, Wilmington and Baltimore which furnished a railway railway lines owned and operated by a given company, as well link between Philadelphia and Baltimore and thus presented a to state canals or railways, on which boats or cars were fur- choice of routes to shippers who had previously depended ex- nished by individuals. He said: "I shall designate by freight clusively on the natural and artificial water routes connecting every expense actually incurred in the carriage of the commu- the two cities; the completion of a new railway and a new canal nity, and by toll the clear profit on its transportation; 80 that if by the New Jersey companies connecting Philadelphia and New the carrier, or transporting company, charge seven mills per York; and various other enterprises. mile for the carriage of one ton of any article, and the cost of Aside from these works, on which the merits and demerits of repairs and superintendence of the line due to the passage of each of the respective land-and water-route methods have been that ton is three mills per mile, I call the freight on the article tested in thousands of competitive struggles, extending through one cent per ton per mile, and any charge, exceeding this three many years, and characterized by every variety of incident that mills, which is assessed by the state or company, is what I de- the ingenuity, inventive genius, and adventurous spirit of a nominate their toll." progressive people could suggest, a large proportion of all the He contended that this toll was improperly and unjustly railways projected in 1840 and built for some years after that levied on all American lines in 1840, and gave a number of period were vitally affected by the varying aspects of the irre- illustrations of the losses of trade arising from the system of pressible conflict between land and water routes as freight uniform charges per mile. The list of conclusions he reached carriers. embraced the following:- The topography of the country created an immense basis "At the distance of one hundred miles from the mart, in the of such struggles, in the oceanic boundary of the Atlantic sea- usual tariffs, a commodity is charged one dollar where it might board on the east, the gulf of Mexico on the south, the lakes, bear a charge of three, and at three hundred miles it is charged St. Lawrence, and New York canals on the north, the Missis- three dollars where it could bear but one." sippi and its tributaries on the west, and the Appalachian chain "The greater the distance the commodity is carried the less which separated the seaboard states from those lying west of should be the toll levied upon it." its mountain barriers. "However we depart from the charge which will yield the Under old systems there were only two great natural outlets— greatest revenue, there will be an increase or diminution of the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence-for the bulk of the pro- tonnage, and, of course, always a decrease of revenue. If the ducts of the interior portions of the United States lying west of departure be an overcharge, the tonnage will be reduced a the Appalachian chain. All modern American improvements, quantity directly proportional to the value of the overcharge, whether railways or canals, intended to affect the trade of this and the revenue proportional to the square of that departure." vast and productive region, have aimed at diverting portions "Where the object is to obtain the greatest possible revenue, of it to the districts or states which contained the principal part it is a general law, susceptible of satisfactory proof, that the of such improvements. charge for toll should not exceed half that charge which would The entire trade of the country of national significance had exclude the trade from the line." tended towards one of the four water systems which in 1840 "Where the most judicious charge is levied, the tonnage of were the practical boundaries of American development. The the line will be one-half of the tonnage which would be ob- trade all went to and from either the Atlantic coast on the east, tained if no toll at all were exacted." the gulf on the south, the lakes and the St. Lawrence on the "Whatever unnecessary tax is levied on the trade is at least north, or the Mississippi and its tributaries on the west. There- 80 much deducted from the revenue of the improvement." fore, every railway intended to serve anything more than local In discussing the methods that should be pursued to derive purposes aimed at a connection with one of these water chan- the greatest profit from a given trade in articles of heavy burden nels, and the projectors of nearly all lines or combinations of and small value, he laid down the following rule:- lines which were expected to become parts of a through route "To attain the greatest possible revenue from the trade, of considerable consequence endeavored to establish a link be- under an uniform charge, the profit received from each ton tween two or more of the four great water systems. must be equal to the expense of its carriage." After such connections were formed, it still remained a ques- This rule has been disregarded or violated in many modern tion whether extensive links would prove profitable, and a lead- railway operations, in the direction of undercharges, as persist- ing factor in this problem was the relative cost of the through- ently as the rules relating to overcharges were violated by man- rail movements contemplated and the rival movements that agers of the early lines. An immense amount of freight has could be made over water routes, or combinations of rail been carried on railways at rates that yielded no profit what- and water routes. There has probably never been in the trade ever over absolute cost of movement. Many causes contributed history of the world a contest 80 complicated as that which has to such practices, some of the most prominent of which are arisen from the protracted struggle between these rival sys- active rivalries and aggressive railway wars. If Mr. Ellet's rule tems. It has not merely been a fight between an elephant and is even approximately correct, it may suggest advantageous a whale, or between land routes ranged on one side and water changes in some freight tariffs wherever the desire to secure routes on the other, but between the two rival routes of the the greatest possible revenue, which is always strong, is not lakes and the Mississippi, or the two whales; between various counteracted by antagonistic requirements. land routes leading eastward, which might be compared to gi- 15 Digitized by Google 114 PROGRESS OF STEAMBOAT DEVELOPMENT FROM 1830 TO 1841. gantic elephants, and between combinations of elephants with If methods had not been devised for cheapening rail move- little whales on one side and combinations of big whales and ments to a marvelous extent, their share in this great struggle little elephants on the other. Two of the general tendencies would have been comparatively insignificant, but the fact that that have prevailed amid many mutations are a steady cheap- they were thus cheapened forms one of the most momentous ening of the cost of freight movements and an increase of the changes in modern industrial history, and one of the cheapen- relative magnitude of the movement made eastward, parallel ing agencies to which attention was first directed was the ap- with the natural water route of the lakes and the St. Lawrence, plication of the Fulton and Ellet principles to extensive through- as compared with the movement made southward, via the Mis- rail movements. Others were furnished by a long line of en- sissippi. gineering and mechanical improvements. PROGRESS OF STEAMBOAT DEVELOPMENT FROM 1830 TO 1841. THE number in and tonnage of steamers of all classes con- more dangerous than the former, and at various points they the United States from 1831 to 1840 inclusive, have probably shared the view expressed by Charles Dickens, was as follows: Number, 1,015; tonnage, 175,697.73. The new in describing a high-pressure steamboat he saw about 1840, of construction more than doubled all previous labors of the kind. which he said: "It always conveyed that kind of feeling to me Up to 1840 there had been constructed 1,528 steamers, mea- which I should be likely to experience, I think, if I had lodgings suring 266,707.10 tons. An official return, somewhat incom- on the first floor of a powder mill." plete, apportioned steam tonnage in existence in 1838, between Some of the characteristics of steamboat travel on western the respective states, as follows:- waters in 1833 are described in the following extract from a letter No. of vessels. Tonnage. written by the Hon. Levi Woodbury, from Shawneetown, on Maine 8 1,609 April 16th, 1833: "The top of our boat is covered with coops for New Hampshire 1 215 hens and pigs, ducks and geese, part for the use of the boat, and Vermont 4 903 part for the New Orleans market. To entertain us and raise our Massachusetts 12 1,443 spirits to-day, the captain pointed out the place where the boat, Rhode Island 2 698 in 1826, which had Lafayette on board, ran upon a snag and Connecticut 19 4,103 sunk, the old gentleman barely escaping with life, and losing New York 140 29,708 New Jersey most of his baggage. We heard yesterday of the loss of another 21 3,757 Pennsylvania 134 18,243 boat, called the Reaper, in a similar way, and some hundreds Delaware 3 494 of miles south of us. Ten or fifteen lives were lost, but most of Maryland 19 6,800 those in the cabin were saved, as the cabin floated off, and did District of Columbia 5 801 not sink." Virginia 16 1,970 Writing from below Memphis, on April 18th, 1833, he said:- North Carolina 11 2,014 "Our boat, being on the high-pressure system, moves through South Carolina 22 4,794 the water with great speed, but with no ordinary noise. Every Georgia 29 4,273 time it starts, and almost every half minute after, it issues Florida 17 1,974 Alabama 18 groans like the lion or elephant, when irritated or vexed. 2,703 Louisiana 30 4,986 Then oceasionally the steam starts out of the funnel like a Kentucky 41 8,356 flash of lightning, and makes a hissing noise, that almost Missouri 42 7,967 frightens one to leap overboard for safety." In reference to Ohio 79 15,396 the associations on board, he makes several references to active Michigan 13 2,611 gambling operations, and gives the following graphic picture United States government 14 900 of one of the methods adopted to while away the time: "One 700 126,718 man on board has a large collection of game cocks he is taking Of these 700 steam vessels, from which returns were received to New Orleans, and which he expects to sell at from five to in 1838, 351 were in use on the Atlantic and gulf of Mexico, 64 twenty dollars each. Another has a great number of common on the great northern lakes, and 285 on the waters of the Mis- fowls for market at New Orleans. Yesterday they selected a sissippi valley. The tonnage, so far as returned, was appor- rooster from each, and after a long battle on deck, the com- tioned as follows: Atlantic and gulf of Mexico, 65,946; northern mon dunghill cock rather worsted the game cock. They then lakes, 17,287; Mississippi valley, 43,440. Up to and including betted high, sawed off their spurs, put on gaffs, &c., and very 1838 there had been built in the United States 1,279 steamers, soon both were run through the neck; but the game cock was measuring 226,510 tons. A little more than half the steamers first able to stand again, and, therefore, won." built up to that time were apparently then in existence. Their In "A View of the Valley of the Mississippi," published in 1834, destruction was peculiarly rapid on the western rivers. The the author, in his description of the steamboats of that period, number of steam vessels constructed in various sections from says: "Although the steamboats of the west are generally designed 1831 to 1840, inclusive, was as follows: New England states, 25; for carrying freight as well as passengers, yet it is astonishing northern lakes, 60; western rivers, 729; Middle and South At- what a number of persons one of them can carry. Even a lantic states, 195. boat of 100 tons often carries fifty cabin passengers; as many more, or perhaps twice as many, on deck; and withal 75 or 80 HIGH-PRESSURE STEAMBOATS. tons of freight! And a boat of 500 tons, such as the Uncle Sam, The tonnage of the steamers reported in 1838 was almost or the Red Rover, or Belfast, has often carried 100 passengers equally divided between high-pressure and low-pressure engines, in their cabin, 500 on deck, and 400 tons of freight, and withal the former being 61,903 and the latter 64,770. But a wide dif- marched up the mighty Mississippi at the rate of six or eight ference in this respect existed in regard to the tonnage of the miles an hour. Immense numbers of passengers are carried steamers of different localities. The Mississippi valley reported from one part of the valley to another by these boats. Those 43,440 of high pressure and none of low pressure; the northern boats which come up from New Orleans bring, besides mer- lakes 7,986 of high pressure and 9,301 of low pressure; and the chants and other inhabitants or strangers, who occupy the Atlantic and gulf of Mexico 10,477 of high pressure and 55,469 of cabin, hundreds of Germans, Irish, and other foreign emigrants low pressure. Analogous differences have been perpetuated, so who land at that port, and are seeking a home in the interior that, generally speaking, Atlantic coast steamboats are usually of the valley of the Mississippi. On the other hand, those propelled by low-pressure engines and Mississippi valley steam- which descend from Pittsburgh carry hundreds of travelers and boats by high-pressure engines. The distinction is considered emigrants from the east, as well as from foreign lands." important by sensitive travelers, as they regard the latter as Some of the early western river boats made remarkably good Digitized by Google RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION FROM 1840 TO 1850. 115 time. It is reported that on the 5th of June, 1836, the steam- wind that blows, and every storm of rain it drives along its boat Ben Franklin made the run from Cincinnati to Louisville path." in 7 hours and 55 minutes. Of a journey on the Mississippi, during the era when it was Of a steamboat in which Charles Dickens journeyed down bountifully supplied with snags, he said: "If coming up this the Ohio from Cincinnati, in 1840, he said:- river, slowly making head against the stream, be an irksome "We had, for ourselves, a tiny state-room, with two berths journey, the shooting down it with the turbid current is almost in it, opening out of the ladies' cabin. There was, undoubt- worse; for then the boat, proceeding at the rate of twelve or edly, something satisfactory in this 'location' inasmuch as fifteen miles an hour, has to force its passage through a laby- it was in the stern, and we had been a great many times rinth of floating logs, which, in the dark, it is often impossible very gravely recommended to keep as far aft as possible, to see beforehand or avoid. All that night the bell was never 'because the steamboats generally blew up forward.' Nor was silent for five minutes at a time; and after every ring the vessel this an unnecessary caution, as the occurrence and circum- reeled again, sometimes beneath a single blow, sometimes be- stances of more than one such fatality during our stay suffi- neath a dozen dealt in quick succession, the lightest of which ciently testified. seemed more than enough to beat in her frail keel, as though If the native packets I have already described be unlike any- it had been pie-crust." thing we are in the habit of seeing on water, these western ves- ON THE ATLANTIC COAST sels are still more foreign to all ideas we are accustomed to the original type of low-pressure engines has generally been entertain of boats. I hardly know what to liken them to, or adhered to, and most of the important eastern steamboats or how to describe them. In the first place, they have no mast, steamers traverse tide-waters free from liability to a number of cordage, tackle, rigging, or other such boat-like gear; nor have the peculiar perils and dangers of western rivers. They are they anything in their shape at all calculated to remind one of radically different boats, in several respects; having less to fear a boat's head, stern, sides, or keel. Except that they are in the from snags and low water, and when they venture out into water, and display a couple of paddle-boxes, they might be in- the ocean or its vicinity, more to apprehend from high waves tended, for anything that appears to the contrary, to perform and storms. The speed, size, and strength of some of the some unknown service, high and dry, upon a mountain top. Hudson river, Long Island sound, and other eastern boats There is no visible deck, even; nothing but a long, black, ugly were materially increased at a comparatively early period. The roof, covered over with burnt-out feathery sparks, above which Albany, built in New York, in 1832, was 272 feet long, 261 feet tower two iron chimneys and a hoarse escape-valve, and a glass beam, and 8} feet deep in the hold, registering 588 tons. Boats steerage house. Then, in order, as the eye descends towards built to traverse Long Island sound were broader and deeper the water, are the sides and doors, and windows of the state- than those of the river. One built in New York in 1836, the rooms, jumbled as oddly together as though they formed a Massachusetts, had a length of 202 feet, a breadth of 29 feet, a small street, built by the varying tastes of a dozen men. The depth of hold of 12 feet, and a tonnage of 676. Steamboats for whole is supported on beams and pillars resting on a dirty trips along the coast outside of the rivers and sounds were built barge, but a few inches above the water's edge, and in the nar- as early as 1832, and before many years had elapsed steam row space between this upper structure and this barge's deck vessels were plying between all the principal ports on the are the furnace fires and machinery, open at the sides to every Atlantic and gulf coasts. RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION FROM 1840 TO 1850. THE number of miles of railroad built in the United States Delaware, New Jersey, and District of Columbia, 1,805.57. III. to 1850 was 5,045.77, the new mileage of each Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Ala- year being as follows: 1840, 490.51; 1841, 605.88; 1842, 504.68; bama, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, and South Carolina, 1843, 287.81; 1844, 179.96; 1845, 276.91; 1846, 332.77; 1847, 262.51; 1,218.37. IV. Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri, and Min- 1848, 1,056.46; 1849, 1,048.28. nesota, 97. V. Louisiana, Arkansas, and Indian Territory, The total number of miles built in each of the geographical 25.73. groups was as follows: I. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, The names of the lines by or to which these additions of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, 1,899.10. II. mileage were made, and the years in which they were com- New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Maryland, pleted, are shown in the following table:- Corporation. 1840. 1841. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849. Decade. GROUP I.-Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu- sells. Rhode Island, Connecticut 156.66 99.97 180.16 20.93 42.16 88.46 123.28 162.43 441.29 583.76 1,899.10 Atlantic and St. Lawrence 15.25 21.00 36.25 Berkshire 22.00 22.00 Boston and Albany 87.97 15.50 4.80 13.55 121.82 Boston, Clinton, Fitchburg and New Bedford 20.13 0.96 15.17 36.26 Boston, Concord and Montreal 28.82 8.63 37.45 Boston and Lowell 1.92 6.56 13.59 22.07 Boston and Maine 12.00 12.00 10.50 10.25 16.00 2.00 3.75 66.50 Boston and Providence 4.11 5.37 9.48 Central Vermont 55.27 33.60 88.87 Cheshire 21.39 9.71 22.52 53.62 Concord 34.53 34.53 Concord and Claremont 33.19 33.19 Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers 3.22 34.86 13.64 51.72 Dorchester and Milton 3.30 3.30 Dover and Winnipiseogee 18 00 18.00 Eastern (of Massachusetts) 13.70 12.94 3.79 30.43 Eastern (of New Hampshire) 16.08 16.08 Fitchburg 10.68 10.13 29.52 11.55 3.46 65.34 Housatonic 35.00 39.00 74.00 Maine Central 6.40 71.00 77.40 Manchester and Lawrence 23.45 23.45 56.55 56.55 Naugatuck New Haven and Northampton 27.40 27.40 New London Northern 21.00 21.00 New York and New England 57.16 57.16 Digitized by Google 116 RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION FROM 1840 TO 1850. Corporation. 1840. 1841. 1812. 1843. 1811. 1845. 1816. 1847. 1848. 1849. Decade. New York, New Haven and Hartford 26.00 61.20 87.20 New York, Boston and Providence 4.38 4.38 Northern (of New Hampshire) 18.56 46.21 17.26 82.03 Norwich and Worcester 59.75 59.75 Old Colony 40.10 30.41 7.08 39.30 125.95 Pittsfield and North Adams 18.65 18.65 Portland, Saco and Fortsmouth 50.76 50.76 Portsmouth, Great Falls and Conway 20.12 20.12 Providence and Worcester 43.41 43.41 Rutland 119.70 119.70 Stockbridge and Pittsfield 22.00 22.00 Stony Brook 13.16 13.16 Sullivan County 24.72 24.72 Vermont and Canada 41.70 41.70 Vermont and Massachusetts 32.53 15.21 47.74 Whitneyville and Machiasport 7.87 7.87 Worcester and Nashua 46.09 46.09 GROUP II.-New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, In- diana, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, District of Co. lumbia 83.87 244.02 204.79 47.88 108.30 179.45 51.49 75.08 499.67 311.02 1,805.57 Annapolis and Elkridge 20.50 20.50 Baltimore and Ohio 41.50 55.50 97.00 Chemung 17.40 17.40 Cincinnati, Sandusky and Cleveland 153.75 15.51 169.26 Columbus and Xenia 54.74 54.74 Cumberland and Pennsylvania 9.46 9.46 Detroit, Grand Haven and Milwaukee 5.50 7.25 12.75 Jeffersonville, Madison and Indianapolis 6.00 27.00 31.00 27.00 91.00 Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 11.37 33 25 44.62 Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company 17.50 17.50 Little Miami 14.00 49.98 20.00 83.98 Little Schuylkill Navigation Railroad and Coal Co 3.00 3.00 Long Island 16.75 52.50 69.25 Lykens Valley Railroad and Coal Company 14.55 14.55 Michigan Central 38.16 32.34 12.46 22.90 47.89 26.95 180.70 Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven 7.00 7.00 Morris and Essex 11.88 11.88 Mount Carbon and Port Carbon 2.50 2.50 New York Central and Hudson River 76.54 99.82 21.99 73.75 272.10 New York and Harlem 5.50 11.50 24.50 27.96 69.46 New York, Lake Erie and Western 45.57 7.38 8.59 12.58 126.61 58.67 259.40 Oswego and Syracuse 34 98 34.98 Paterson and Ramapo 15.02 15.02 Pennsylvania 61.00 61.00 Philadelphia and Reading 8.50 40.40 48.90 Renssalaer and Saratoga 39 24 39.24 Sandusky, Mansfield and Newark 62.25 62.25 Schuylkill Valley Navigation and Railroad Company 3.57 3.57 Terre Haute and South-eastern 26.00 26.00 Troy and Greenbush Railroad Association 5.77 5.77 Union (of New York) 0.79 0.79 GROUP Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina 249.98 261.89 40.00 219.00 29.50 9.00 158.00 25.00 105.50 120.50 1.218.37 Brighthope 18.00 18.00 Carolina Central 192.10 103.00 295.00 Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans 13.73 13.73 Georgia Railroad and Banking Company 22.75 20.00 40.00 9.00 34.00 25.00 150.75 Greenville and Columbia 47.50 47.50 Jacksonville, Pensacola and Mobile 21.00 21.00 Louisville, Cincinnati and Lexington 28.50 28.50 North Carolina 92.00 92.00 Raleigh and Gaston. 50.00 47.00 97.00 Rome 20.00 20.00 South Carolina 68.00 88.00 106.00 Vicksburg and Meridian 45.00 45.00 Western (of Alabama) 81.89 29.50 111.39 Wilmington and Weldon 163.50 163.50 GROUP IV.-Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri, Minnesota. 54.00 10 00 33.00 97.00 Chicago and North-western 10 00 33.00 43.00 Wabash, Chester and Western 54.00 54.00 GROUP V.-Louisiana, Arkansas, Indian Territory 25.73 25.73 West Feliciana. 25.73 23.73 Mileage in MILEAGE AND COST OF CONSTRUCTION IN EACH STATE AT END States. Cost of construc- operation at OF 1850. end of 1850. tion, &c. Maine 245.59 $6,999,894 In addition to the construction mentioned in the above table, New Hampshire 465.32 14,774,133 there were considerable additions made to mileage in 1850, Vermont 279.57 10,800,901 which increased the entire mileage to such an extent that the Massachusetts 1,035.74 47,886,905 census report of 1860 gives the number of miles of railroad in Rhode Island 68.00 2,802,594 operation in each of the states at the end of 1850, and the cost Connecticut 413.26 13,989,774 of construction, &c., as follows:- New England states 2,507.48 $97,254,201 Digitized by Google RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION FROM 1840 TO 1850. 117 Mileage in Cost of construo- to furnish a rail connection between the city of New York and States. operation at end of 1850. tion, &c. lake Erie, at Dunkirk; the Pennsylvania Railroad was crossing New York 1,403.10 $65,456,123 the Alleghenies, with Pittsburgh, the head waters of the Ohio, New Jersey 205 93 9,348,495 as its objective point, and the Baltimore and Ohio was advanc- Pennsylvania 822.34 41,683,054 ing toward Wheeling, a point on the Ohio river, located a short Delaware 39.19 2,281,690 distance below Pittsburgh. The main lines of these three rail- Maryland 253.40 11,580,808 ways were each completed at an early period of the sixth de- Middle Atlantic states 2,723.96 $130,350,170 cade, the New York and Erie being opened to Dunkirk on Virginia 515.15 $12,585,312 April 22d, 1851; the Western division of the Pennsylvania, North Carolina 248.50 3,281,623 which extended from the western end of the Portage Railroad, South Carolina 289.00 7,525,981 being opened on September 10th, 1852, and the Baltimore and Georgia 643.72 13,272,540 Ohio being opened to Wheeling on January 1st, 1853. In ad- Florida 21.00 210,000 dition to these movements, the Hudson River Railroad was Southern Atlantic states 1,717.37 $36,875,456 opened between New York city and East Albany on October Alabama 132.50 $1,946,209 3d, 1851, thus furnishing a rail connection between New York Mississippi 75.00 2,020,000 city and the New York Central. Louisiana 79.50 1,320,000 Thus four great east and west railway trunk lines, connect- ing Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, were com- Gulf states 287.00 $5,286,209 pleted at an early period of the sixth decade. On the south, Kentucky 78.21 $1,830,541 Georgia had secured a similar connection, and South Carolina, Ohio 575.27 10,684,400 although baffled in her first plan for reaching Cincinnati and Indiana 228.00 3,380,533 Louisville, was endeavoring to accomplish the same end by Michigan 342.09 8,945,749 other methods for the benefit of Charleston. At intervening Illinois 110.50 1,440,507 Wisconsin 20.00 612,382 points strenuous efforts were made to pierce the ppalachian chain by routes intended to promote the commercial interests Interior states 1,353.98 $26,894,112 of Norfolk and other cities of Virginia. Mobile was also pre- Recapitulation:- paring to extend a railway northward towards the mouth of the New England states 2,507.48 $97,254,202 Ohio, through the Mobile and Ohio. In the extreme north, Middle Atlantic states 2,723.96 180,350,170 Boston was not only promoting the construction of rival routes Southern Atlantic states 1,717.37 36,875,456 through Vermont, but the Atlantic and St. Lawrence, leading Gulf states 287.00 5,286,209 westward from Portland, through Maine, New Hampshire, and Interior states 1,353.98 26,894,112 Vermont, was opened from Portland to Island Point, Vermont, Total United States 8,589.79 $296,660,148 on January 20th, 1853, and in August of that year it was leased PACIFIC RAILROAD PROJECTS. for 999 years to the Grand Trunk, of Canada, and thus made the eastern link of a fifth trunk-railway connection between The historic events which happened during the fifth decade Western and Northern Atlantic states. include the annexation of Texas, the Mexican war, the acquisi- tion of California, and the definite settlement of the north- VARIOUS FIELDS OF RAILWAY PROGRESS. western boundary line, which separates British Columbia from In addition to the construction of a considerable number of Washington Territory. The large extension of the area of useful local lines, the construction of many of the links subse- freedom" on the Pacific coast, and the great rush of emigra- quently used in some of the numerous routes that connect the tion to that region after the discovery of gold placers and seaboard with the Mississippi valley, and the commencement or mines, by water and overland routes, expanded national ideas extension of lines intended to improve the railway approaches in regard to probable transportation wants to such an extent to the anthracite coal regions, two other movements of general that before the close of the decade the agitation of projects for significance were progressing, one of which was the improve- constructing a railway to the Pacific coast was commenced, ment of the rail connections on the great north and south and Congress had made an appropriation of $50,000 to defray through-route adjacent to the Atlantic coast, and the other the the expenses of surveys of routes, from the valley of the Missis- commencement of the construction of railways in various por- sippi to the Pacific ocean, of roads and railways. Progressive tions of the Mississippi valley, which were intended to assist its men no longer asked whether the Alleghenies could be crossed inhabitants in their strenuous efforts to reach desirable markets by the locomotive, for that problem was being rapidly solved, for their surplus products, either by extensions to lakes, rivers, but whether practical rail routes could ever be found which or canals, or to some of the railway lines then rapidly advanc- would lead through the Rocky mountains and other towering ing westward. ranges which separated the Pacific from the central portions of The direction and some of the characteristics of railway pro- the country. gress have at nearly all times, and especially during the fifth RAILWAY .CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE ATLANTIC COAST AND THE decade, been affected by the complex political system of the MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. United States, with its division of authority between the central The most remarkable and permanently useful development or Federal government and the various commonwealths. As of the fifth decade, and early years of the sixth decade, resulted all the early charters were granted by some one or more of the from the persistency with which projects for securing railway state legislatures, it was natural that the effect of any particular connections between leading Atlantic seaboard cities and water line proposed on the prosperity of the state it was intended to systems west of the Appalachian chain were being pushed for- traverse should be seriously considered in connection with the ward. This was the great work of the era. It was first accom- question whether the charter applied for should be granted or plished at the extreme points, in or about 1850, Boston, on the refused. The transportation systems of all the original colonies north, securing continuous rail connection with the lakes had been based on the idea of promoting, as far as possible, through the Massachusetts lines, subsequently known as the trade from their interior counties to their seaboard cities, and Boston and Albany, and the links of short railways running discouraging movements from the interior to adjacent states, parallel with the Erie Canal, which were formally united in except 80 far as they were imperatively demanded by local in- 1853 under the title of the New York Central; and Georgia, on terests. This style of procedure was adhered to while the basis the south, through the Western and Atlantic, built by that of the existing railway system was being established with a state, and extending from Atlanta to Chattanooga, securing a tenacity which has left a deep impress on its fundamental fea- rail connection between that city, which was reached by the tures, and it was only through many struggles and gradual head waters of the Tennessee, one of the most important of the changes that serious innovations finally occurred. It neces- tributaries of the Mississippi, and roads leading from Atlanta to sarily happened that a leading object of the through railways Georgia seaports. While these achievements were progressing authorized in each Atlantic seaboard state was to increase the New York and Erie was rapidly wending its way westward the commerce of its seaboard city, and even short incursion Digitized by Google 118 RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION FROM 1840 TO 1850. of lines intended to promote the prosperity of rival cities, city, and it was expected that this achievement would render such as the crossing of north-western Pennsylvania by the immense service to Boston, in the way of advancing her rela- Lake Shore, of north-eastern Pennsylvania by the Erie, or of tive rank as an American commercial emporium. New York, south-western Pennsylvania by the Baltimore and Ohio, usually however, did much to thwart this tendency, by greatly restrict- encountered bitter opposition. The process of breaking down ing the utility of the railways which paralleled the Erie Canal state barriers made comparatively little headway during the as freight carriers, inasmuch as all freight carried over their fifth decade, and most of the commonwealths acted on the lines was obliged to pay the tolls charged on the canals until charters proposed very much as if they were entirely independ- an act repealing this tax was passed in December, 1851; by re- cnt of each other in the fullest sense, and as if questions relat- ducing the tolls on the Erie Canal; and by hastening the com- ing to the grant of the right of way to railways intended to pletion of the Erie Railroad in southern New York, which was facilitate intercourse with the leading cities of other states built with the expectation that it would become a successful should be decided in the spirit that would presumably animate rival of the more northern trunk line, and thus render greater the legislative bodies of distinct kingdoms. service to the city of New York, in a commercial sense, than Boston could possibly derive from the Western and its advan- IN THE NEW ENGLAND STATES, tageous connections. more miles were constructed during the fifth decade than in Fully conscious of this danger, Boston enterprise and Boston any other section. This is the only decade in which such a capital looked in another direction for the accomplishment of geographical distribution of new mileage has occurred. In the the objects that were not likely to be fully served by the West- previous decade the New England states built only a little ern Railroad, and, therefore, aided the construction of the more than one-fourth as many miles as the states in group II, lengthy lines in Vermont for the purpose of making a connec- and in the decade extending from 1850 to 1859, inclusive, they tion through them with the water systems leading from the constructed less than one-sixth as many miles as the states in west. Several Massachusetts lines were used as links in this group II, only a little more than one-fourth as many miles as system, one of the most important being the Boston and the states in group III, and only a little more than one-third as Lowell. Before the end of the fourth decade Boston had three many miles as the states in group IV. A considerable number railways radiating in three directions, which were the pioneers of the citizens of New England, however, have been exception- of the Massachusetts system. At the end of the fifth decade ally active in promoting the construction of railways in other she had seven lines, extending to or towards the adjacent states. states and territories ever since their own early lines were com- Other New England railways which had more than useful local pleted. significance, aimed at establishing connections between Boston Among the reasons for the exceptional activity in New Eng- and Maine on the north or north-east, and between Boston and land during the fourth decade, the most prominent are proba- New York on the south-west, and the Atlantic and St. Lawrence, bly to be found in her superior financial condition and the good of Maine, which by extensions through adjacent states became fortune which had attended the important railway enterprises an eastern link of the Grand Trunk (of Canada) leading to commenced within her boundaries during the third decade. Portland. The panic of 1837 and the collapse of state credit about 1842, THE RAILROADS OF NEW YORK IN 1850 put back railway progress at least ten years in many sections presented a singular contrast with those of New England, in of the country. The western, south-western, and some of the the matter of diversity of ownership. Of the entire mileage of Southern and Middle states (especially Pennsylvania) suffered 1,403.10, which had cost $65,456,123, or an average of about very severely in credit and capacity to prosecute great under- $46,650 per mile, more than half the mileage and nearly two- takings. New England, on the contrary, recuperated very. thirds the cost were represented by two lines. What is now rapidly. Her own citizens had furnished the principal part of the New York Central (with branches) was 447 miles in length the capital used in her early railways. They owned these lines, and had cost $20,023,863. The New York and Erie, then not and on account of this ownership had exercised over them a completed (with branch), was 337 miles in length and had cost jealous supervision, and ensured profitable results whenever $20,066,208. The New York Central of that day did not include they were possible. Aid granted by states had represented the Hudson River or the New York and Harlem (with branches); comparatively small sums; no state bonds had been dishonored which were subsequently united with the New York Central by a failure to provide promptly for interest obligations; and system. The Hudson River in 1850 had a mileage of 74.71, the fact that no internal improvements of considerable magni- which had cost $6,666,681; and the New York and Harlem had tude had been undertaken by these states left the field clear for a mileage of 80.17, which had cost $4,666,372. These lines were the corporate efforts of comparatively small companies, a large subsequently embraced within the New York Central, and if proportion of which have since enjoyed a career of almost un- the cost be added to the New York Central figures given above, interrupted prosperity. New England then, as at the present and the cost of the New York and Erie, the aggregate will be day, contained a remarkably large number of independent $51,423,124, leaving a total of only $14,032,999 for all the other companies, each operating a relatively small amount of mile- railways in operation in the state of New York in 1850. Several age. Of seventy New England companies reported in 1850 of these lines, however, were built for the purpose of diverting only three had lines more than one hundred miles in length. through western trade from various other points on the lakes They were the Rutland and Burlington, 119.54 miles, and Ver- than Buffalo, and New York was in a fair way (as subsequent mont Central (with branch), 120 miles, of Vermont; and the developments have shown) to be as successful in maintaining Western, of Massachusetts, 117.81 miles. The average length through western trade connections during a railway era, as she of each of the New England roads, in 1850, was less than 36 had been during an era of canals. miles, and the average cost, per mile, was about $38,800. One of the most notable features of the railway development The exceptionally long lines represented, in the case of the of the fifth decade is the extraordinary extent to which con- Western, the efforts subsequently combined under the corporate struction progressed, during that period, on the various lines name of the Boston and Albany to extend a railway from the first subsequently designated as the Vanderbilt system, not only in to the second of those cities, for the purpose of making a com- New York, but in other states. bination with the chain of railways from Albany to the lakes, now part of the New York Central system. The operations of IN NEW JERSEY, the Western were exceptionally successful. The road paid good at the end of 1850, the 205.93 miles in operation, which had dividends, and at the same time rendered great service to Bos- cost $9,348,495, or an average of about $45,370 per mile, con- ton and Massachusetts by diminishing the cost of transporta- sisted, in addition to the Camden and Amboy (with branches) tion on staple-food products forwarded from the west, and in of 92.37 miles, and the New Jersey, with a mileage of 33.80, developing local industries. The entire line formed by the which had been operated very successfully, in a financial sense, junction of the two systems mentioned above in Massachusetts of 9.50 miles of the Central of New Jersey, then a very promis- and New York was one of the first, if not the first, to form a ing project; links or connections of the New York and Erie in direct through-rail connection between the lakes or water sys- the northern part of the state, and the Morris and Essex, with tems west of the Appalachian chain and an Atlantic seaboard a mileage of 34.02. The Central of New Jersey and Morris and Digitized by Google RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION FROM 1840 TO 1850. 119 Essex were presumably located with the view of finally making The conviction of which we have spoken has been instrumental such connections as were subsequently formed with lines lead- in procuring the money for this project as fast as it could be ing to the anthracite coal regions of Pennsylvania. economically expended. The work has been pushed forward with extraordinary energy from its commencement. Already PENNSYLVANIA, a great portion of the line has been brought into operation, and at the end of 1850, had made less relative progress in railway the whole will soon be completed. development during the preceding ten years than any other The Pennsylvania Railroad commences at Harrisburg, and state, if due allowance is made for the fact that her mileage extends to Pittsburgh, a distance of 250 miles. The general had exceeded that of any other commonwealth in 1839. In route of the road is favorable, with the exception of the only two directions was there any movement of considerable mountain division. The summit is crossed at about 2,200 feet significance whatever. They were the Philadelphia and Read- above tide-water, involving gradients of 95 feet to the mile, ing, which had completed its main line to the Schuylkill an- which are less than those resorted to on the Baltimore and thracite coal regions, and had a reported mileage of 95, and the Ohio Railroad, and not much exceeding those profitably worked Pennsylvania Railroad, then being rapidly pushed forward as a on the Western Railroad, of Massachusetts. The route is graded, continuous railway between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh. Aside and the structures are prepared for a double track, which will from these two roads, of which the former was well advanced be laid as soon as possible after the first shall be opened. The during the fourth decade, and the latter the only important line cost of the road, for a single track, is estimated at $12,500,000, originated during the fifth decade, railway progress was al- of which $9,750,000 have been already provided by stock sub- most suspended in the entire state, and there were few visible scriptions. The balance is to be raised by an issue of bonds. indications of the tremendous forward leaps that were to be The road is to be a first-class work in every respect, and is con- made in the next decade. It would be difficult to explain fully structed in a manner fitting the great avenue between Phila- why Pennsylvania had apparently become a Rip Van Winkle, delphia and the Western states. but some of the reasons were probably furnished by the col- As a through route, both for trade and travel, there is hardly lapse of state credit, the failure of the United States Bank, a work of the kind in the United States possessing greater ad- chartered by the state, the disastrous financial result of the vantages or a stronger position. Its western terminus, Pitts- operation of a number of the state works of internal improve- burgh, is already a city of nearly one hundred thousand in- ment, and the lack of good fortune, which had cast a blight habitants, and its population is rapidly increasing. That city upon some of the enterpises undertaken by private companies. is the seat of a large manufacturing interest, and the centre of The Philadelphia and Trenton, 28.20 miles in length, which had a considerable trade, and a road connecting it with the com- been adopted as part of the system of the United Companies of mercial metropolis of the state cannot fail to command an im- New Jersey, furnished then the most hopeful indication, and mense and lucrative traffic. almost the only one in the entire commonwealth, that railways The western connections which this road will make at Pitts- could be made profitable enterprises from the commencement burgh are of a most favorable character. It already has an of their existence, and this line has, perhaps, up to the present outlet to lake Erie through the Ohio and Pennsylvania, and time, continuously yielded a better return on the original in- the Cleveland and Wellsville roads. The former of these is vestment than any other line in the United States. regarded as the appropriate extension of the Pennsylvania line All the railways in Pennsylvania, at the end of 1850, accord- to the central and western portions of Ohio. Through the ing to the census returns of 1860, had an aggregate length of Pittsburgh and Steubenville road (a work now in progress), a 822.34 miles, and had cost $41,683,054, an average of a little connection will be opened with the Steubenville and Indiana more than $50,700 per mile. Aside from the short coal roads Railroad, which is in progress from Steubenville to Columbus. leading from the anthracite regions to adjacent water channels, These lines, in connection with the Pennsylvania road, will and the roads already named, there were scarcely any railways constitute one of the shortest practicable routes between Phila- in Pennsylvania except those which had been constructed pre- delphia and central Ohio. vious to 1840, and a very few short lines. These exceptions in- The Pennsylvania road must also become a route for a con- clude the state railways, the Cumberland Valley, the Franklin, siderable portion of the travel between the Western states and extending from Chambersburg to Hagerstown, Maryland, the the more northern Atlantic cities. From New York it will Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown, the Philadelphia, constitute a shorter line to central Ohio than any offered by Wilmington and Baltimore (of which only 19 miles were located her own works. It will, for such travel, take Philadelphia in within the state), the Tioga (with branch), extending northward its course-a matter of much importance to the business com- to southern New York, the Wrightsville, York and Gettysburg, munity. and portions of the New York and Erie which crossed the The route occupied by the road is one of the best in the boundary line into northern Pennsylvania at places where it country for local traffic, possessing a fertile soil and vast mine- was impossible to secure a desirable adjacent route in southern ral wealth in its coal and iron deposits. From each of these New York. sources a large business may be anticipated. The whole road THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. cannot fail, in time, to become the seat of a great manfacturing interest, for which the coal and iron upon the route will fur- The hopes and reliance of the state, for extensive thorough- nish abundant materials." fares within her own boundaries, with a probability of securing DELAWARE AND MARYLAND ROADS. desirable connections in western states, 80 far as they were then typified by actual developments, were fixed solely upon the In 1850 the railways of Delaware consisted of the New Castle Pennsylvania Railroad. The views prevailing a short time and Frenchtown, 16.19 miles in length, and 23 miles of the later in regard to this enterprise, are shown by the following Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore. Their aggregate extract from Andrews' Report on Colonial and Lake Trade, length was 39.19 miles, and the cost of construction was dated August 19th, 1852, and published as a United States gov- $2,281,690, an average of about $58,500 per mile. ernment document: "The object of the Pennsylvania Railroad The length of the railways in Maryland in 1850 was 253.40 is to provide a better avenue for the trade between Philadelphia miles; the cost of construction was $11,580,808, an average of and the interior-one more in harmony with the works in pro- about $45,770 per mile. The lines consisted chiefly of 56 miles gress and operation in other states than the main line con- of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore; 47.50 miles of structed by the commonwealth. The latter is not only poorly what is now the Northern Central; 81 miles of the main line adapted to its object, but is closed a considerable portion of the and branches of the Baltimore and Ohio, and 30 miles of its year by frost. The mercantile classes of Philadelphia have Washington branch. The only other roads in the state were long felt the necessity of a work better adapted to their wants, short lines leading from the Cumberland coal regions, and the and fitted to become a great route of travel as well as com- Annapolis and Elkridge, which had a mileage of 21.50. The merce, from the intimate relation that one bears to the other. Northern Central, however, had extensions in Pennsylvania, 22 It is by this interest that the above work was proposed, and by miles in length, and the Baltimore and Ohio extensions in Vir- which the means have been furnished for its construction. ginia (or what is now West Virginia), 97 miles in length. Digitized by Google 120 IMPORTANCE OF INTERIOR WATER ROUTES IN 1850. THE BALTIMORE AND OHIO. GEORGIA RAILROADS. The aggregate length of the lines of the Baltimore and Ohio The early railroads of Georgia had been quite prosperous and in 1850, including the Washington branch, and the extensions successful. Much new construction was proposed and completed in Virginia, was 208 miles, which had cost $15,243,426. Con- during the fifth decade, but at the end of 1850 the principal struction on its western extension toward Wheeling, on the new achievement was the completion of the Western and At- Ohio river, was then being rapidly advanced, however, and lantic, 138 miles in length, to Chattanooga. The other railways Andrews' Report, dated August 19th, 1852, said:- of Georgia were the Central, 190.72 miles; Georgia, with branches, "The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad extends from Baltimore 213, and Macon and Western, 102. to Wheeling, on the Ohio river, a distance of 379 miles. Its GULF STATES. estimated cost is $17,893,166. It crosses the Allegheny mount- ains at an elevation of 2,620 feet above tide-water, and 2,028 The railways of the gulf states, at the end of 1850, consisted feet above low-water in the Ohio river, at Wheeling. In of 21 miles, the Tallahassee, in Florida; 132.50 miles in Ala- ascending the mountains from the east, grades of 116 feet to bama, consisting of Montgomery and West Point, with branch, the mile are encountered on one plane, and for about nine 88.50 miles, and Tuscumbia and Decatur, 44 miles; 75 miles in miles in an opposite direction. Grades of over 100 feet to the Mississippi, consisting of Grand Gulf and Port Gibson, 8 miles, mile, for over ten miles, are met with on other portions of the Raymond, 7 miles, and Western Mississippi, 75 miles; and 79.50 line. These grades, which only a few years since were regarded miles in Louisiana, consisting of Clinton and Port Hudson, 14 as entirely beyond the ability of the locomotive engine to as- miles; Mexican Gulf, 27.00; Milnburg and Lake Pontchartrain, cend, are now worked at nearly the ordinary speed of trains, 4.50; New Orleans and Carrollton, with branches, 8.00, and West and are found to offer no serious obstacle to a profitable traffic. Feliciana, 26. Occurring near each other, they are arranged in the most con- INTERIOR WESTERN STATES. venient manner for their economical working, by assistant The interior Western states had commenced construction power. With the above exception, the grades on this road will not compare unfavorably with those on similar works. under conditions that were destined to revolutionize all pre- The road is now open to a point about 300 miles from Balti- conceived ideas in regard to the financial methods that should more and will be completed on or before the 1st of January be pursued, and the amount of new construction that could be next. Whatever doubt may have existed among the engi- built within a given area during a comparatively limited period. neering profession, or the public, as to the ability of the road, Most of these lines were intended to improve western methods with such physical difficulties in the way, to carry on a profit- for reaching markets, with comparatively little reference to the able traffic, they have been removed by its successful operation. contemporaneous efforts of Atlantic seaboard cities to reach That grades of 116 feet to the mile, for many miles, had to be western centres of production. This double movement to and resorted to, is full proof of the obstacles to be encountered. from many objective points is one of numerous causes of the Its success in the face of all these, of a faulty mode of con- extraordinary events that have characterized the rivalries of the northern trunk lines and their western connections. struction in the outset, and of great financial embarrassment, reflects the very highest credit upon the company, and upon As railway development was reported at the end of 1850, the the people of Baltimore." lines in operation in the various states was as follows: Ken- tucky.-Lexington and Frankford, 29.18 miles; Louisville and VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, AND SOUTH CAROLINA. Frankford, 49.03 miles; total, 78.21 miles. Ohio.-Cleveland, In these states comparatively little progress was made during Columbus and Cincinnati, 135.41 miles; Columbus and Xenia, the fifth decade. A diversity of opinion had sprung up in 54.56; Little Miami, 83.40; Sandusky, Dayton and Cincinnati, Virginia in regard to the best plans to be pursued in advancing with branch, 173.90; Sandusky, Mansfield and Newark, with westward, which retarded progress in either of the directions branch, 116.00; 12 miles of the Michigan Southern; total, 575.27. proposed. Virginia, like Pennsylvania, did a comparatively Indiana.-Indianapolis, Pittsburgh and Cleveland, 28.00; Jeffer- small amount of railway work during the fifth decade, and a sonville, 16.00; Knightstown and Shelbyville, 27.00; Louisville, remarkably large amount of it during the sixth decade. The New Albany and Chicago, 35.00; Madison and Indianapolis, two railways of South Carolina, in 1850, were the Greenville with branches, 86.00; Rushville and Shelbyville, 20.00; Shelby- and Columbia, with branches, 47.00 miles in length, and the ville Lateral, 16.00; total, 228 miles. Illinois.-Chicago, Burling- South Carolina, with branches, 242.00 miles in length. The ton and Quincy, 13.00; Great Western, with branch, 55.00; total, Louisville, Cincinnati and Charleston project having failed to 110.50 miles. Michigan.-Detroit and Milwaukee, 25; Michi- accomplish the objects at which it aimed, by making the South gan Central, 226; Michigan Southern and Northern Indiana, Carolina Railroad the base of its operations, that road resumed with branches, 103; total, 354 miles. Wisconsin.-Milwaukee its original name. and Prairie du Chien, with branches, 20. IMPORTANCE OF INTERIOR WATER ROUTES IN 1850. T° fully comprehend the nature of the railways projected many preceding movements of the savages, who were at last previous to 1850 it is necessary to remember the import- being driven still further towards the Pacific by the advancing ance then possessed by the interior water routes. Through and march of western emigration. The productive capacity and local interior commerce drifted towards one of the two great demands for merchandise from distant portions of the world, natural water routes,-the Mississippi trending southward, and resulting from the rapid settlement of the western, north- the lakes, and their eastern water outlets via the Welland western, and south-western states, created necessities for chan- Canal, the Erie Canal, or the St. Lawrence. These were the nels over which lengthy freight movements could be made, and two great outlets, and, substantially, the only outlets of domestic a choice of only two routes was presented. Indeed there were products and inlets of merchandise. comparatively few regions which had any choice whatever, for During two centuries many exciting incidents, embracing natural conditions plainly pointed out to the people of a very movements of one kind or another in which civilized men had large proportion of all the settlements of the Mississippi valley participated, had gradually helped to increase the importance that their road to market was either by the river or by the of these two great water routes as aids to commercial move- lakes. ments. Daring explorers, devoted missionaries, adventurous DEVELOPMENT OF LAKE TRAFFIC. fur traders, soldiers and sailors of France, Spain, Great Britain, Reference has heretofore been made to some of the char- American colonies, and the United States had, in turn, on various acteristics of the development of the western river traffic. A errands of peace, war, crafty state policy, and trade been jour- brief but graphic sketch of a few leading incidents typical of neying over the routes which had furnished thoroughfares for the growth of lake traffic is embraced in the following extract Digitized by Google Digitized by Google FOR 000000000 Weight Five Tone-Draws 27 Wagons, with 94 Tons on " Level, at 4 Miles per hour. LOCOMOTIVES CONSTRUCTED BEFORE 1826 BY GEORGE STEPHENSON. Digitized by Google IMPORTANCE OF INTERIOR WATER ROUTES IN 1850. 121 from an account of a statement made to a correspondent of The competition between the two great water routes was the New York Tribune, a few years ago, at Cleveland, by Uncle more active in reference to the commercial movements of Davy Johnson, then 94 years of age, who was reported to be Ohio than any other state, partly because it was then the the oldest fresh-water sailor on the lakes:- richest and most productive of the Western states, Cincinnati "When I was a chunk of a youngster I was apprenticed to a being the most populous of western cities, but more particu- cooper at Bridgeport, Conn., and for five years I hammered larly because geographical location and the characteristics of away with adze and driver, and hauled a draw-knife for just the transportation systems then available furnished good rea- what I put in me and on me. We used to think that western sons for a division between the two water routes of the traffic New York state or western Pennsylvania was away out west. of different sections and of different descriptions. The debat- In 1809 I put a thirty-two-pound bundle on my back, and started able ground in Ohio frequently shifted with the seasons, or from on foot to Buffalo. I made the journey to Albany, N. Y., about one year to another. From Cincinnati nearly all bulky pro- three hundred and twenty miles, in sixteen days. That jour- ducts were shipped south-west by river, either to find a market ney was nothing remarkable, as I had three dollars in money in Southern states or an outlet, through New Orleans, to foreign and a bundle of food. Many a poor fellow started on the same countries. In the northern part of the state it was most conve- journey with nothing but an axe. When I arrived at Buffalo I nient and profitable to conduct trade over lake channels, and it found a very small town. In 1812 I believe there were only was chiefly through them that a large proportion of the imports three vessels on the lakes. Pittsburgh at that time was an im- of merchandise consumed in Ohio were made. An intelligent portant town. She carried on a considerable trade with the writer of the period, in discussing this subject, says that the west by way of Erie. The merchandise was carted overland to greater quantity of flour and grain is exported from the lake Erie, and then shipped to the few ports on the great lakes. ports, but the larger proportion of live stock, animals, pro- Cleveland, Sandusky, and Erie were ports of entry. There vision, and whisky pass through the river ports." He thought were only two lighthouses on the lakes, one at Buffalo, first that the line of separation, in regard to the productions of Ohio, one built, and the other at Erie. Buffalo was then called Fort was very near to the centre of the state, and said that "nothing Erie, and was a straggling little place until the war of 1812 gave of domestic produce, in the immediate Ohio valley, except, per- it a start. My first trip as a sailor was made from Buffalo to haps, tobacco, wool, and manufactured articles, go to the lake Erie, which was then considered quite a trip. From Buffalo to ports. In the articles of tobacco and wool, the trade almost Detroit was looked upon as a long voyage, and a vessel of thirty- altogether tends lakewards." two tons burden was then considered the largest sailing on the An analogous state of things existed in Indiana and Illinois, lakes. In 1813 I was one of a crew of four, Captain Dick O'Neil but with a more decided tendency to the river route. The in command, that left Buffalo in the sloop Commencement, trade of Michigan, on the other hand, was conducted almost with a cargo of whisky for Erie. While beating along the shore exclusively on the lakes. The tendency of railroads running the English frigate Charlotte bore down upon us, and captured east and west to divert western traffic to Atlantic ports was us. Two boat-loads of red coats boarded our vessel and took us beginning to be exhibited by operations of the Michigan Cen- prisoners. We were immediately paroled, and a small boat tral, running between Detroit and Chicago, which, in 1851, placed at our disposal to reach shore. We disliked to leave carried 129,387 tons of produce and merchandise, 91,145 tons the sloop and whisky at their mercy, and asked to be allowed (of which 49,136 tons were flour and 17,202 tons wheat), being to remain in the vicinity of the vessel, and were told by the sent eastward, mainly to Detroit, and 38,242 tons westward. British commander that if it was any consolation to us we The commercial interests of Chicago, then gradually rising in could do SO. We thereupon concocted a scheme to get the importance, were also identified with the lake routes to an extent guard drunk, and run the vessel ashore. This scheme was that was giving direction to the railway projects of the period found out, and we were packed in a boat and rowed ashore, planned or favored in Illinois, and that subsequently led to the with orders not to return. After Perry's victory the owners of construction of numerous lines which have had a powerful the Commencement were indemnified. I saw Commodore Perry effect in attracting commerce from the river to the lake route. often at Eric. He had his guns and munitions of war carried The bulky produce of Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and all overland from Pittsburgh to Erie. In 1813 I settled in Clevo- other states bordering on the Mississippi, naturally drifted to land. It was then a little, poverty-stricken huddle of not more the river route. It furnished the only channel then available. than a dozen or fifteen houses. We lived in an old log-house, In brief, it was only the western regions in comparatively high where the Indian Omick had been confined the year previous. latitudes and adjacent to the lakes that could trade with the He was hanged in 1812. The first vessel I sailed as captain world through them, and nearly the entire Mississippi valley, was the Perseverance, in 1816. The first trip I made in her was as it was then developed, was commercially dependent upon from Maumee to Mackinaw, with я cargo of beer for Vance and and tributary to New Orleans. Meeker. Vance was afterward Governor of Ohio. From that Independent of the commercial through movement on the time on I sailed the lakes for fifty years." Mississippi and the lake route, numerous cities and towns had sprung up, and a large local river and lake trade was being RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE RIVAL THROUGH ROUTES. conducted. The domestic or coastwise trade of the lakes in The reported value of property received at seaboard by the 1851 was valued at $314,473,458. The gross value of the river Mississippi was $106,924,083 in 1850, and $108,051,703 in 1851. commerce (mainly on the Mississippi and its tributaries) was It was more than doubled during the fifth decade, being valued in the same year at $339,502,744. The coasting trade, $45,716,045 in 1841 and $53,782,054 in 1842. The value of pro- along the Atlantic, the gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific had a perty received at seaboard by the Hudson and St. Lawrence much greater estimated value than the trade of the rivers and was much smaller, being, in 1851, $9,153,580 via the St. Law- lakes combined, and the railways and canals were rapidly rising rence, and $53,027,508 via the canals and Hudson. The in importance as intermediate carriers between the eastern and New York railroads, however, had even then diverted a por- western avenues of domestic trade, and at the same time tion of the interior and lake traffic, and it was reported that achieving much in the way of promoting local development. they had delivered property valued at $11,405,350. Of the east- bound movement going over the New York canals, 887,891 THE EXTENT OF THE WESTERN RIVER ROUTES tons, valued at $25,471,962, was received from other states than is indicated by the following estimates published about 1850 of New York. The movement toward the interior was much the probable extent of steam navigation on the western waters, greater by the northern canal and lake route than by the including the rivers, bayous, &c., connected with the Missis- Mississippi, their reported relative magnitude in 1851 being as sippi by channels navigable for steamers, 16,674 miles:- follows: New York canals, $80,739,899; New York railroads, Mississippi and Branches, Bayous. &c. $44,556,000; St. Lawrence, $10,956,793; Mississippi, $38,874,782. Miles. Miles. The amount of the through tonnage sent westward over the Mississippi proper. 2,000 Black 60 Portage Railroad, Pennsylvania, in 1851, was 10,961 tons, St. Croix 80 Wisconsin 180 valued at $2,779,731. The east-bound movement over this road St. Peters 120 Rock 250 in 1851 was only 13,696 tons, valued at $125,000. Chippewa 70 Iowa 110 16 Digitized by Google 122 STATISTICAL POSITION OF THE COMPETING SYSTEMS. Miles. Miies. Districts. Tonnage 60 1851. Increase. Decrease. Cedar Neosho 60 1842. Des Moines 250 Yazoo 300 Wheeling 2,595 7,191 4,596 Illinois 245 Tallahatchee 300 Vicksburg 938 938 Maremec 60 Yalabusha Memphis 450 450 130 Kaskaski 150 Big Sunflower 80 Total 76,033 135,560 59,759 232 Big Muddy 5 Little Sunfl 70 Obion 60 Big Black While the increase was rapid, as the steamboat tonnage of 150 Forked Deer 195 Bayou de Glaze 90 the Mississippi valley had nearly doubled itself in nine years, Big Hatchee 75 Bayou de Care 140 a large proportion of the down-river freight movements were St. Francis 300 Bayou Rouge 40 still made, as they have been at all periods, by other craft, in- White 500 Bayou La Fourge 60 cluding such as have already been described in discussions of Big Black 60 Bayou Plaquemine 12 water movements on rivers. The average size of steamboats Spring 50 Bayou de Teche 96 on the Ohio basin in 1851 was 206ff tons, and those of the Lower Arkansas (navigable at high Grand River 12 and Upper Mississippi, the Arkansas, the Missouri, and the water, 850) 600 Bayou Sorrele 12 Illinois rivers, 27331. On the Mississippi and Ohio there were Canadian 60 Bayou Chien many steamers of from 300 to 500 tons each, and a number Missouri and Branches. from 600 to 800 each; but the large number of light-draught Miles. Miles. hoats, built to run in periods of low water on those rivers, and Missouri proper (during part Kansas 150 in all seasons on smaller tributary streams, carried the general of the year) 1,800 Osage 275 Yellow Stone 300 Grande 90 average down to the figures given above. Platte, or Nebraska 40 TONNAGE OF THE LAKES. Ohio and Branches. The steam tonnage of the lakes, as reported in 1851, was as Miles. Miles. follows:- Ohio proper. 1,000 Kentucky 62 Districts. Tonnage, 1851. Allegheny 200 Salt River 35 Buffalo creek 25,990 Monongahela 60 Green 150 Presque Isle 5,691 Muskingum 70 Barren 30 Cuyahoga 6,418 Kanawha 65 Wabash 400 Miami 1,745 Big Sandy 50 Cumberland 400 Detroit 16,469 Scioto 50 Tennessee 720 Mackinaw 1,746 Red River and Branches, Bayous, &c. Chicago 652 Miles. Miles. 58,711 Red River proper 1,500 Tensas river 150 Wachita 375 Lake Bistenaw 60 The average size of the steamboats running on the lakes was Saline 100 Lake Caddo 75 437 tons, but several of the passenger steamers of the lakes Little Missouri 50 Sulphur Fork 100 were of 1,100 tons or more. Bayou 'Arboune 60 Little river 65 The total tonnage of the lakes in 1850 was reported to be Bayou Bartholomew 150 Kiamichi 40 215,787, the bulk of which consisted of sailing vessels. In 1840 Bayou Boeuf 150 Boggy 40 this tonnage was but 75,000, and the rapid increase was one of Bayou Macon 175 Bayou Pierre 150 the indications of the growth of settlements and trade of the Bayou Louis 30 Atchafalaya 360 Western and North-western states bordering on the lakes. STEAM TONNAGE OF WESTERN RIVERS. The following statement of the Official reports made to the United States Treasury Depart- POPULATION OF LAKE AND RIVER CITIES, ment in 1842 stated in detail the steamboat tonnage on the excluding cities near the Atlantic seaboard, in 1850, affords in Mississippi and its tributaries in that year. The following table indication of the extent to which water-route connections had shows the increase from 1842 to 1851:- helped to concentrate population at the points named up to Tonnage that time:- Districts. 1842. 1851. Increase. Decrease. New Orleans 28,153 34,736 6,583 Buffalo, 42,261; Rochester, 36,403; Pittsburgh, 46,601; Alle- St. Louis 14,725 31,834 17,109 gheny City, 21,161; Nashville, 10,478; Louisville, 43,194; Cincin- Cincinnati 12,025 24,709 12,684 nati, 115,346; Cleveland, 17,034; Detroit, 21,019; Chicago, 29,963; Pittsburgh 10,107 16,943 6,836 St. Louis, 77,860; New Orleans, 116,375; Milwaukee, 20,061; Louisville 4,618 15,181 10,563 Wheeling, 11,435; Vicksburg, 3,678; Natchez, 4,434; Memphis, Nashville 3,810 3,578 232 8,839; Burlington, Iowa, 4,082. STATISTICAL POSITION OF THE COMPETING SYSTEMS. RELATIVE RANK OF RAIL AND WATER MOVEMENTS. 56,025 persons were employed in navigating the ocean and IN comparison with water movements on the canals, ocean, 33,067 in internal navigation. The latter presumably repre- gulf, lakes, and rivers, railway movements, 80 far as they sent movements on rivers, canals, and lakes. Sectionally they were represented by the number of persons employed, make but were classified as follows: New England states, 1,914; Middle an insignificant showing in the census report of 1850. It states states, 17,577; Southern states, 4,149; South-western states, 1,861; that 116,341 persons were employed in sea and river navigation. North-western states, 7,566. The number of persons reported Its table of occupations of the male population over fifteen to be engaged in internal navigation in each state was as fol- years of age gives the following figures: Boatmen, 32,454; lows: Maine, 539; New Hampshire, 198; Vermont, 146; Massa- mariners, 70,603; railroad men, 4,831. The "railroad men" chusetts, 372; Rhode Island, 228; Connecticut, 431; New York, were located as follows: Maine, 171; New Hampshire, 247; Ver- 10,167; New Jersey, 1,625; Pennsylvania, 3,951; Delaware, 235; mont, 163; Massachusetts, 788; Connecticut, 136; New York, Maryland, 1,519; District of Columbia, 80; Virginia, 2,952; North 1,769; New Jersey, 135; Pennsylvania, 546; Delaware, 7; Mary- Carolina, 379; South Carolina, 348; Georgia, 352; Florida, 118; land, 201; District of Columbia, 3; Virginia, 91; North Carolina, Alabama, 758; Mississippi, 100; Louisiana, 662; Arkansas, 39; 22; South Carolina, 73; Georgia, 127; Alabama, 13; Mississippi, 6; Tennessee, 302; Missouri, 1,885; Kentucky, 968; Ohio, 3,323; Louisiana, 6; Kentucky, 7; Ohio, 40; Michigan, 28; Indiana, 227; Indiana, 627; Illinois, 310; Michigan, 166; Wisconsin, 209; Illinois, 22; Wisconsin, 3. Iowa, 78. One subdivision of the census returns of 1850 reports that These expressive figures illustrate more forcibly than pages Digitized by Google STATISTICAL POSITION OF THE COMPETING SYSTEMS. 123 of comment the extent to which interior water channels ex- Length of Mode not In In steam- By rail- States. route. specified. coach. boat. road. ceeded railways as channels for the conveyance of produce and Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. merchandise in 1850. Tennessee 7,126 5,285 1,841 Alabama 7,107 5,541 1,204 259 103 POSTAL SERVICE BY VARIOUS METHODS. Mississippi 4,747 3,933 603 75 46 Another interesting test of the relative rank of railways, as Arkansas, 5,463 4,720 465 278 Louisiana compared with other agencies of transportation, at different 3,888 2,556 137 1,195 Texas 15,344 4,527 727 80 periods, is furnished by reports of the operations of the Post Office Department, and the amount of service by rail, steam- Total 167,703 116,280 36,238 9,682 5,497 boat, coaches, &c. Indications of the extent to which the rail- Notes to the table explain that the entire service and pay are road was gradually gaining ground are furnished by the fol- set down to the state under which it is numbered, though ex- lowing extracts and statements from the annual report of the tending into other states, instead of being divided among the Postmaster-General, dated December 3d, 1849:- states in which each portion of the service is rendered. Thus MAIL SERVICE OF 1848 AND 1849 COMPARED. the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad was set 1848 1849 down under a Maryland number, and all its mail service was Miles. Cost. Miles. Cost. credited to Maryland, although in reality portions of it were Length of post routes 163,208 $ 167,703 $ performed in Delaware and Pennsylvania. The same system Annual transportation, prevailed in relation to steamboat service. Thus, 1,767 miles mode not specified 17,774,191 751,500 18,573,364 777,415 Annual transportation, of steamboat service credited to Kentucky, exclusively, really coach 14,555,188 796,992 15,025,552 736,710 embraced steamboat service from Louisville to Cincinnati, Annual transportation, and from Louisville to New Orleans, including the carriage of steamboat 4,385,800 262,019 4,083,976 278,650 mail matter for residents of a number of states bordering on Annual transportation, the Ohio and Lower Mississippi. railroad 4,327,400 584,192 4,861,177 635,740 Making due allowance for this system, the character of the mail Total annual transporta- mileage of each state given above furnishes probably the best tion within the United attainable data in regard to the nature and length of the routes States 41,012,579 $2,394,703 42,544,069 $2,428,515 over which persons and property could be moved in the United It will be seen that in 1848 the mileage of steamboat service States in 1849. Few settlements of considerable importance, exceeded that of railroad service by 58,400, while in 1849 the except newly-settled districts, like those of California, were re- railroad service exceeded that of the steamboat by 777,201. mote from mail routes; and yet on these the bulk of the service, Meanwhile the length of service by roads not specified and by or the service on routes 116,286 miles in length, out of a total coach had also increased, and their aggregate mileage in 1849 1. ngth of 167,703, was rendered by modes not specified, which was 33,598,916, or nearly seven times the amount of railway presumably means, in nearly all instances, that it was over mileage, although the length of all the post routes in the coun- roads on which stage lines were not running, while on 36,238 niles of the routes service was rendered in coaches that tra- try was only 163,208 miles. The report of the Postmaster-General shows that in addition versed roads extending through districts in which there was a to the increase of railroad service noted above there had been sufficient population to justify such enterprises. It is also no- an additional gain during the progress of the year 1849, as new ticeable that the land routes combined had an aggregate length lines had been opened. Under the head of railroad service it of 158,021 miles, while the length of the water or steamboat says: "This is a constantly increasing service. In the current mail routes was 9,682 miles, and this disproportion approxi- year the length of railroad routes is 6,138 miles, being an in- mately represents the difference then existing, and which has crease, within two years, of 1,149 miles; and it is almost daily been steadily increasing ever since, between the magnitude of increasing as new roads are being completed. On these routes the mileage of routes that can only be served by land carriers the mail is now transported 5,749,400 miles annually." of one kind or another and the mileage of districts best served A table is also published in the report which shows the length by water carriers. of routes and manner in which service was performed in each THE MOST PROMINENT FEATURES OF TRANSPORTATION DEVELOP- state during the year ending June 30th, 1849. As it furnishes MENT, an indication of the relative importance of each transportation agency, the extent to which railways and steamboats were em- in a broad, national sense, in 1850, were probably these:- ployed, and the length of the routes over which the mail was 1. Water routes, including the Atlantic and the gulf, continued carried on the roads or turnpikes in each state, we compile to furnish the principal freight avenues of the country, and the from it the following statements:- magnitude of the business transacted on the Mississippi and its tributaries, and the lakes, had greatly increased during the pre- Length of Mode not In In steam- By rail- States. ronte. specified. coach. boat. road. vious ten years. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. 780 2. Railways were beginning to institute serious rivalry with Maine 4,284 3,410 94 New Hampshire 2,213 1,119 962 132 a few of the water routes, such as the carriage of coal by the Vermont 2,519 1,422 1,027 70 Reading railroad from the Schuylkill regions to tide-waters in Massachusetts 3,241 840 1,443 108 850 competition with the Schuylkill Canal, and the carriage of Rhode Island 434 240 146 41 flour over the New York Central in competition with the Erie Connecticut 1,780 1,160 374 246 Canal, and railways were rapidly increasing in uscfulness as New York 13,548 7,976 3,567 1,104 901 freight carriers over inland districts, over routes adjacent to New Jersey 2,172 901 1,033 28 210 water lines during winter months, and as forwarders of mer- Pennsylvania 10,744 6,517 3,882 345 chandise requiring quick transit at all seasons. Delaware 482 272 210 3. As all extensive traffic movements had been conducted on Maryland 2,271 1,279 576 416 Virginia 11,634 8,917 1,907 514 296 water routes, and as the creation of new traffic in inland re- North Carolina 7,798 5,733 1,536 282 247 gions was a comparatively slow process, the field for service as South Carolina 5,349 3,551 671 880 247 freight carriers by the railways was comparatively limited, un- Georgia 6,523 4,966 594 358 605 less they could add to the function of connecting water routes Florida 1,876 1,204 303 280 direct competition with some of the labors performed upon Ohio 12,042 7,390 3,543 824 280 water. The conclusion was reached at an early day that rail- Michigan 4,419 3,080 8C7 124 344 ways could successfully compete with canals owned and ope- Indiana 6,964 5,851 1,026 87 Illinois 8,970 5,787 3,183 rated by private companies, but how far they could com- Wisconsin 3,823 3,242 5S1 pete with rivers and lakes has been a disputed question at Iowa 3,254 2,808 416 nearly all periods, the practical decisions reached varying with Missouri 9,163 6,378 1,329 1,456 the respective excellence of various water routes, the amount Kentucky 8,535 5,677 1,091 1,767 of money spent by governments for their improvement, and Digitized by Google 124 RAILWAY FINANCIERING. their location. An abstract of the census report of 1850 says: the Ohio, or the Mississippi. The water routes continued to "The usefulness and comparative economy of railroads as be the base of all extensive transportation movements. channels of commerce and travel have become so evident that 5. In some cases rivalries between rail and water routes sprang they have in some measure superseded canals, and are likely to up, and in others the new rail and old water systems were cor- detract seriously from the importance of navigable rivers for dial allics. The economic question of most serious importance like purposes." The contest would be less hopeful for the rail- was how cheaply freight movements could be made by rail, ways if frigid winters did not close some of the most important and on the solution of this problem a large proportion of the of the water routes during a considerable portion of each year, subsequent industrial and transportation movements of the en- thus temporarily leaving the railways in uninterrupted control tire country has hinged. of the traffic. The progress made in the physical condition of railways, im- 4. The apparent arenas of railway usefulness, independent provements in rolling stock, and increase of the power of loco- of short local lines, were intimately interwoven with the pre- motives, led to the belief shortly after 1850 that it might be existing water systems of transportation. There were very possible, under favorable circumstances, to move freight in few, if any, lengthy railway lines constructed up to 1850 (ex- large quantities over long distances at the rate of 1.5 cents per cept those which formed links in the great chain between ton per mile. This was a much lower rate than the average northern and southern states, and which were generally in- charges, or even the reported cost of movements on important tended to serve mainly as passenger routes, rather than as freight railways of that era, and very far below the rates usually carriers), that did not aim either at paralleling river or lake charged. But the fact was constantly becoming more and routes, or establishing connections between comparatively dis- more clearly established every year that the possible cheapness tant water routes, such as the Ohio or Mississippi and the lakes, of rail movements had been greatly underrated by the pioneer and eastern tidal rivers and western water routes. All the railway engineers. Still such a thing as railway competition lengthy east and west rail routes of the Atlantic states were in- with water routes over a long distance, such as a movement tended to facilitate connection between the seaboard or its from Chicago to New York, for instance, could scarcely have vicinity and the interior lake or river systems, and nearly all been thought of in any circles. Even at 1.5 cents per ton per western railways were intended to lead to or from the lakes, mile it would mean a charge of $15. RAILWAY FINANCIERING. THE official abstract of the census of 1850, dated December, 1851, we have $662,770,000 as the total amount of investments discussing the cost of American railways up to in railroads in the United States." that time, and methods by which capital had been procured, TRANSITION TOWARDS AN INCREASE OF BONDED INDEBTEDNESS. says:- Previous to 1850 a relatively small proportion of the cost of "The subjoined table, prepared for the most part from actual railway construction was represented by bonds of the compa- returns, exhibits the amount expended upon roads in operation nies by which the various lines were operated, but about that on the 31st of December, 1851:- time, or shortly afterwards, the custom became more and more New England states $131,940,000 common of obtaining a large proportion of the capital actually New York 76,000,000 used in construction and permanent improvements in exchange New Jersey 9,040,000 Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia 81,600,000 for railway bonds, and this custom has since been adhered to North Carolina 3,800,000 with so much pertinacity, intermingled with many abuses, that South Carolina 9,860,000 the proportion of the real capital expended on new lines fur- Georgia 13,000,000 nished by purchasers of bonds has been steadily increasing. Mississippi 1,400,000 Before 1850 there were comparatively few companies which Alabama 2,000,000 could obtain large amounts of money in financial marts, or Louisiana 1,000,000 from bankers, by issuing bonds. When it is considered that Tennessee 2,000,000 even the credit of a number of states had been tarnished by Kentucky 1,670,000 Ohio failure to provide promptly for the payment of interest on their 17,560,000 Indiana 9,000,000 bonds, although such bonds were secured not merely by the Illinois 2,600,000 public works, consisting of canals in some instances and rail- Michigan 10,000,000 ways in others, upon which the proceeds of loans had been Wisconsin 300,000 expended, but also by all the resources of the respective com- Cost of completed roads in the United States $372,770,000 monwealths, it is not surprising that capitalists were not gen- Probable cost of those in progress 220,000,000 erally disposed to advance large sums to companies whose properties could at best represent only a small fraction of the Total amount of capital invested (and about to be invested) security which was apparently furnished by a state bond. There in railroads, December 31st, 1851 $592,770,000 were a few variations from this rule, however, and the New The average cost of American railroads completed previous York and Erie was one of the companies which was able about to the commencement of 1852 was $34,307 per mile. In 1850 to negotiate a 7 per cent. loan of several millions of dol- the infancy of the American railroad system, a favorite means lars at about 90, or giving a $1,000 bond for $900. This was of providing funds for their construction was the advance of considered a great achievement, and was perhaps only ren- loans from the treasuries of the respective states in which they dered possible by the previous action of the state of New York were situated; but this plan has been superseded by the use of in relieving the company of the pressure of its obligation for private capital, and, within the last ten years, frequent recourse an advance of $3,000,000. The Pennsylvania Railroad was com- has been had to the expedient of loans and subscription by menced with the hope that bona fide stock subscriptions would counties, cities, and towns through which the roads pass. furnish all the capital needed to complete its main line, and the Loans of this character, however, are in all cases made under expectation was 80 far fulfilled, through the aid of the subscrip- the sanction of authority conferred by the state legislatures. tions of cities interested in the prosecution of the work, that The bonds representing these transactions, with the stocks of the main line was nearly finished before a loan was seriously the companies, have been estimated to amount to $300,000,000. considered, and then only one-fifth of the total sum required This sum may be assumed as the amount of capital invested in was to be raised by an issue of bonds. these roads now in progress, and those which may have been At the outset of this enterprise few persons expected it to completed since the opening of the year. If, then, we add this become a remunerative undertaking. The city of Philadelphia sum to the estimated cost of the roads finished in December, was canvassed by committees, going from house to house and Digitized by Google RAILWAY FINANCIERING. 125 block to block, earnestly endeavoring to secure subscriptions to panies would finally be purchased by the states which granted the stock, on the ground that the road was necessary to promote the first charters. It was quite common in early charters to the growth and prosperity of the city, and that even if no divi- provide that after the lapse of a certain number of years the dends were ever paid the indirect benefits conferred upon all states should have the right to take possession of the property whose industrial or commercial welfare was identified with of the companies, provided stockholders and creditors were that municipality would fully compensate them for the loss of fully compensated for such a change of ownership. A broad the capital paid for stock. Under the pressure of such appeals basis was thus laid for a system analogous to that established many persons subscribed for five shares, par value $50 each, to in France, which fixed a period when, in exchange for finan- be paid for in a number of instalments, with the expectation cial guarantees or advances made by the government, and that the entire amount, or $250, would be unremunerative and, other considerations, it should become proprietor of all the perhaps, worthless, as an investment, but they could afford to railway lines within its territory. The time fixed for the lose that sum if the prospective benefits could be conferred transfer of the ownership of the property of a number of the upon the city. In a number of instances subscriptions for a early American companies has long since expired, and there single share of stock were also solicited and obtained. This has probably not been a single instance in which a desire to species of canvassing was conducted in connection with the assume state ownership was seriously entertained. The re- formation of a number of other companies, but there were verse process, or the disposal of railways or canals, originally probably few or no instances in which exertions of the kind built or partly constructed by states, to private companies, has indicated were more industrious and energetic, and the pros- been conducted on a comparatively extensive scale. The states pect of direct financial benefits less encouraging than in the which have built or undertaken to build railways on their own case of the original individual subscriptions to the stock of the account include Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Pennsylvania Railroad Company. This subject is referred to Georgia, Indiana, Michigan, and Illinois, and a number of other in one of its earliest reports, made after a short portion of its commonwealths have advanced considerable sums to promote contemplated line was opened, and found to be capable of railway construction, but the results of attempts to operate rail- earning the interest on its cost, and the important announce- ways by state officials, and at the risk of state tax-payers, have ment is made that during that year a noticeable change in been so uniformly disastrous that modern advocates of state public sentiment had occurred in regard to the prospects of its ownership and management would find in the record of these becoming a paying enterprise, chiefly in consequence of the mishaps serious objections to an application of their theories fact that a freshet had temporarily destroyed, during an entire to the railways of this country. season, the usefulness of the Juniata Canal, and thus made it Of all the states which built railways outright, Michigan was evident that only a railway could furnish a reliable agency of perhaps the most fortunate, in a financial sense, as she was able cheap transportation between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. to sell the line of 144 miles, leading from Detroit to Kalamazoo, The Baltimore and Ohio was liberally aided by loans or sub- which had cost $2,500,000, to the Michigan Central Railroad scriptions of the city of Baltimore and the state of Maryland. Company in 1846 for $2,000,000. The experiment of Massachu- Its construction had been delayed by the difficulty of disposing setts, commenced at a much later day, which cost her nearly of the securities of these efficient helpers. A subscription of $14,000,000, generally fails to yield a sufficient net revenue to $3,000,000, by the city of Baltimore, was made available during pay the expenses of keeping the road and Hoosac tunnel in a suspension of specie payments, by issuing orders redeemable proper condition, as a considerable annual appropriation for in the city's obligations; and a $3,000,000 subscription of the this purpose is required. The result of the operation of the state of Maryland remained unavailable until a comparatively Allegheny Portage Railroad by the state of Pennsylvania up to late period in the history of the construction of that road, on January 1st, 1852, was a gross revenue of $2,985,769.10, and cur- account of a requirement that the state bonds should not be rent expenditures of $3,161,327.26, while its cost had been sold for less than their par value. $1,860,752.76. The operations of the Columbia and Philadel- Shortly after 1850 many schemes were projected which were phia, which had cost $4,791,548.91, had been more fortunate. based on the idea that after half the cost of a road had been As it was located on one of the best routes for a railway in the contributed or assured by bona fide stockholders, or by sub- United States, its officers sometimes reported that it was earn- scriptions of cities, towns, or counties, in actual cash, it was a ing the interest of its cost, and up to January 1st, 1852, its gross safe and prudent thing for all concerned, to issue bonds repre- revenues had been $7,483,395.53, and operating expenditures, senting the other half of the cost of construction. Those who repairs, &c., $5,105,058.39. The Pennsylvania system of public advocated this plan laid great stress upon the importance of works, as an entirety, had been a serious burden to the people, the first half of stock subscriptions being actually or virtually as a number of the canals, like the Portage Railroad, had failed paid in; and it is probable that there were few or no railways to earn a sufficient amount to keep them in repair and pay for built in the United States, by a private company, before 1850, cost of superintendence. in which such payments had not been substantially made. It Their usefulness was diminished by the extent to which par- was indeed only a few companies which enjoyed specially good tisan influences and variations in legislative policy prevented a fortune and credit that could borrow a sum, on bonds, equal to due regard for legitimate business considerations. Like nearly the real capital advanced by stockholders; whereas, after the all systems of government works in this country, it was neces- custom of making bonded indebtedness nominally equal to sary to make appropriations for some works which could stock capital became general, the tendency soon began to dis- scarcely be expected to prove remunerative, to secure the play itself of lessening the degree of fidelity or regularity with necessary number of legislative votes for works of great utility which the full amount of the theoretical share capital was One of the proposed railroads which the state of Pennsylvania actually paid into the treasuries of the companies which issued graded at considerable expense, the Gettysburg, was wholly bonds. On the extent to which such departures have since abandoned. Reliable employés were subject to a discharge occurred many of the most serious misfortunes of struggling when a change in the politics of the party in power occurred, companies, losses of unfortunate investors, and discreditable and, therefore, sought service from private companies. There episodes in railway history, have hinged. were serious. scandals, too, relating to various methods of de- frauding the state. STATE AID AND STATE OWNERSHIP. The change in the methods by which a large proportion of THE EXPERIENCE OF ILLINOIS IN STATE RAILROAD CONSTRUCTION railway capital was secured, and in the character of the securi- and management was exceptionally disastrous, and in some ties by which it was represented, and the abandonment of the respects it was an exaggerated illustration or caricature of practice of extending liberal state aid, in the shape of loans or the results elsewhere. W. K. Ackerman gives this instructive stock subscriptions to important companies, was either accom- epitome of the experience of Illinois in a paper read before panied or soon followed by a noticeable change in the charac- the Chicago Historical Society in 1883:- ter of the relations between railway companies and the states "On the 27th of February, 1837, the internal improvement in which the lines were located. Originally it seems to have act was passed, under which the state of Illinois undertook to been taken for granted that the property of the important com- build about 1,340 miles of railroad, improve every navigable Digitized by Google 126 FINANCIAL RESULTS OF RAILWAY OPERATIONS. stream in the state, and, as a healing balm to those who that year the first locomotive used in the state, which had felt no particular interest in the building of railroads or im- arrived at Meredosia in September, was placed on the track. provement of rivers, $200,000 was appropriated 'for the im- The road was completed to Jacksonville by January 1st, 1840. provement of roads and bridges in counties through which no The second locomotive brought to the state was for the same railroad or canal passed.' road. It was built by M. W. Baldwin, of Philadelphia, and was Section 25 of the act provided that the construction of the called the Illinois. railroads should be commenced simultaneously at each end- This was the first locomotive to reach a point near Spring- at important trading towns, and at their intersections with field, arriving there on February 15th, 1842, after the line had navigable streams, to be thence built in both directions. This been extended nearly up to that city. The Springfield Journal, was owing to a jealous fear on the part of those living at differ- of March 18th, 1842, stated that 'the cars ran from Jackson- ent points along the proposed route that one section might gain ville, 331 miles, in two hours and eight minutes, including stop- some advantage over the other. pages. It is believed that the distance can be passed over in Under this act a board of fund commissioners was appointed, an hour and a half. Trips continue to be made three times consisting of three members, who were to be 'practical and ex- per week.' perienced financiers.' HOW IT WAS CONSTRUCTED. Provision was made in the 42d section of the bill 'for putting The road was constructed by spiking flat strips of iron on to up conspicuously, and maintaining across each turnpike road long timbers, which were laid lengthwise the tracks, and which and highway, boards on which there was to be painted in capi- were kept from spreading by cross-pieces inserted every five or tal letters of at least nine inches in length:- six feet. In a short time the road and engines needed repair- 'Railroad Crossing-Look out for the engine while the bell ing, and the engines were taken off, and mule teams used for rings.' some years in their place. Alas, they looked up but saw nothing. The 24 miles of road extending from Meredosia to Jackson- The act authorized the expenditure of over $10,000,000 ville cost the state over $400,000, and was the only piece of road (equivalent to an appropriation of $200,000,000 on the basis of built by the state that was ever operated by it. the present population of the state), for the payment of which The entire line from Meredosia to Springfield, 58 miles in the faith of the state was 'irrevocably pledged.' all, was finally completed May 13th, 1842, at a cost of nearly Brown, in his History of Illinois, says: 'The state of Illinois $1,000,000. was then in debt. Its revenue was insufficient to defray the Its whole income was insufficient to keep it in repair, and its ordinary expenses of government. operation was abandoned by the state. 'The school fund had been borrowed by the legislature, and The road was sold in 1847 by authority of an act of the legis- expended, and the idea of taxation to pay interest or principal, lature, and realized $21,100 in state indebtedness. The pur- it is believed, was scarcely thought of. Had taxation then, or chasers were Charles Ridgeley and Colonel Thomas Mather, at any other time, been suggested, the bill would unquestion- who shortly afterward transferred to parties in New York, who, ably have been lost. under an organization known as the Sangamon and Morgan 'The thought, however, of taxation either never occurred or Railroad Company, reconstructed the line, and opened it for its necessity, at least in imagination, was removed so far dis- business in 1849. tant that it caused no terror.' It was afterward called the Great Western Railway Company THE NORTHERN CROSS ROAD. of 1849 to distinguish it from the numerous Great Western Under this act, only one railroad (that projected from Mere- companies that had been organized in the state, and it now dosia, on the Illinois river, to Springfield, and known as the forms part of the Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific Railway. Northern Cross road), was actually completed. Under a special Some other roads authorized under this act were commenced, provision in the bill, work was commenced on it first, the sur- and partly finished. This whole work of state railroads was veys having been started on the 11th of May, 1837. The first finally abandoned, leaving the state with a debt on this account rail was laid on the 9th of May, 1838, and on November 8th of of over $6,000,000." FINANCIAL RESULTS OF RAILWAY OPERATIONS. IN reference to the financial results of railway operations era of serious competition between railway lines had scarcely during the fifth decade, an abstract of the census report of commenced. In a few cases very high dividends were paid. 1850 said:- On the other hand, companies had been exposed to very "From the best data accessible at this time, we prepare the severe financial strains or losses, arising from the panic of following table, representing the financial condition of some of 1837 and the subsequent effects of the collapse of state credit the states, selected as affording a fair exemplification of the during the fifth decade, the inadequacy of available means, or whole system in this country:- other causes. Some minor projects were abandoned during a Length of Aggregate Net Declared Estimated protracted period after considerable expenditures for excava- roads. cost. income. divi- actual dends. profits. tions and grading had been made, and some of the more am- Massachusetts .1,089 $52,595,288 $3,260,670 6.2 7.5 bitious undertakings, which involved the construction of lengthy New York 1,826 76,000,000 4,023,000 5.0 9.44 lines were obliged to postpone the completion or natural exten- Georgia 754 13,000,000 7.5 10.00 sion of their works for many years. Referring to such disasters The figures under the head of 'estimated actual profits' pre- David A. Neal, in a report on the Reading, made in January, sent the assumed net income after the addition of the dividend 1850, says: "Great avenues can be constructed, as experience of the surplus earnings, reserved profits, and all receipts in shows, only at enormous outlays and with doubtful results. excess of expenditure not included in the calculation of which The corporations that have constructed them heretofore have the dividend is a result." all become bankrupt, and there would seem to be no induce- This statement gives rather a roseate view of the actual con- ment for seeking the same end by the same means. Insane dition of a number of companies, as some of them had proved speculators there always will be, but they seldom take a beaten unprofitable, but the fact is undeniable that a considerable pro- path to ruin. They have too much self-esteem to follow others." portion of the lines were quite profitable, perhaps more profit- Solomon W. Roberts, in a report on the Ohio and Pennsyl- able than at any subsequent period. It was an era of high vania Railroad, made in 1850, says: "One main cause of the charges for many kinds of service, especially for freight move- remarkable success of the railroad companies in New England ments, and comparatively small expenditures either for salaries has been their not beginning more than they were able to finish; and wages, or improvements of roadway or rolling stock. The and the losses on such enterprises experienced in some other Digitized by Google FINANCIAL RESULTS OF RAILWAY OPERATIONS. 127 parts of the Union, are to be attributed not 80 much to bad ing a clear net profit of $2,718,204, over 181 per cent. per engineering, as to the pursuit of a contrary policy, which, pre- annum." ferring the counsel of hope to that of experience, and begin- Nearly all these short lines seem to have done remarkably ning the work along an extended line with insufficient capital, well, during a considerable portion of their independent exist- has resulted too often in swamping the company in debt, and ence. The following table was published in 1849 as a statement compelling it to submit to injurious financial sacrifices." of the length and cost of the railways from Albany to the Falls Of the railroads of Massachusetts it was reported in 1850 that of Niagara, and net revenue in 1848, as compiled from the offi- they had cost $51,885,556; that their expenses were $3,410,324; cial returns made to the State Engineer and Surveyor, January and their income $6,300,662. In that year they carried 9,500,000 20th, 1849:- passengers and 2,500,000 tons of freight. Length Average Net rere- Name of railroad of road in Total cost. cost per nue p. ct. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad report of 1851 gives the miles. mile. on cost. following comparison of the cost of construction and operation Albany and Schenectady 16.91 $1,606,196 $94,985 6.2 upon eight leading railroads of the United States, compiled Utica and Schenectady 78.00 3,227,946 41,384 16.4 from the most recently published reports:- Syracuse and Utica 54.80 1,968,036 37,273 13.1 Auburn and Syracuse 26.00 1,125,886 43,303 9.1 Auburn and Rochester 78.00 2,644,520 33,904 10.0 Length in miles. equipment. Cost of road and Cost per mile. passengers. Receipts from tonnage, mails, Receipts from sive of interest. Tonawanda 43.50 974,865 22,410 18.2 Name of road. Expenses. inclu- Attica and Buffalo 31.50 821,313 26,073 10.3 Buffalo and Niagara Falls 22.00 250,396 11,381 14.2 Total 348.71 Average 12.2 1. Boston and Lowell and branches 271 $1,945,646 $70,751 $177,372 $229,048 $256,509 The New York and Erie, on the other hand, was much less 2. Boston and Provi- fortunate in the way of securing an adequate return on capital dence & branches. 53 3,416,232 64,457 232,321 138,400 159,280 expended as it was progressing. It was the most ambitious 3. Boston and Wor- project undertaken by a single company in the entire country, cester & branches. 682 4,882,648 71,020 397,249 360,698 377,041 as it contemplated a continuous line more than four hundred 4. Eastern 581 3,120,392 53,569 385,608 153,468 185,218 miles in length from the outset, with important branches, and 5. Western 156 9,963,709 63,870 590,743 778,770 598,059 a probable extension through Western states, perhaps to the 6. Georgia 213 3,930,057 16,766 244,029 484,894 302,437 Mississippi. The estimated cost of construction of its main 7. Boston and Maine and branches 83 4,021,606 48,453 387,681 204,761 289,478 line, from New York city to the lakes, had constantly been in- 8. Baltimore & Ohio.186 10,096,571 54,283 355,561 993,661 695,919 creasing, as recognized railway requirements were expanding. The original estimate, made by Hon. Benjamin Wright, who ECONOMICAL MANAGEMENT. was one of the most distinguished of the early American en- A number of the New England lines, as well as railways in gineers, and a leading spirit among the New York canal en- other sections of the country, were then managed very much gineers, was deposited in the office of the Secretary of State of as successful short street railways are managed now, in a very New York in January, 1835, after a survey had been made, economical spirit. Much stress was laid upon low salaries. at the expense and under the authority of that common- An indication of the system pursued on many lines is fur- wealth. nished by the following summary, published by a New Hamp- The length of the proposed road was reported to be 483 miles. shire newspaper, of the contents of the annual report of the A superstructure of iron laid upon timber would cost, accord- Concord Railroad for 1851: "The report filled 81 pages, and ing to the estimates, $3,400 per mile, being- contained a list of all the tools owned by the road, of all the For 483 miles $1,642,000 furniture in the stations on its line, and every other article, The cost of grading 2,717,518 however small, that went to make up its assets; and besides Contingencies, 10 per cent 271,751 these, a complete roll of all the employés of the road, from the Engineering. 3 per cent 130,791 superintendent down to the wood-sawyers, with the wages paid to each. Isaac Spalding was president, with a salary of $1,000. That is to say, for the whole work $4,762,260 The Hon. N. G. Upham was superintendent, and got for his Nothing was allowed under the head of cost of right of way, services $2,000 a year. The chief clerk got $800, and the assist- the inhabitants along the route surveyed preferring unani- ant, $340, the latter being Henry McFarland, now treasurer of mously to execute free concessions of so much land as might the Union Pacific, with a salary of $5,000. George Clough was be requisite. a passenger conductor, and got $50 a month, which was the After receiving the report of Judge Wright, the directors of pay of the station agent at Nashua. Engineers on passenger the New York and Erie Railroad Company deemed it import- trains had $2.25 per day, and those on freight trains, $2; brake- ant that the plan of the whole road should be carefully settled men and firemen, $1.25, and wood-sawyers and section men, $1. under sound advice, and, with the cheerful acquiesence of The ticket agents at Concord and Manchester had $800 a year, Judge Wright, they associated with him in consultation Mr. and ex-Governor James A. Weston, who was the road engineer, Robinson, chief engineer of several public works in Penn- $1,000. The wood shop at Concord was in charge of the Hon. sylvania, and Jonathan Knight, chief engineer of the Balti- John Kimball, who had $3.19} per day, and one of his work- more and Ohio Railroad. In September, 1835, these gentle- men was his brother, Benjamin A., who got but $6 per week. men presented their joint report, which was published for These last mentioned are now two of the wealthiest men in the information of the stockholders. The estimate for the cost Concord, and one is a director of the road. At that time the of the whole road, upon the plan as modified in the consulta- road did but a third as much business as now, but it paid 10 tions, stood thus:- per cent. dividends." Grading and extra expenses for a tunnel $2,817,518 NEW YORK RAILWAYS. Superstructure 1,857,000 Engineering 300,000 A number of short lines, running parallel with the Erie Canal, Engines, cars, and other necessary apparatus 500,000 which were subsequently combined in the New York Central, Contingencies 525,000 were perhaps more profitable during their independent exist- ence than at any subsequent period. Of the Utica and Sche- Total $6,000,000 nectady, for instance, it is said, that in 1846 its freight business The expense or cost of the projected road required a net was trifling, but that it was then "doing the most profitable revenue of $360,000 to produce a return of 6 per cent. per an- business of any railroad corporation in the country. It was 78 num, and the directors stated that they had deemed it their miles in length, and was constructed and put in operation for duty to inspect personally the whole line of the route, and to $1,500,000. In a period of about fourteen years its total receipts form for themselves an opinion as to the feasibility and practi- were $6,856,046. Its expenditures were $2,637,842, and its ex- cability of the proposed work. They announced their belief cess of earnings over current expenses during that time were that the whole enterprise could and would be speedily and $4,218,204, reimbursing the entire cost of the road, and yield- successfully accomplished; that it would afford to the indi- Digitized by Google 128 FINANCIAL RESULTS OF RAILWAY OPERATIONS. viduals who might embark their funds in it all the benefits to be reconverted was $3,830,854-this sum representing the which had been anticipated by its most ardent supporters. difference between aggregate amount of dividends and the Shortly after the main line was finished and in operation its aggregate amount of net receipts. The largest business re- reported cost was $26,000,000, which was not far from the aver- ported was that of 1850, which included the carriage of 3,689,662 age cost per mile of some of the other railways constructed passengers (nearly half of whom were carried on the Washing- through mountainous districts in which a large number of ton branch), the carriage of 477,555 tons of freight, and total bridges, viaducts, and expensive grading were required. As receipts from passengers and tonnage of $1,343,805-438,375 of population was comparatively limited, and no route of local which was derived from passengers and mails, and $905,430 or through trade and travel had previously existed along the from tonnage. The expenses of the year were $609,589, and line, the company was destined to share the disappointment net receipts $734,216. No dividend was declared. The surplus which has followed the completion of many other projects of this and previous years was presumably devoted to con- that were based on the expectation of realizing from competi- struction. tive through traffic the remunerative profits that could not WESTERN RAILWAYS. reasonably be anticipated from local business. The following statement of operations of western railroads NEW JERSEY RAILWAYS. was made in 1852:- Total earnings. as per last report. Net earnings. Per mile. The leading New Jersey roads were, in the fifth decade, regarded as highly successful and productive, principally on Cleveland and Columbus* $341,680 9 $239,969 27 $1,710 Little Miami 487,815 09 297,457 57 3,541 account of their possession of a large amount of remunerative Columbus and Xenia 211,631 37 150,055 2,778 passenger traffic. Michigan Central 1,100,013 0 461,304 8 2,116 RAILROADS OF PENNSYLVANIA. Madison and Indianapolis 386,078 00 185,080 2,378 Before 1850 all the railway business of the Pennsylvania For six months only. Railroad was of comparatively small magnitude. The Phila- Of the Little Miami it was reported that in 1848 its net delphia, Wilmington and Baltimore had not yet become earnings were $146,072.48, or 10 per cent. of the capital stock. specially profitable. The operations of the Philadelphia and Of the Madison and Indianapolis it was reported in 1849 that it Reading for the year ending November 30th, 1850, which road was earning dividends of 14 per cent. per annum, and that its at that time carried more freight in proportion to mileage, and stock was much above par. more tons of freight than any other railroad in the country, A graphic description of the trials and difficulties which the were reported to be as follows: Gross receipts, $2,363,958, of projectors of the first successful railway running west from Chi- which $2,071,731 were derived from coal; $125,822 from mer- cago encountered is furnished in an address delivered in Chi- chandise; and $166,405 from passengers, mail, and miscellaneous cago a few years ago by Augustus W. Wright. It was to run sources. Total expenses, $1,080,323, of which $792,024 were from Chicago to Galena, and a vast amount of effort, in the transportation expenses; $154,780 roadway expenses; and way of soliciting stock subscriptions, borrowing money from $133,519 shipping expenses, rents, taxes, profit and loss, &c. friends of the directors in seaboard states, and the pledging of Tonnage, 1,351,502 coal (2,240 pounds); 63,625 tons merchan- their private credit, was necessary to insure construction. The dise (2,000 pounds); 157,450 tons company's materials (2,000 road was finished to Elgin, and proved to be unexpectedly pounds). The total number of passengers was 92,726, equal to profitable. Mr. Wright's account concludes with the following 46,041 through passengers. The cost of transportation was for statement: "The first grade peg for the track was set by Mr. coal 44.01 cents per ton; for merchandise 67.30 cents per ton; George W. Waite, assistant engineer, in June, 1848, near the and for through passengers 73.40 cents. The number of loco- corner- of Kinzie and Halsted streets, the then western city motives was 92; number of miles run 1,233,144; average weight limits, the city officials refusing permission to enter the city. of coal trains 372 tons; cost of repairs $76,245; number of freight Leave was, however, granted to lay a temporary track from and coal cars 5,117; cost of repairs $163,780; number of passen- that point to the North Branch of the Chicago river, in order ger cars 28; cost of repairs $7,880; wood used (presumably to transport the locomotive to the ground. This, the first loco- chiefly as fuel for locomotives) 53,997 cords; coal used 4,335 motive in Chicago, was the 'Pioneer.' It had two driving- tons; oil used 42,845 gallons; main track open 95 miles; double wheels, weighed about ten tons, and, I think, was manufactured track 95 miles. by Baldwin. Of course, it came by water. It was purchased The Philadelphia and Reading was peculiar, not only in second-hand from the Rochester and Tonawanda Railroad, and being the great freight carrier of the country, but in having was unloaded upon a Sunday, Mr. Waite, Mr. Lake, Mr. Red- cost more than $17,000,000, or nearly $180,000 per mile, includ- mond Prindiville, and Mr. John Ebert assisting. The latter ing a much more extensive equipment, in proportion to length, gentleman was the locomotive engineer, and subsequently the than any other American road then possessed. In a report well-known master mechanic of the company. Mr. George C. made on January 14th, 1850, by David A. Neal, he refers to the Morgan, the prominent hydraulic engineer, was Mr. Waite's unusually large expenditure for construction, which he stated rodman. It was the intention of the company to use first-class to be more than sixteen millions of dollars for less than a hun- T-rails, but their poverty prevented, and Messrs. Raymond and dred miles of railroad, and he stated that it is to be regretted Turner purchased at Buffalo a lot of second-hand strap-rails that much of the money was spent in procuring the capital that had been taken up from an eastern road, on the personal needed, and in paying extravagant rates of interest for finan- credit of the board of directors, and six second-hand freight cars cial accommodations. He says: "The great drain, it is hoped, from the Michigan Central Railroad, also a second-hand locomo- has ceased. Enormous rates of interest, bonds sold at half their tive, the Pionecr. This engine, with the six freight cars in tow, nominal value, commissions, brokerages, and similar charges, plied backwards and forwards between the end of the track and ought to be no more heard of forever in the annals of the Chicago. To the former point the farmers brought their grain Reading railroad." in quantity. An accurate account of the expenses was kept for At the same time, the road was then doing a profitable busi- thirty days, which demonstrated the fact that the road was ness, and its capacity for conducting and commanding a large earning above operating expenses at the rate of 10 per cent. freight traffic was then unequaled in this country. per annum. Mr. Raymond thereupon returned east with these The most successful of the southern lines were those located figures and facts, and called upon Mr. Dexter with the request in Georgia, but some of the roads in other states yielded fair for $30,000. Mr. Dexter was president of the Whitestown Bank. returns. Finding the bank's money was all out in circulation, he issued THE BALTIMORE AND OHIO to Mr. Raymond, in sums of $25 and $50, the sum of $30,000 of report for the year ending September 30th, 1850, gives a tabular certificates of deposit, with which, and stock collections, John statement of the financial results of the working of the com- B. Turner, managing director, by careful and economical man- pany for twenty-one years, from 1830 to 1850, inclusive. The agement, extended the road to Elgin. Having reached that aggregate net receipts of the operations of all these years was point in 1850, the road paid handsomely, successively, half- $4,919,992. Dividends had been declared during nine years. yearly, 10, 12, 15, and 16 per cent. dividends, and the business Their aggregate amount was $1,089,138. The surplus reported proved so large that it could not manufacture cars fast enough, Digitized by Google Digitized by Google An Edge-Rail Railway. Duke of Portland's Tramway. ENGLISH RAILWAYS AND FREIGHT CARS, AS ILLUSTRATED IN STRICKLAND'S REPORT, 1826. Digitized by Google EFFECT AND EXTENT OF REDUCTIONS OF COST OF OVERLAND TRANSPORTATION. 129 and had to purchase or borrow a considerable number from the last session restored to its place on the calendar; but Congress Michigan Central." adjourned without any further action on the bill by the House. LAND-GRANT RAILWAYS. In December, 1849, Mr. Douglas with his colleague, General While most of the states were seeking rather to disentangle Shields (who had succeeded Mr. Breese), and the Illinois dele- themselves from railway operations or alliances than to in- gation in the House, matured a bill looking to the construction crease such connections the United States government was of the Illinois Central road and its Chicago branch. That bill preparing to make its first serious ventures in the way of which all the Illinois members had a voice in framing, was granting public lands to promote railway construction. Dona- introduced in the Senate by Mr. Douglas in January, 1850, and tions of such lands had frequently been previously made to while this bill was pending the Cairo City and Canal Company promote various objects, including several kinds of internal induced the legislature of Illinois to pass a measure ceding to improvements. But the decisive initial movements to aid rail- that company all lands that might at any time be granted by ways were reserved for the period under discussion. In a paper Congress to the state to aid in the construction of the Illinois read by W.K. Ackerman, formerly president of the Illinois Central Railroad. Senator Douglas was unwilling that the Central, before the Chicago Historical Society, in 1883, he grant should pass to a private corporation direct, and finally said:- induced D. B. Holbrook, the president of the Cairo City and "As far back as 1848 senator Douglas had introduced a bill Canal Company to release to the state of Illinois all the rights in the United States senate granting alternate sections of the of that company, which he did, executing on the 24th of De- public land to the state of Illinois to aid in the construction of cember, 1849, on behalf of his company as president, a full a railroad from Cairo to Galena with a branch to Chicago. The release and surrender to the state of Illinois of what was known original project contemplated but one line, that from Cairo to as the Holbrook charter, with all the rights and privileges Galena, but senator Douglas included in his bill a road con- therein contained; in accordance with which the legislature, on necting with the lakes, thus securing for it friends in the North- the 17th of December, 1851, passed an act accepting this re- eastern and Middle states who did not favor a proposition lease, and to make assurance doubly sure, repealed all the acts having for its natural tendency the diversion of trade from the which they had before granted to this company-(16th January, Upper Mississippi toward New Orleans alone. The bill was re- 1836, 6th March, 1843, and 10th February, 1849.) The same act ported from the Senate committee on public lands, of which accepted the act of Congress of 20th September, 1850, granting the Hon. Sidney Breese, of Illinois, was chairman. It was the lands to the state of Illinois to aid in the construction of a subsequently taken up and early in May was passed by the railroad from Chicago to Mobile. The bill making a grant of Senate. The representatives in the House from Illinois all lands to the states of Illinois, Mississippi, and Alabama, passed gave it their cordial support, but toward the close of the session the United States senate on the 2d of May, 1850, by a vote of it was laid on the table by a small majority. At the next session 26 to 14, and was passed in the House on the 20th of Septem- (1848-49) Mr. Douglas introduced his bill in the Senate again, ber, 1850. Mobile was inserted as the objective point by Mr. but before any action was had in that body the Illinois repre- Childs, who was at that time largely interested in the Mobile sentatives in the House had succeeded in having the bill of the and Ohio Railroad Company." EFFECT AND EXTENT OF REDUCTIONS OF COS OF OVER- LAND TRANSPORTATION. 0N the question of transportation between various inland Statement showing the value of a ton of wheat, and one of corn, at given points the entire development of many sections has hinged. points from market, as offected by cost of transportation by railroad, and Before the extensive construction of railroads it was impossible over the ordinary road:- to advantageously prosecute numerous agricultural and mining Transported by railroad Transported by ordi- (at 1½ ets. per ton per mile). nary highway. interests at points distant from water routes on account of the Wheat. Corn. Wheat. Corn. Value at market $49 50 $24 75 $49 50 $24 75 great expense of hauling them overland. Andrews' Report 10 miles from market 49 35 24 60 48 00 23 25 on the Colonial and Lake Trade, written in 1852, and pub- 20 " " 49 20 24 45 46 50 21 75 lished as an official document by the United States govern- 30 " " 49 05 24 30 45 00 20 25 ment in 1854, says:- 40 " " 48 90 24 15 43 50 18 75 "It is well known that upon the ordinary highways the 50 " " 48 75 24 00 42 00 17 25 economical limit to transportation is confined within a com- 60 " " 48 60 23 85 40 50 15 75 70 " paratively few miles, depending, of course, upon the kind of " 48 45 23 70 39 00 14 25 80 " " freight and character of the roads. Upon the average of such 48 30 23 55 37 50 12 75 90 " " 48 15 23 40 36 00 11 25 ways the cost of transportation is not far from 15 cents per ton 100 " " 48 00 23 25 34 50 9 75 per mile, which may be considered a sufficiently correct esti- 110 " " 47 85 23 10 33 00 8 25 mate for the whole country. Estimating at the same time the 120 " " 47 70 22 95 31 50 6 75 value of wheat at $1.50 per bushel, and corn at 75 cents, and 130 " " 47 55 22 80 30 00 5 25 that 33 bushels of each are equal to a ton, the value of the 140 " " 47 40 22 65 28 50 3 75 former would be equal to its cost of transportation for 330 150 " " 47 25 22 50 27 00 2 25 miles, and the latter 165 miles. At these respective distances 160 " " 47 10 22 35 25 50 75 170 .6 " from market neither of the above articles would have any com- 46 95 22 20 24 00 180 " " mercial value, with only a common earth road to market. 46 80 22 05 22 50 190 " " 46 65 21 90 21 00 But we find that we can move property upon railroads at the 200 " " 46 59 21 75 19 50 rate of 1.5 cent per ton per mile, or for one-tenth the cost 210 " " 46 35 21 60 18 00 upon the ordinary road. These works, therefore, extend the 220 " " 46 20 21 45 16 50 economic limit of the cost of transportation of the above arti- 230 " " 46 05 21 30 15 00 cles to 3,300 and 1,650 miles respectively. At the limit of the 240 " " 45 90 21 15 13 50 economical movement of these articles upon the common high- 250 " " 45 75 21 00 12 00 260 " " way, by the use of railroads, wheat would be worth $44.50 and 45 60 20 85 10 50 270 " corn $22.27 per ton, which sums respectively would represent 45 45 20 70 9 00 280 " " 40 30 20 55 7 50 the actual increase in value created by the interposition of such 290 " " 45 15 20 40 6 00 a work. 300 " .6 45 00 20 25 4 50 The following table will show the amount saved per ton by 310 " " 44 85 20 10 3 00 transportation by railroad over the ordinary highways of the 320 " " 44 70 19 95 1 50 country:- 330 " " 44 55 19 80 17 Digitized by Google 130 EFFECT AND EXTENT OF REDUCTIONS OF COST OF OVERLAND TRANSPORTATION. HOW RAILROADS INCREASED THE VALUE OF LANDS. a ton a mile, while it would bear a price for freight of a cent "The value of lands is affected by railroads in the same ratio and a quarter. Subsequently the Pennsylvania Railroad Com- ns their products. For instance, lands lying upon a navigable pany engaged in the coal transportation, and now (1873) their water-course, or in the immediate vicinity of a market, may be whole average charge for transportation of all classes of freight worth, for the culture of wheat, $100. Let the average crop be is only one cent and four mills for all the business of the road, estimated at 22 bushels to the acro, valued at $33, and the cost which exceeds 8,000,000 tons per annum, The actual cost of of cultivation at $15. This would leave $18 per acre R8 the net service with a smaller volume of tonnage then exceeded two profit. This quantity of wheat (two-thirds of a ton) could be trans- cents a ton a mile, as previously stated." ported 330 miles at a cost of 10 cents per mile, or $3.30, which In a series of articles, published about 1850, Mr. Henry C. would leave $14.70 as the net profit of land at that distance from Carey said: From New York to New Haven, a distance of 75 a market, when connected with it by a railroad. The value of miles, travelers pay $1.50, or two cents per mile. Traveling west, the land, therefore, admitting the quality to be the same in the charge on the Erie road is $1.50 for 87 miles. Twelve both cases, would bear the same ratio to the assumed value of years since the fare of a passenger from Chicago, Illinois, 1,500 $100 as the value of its products, $14.70, does to $18, or $82 per miles, was $74.50. It is now but $17. Twelve years acro, which is an actual creation of value to that amount, as- since the cost of transporting a bushel of wheat from Chicago suming the correctness of the premises. The same calculation to New York was 80 great as effectually to keep the grain of may, of course, be applied with equal force to any other kind that country out of the market. Now a bushel of wheat is and species of property. The illustration given establishes a transported the whole distance, 1,500 miles, for 27 cents. A principle entirely correct in itself, but, of course, liable to be barrel of flour can be transported from Chicago to New York modified to meet the facts of each case. Vast bodies of the for 80 cents." finest land in the United States, and lying within two hundred The freight tariff established by the Michigan Central Rail- miles of navigable water-courses, are unsaleable, and nearly, if not road in August, 1848, on flour, wheat, and merchandise, was as quite, valueless for the culture of wheat or corn for exporta- follows:- Between Between tion, from the cost of transportation, which in many instances Detroit and Detroit and far exceeds the estimate in the above table. Under such cir- Dexter, Kalamazoo. 49 miles. 146 miles. cumstances, products are often fed out to live stock, and con- On 10 barrels of flour (nearly a ton) $2 30 $6 00 verted into higher values, which will bear transportation when On one ton of wheat (2,240 lbs. 2 24 6 04 the former will not. In this manner lands are turned into On one ton of merchandise 5 37 11 64 account, where their immediate products would otherwise be Progress of Nations says: "Though these prices seem high, valueless. But in such cases the profit per acre is often very yet they were much higher during the previous years." small; as in districts best adapted to the culture of corn it is A majority report from a committee on inland navigation considered more profitable to sell it for 25 cents per bushel and internal improvement, made to the Pennsylvania legisla- than to feed it out to animals. It will be seen that at this price ture by Mr. Burnside, in March, 1845, said:- its value is eaten up by the cost of transportation of 165 miles." On our public works dry goods are carried from Philadel- There are no enduring phases of railway development of phis to Pittsburgh for:- more real consequence to the entire body of the American Per 100 lbs. people than those which hinge upon the vital improvement About $1 371 made in the possible productive capacity of all sections of the Groceries 75 Produce from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia 621 country not located near available water routes, by the cheap- Flour from 70 to 80 cents per bariel. ening of the cost of overland transportation. Notwithstanding all that has been done or may be done to reduce the cost of By Wilmington railroad the prices from Philadelphia to Bal- movements on natural or artificial water channels, there are timore are, for:- For 100 lbs. an immense number of great interests which would languish Dry goods 124 and perish if overland freight charges were not reduced to a Groceries 10 standard far below that attainable on ordinary roads, turnpikes, From Baltimore to Cumberland, 180 miles:- or the early railroads. Per 100 lbs Near the end of the fifth decade very important steps for the Dry goods 35 commencement of the great work of cheapening overland Groceries 25 freight charges were made, but the general range of charges Making on dry goods to Cumberland 471 continued to be high, and the extent of positive advances in On groceries to Cumberland 35 lowering fares and tariffs is indicated by the following state- A report made in 1849 by the engineer of the St. Lawrence ments:- and Atlantic Railroad, which was the line by which the Grand ESTIMATED AND ACTUAL CHARGES FOR FREIGHT AND PASSENGER Trunk, of Canada, gained a connection with Portland, Maine, RAIL MOVEMENTS IN THE FIFTH DECADE. contains the following statement of the cost of transporting a barrel of flour in 1848 over the routes named:- General Herman Haupt, in testimony before Senate com- Eric Canal Route. mittee on transportation routes to the scaboard, October 22d, Cents. 1873, said that "it was a subject of animated discussion twenty- From Cleveland to Buffalo (lake) 12 five years ago (1848) in the Pennsylvania Railroad Board whether From Buffalo to Albany (canal) 70 a low rate should be established to admit of the transportation From Albany to Boston (rail) 30 of coal, and the position taken was that coal and such articles Total to Boston 112 could not be transported on railroads; that the canals, such as If carried thence to Portland 10 we had then in Pennsylvania, would answer very well for the Total to Portland 122 transportation of such articles, but railroads must be used ex- clusively for passengers and light freights; that anything carried St. Lawrence Route. Centa. at a less cost than two cents a ton a mile would be at a positive From Cleveland to Montreal 40 loss; the cost then exceeded two cents a ton a mile, and at that time From Montreal to Portland 45 there was a tonnage of only a hundred thousand tons over the Total to Portland 85 Pennsylvania Railroad. In order to demonstrate the practicabil- If carried thence to Boston 10 ity of carrying coal, I made an analysis of the business of the preceding year, separating those items which would be increased Total to Boston 95 by an increased business from the general and constant ex- The rail transportation was 200 miles by the Erie Canal route, penses, which were independent of the volume of tonnages. and 275 miles by the St. Lawrence route. After making a careful analysis, I succeeded in demonstrating In reference to anthracite coal transportation from the that the actual cost of the transportation of coal over the Penn- Schuylkill region, it was reported in January, 1850, that there sylvania Railroad would not exceed about seven or eight mills were two outlets, in the Reading railroad and the Schuylkill Digitized by Google EFFECT AND EXTENT OF REDUCTIONS OF COST OF OVERLAND TRANSPORTATION. 131 Navigation. By the former the freight and tolls at tide-water Names and termini. Through fare. Miles at Richmond averaged, in 1849, about 30 cents per ton more Norwich and Worcester 50 59 than by the latter to the wharves on the Schuylkill. The mines Northern [Concord to Lebanon] 2 15 65 Philadelphia and Baltimore 3 00 97 in the Schuylkill valley can deliver coal at Mount Carbon at Philadelphia and Reading 3 50 92 $1.25 to $1.50 per ton; freight per railroad, $1.50 to $1.80; its South Carolina 6 75 136 cost at tide-water, from $2.75 to $3.30. Stonington [to Providence]. 1 50 472 PASSENGER FARES. Syracuse and Utica 2 00 53 Tonawanda 1 56 In a publication made by Mr. Henry C. Carey in January, 431 Utica and Schenectady 3 00 78 1848, he stated that the following list embraced every railroad Vicksburg and Jackson 3 00 47 in the Union north of Baltimore and east of Ohio, except Cam- Washington and Richmond 3 00 76 den and Amboy lines, viz.:- Western [Albany to Worcester] 4 25 156 Name. Length Through Per mile, cents. Wilmington and Weldon 4 00 1611 in miles. fare. Eastern 105 $3 00 2.85 COST OF TRANSPORTATION ON THE NEW JERSEY LINES. Boston and Maine 110 3 00 2.72 An address of the directors of the Delaware and Raritan Boston and Lowell 26 65 2.5 Canal, and Camden and Amboy Railroad companies to the Boston and Worcester 44 1 25 28 Boston and Providence 42 1 25 2.97 people of New Jersey, dated June 11th, 1848, has the following Fitchburg 71 1 75 2.46 tables appended:- Fall River 52 1 35 2.54 Statement of the Business of the Camden and Amboy Railroad and its Old Colony 374 1 00 2.66 Branches, and the Philadelphia and Trenton Railroad, for the Month Western 156 3 75 2.77 of May, 1848. Nashua and Lowell 15 40 2.66 Concord 80 235 Number Miles 34 Number fares. Norwich and Worcester 60 1 50 2.5 New Haven and Springfield 62 1 87 3.00 one mile. Total amount Bridgeport 98 2 00 2.04 per New York and Harlem 53 1 00 1.88 New York and Erie 87 1 50 1.72 Long Island 95 2 00 2.1 received each New York and New Brunswick 33 75 2.27 Way passengers:- Reading 92 3 00 3.26 Way travel on the Philadelphia Philadelphia and Baltimore 97 8 00 3.01 and Trenton Railroad 8,077 222,134 $4,268 18 1.91 Westchester and Columbia 32 75 2.34 Way travel from Philadelphia Philadelphia, Lancaster and Harrisburg 107 4 00 3.73 to New Brunswick and in- Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown. 17 40 2.38 termediate places on the Harrisburg and Chambersburg 56 2 12 3.78 branch and Trenton and Albany and Schenectady 17 50 2.94 Philadelphia roads, with the Greenbush and Troy 6 20 3.33 9 and 41 o'clock lines 1,8611 67,443 2,818 17 4.12 Troy and Schenectady 201 50 2.43 Trenton and New York accom- Utica and Schenectady 78 3 00 3.84 modation line from Trenton Utica and Syracuse 53 2 00 3.77 to Jersey City 992 5810 58,329 1,372 17 2.31 Syracuse and Auburn 26 1 00 3.84 10,930} 347,906 Auburn and Rochester $8,458 52 2.4± 77 3 00 3.89 Camden and Amboy way lines 23,994 493,698 6,189 81 1.2} Rochester and Athens 44 1 56 3.54 Attica and Buffalo 31} 94 2.93 Aggregate of way business on Buffalo and Nisgara Falls 22 75 3.44 Camden and Amboy and Lockport and Niagara Falls 24 75 3.12 Philadelphia and Trenton The average fare on all these lines was, according to this railroads. 34,9244 841,604 $14,648 33 1.74 statement, 2.85 cents per mile. Through passengers:- A pamphlet published in Philadelphia in 1850 gave the fol- Through Camden and Amboy lowing table as a statement of the fare and distances on the 6 and 1 o'clock lines 8,465 761,850 $25,531 25 3.02 principal railroads in the United States:- Through 9 and 41 o'clock lines via New Brunswick, New Names and termini. Through fare. Miles. York, and Philadelphia ($4). 9,0704 90 816,345 36,252 00 4.4} Albany and Schenectady $0 50 16 Through 9 and 41 o'clock Attica and Buffalo 0 94 32 second-class lines, via New Auburn and Rochester 3 00 78 Brunswick, New York, and Auburn and Syracuse 00 26 Philadelphia ($3) 2,118 190,620 6,364 00 3.3} Baltimore and Susquehanna 2 13 65 Baltimore and Ohio 7 00 179 From the above it appears that way passengers were carried Baltimore and Washington 1 60 40 at the average charge per mile of 1 cent 71 mills, and that Boston and Lowell 0 65 271 passengers were carried through at the average charge per Boston and Maine [to S. Berwick] 1 00 821 mile of 8 cents 51 mills, or an average charge on both of 2 Boston and Old Colony [to Plymouth] 1 00 441, cents 6} mills. Boston and Providence 25 471 Boston and Worcester 1 25 581 Statement of the Cost of Transportation per mile on the Canal and Railroad Camden and Amboy 2 75 61 for May, 1848, between New York and Philadelphia. Central [Macon to Savannah] 7 00 191 On the canal, 84,488 tons carried 110 miles=9,293,680 for one Columbia [branch of S. C.] 3 38 68 mile, $100,984 freight; on the railroad, 1,983 tons carried 90 Eastern [Lowell and branches] 48 58 miles=178,470 for one mile, $21,115 freight; total canal and Fitchburg [to Boston] 25 512 railroad, 86,471 tons carried 200 miles=9,472,150 for one mile, Gaston and Raleigh, N. C 4 00 87 $122,099 freight, or an average freight on both works of 1 cent Georgia [Augusta to Atlanta] 7 00 171 Housatonic [Conn. and Mass.] 2 00 75 and 29-hundredths of a cent per mile. Little Miami 2 00 84 [NoTE.-It will be seen that the cheap movements were all Long Island and branches 2 00 981 made on the canal, and that the rate per ton per mile on the Macon and Western [to Atlanta] 4 00 101 railroad was nearly 11.9 cents per ton per mile.] Mad River and Lake Erie 3 25 102 Williams' Traveler's and Tourist's Guide, published in 185 Madison and Indianapolis 3 00 86 gives the following table and preface showing- Michigan Central 4 40 146 Michigan Southern 2 00 70 THE DISTANCES, FARES, &C., FROM BOSTON TO MANY OF T New York and Erie [to Port Jervis] 1 50 74 MOST IMPORTANT PLACES IN THE UNION. New York and Harlem 1 00 53 The following will show at a glance the Digitized by Google 132 PHYSICAL PROGRESS DURING THE FIFTH DECADE. time occupied, in traveling from Boston to the most prominent Miles. Time in hours. Fares. points in the Union. Allowance, however, must be made in From Boston to Nashville, Tenn., via Cleveland, the rate of fares when traveling in steamboats, upon lakes, or Cincinnati and Cumberland Railroad 1,638 130 30 00 rivers, as these modes of conveyance are subject to more or AVERAGE FREIGHT AND PASSENGER CHARGES ON ALL AMERICAN less competition, in which case the fares vary. Those given, RAILROADS IN, 1848. however, are as accurate as can be obtained under the circum- stances, and will, no doubt, be found near enough to make up General Statement, showing the Averages of Fare per mile for First- and a general estimate of expenses. Similar information will be Second-class and Way Passage, and First- and Second-class Freight per ton per mile (omitting the Camden and Amboy and Union Transporta- found at the end of many of the routes, which will be both tion Railroads, and the Bordentown and Trenton Branch Railroad), useful and convenient. The time given is that which is actually taken from Doggett's Railroad Guide for 1848. occupied in passing from one point to another; the detentions between each route are not taken into consideration, as these the traveler must determine for himself. The distances are given by the shortest route:- branches. States. of railroads and 3 Total length, miles. and 100 pounds. 1st class, average fare cent per mile in cents hundredths of a mile in cents and 2d class, average per average in cents. Way passage permile, and 2d class and 2.63 way fares. Whole average of 1st age centa. ton per mile, aver- 1st class freight per age cents. Miles. Time in hours. Fares. From Boston to Albany 200 10 $5 00 ton per mile, aver- 2d class freight per From Boston to Buffalo 525 28 11 60 From Boston to Cincinnati via Cleveland 963 48 20 00 Maine 2264 2.82 2.50 2.57 5.68 3.38 From Boston to Detroit 855 43 16 00 New Hampsh'e. 2 99 3.00 3.00 2.62 2.871 5 25 5.00 From Boston to Chicago 1,073 54 23 00 Vermont 1 38 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 From Boston to St. Paul, Min. Ter 1,550 95 35 00 Massachusetts. 36 1,9294 2.43 1.66 2.71 2.27 5.47 4.54 From Boston to St. Louis via Chicago and Spring. Rhode Island 2 911 3.00 2.00 3.16 2.72 6.37 4 39 field 1,400 75 33 00 Connecticut 4 2534 2 50 1.75 2.20 2.15 5.75 3.50 From Boston to New Orleans via Chicago and New York 20 798 3.17 1.50 3.75 2.81] 9.04 5.79 Springfield 2,601 101 43 00 New Jersey 4 155 4.00 3.33 3.54 3.621 13 57 11.66 From Boston to New York 236 10 4 00 Pennsylvania 9 355 3.60 3.26 3 60 3.483 6.75 5.35 From Boston to Philadelphia 423 15 7 00 Maryland 9 061 3.45 3.45 3.58 3.494 4.56 3.12 From Boston to Baltimore 520 21 10 00 Virginia 6 2641 474 2.38 4.72 3911 10.44 4.69 From Boston to Washington 560 24 11 80 North Carolina. 2 248 4.23 4.23 4 00 4.15} 9.83 6.37 From Boston to Charleston, S. C 1,018 66 24 00 South Carolina. 2 204 5.00 5 00 5.00 5.00 10.75 5.50 From Boston to Savannah, Ga. 1,143 76 29 00 Georgia 5 002 4.14 4.14 4.70 4.323 9.33 4.78 From Boston to Montgomery, Ala 1,535 90 40 00 Kentucky 1 28 4.46 4.46 4.46 4 46 9.00 9.00 From Boston to Mobile, Ala 1,732 130 48 00 Mississippi 2 70 5.35 5.35 6.00 5 563 24.30 17.30 From Boston to New Orleans 1,898 142 53 00 Alabama 1 67 4.60 4.50 5.50 4.831 16 33 8.00 From Boston to Pittsburgh via Philadelphia 697 33 17 00 Ohio 4 307 2.77 2.77 2.66 2.73 6.60 4.62 From Boston to Wheeling via Baltimore 806 40 20 00 Indiana 1 86 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 8.00 5.81 From Boston to Cincinnati via Philadelphia, Michigan 8 241 3.00 3.00 3.32 3 10} 8.44 6.50 Pittsburgh, and the Ohio river 1,174 78 18 00 20 states, totals 117 6,720 72.16 64.28 74.09 70.19 179.46 120.30 From Boston to New Orleans via Pittsburgh and Averages 3.60 3.21 3.70 3.51 8.97 6.16 the Ohio and Mississip rivers 2,722 223 23 00 From Boston to St. Louil Pittsburgh and the The average cost of all freight movements, including first and Ohio and Mississippi rivers 1,871 140 28 00 second class, on all lines given above, was 7.56 cents per ton per From Boston to Montreal, Can 337 17 8 00 mile. PHYSICAL PROGRESS DURING THE FIFTH DECADE. ESTABLISHMENT OF AMERICAN RAIL WORKS. 1844 there were still no facilities in this country for the manu- D URING the fifth decade a number of mechanical, engineer- facture of heavy iron rails to supply the wants of the 4,185 miles ing, and manufacturing advances were made in the United of American railroad which existed at the beginning of that States which greatly facilitated railway operations. In the long year, and of a few hundred additional miles which were then list of inventions and improvements pertaining to this era few, projected. On the 24th of April, 1844, the Hon. Ed- if any, have left a more permanent impress than those result- ward Joy Morris, of Pennsylvania, declared that 'not a ton of ing from the establishment, in this country, of works which T-rail had been made in this country.' He might have in- could manufacture iron rails of various patterns. The first cluded all other heavy patterns. American effort to produce rails of any kind is probably that "In 1844 the manufacture of heavy iron rails in this country mentioned by Mr. Solomon W. Roberts, and which was made was commenced at the Mount Savage rolling mill, in Alle- by the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company. It undertook, gheny county, Maryland, erected in 1843 especially to roll these in the summer of 1826, to cast in its foundry at Mauch Chunk rails. The first rail rolled at the Mount Savage rolling mill, rails four feet long, to be used on its projected pioneer coal and in honor of which the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, railway, but the work was abandoned on account of its being struck a silver medal, was a U-rail, known in Wales as the too expensive. Evans patent, of the Dowlais Iron Works, at Merthyr Tydvil. Mr. James M. Swank, general agent of the American Iron It was intended to be laid on a modern longitudinal sill, and and Steel Association, furnished for the census report of 1880 was fastened to it by an iron wedge keying under the sill, thus interesting data relating to the subsequent progress of early dispensing with outside fastenings. This rail weighed 42 pounds American rail-making, from which we compile the following to the yard. About 500 tons of rails of this pattern were laid statements: Cast-iron rails were made in this country in small in 1844 on a part of the road then being built between Mount quantities during the early years of our railway history, not. Savage and Cumberland, a distance of 9 miles. Soon after- withstanding the unfavorable experiment at Mauch Chunk. In wards rails weighing 52 pounds to the yard were rolled at the 1841 a series of tests were made at Pottsville with rails for mine Mount Savage rolling mill for the road leading from Fall River roads cast in a foundry from pig iron made at the Pottsville to Boston. furnace of William Lyman. These rails were six feet long, and "The Montour rolling mill, at Danville, Pennsylvania, was were of various weights. One of the rails tested was intended built in 1845 expressly to roll rails, and here were rolled, in to sustain locomotives. Notwithstanding these experiments, October of that year, the first T-rails made in the United States. Mr. Swank states that "many years elapsed after the first rail- The first T-rail rolls made in this country were made for the road was built in this country before any other than flat-iron Montour Iron Company by Howard & Snvder, proprietors of rails were made in American rolling mills," and that "early in the Colliery Iron Works, at Pottsville, the work being done at Digitized by Google PHYSICAL PROGRESS DURING THE FIFTH DECADE. 133 their establishment at Danville. The Boston Iron Works were nearest of which was fifty miles from the works. The rails started in January, 1824, to manufacture cut nails, hoops, and were hauled by teams over the heavy mountain roads of tack plates, but they subsequently rolled rails, and on the 6th northern Pennsylvania to Narrowsburg, Cochecton, Equinunk, of May, 1846, they rolled the first T-rails in Massachusetts, Stockport, Deposit, and Lanesboro. To some of these points Ralph Crocker being superintendent. In 1845 the rolling mill roads had to be cut through the dense forest. Over four hun- of Cooper & Hewitt was built at Trenton, New Jersey, to roll dred mules and horses were required, as many as ten span heavy rails, and on the 19th of June, 1846, their first T-rail was frequently being attached to one wagon. The rails were rolled. About the 1st of September, 1846, the New England simultaneously laid east and west from the points named, and Iron Company, at Providence, Rhode Island, commenced to five days before the time for the road's completion to Bing- roll T-rails. The first lot of these rails rolled by that company hamton had expired the last spike was driven. The event was was delivered to the Providence and Worcester Railroad on celebrated in Binghamton on the 28th of December, 1848. September 11th, 1846. T-rails were rolled in November, 1846, Benjamin Loder, then president of the company, delivered an at Phoenixville, Pennsylvania; in the fall of the same year at address, in the course of which he declared that the energy, the Great Western Iron Works, at Brady's Bend, Pennsylvania, enterprise, and promptness of George and Seldon Scranton had and at the Lackawaxen Iron Works, at Scranton, Pennsyl- saved the New York and Erie Railroad to the company." vania; early in 1847, at the Bay State rolling mill, in Massachu- So many similar incidents have occurred, that the competi- setts, then owned by the Massachusetts Iron Company; in Janu- tion between American and foreign rail makers for the oppor- ary, 1848, at the Rough and Ready rolling mill, at Danville, tunity of supplying the tremendous demand for rails by the Pennsylvania, and in the same year at Safe Harbor, Pennsyl- various new and old lines of this country has been a factor of vania. All of the T-rails made at the mills above mentioned very great importance in the railway development of the were rolled with a base or flange similar to that of the present United States, whether regard be paid to price, quality, prompt- T-rail. Some of them did not differ greatly from the H-rail, ness of delivery, opportunities for securing variations in weight, and, when laid, rested, like it, in a chair. Indeed, the H-rail shape, and length, or making arrangements by which rail man- was sometimes called the T-rail. A few other mills rolled ufacturers could be remunerated for their products. heavy rails before 1850, but at the beginning of that year, owing QUALITY AND LENGTH OF RAILS. to foreign competition, only two out of fifteen rail mills in Many discussions have sprung up, at different periods, in the country were in operation. It seems strange that regard to the quality of rails. The iron rails imported from the T-rail should not have become generally popular until England for the very early American railroads were of extra- after 1845." ordinary excellence; 80 good, indeed, that their durability in UTILITY OF AMERICAN RAIL MILLS. proportion to weight was only excelled by the better classes of Many direct or incidental benefits were derived from the modern steel rails. But as American demands increased, and establishment of rail works in this country. Frequently native the custom expanded of paying for English rails with the bonds rails could be obtained at cheaper rates than those prevailing of new railway companies, which could only be sold at a large for imported rails, and there were periods when the existence discount, and might or might not prove to be sound securities, of rail works near the lines of some roads in process of con- and as the price of rails declined, complaints became common struction was of vital consequence. An illustration of this fact that some of the imported rails were of very inferior quality, is furnished by an episode in the history of the construction of and about or shortly before and after 1850 a number of import- the Erie. After a protracted struggle with pecuniary and engi- ant purchases of rails of American manufacture were made nt neering difficulties, the state of New York, in 1845, anxious to prices slightly exceeding the cost of imported rails, on the secure the completion of the road, again came to its relief. An ground that better guarantees of excellence could thus be se- act was passed by which the New York and Erie Railroad Com- cured, and the superiority of quality much more than com- pany were relieved of the claim of the state against them for pensated for the difference in price. the loan of $3,000,000, and such substantial aid was extended Another interesting phase of early rail manufacture was the that the company were enabled to resume the work of con- gradual increase in the length of the rails laid down. Before struction with a well-filled treasury. The act contained a 1850 it is probable that very few, if any, rails exceeding eighteen proviso, however, that the road should be forfeited to the state feet in length had been laid down in this country, and the length if, on January 1st, 1849, it was not in readiness for business be. of the rails for which most of the new orders were given was tween Piermont and Binghamton. The company had four fifteen feet. No thirty-foot T-rails were rolled in the United years in which to complete 137 miles of road. It is stated that States before 1855, and even at that time there was no current in 1846 the Scranton Brothers secured the capital necessary to demand for them. The rail, like everything else connected commence the manufacture of rails at the Lackawanna Iron with the railroad, grew gradually, there being distinct epochs Works, largely because they knew that the Erie Railroad Com- of growth from three- or four-feet rails up to rails nine feet pany were obliged to pay $80 a ton for the rails they were im- long, and subsequently to fifteen or eighteen feet, and even porting from England, and that in their straightened circum- greater lengths. But in or shortly before 1850 the prevailing stances, and in view of the time to which they were limited in standard for new rails more closely approximated fifteen feet finishing the road to Binghamton, they must necessarily obtain than any other standard. The weight per yard on new rails iron at cheaper rates and more speedily than the foreign mate- on important lines was increasing. This tendency is repre- rial could be furnished. Subsequent events proved the correct- sented by the statement that the rails in use on the Reading ness of this supposition. Difficulties in regard to the location railroad in 1849 were of 45, 52, 53, and 60 pounds to the yard, of a route through north-eastern Pennsylvania delayed the being 3,856 tons of 46 pounds, which had been down twelve progress of construction on the Erie, and one of the results of years; 3,317 tons of 52 pounds, which had been down eight this delay, as described by a correspondent of the New York years; 777 tons of 53 pounds, which had been down seven years World, was that it became "necessary. for the iron company to and 7,992 tons of 60 pounds, which had been down one to six distribute the iron at the different points along the route, the years. Digitized by Google 134 IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVES. IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVES. rails and cars, and the substan- forwarded was enlarged to the wonderful extent attained. The way, was growing during the fifth labors in this important field, during the fifth decade, include decade. Instead of weighing from four to seven tons, as at the the following: The Baldwin Locomotive Works finished in De- outset, or from ten to twelve tons, as at the end of the fourth cember, 1842, one of fourteen engines ordered by the Georgia decade, it was becoming comparatively common towards the Railroad, of which J. Edgar Thomson was the chief engineer, end of the fifth decade to construct new locomotives weighing which embraced novel features that rendered these machines a little more or less than twenty tons, and a few of the new en- popular among skillful railway managers. It is stated that gines weighed twenty-five tons. This increase in weight was these engines could draw one hundred and fifty tons up a grade usually accompanied with even more than a corresponding of thirty-six feet to the mile; that one of them, weighing about increase in effective power. Considerable advances were also twelve tons, on the Central Railroad of Georgia, drew nineteen made in the way of 8-wheeled cars, with seven hundred and fifty bales of cotton, INCREASING THE SPEED OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES. each bale weighing four hundred and fifty pounds, over maxi- mum grades of thirty feet per mile; and that on the Reading Some of the reported achievements of this class were the fol- railroad a similar engine of eighteen tons weight drew one lowing:- hundred and fifty loaded cars (total weight of cars and loading In 1849 Edward S. Norris, of Schenectady, built for the Utica 1,130 tons) from Schuylkill Haven to Philadelphia (favorable and Schenectady Railroad a locomotive called the Lightning, grade) at a speed of seven miles per hour. The regular load with 16-inch cylinders, 22-inch stroke, and a single pair of 7-foot was one hundred loaded cars, which were hauled at a speed of wheels, which ran at the rate of 60 miles an hour in 1850, but from twelve to fifteen miles per hour on a level. Of the means it only remained in good working condition for a short time. by which these results were achieved one of the accounts of the Norris Brothers made seven engines for the Camden and Baldwin Locomotive Works says: "The problem of utilizing Amboy Railroad, each with a single pair of 8-foot driving more of all the weight of the engine for adhesion remained, in wheels, and a 6-wheeled truck. The first of these, with 13-inch Mr. Baldwin's view, yet to be solved. The plan of coupling cylinders and 34-inch stroke, was completed April 17th, 1849. four or six wheels had long before been adopted in England, The next of the class had 13x38-inch cylinders, and were de- but on the short curves prevalent on American railroads, he livered in December, 1849. In 1850 they also built two outside- felt that something more was necessary. The wheels must not cylinder engines, with 14-inch cylinders, 32-inch stroke, and only be coupled, but at the same time be free to adapt them- coupled 7-foot driving wheels, for the New York and Erie selves to a curve. These two conditions were apparently in- Railroad. compatible, and to reconcile these inconsistencies was the task In 1849 Ross Winans, of Baltimore, built a single locomotive which Mr. Baldwin set himself to accomplish. The problem for the Boston and Worcester Railroad. It was intended to was constantly before him, and at length, during a sleepless test or render feasible the burning of anthracite coal. It was night, its solution flashed across his mind. The plan 80 long also intended for very high speed, and had one pair of 7-foot sought for, and which, subsequently, more than any other of driving wheels. It had two small steam cylinders placed on his improvements or inventions, contributed to the foundation the sides of the boiler over the bearings of the driving axle, by of his fortune, was his well-known six-wheels-connected loco- which the weight on the drivers could be raised from three to motive, with the four front driving-wheels combined in a flexi- twelve tons. The speed of the engine, under favorable circum- ble truck. For this machine Mr. Baldwin secured a patent, stances, was one mile in sixty seconds. It was run between August 25th, 1842." Albany and Boston, drawing a train of from seven to eight cars, Of subsequent movements during the fifth decade at the and ran at the rate of a mile a minute with ease. Baldwin Locomotive Works, in the direction indicated, it is Probably the most successful styles of the new fast engines stated that "after building, during the years 1843, 1844, and were designed and constructed by Mr. Baldwin, of the Baldwin 1845, 10 4-wheels-connected engines, on the plan above de- Locomotive Works, in response to an offer of the Vermont scribed, 6 wheels in all, the leading wheels and the front driv- Central, in 1848, of $10,000 for an engine which could draw a ing wheels being combined into a truck by the flexible beams, passenger train sixty miles an hour. Threosimilar engines were Mr. Baldwin finally adopted the design of 4 driving wheels built for the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. It is stated that and a 4-wheeled truck. He bought the patent right for this these engines each weighed about 47,000 pounds. Of the loco- plan of engine of Mr. H. R. Campbell, and for the equalizing motive delivered to the Vermont Central it is stated that "it beams, used between the driving wheels, of Messrs. Eastwick & was completed in 1849 and named after the president of the Harrison, and delivered to the South Carolina Railroad Com- road as Governor Paine. It had one pair of driving-wheels, 6} pany in December, 1845, his first 8-wheeled engine, with 4 feet diameter, placed back of the fire-box, with another but driving wheels and a 4-wheeled truck. This machine had smaller pair directly in front of the fire-box, and the front of cylinders 181 x18 inches, and driving wheels 60 inches in the engine was carried by a four-wheeled truck. The cylinders diameter, with the springs between them arranged as equal- were 171 diameter, with 20-inch stroke, placed horizontally be- izers. Its weight was 15 tons. It had the half crank axle, the tween frames and boilers. The connecting-rods took hold of cylinders being inside, but the frame outside the smoke-box. 'half-cranks' inside the driving-wheel. After several years of Mr. Baldwin expressed himself more pleased with its appear- service it was rebuilt and made a four-coupled machine. As ance and action than any engine he had turned out, and from to its success, it has been alleged that from a state of rest it that time forward all of his 4-wheels-connected engines were could be started and run a mile in 43 seconds, and of other built on this plan." similar builds for the Pennsylvania Railroad it is recorded that In 1846 fifteen engines were built for the Philadelphia and President Taylor was conveyed in a special train at 60 miles an Reading Railroad Company by Mr. Baldwin, which were of 20 hour." tons' weight, with cylinders 151x20, and wheels 46 inches in INCREASE OF THE CAPACITY OF FREIGHT ENGINES. diameter, and two of 25 tons' weight, with cylinders 171x18, To many American railroads it has always been more im- and whecls 42 inches in diameter. portant to secure an increase in the capacity of freight engines These 25-ton engines were probably the locomotive giants of than an increase in the speed of passenger engines, inasmuch that period. as a very large proportion of all the railway earnings are THE LINK MOTION. derived from freight movements, and it was only by decreasing One of the important events of 1849 was the adoption of the the cost of movement that the list and quantity of products link motion by Mr. Rogers, of the Rogers Locomotive and Digitized by Google BRIDGES, NEW INVENTIONS, AND GAUGES. 135 Machine Company. Of this movement it is stated that other quently operations upon them did not require the intense and builders, including Mr. Baldwin, at first strongly resented it, continuous heat which was a leading obstacle to the use of but that the advantages derived from the ability it furnished of anthracite on long lines, inasmuch as this heat necessitated cutting off steam at any point of the stroke was admitted to be frequent and expensive repairs. The report stated that "the of great importance, and that "the adoption of the link motion principal item of excess in the cost for repairs of engines may be regarded as the dividing line between the present and burning coal over those burning wood, is caused by the de- the early stage of locomotive practice." structive effects of a coal fire upon the inside sheets of the IMPEDIMENTS TO LOCOMOTIVE IMPROVEMENTS-DIFFICULTIES IN- fire-box; and when iron (the soundness of which is always un- VOLVED IN THE USE OF ANTHRACITE COAL. certain from the manner in which it is at present made), has been used entirely for fire-boxes, this intense local heat has All the early locomotive works of this country labored under very soon blistered and burned away the sheets in the imme- disadvantages or impediments to radical improvements, which diate vicinity of the coal fire. Another destructive effect from were gradually removed, to a considerable extent, shortly after the use of coal is its severity on the laps or joinings of sheets 1850, and which on some lines had been partially overcome in the fire place. The occasional melting of grate bars, previous to that time. They arose partly from the fact that the increased liability to leakage, the wear and destruction to on a very large proportion of the lines, and indeed nearly all, the ends of tubes by caulking, &c., and the accumulation and wood was the only fuel used. An English expert, who visited igniting of fine coal in the smoke-box, all produce their share this country shortly before 1850, said that American engines of extra expense for repairs over wood-burning engines." labored under a manifest disadvantage because "wood being On the Baltimore and Ohio, previous to the date of this the fuel used, they are obliged to carry a high, large, top-heavy report, various experiments had been made with engines that chimney, with a cumbrous spark-catcher, very different from respectively burnt wood, anthracite coal, and bituminous coal, the small, slight chimney of an English engine. It acts against and the conclusions based on these experiments, together with the engine, not only by its size, but also by the great leverage various other conclusions led Mr. Whistler to recommend that the heaviest part, the top, has from the centre line of the whole persistent efforts should be made to insure the substitution of machine." anthracite-burning for wood-burning locomotives on the Read- A remarkable illustration of the tardiness with which coal- ing railroad, remedies being suggested for the difficulties that burning locomotives were adopted is furnished by a report had been developed. made by George W. Whistler, jr., in April, 1849, to John It was reserved for subsequent decades to witness the general Tucker, then president of the Reading railroad, in regard to introduction of coal-burning engines, and in 1850 Ross Winans, the use of anthracite coal by the locomotives running on that of Baltimore, seems to have been the principal builder of such line. As it was then the great coal railway and the great locomotives. freight carrier of the country, it was particularly desirable that DEFECTIVE PERMANENT WAY. its engines should burn anthracite, but only a very small pro- Other obstacles to the rapid progress of early locomotive im- portion of them were doing 80 at that time, and the report provements arose from the relatively fragile nature of the per- relates to a variety of inquiries and experiments instituted for the manent way of many American lines, and also from the lack purpose of ascertaining and surmounting the difficulties which of available ability to promptly make such repairs as might had prevented the general adoption of anthracite as the fuel of from time to time be required. But railway "sHops"-that the locomotives used on the Reading railroad. The facts stated word of damaging financial import in the history of many new include the following: The very earliest of American locomo- projects-were gradually assuming larger and larger propor- tives of the type designed by Peter Cooper and Phineas Davis, tions. A few of them, indeed, were becoming sufficiently well used anthracite coal on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, equipped with skillful men and appropriate machinery to without serious difficulties, but this was attributed mainly to manufacture as well as repair locomotives, and important lines the fact that they had vertical boilers; and when attempts were were strengthening their bridges, improving the methods for made to use anthracite on engines with horizontal boilers fastening them, and adding greatly to the solidity of their road- various obstacles arose which had only been fully surmounted beds, which were no longer expected to be permanent in the on the Beaver Meadow and Hazleton roads. Success on those sense of requiring very few repairs, but which were being made lines, however, was attributed to the fact that they were very stronger and stronger to resist the heavy shocks to which they short (each being only fourteen miles in length), and conse- were subjected. BRIDGES, NEW INVENTIONS, AND GAUGES. THE READING SHOPS IN 1849. they are made with solid hubs, will also save a large sum in OF the Reading shops, at Reading, in 1849, it was reported fitting them." by David A. Neal that "they contain every species of NEW RAILWAY INVENTIONS AND APPLIANCES. machine used in the manufacture and repair of locomotives Meanwhile, from 1840 to 1850, as at all preceding and subse- and cars, some of it very ingenious, useful, and perfect of its quent periods of railway progress, many inventors were busy kind. That latterly introduced for the sawing, planing, and in devising and patenting new machines or methods applicable mortising of wood will reduce very materially the expense of to railway affairs. The list of these devices extends over a wide making and repairing the wooden coal cars, and, with some range, and a few of them proved useful and profitable. Favor- improvements lately adopted in their construction, make them ite subjects for the exercise of inventive ingenuity included preferable hereafter, on the score of economy, to those of iron. spark arresters, car springs, car wheels, bridges, methods for There are now employed in these shops, in the repair of en- connecting cars, grate furnaces for locomotives, locomotive fire- gines and cars, about 350 men and 30 boys. The trip boxes, the general design of locomotives or of a number of their hammer shop is put to good use in converting the old mate- different parts, brakes, train brakes, axles, switches, car coup- rials, that are turned in at better prices than could be other- lings, trucks, signal lanterns, dumping cars, &c. wise realized, into shafts, axles, tyres, and bar iron for the It is stated that shortly before 1850 the first refrigerator car use of the road and machinery." Reference is also made to was used. Some of the patents applicable to car wheels proved the foundry, of which the report says that it "must be consid- serviceable. ered a profitable establishment if the car wheels and other cast- IRON BRIDGES. ings made here prove, as they now appear to be, good. The In bridges a change in the direction of substituting iron f adoption of a new process in casting spoke wheels, by which wood had been commenced, and in 1849 there were nine s' Digitized by Google 136 PROGRESS OF STEAM NAVIGATION FROM 1840 TO 1860. iron bridges on the Reading railroad. The report of William constructed in that state! Such accidental circumstances have Parker, general superintendent of the Baltimore and Ohio, for inspired much of the legislative wisdom relating to railways, the year ending October 1st, 1850, says: "The new Savage that has been displayed at state capitols. bridge over the Little Patuxent, on the Washington branch, During the fifth decade the tendency towards increasing the rendered necessary as an item of repair by the destruction of magnitude of the gauge divergences, as roads rapidly expanded, the original stone arch in the freshet of 1847, has been com- was scarcely less pronounced than the subsequent counteract- pleted and gives much satisfaction. The superstructure of this ing tendency, during the ninth decade, towards a uniform gauge bridge is of iron, on a comparatively novel plan, embodying standard of 4 feet 81 inches, or its near equivalent, 4 feet 9. valuable mechanical features, and holding out the fullest de- Various reasons for the divergences were given. Many man- gree of encouragement as to its success and reliability. This agers thought that the standard which finally prevailed was too bridge has been built at a cost of about $23,825, or $2,800 within narrow to afford facilities for operating cars and locomotives to the estimate. It is to be regretted that the late failure of an the best advantage, and the advocates of the broad or 6-feet iron bridge on one of our northern railways has seemed to gauge claimed that its adoption would render the lines to which throw a panic over the board of directors of that line, and it was applied greatly superior to the 4-feet 84-inch roads in called forth a denunciation of 'iron bridges' from some other- many respects. On the other hand, the objections made to the wise respectable quarters." broad gauge, when it was proposed and adopted on some lines During the fifth decade iron bridges were attracting much in England by George Stephenson, were applicable to the ope- attention in England, and the experiments made there naturally rations of the broad-gauge lines of this country. Smiles' life had a tendency to stimulate corresponding movements in this of the great railway pioneer says that "Mr. Stephenson was, country. from the first, opposed to the adoption of the broad gauge. THE BATTLE OF THE GAUGES. He held that the gauge (4 feet 81 inches) which had already Another important feature of the railway development of been adopted on the northern lines was amply sufficient for the fifth decade, which left a deep impress, was the progress of the public accommodation; that it was wide enough to admit construction of roads of different gauges. The general tendency of the most effective arrangement of the machinery of the loco- was towards the adoption of a 5-feet gauge on all lines south motive; that it was much safer to work over where the curves of the Potomac and Ohio, and the adoption of a 4-feet 8}-inch were at all sharp; that it was far more economical, taking into gauge on lines north of these rivers, but the movement on consideration the paying weight carried, in proportion to the southern roads, in favor of the 5-feet gauge, was much more dead weight in the shape of rolling stock; that it would cost uniform than the movement on northern lines, inasmuch as considerably less to maintain, in consequence of the less weight many of the latter adopted slight variations, such as 4 feet 9, to bear, and the smaller wear and tear of materials, not to men- or 4 feet 10, or 4 feet 11, and a radical departure was repre- tion the much smaller capital that was required to form a line sented by the broad gauge adopted by the Erie and its actual upon standard gauge than upon the broad, the latter requiring and prospective connections, which was 6 feet. more land, wider bridges and tunnels, broader embankments The origin of two of the divergencies is reported to be as and viaducts, heavier rails, chairs, and sleepers, and more ex- follows: When Horatio Allen devised plans for the construction pensive engines and carriages. But his principal objection was of the South Carolina Railroad he concluded that mechanical that by forming the Great Western line on an exceptional requirements would be best served by a 5-feet gauge, and on gauge the proprietors of the undertaking were virtually closing account of this decision, relating to the first important southern it against the public traffic from other parts of the kingdom, railroad, and a desire to secure uniformity of gauge, the 5-feet and rendering it a mere provincial railway or by-way, instead gauge was almost universally adopted by southern lines. of part of a great national system. He would not believe, with The projectors of the Camden and Amboy favored a gauge Mr. Brunel, that railways were to be confined to particular dis- of 4 feet 10, for reasons similar to those which led Mr. Allen to tricts, but he-held that, before long, they must become the uni- prefer a 5-feet gauge, and after it had became the established versal high-roads as well as by-roads for both goods and pas- gauge for early New Jersey railroads, its extension westward to sengers, and that any break in the continuity of the system by Ohio arose from the circumstance that a locomotive built by a difference of gauge would seriously detract from those great the Rogers Locomotive Works, for a New Jersey railroad, was public advantages which their general adoption might reason- purchased for use on one of the earliest Ohio railways, and in ably be expected to confer." Had the force of these considera- addition to its gauge being made to conform to the gauge of tions been thoroughly realized in this country in the fifth the locomotive, the sapient Ohio legislature passed an act de- decade a great loss of capital and much public inconvenience claring that 4 feet 10 should be the gauge of all the railways would have been averted. PROGRESS OF STEAM NAVIGATION FROM 1840 TO 1860. THE number and tonnage of steam vessels of all descriptions ON THE NEW ENGLAND COASTS the United States during the fifth and sixth construction was much more active than at any former period, decades was as follows:- the total number of new steam vessels constructed there from Number. Tonnage. From 1841 to 1850, inclusive 1,662 371,034 69 1841 to 1860, inclusive, being 179. On the middle and south From 1851 to 1860, inclusive 2,521 730,355 33 Atlantic coast there was also a great increase in the number The number and tonnage of steamers annually inspected, of new vessels constructed, the aggregate being 1,007. representing with approximate accuracy the tonnage actually ON THE ATLANTIC AND GULF WATERS employed, from 1855 to 1860, was as follows:- Year. Number. Tonnage. as well as the lakes important changes resulted from the in- 1855 1,073 410,013 troduction of the screw propeller, which commenced soon after 1857 1,122 461,370 the arrival, in 1839, from England, of an iron propeller built 1858 1,091 415,815 in accordance with plans prepared by the famous inventor 1859 1,117 431,931 John Ericsson, and ordered by Commodore Stockton. This 1860 1,208 458,857 vessel was used on the Delaware and Raritan Canal and the The period from 1840 to 1860 was peculiarly active and rivers Delaware and Schuylkill as a tug, and thus became the eventful in matters that had an important bearing on all pioneer of a long line of propellers and tug boats, which, classes of steam navigation interests. through improvements of the screw propeller and various Digitized by Google R/R 4 Hinces 2 feet feet Flat Rails on Granite Sills. 8. 33t " inched At 81 Flat Rails and Wooden Sills. 15t 10 in 3r of in 1st 10 on Edge Rails on Wooden Cross Sills and Bearing Timbers. 22 * 2ft in 2ft 42 2ft 6im Edge Rails on Stone Blocks and Locust Sills. Edge Rails on Stone Blocks and Stone Sills. SYSTEMS OF CONSTRUCTION ON THE COLUMBIA AND PHILADELPHIA RAILROAD. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google PROGRESS OF STEAM NAVIGATION FROM 1840 TO 1860. 137 other devices, introduced a very important new element into a boats have lingered in use down to the present time. The tug large proportion of the steam navigation of the country. of our American harbors is a little propeller varying from 30 In addition to the numerous changes wrought by this inven- to 120 tons register. A few large size range from 130 to 170 tion, tons register, but the average tug is of about 80 tons, and is TRANSATLANTIC STEAMSHIP NAVIGATION about 90 feet long, 18 feet wide on the beam, and 91 feet deep began to assume considerable significance in 1840, when the in the hold." Cunard Line was regularly established to run botween Liver- INCREASE OF SIZE AND SPLENDOR OF EASTERN RIVER STEAMBOATS. pool and Boston. It was soon followed by attempts to estab- Another noticeable development was the increase of the size lish rival American lines, one of which, the Collins Line, of steam vessels of all descriptions, and especially of the east- achieved a great temporary success, but it was finally aban- ern river steamboats. In discussing this subject Hall's report doned, partly on account of the loss of some of its vessels, but on ship building says:- more particularly on account of the reduction and final with- "While England was pushing out to all parts of the world, drawal of subsidies of the United States government, which America was developing her river and lake boats. After the description of aid is of vital consequence to all American opening of the Erie Canal the Hudson became the scene of the steamship lines that are compelled to run in competition with busiest internal traffic then ever seen. The west, which at the powerful steamship lines of other countries that are liberally beginning of the century had been a trackless wilderness, was aided by their respective governments. filling up with people. Trade was springing up rapidly on the The construction of ocean steamships and the establishment lakes and western rivers, and a general increase in the size and of foreign or American lines leading from Atlantic to European the number of steamboats and lake propellers took place. On ports progressed rapidly, and it was accompanied with a num- the lakes, where there was depth of water, the boats increased ber of important additions to Atlantic coast steamer lines, and in all their dimensions, but on the rivers, where they could not a marked increase in the size and capacity of some of the venture on more than six to eight feet draught, they were steamers built in American ship-yards. The construction of limited to extending the length and breadth. It is hardly neces- iron vessels of considerable size was also commenced before sary to follow the successive steps by which the river steamers the close of the sixth decade. attained the extraordinary dimensions which have been given Various coast steamer lines were established, which sailed them in the last twenty years. Suffice it to say that the spirit between New England ports, and between Boston, New York, of rivalry led to the construction of vessel after vessel con- Philadelphia, Baltimore, and other ports. structed to surpass everything which had preceded it in the In addition to the transatlantic steamship operations, a power- power of its engines, the fastness of its trips, the size and mag- ful impetus was given to steam navigation by the extensive nificence of the palace built upon its decks for the accommo- trade and immigration movements to California, which fol- dation of passengers, and in its capacity for carrying deck-loads lowed the discovery of profitable gold mines on the Pacific of freight. When the New World was finished for the Hudson coast. The effect of all these impulses was most noticeable at river it was the longest and fastest vessel in the world, being New York, at which port in 1851 steamship lines were being 380 feet from stem to stern. The hull was 50 feet wide; the run to foreign and domestic ports by 15 companies, which had entire width over the wheels was 85 feet, and the wheel was 45 63 steamers, measuring 111,496 tons. The largest vessels were feet in diameter. The hog-frame of this boat rose 25 feet above of 3,000 tons, which was the capacity of the four vessels of the the deck, and a row of masts from 40 to 50 feet in length, heel- Collins Line sailing from New York to Liverpool, and of two ing on the keelson, capped with iron, and rigged with iron rods vessels belonging to the United States Mail Company. or shrouds, extending to the sides and ends of the boat, aided to impart rigidity to the light and shallow hull. Several strong THE SCREW PROPELLER. longitudinal keelsons were put in to add to her strength, and Of the screw propeller, Hall's Census Report on the Ship- keep her broad, flat floor in shape. Her cabins were of im- Building Industry of the United States in 1880, says: "It is mense size, and few hotels at that day could accommodate so not certainly known where the screw propeller was first many travelers. There were 347 state rooms and 600 berths. adopted in America for tug boats, but it appears from the The cabins contained elegant parlors, sumptuously decorated records that the iron tug R. B. Forbes, of Ericsson's design, with carved work and gilding, rich carpets, and costly furni- was built at East Boston as early as 1845, and was supplied ture. There was also a large dining room for the entertain- with twin screws, working in opposite directions. This tug was ment of guests. Her speed was 20 miles an hour. Large as a large boat of about 300 tons burden, was especially adapted was this remarkable vessel, her length has since been eclipsed for outside work in rough water, and lived long enough to be by the St. John, built for the same river in 1864, which was bought by the Government during the last war. The screw was 407 feet from stem to stern. Her register dimensions were: adopted for towing at Philadelphia in 1849. Some one in the city Length, 393 feet; beam, 51 feet; depth of hold, 101y feet; gross who had two towing boats of the old paddle-wheel type, saw the tonnage, 2,645. She was built at Greenpoint. Nothing had advantage of propeller tugs for harbor and canal use when he been built since the historic galley of Ptolemy Philopater that saw the Robert F. Stockton towing four coal barges at the rate of approached her, that boat having been her superior in length a mile in eleven minutes. The first propeller tug boat built on by 13 feet, and the expensive steamers of the transoceanic the Delaware was constructed by William Cramp, of Philadel- service only now exceed her length. In speed these Hudson phia, and was fitted with engines made by Jacob Neafie. She river boats have never been beaten. The Daniel Drew, the had a wooden hull 80 feet long, 17 feet broad, and 8 feet deep. Mary Powell, and others have made from 25 to 28 miles an This boat did excellent service on the Delaware, and her suc- hour, and sustained that speed over long stretches of that river. cess brought a great deal of business to her enterprising build- The steamboats of New York city have been admired by the ers. It was thought at first that the entire screw should be builders of the whole world for the excellence of their construc- below the hull of the vessel, in order to exert its full power; tion. The cabins have been the most costly part of these ves- but Mr. Cramp departed from that idea and fitted the Sampson sels, owing to their size and the luxury of their joiner work, the with a 6-foot wheel, only half of which was below the hull, and carving, gilding, decorating, and furnishing. Nevertheless, the with a 3-foot keel to protect the screw. After a number of hulls have displayed the greatest ingenuity. Light, strong, and boats had been built of that style some one wanted a light- durable, they have never been excelled in the qualities that draught tug, and the broad keel was then removed and the make them remarkable. They are modeled flat on the floor wheel placed entirely above the bottom of the vessel. This amidships to secure small draught, and are given long, sharp boat proving to be as efficient as its predecessors and much bows and long, narrow runs to secure speed. The form of the more handy, a revolution was effected in the form of tugs. model entails weakness, but builders have found a way to give The screw has now superseded the side-wheel for towing pur- the boats the slender scantling that preserves their light draught, poses, and at the present time (1882) there are more than 1,800 and yet to make them strong enough to withstand the action of these admirable boats in use in different parts of the United of powerful marine engines. Excellence of framing, toughness States, chiefly in the seacoast harbors and on the northern of fastening, and the use of none but the very best materials lakes. It is remarkable that in England paddle-wheel towing- secure this result." Digitized by Google 138 PROGRESS OF STEAM NAVIGATION FROM 1840 TO 1860. BUILDING ON THE NORTHERN LAKES. After being partially repaired it frequently grounded, and, The number of steam vessels built on the northern lakes although it was always released after more or less delay, it was from 1841 to 1860, inclusive, was 345, a considerable number of at last "driven hard and fast by rapids upon a heap of rocks which were of larger size than those previously constructed. barely covered with water." The relative number of propellers increased rapidly. In 1855 The writer proceeds to explain how they were released from the steam inspection service reported the number of steamers this dilemma: "Then it was we learned the use of those singu- on the northern lakes as follows: Licensed steamers 128, men- lar spurs which may always be seen standing on end against suring 68,089 tons, and unlicesened steamers 115, measuring the forward deck in any picture of a western boat. They are, 21,252 tons. Up to 1850 there had been built on the lakes 50 in fact, steamboat crutches. One of these, or the pair if occa- propellers, measuring 16,427 tons. sion require, is set upon the river bottom, close to the boat's STEAMBOATS ON THE WESTERN RIVERS. head, and a tackle led from its top to a ring in the deck. Then, by heaving on the windlass, the boat is lifted bodily off the The reported number of steamboats constructed on western ground. As soon as she swings free of bottom steam is ap- rivers (exclusive of the Pacific coast), from 1841 to 1860, was plied with fury, and forward she goes until the spur slips from 2,489. The size and speed of some of the steamboats was con- its place, and lets her fall. We were amused to notice siderably increased, and on the other hand, additional skill was of how little account the boat was considered, in comparison developed in the construction of boats of light draft intended with the value of time. Whenever any part of the hull was in to navigate the shallow tributaries of the Mississippi. Before the way of these spurs, axes were applied without a thought, 1840 the popular size of western boats was from 100 to 300 tons other than that of leaving hull enough to keep afloat. In fact, register, but a few larger ones of from 400 to 600 tons were costing little, these steamers are used with a perfect reckless- engaged on the long routes. ness. If wrecked, why, they have long ago paid for themselves, In 1852 the average size of steamboats then running on the and the machinery and furniture can always be saved. This lakes was 437 tons; of steamboats on the Ohio basin 306ff tons; apparatus of stilts is used upon the longest boats, and good and of steamboats on the Lower and Upper Mississippi, the stories are told of their persistence in lifting themselves about, Arkansas, Missouri, and the Illinois rivers 27374. There were and forcing a passage over gravel banks whenever freights are then on the Mississippi and Ohio many steamers of from 300 higher than steamboats. The 'first boat over' sometimes wins to 500 tons each, and a number of from 600 to 800 each. Several extravagant rewards. When sugar, for instance, goes up to of the passenger steamers of the lakes were of 1,100 tons and one dollar per pound in up-river towns, after a dry season, a upwards each. few hogsheads will almost pay for a cheap steamboat." After 1840 larger and swifter boats were constructed for pas- senger service below Cincinnati, and on the Mississippi, from PERILS OF STEAMBOAT NAVIGATION-IMPROVED SYSTEM OF St. Louis to New Orleans. One of the most celebrated of these INSPECTION. boats, the Eclipse, attained a speed of 16 miles an hour, in An important change in the system of inspecting steamboats sailing up stream, and frequently made 25 miles an hour in was adopted about 1852, which, in connection with the removal sailing down stream. of snags and conservative regulations, did much to diminish WESTERN RIVER AND STERN-WHEEL STEAMBOATS. the danger of steamboating on the western rivers, and also to A very important class of western river boats, however, were improve the safeguards of the steam navigation of all other of comparatively small tonnage, as they were intended to be sections. The magnitude of the perils that attended early west- operated on tributary rivers. ern steamboat operations is indicated by the fact that a list Of a boat, used on the waters of the Cumberland about 1856, containing the names of 618 steamboats, lost on the rivers of Frederick Law Olmstead, in his journey through Texas, gave the Ohio basin and the Mississippi valley, from the period of the following description:- the first introduction of steam navigation thereon to the close "The boat was a good specimen of a very numerous class on of the year 1848, was prepared by Captain Davis Embree, one western and southern rivers. They are but scows in build, of the oldest steamboat masters engaged upon the western perfectly flat, with a pointed stem and a square stern. Behind waters. The list shows the place where and the time when is the one wheel, moved by two small engines of the simplest each of the boats so lost was built; the amount of its tonnage; and cheapest construction. Drawing but a foot, more or less, the date of its loss; the length of time it had been running when of water, they keep afloat in the lowest stages of the rivers. lost; its original cost; the depreciation of its value by use, and Their freight, wood, machinery, boilers, hands, and steerage the sum finally lost by its destruction. Of the 618 boats it em- passengers are all on the flat deck just above the surface of the braces, 45 were lost by collisions, 104 by fires, and 469 by snags water. Eight or ten feet above, supported by light stanchions, and other obstructions to navigation. is laid the floor used by the passengers. The engines being The following statement shows aggregate results:- horizontal, this floor is laid out in one long saloon eight or ten Causes. No of Ton- Original Depreciation Local boats. nage. cost of value. lines. feet wide from the smoke-pipes, far forward, which stretches to Lost by collisions 45 7,769 $730,286 $346,762 $383,524 the stern. It is lined upon each side with state-rooms, which Lost by fires 104 22,058 2,064,512 1,096,143 open also out upon a narrow upper guard or gallory. Perched Lost by snags 469 79,261 7,104,950 3,733,852 3,368,438 above all this is the pilot house, and a range of state-rooms for 618 109,088 $9,899,748 $5,176,757 $4,719,991 the pilots and officers, popularly known as 'Texas.' To this The losses sustained through explosions, collapsing of flues, Texas inveterate card-players retire on Sundays, when custom and bursting of steam pipes, are not included in this statement. forbids cards in the saloon. A few feet of the saloon are cut During 1851 the number of enrolled steam and sail vessels off by folding doors for a ladies' cabin. Forward of the saloon lost on the lakes was 42, and on the rivers 33, involving a loss the upper deck extends around the smoke-pipes, forming an of life on the lakes of 67 persons, and on rivers of 728 persons. open space, sholtered by the pilot deck, and used for baggage and open-air seats. Such is the contrivance for making use of STEAMERS ON THE PACIFIC COAST. these nautical highways. And really admirable it is, spite of In accordance with the American custom of having the drawbacks, for its purpose. Without it the west would have steamboat either precede or immediately follow the march of found it impossible to be The West.' Roads, in countries 80 civilization, steamboats were promptly introduced into Cali- sparsely settled, are impracticable. These craft paddle about, fornia after the discoveries of gold had attracted population at some stages of water, to almost every man's door, bringing to that state, and a few steamboats were also built and operated him foreign luxuries, and taking away his own productions, in Oregon at a comparatively early period. running at high water in every little creek, and at low water, In 1850 there were sixteen steamers with a tonnage of 2,277.25 taking, with great profit, the place of the useless steamers on running on the Sacramento river. One of them, the Senator, the main streams." of 755 tons, has the reputation of having made more money Some of the perils and annoyances connected with this mode than any boat ever built in the United States. Its extraordi- of locomotion soon became apparent, however. The steam- nary success was due to its ability to command for a time fares boat struck a snag, and broke several buckets of its wheel. of $25 from San Francisco to Sacramento, and $30 from Sacra- Digitized by Google ATLANTIC COAST IMPROVEMENTS OF WATER CRAFT. 139 mento to San Francisco. The charges for this service were Of the oceanic steamship service of California it is stated that soon reduced by rivalry to $1. The increase of the number of the Pacific Mail steamer California, which left New York on steamers and damaging competition were followed by the usual the 6th of October, 1848, was the first steamer to enter on the process of a consolidation of the interests of competing com- Pacific const trade. As the gold fever developed the California panies,-an expedient which the steamboat owners of various was followed by others in quick succession. The Pacific Mail districts have been quite as ready to adopt as railway lines. In Company gained a strong footing, though the maintenance of 1853 there were 25 steamers with a tonnage of 5,099.50 running the line 80 far from the base of supplies was a difficult and ex- to and from Sacramento; and in 1854 it was reported that all pensive undertaking. Coal, whether from England or from the the steamships plying on the Sacramento, San Joaquin, Ameri- United States, was sent around Cape Horn, and cost not less can, Feather, and Yuba rivers, had joined fortunes, with a capi- than $20 per ton, and for a large part of the time the Pacific tal of $2,000,000. The number of steam vessels inspected at Mail Company had to pay $30 per ton, and in one instance $50 San Francisco, in 1860, was 43, and their tonnage 23,493. per ton was paid. ATLANTIC COAST IMPROVEMENTS OF WATER CRAFT. A T all stages of the development of transportation systems in to form the principal base of the transportation system of the the United States the characteristics and amount of water United States. Nearly all roads and all lines start from, lead craft used have possessed great and bornean to, or connect with some one or more of the Atlantic or gulf important relation to contemporaneous land movements. Dur- ports, and on the Atlantic and gulf waters a large proportion ing early periods it was impossible to move bulky articles over of the commercial movements between various states and sec- long distances on land at a cost which would not exceed their tions have always been made. value at the point of export or consumption, and, therefore, all In the construction of vessels adapted to such service, and lengthy movements of cheap and bulky dead freight were in changing their structure with new requirements, much necessarily made by water. As there were many localities ingenuity has been displayed, not only since steam vessels too remote from natural or artificial channels to utilize their have been extensively uscd, but at all stages of the numerous benefits, the available area of production for a considerable vicissitudes that have attended the operations of sailing vessels. number of cheap staples was comparatively limited. In wooden ship building this country gained a front rank, and Railway development has since attained such immense mag- steadily maintained it during a protracted period. American nitude, and extended to 80 many sections, that there are few genius in constructing oceanic steam vessels, intended for com- districts or products which cannot now secure access to desir- petitive foreign trade, has not been fully developcd, on account able markets, either by all-rail or combined rail-and-water move- of the payment of large subsidies by other nations and a neg- ments. In the progress of these changes there has been a strong lect or refusal to make such payments by the United States general tendency towards an increase of the relative length of government; and adverse circumstances have at various periods the rail movements when combinations with water movements driven American sailing vessels from lucrative branches of for- were necessary, and towards the complete substitution of rail eign trade. The principal resource in all such emergencies transportation for water and combined rail-and-water trans- has been in domestic commerce along the Atlantic coast. portation. This great field for the employment of American shipping has Efforts of inventive genius, and especially the application of always been monopolized by national vessels, and the actual steam power to navigation, have borne a very important rela- amount of commercial water domestic transportation on the tion to the internal, coastwise, and foreign commercial move- Atlantic and gulf waters has at all times been very much ments of the country. greater than on any other American routes. While American Out of the rivalries between a number of land and water tonnage was being increased from 1,368,127.78 in 1815 to routes, intermingled with the necessity of operating many rail- 5,049,808.35 in 1858 the proportion employed in the coasting ways in antagonism to various water carriers, and in harmony trade fluctuated materially, but it was always large, and during or cordial co-operation with others, sundry popular or political comparatively recent periods it increased rapidly. Of the ton- controversies have grown, and speeches in favor of river and nage ordinarily built one-half and frequently from two-thirds harbor bills are sometimes freely interlarded with declarations to three-fourths is built and used on the seaboard. There have that many of the works for which appropriations are made are been a few years, however, in which the tonnage built on the either necessary or very useful for the protection of the people great lakes and the Mississippi river and its tributaries, com- from exorbitant railway charges. The importance of such bined, was greater than that constructed on the Atlantic. theories is often exaggerated, but it is nevertheless true that Greatly as the shipping interests identified with foreign trade some of the light-house, coast survey, and river and harbor have declined in relative rank, and partly, perhaps, on account appropriations have had an important influence in increasing of this decline, the number and variety of vessels engaged in the efficiency of water craft, and in rendering possible the sub- domestic commerce has expanded to a very remarkable ex- stitution of large for relatively small vessels, steamboats, tent. In the aggregate they form much the most extensive, steamers, and steamships, thereby cheapening the cost of water efficient, and diversified coasting flect in the world. The num- transportation, and increasing the difficulty of successful rail ber of vessels is reckoned by tens of thousands; their tonnage competition between some points for sundry classes of traffic. ranges through all desirable grades from the lowest to the Water routes have always formed an important element, highest, and important advances in all descriptions of marine however much their relative rank in some localities and for architecture, including steamers and sailing vessels of many some purposes has been lowered. In all external trade, or sizes, are constantly being made. foreign commerce, with any other countries than the New The Atlantic craft of all kinds may be divided into three Dominion or Mexico, water routes are indispensable; and for a general classes, one of which is devoted to coasting trade ex- number of classes of internal and coastwise trade they con- clusively, and, therefore, at all times an adjunct of local or in. tinue to afford the cheapest and most convenient channels. terstate commerce; another is devoted exclusively to trading operations between American and foreign ports; and another THE ATLANTIC OCEAN AND ITS TIDAL APPROACHES is registered and fully qualified in all respects to engage in for- have always formed much the most important of the Ameri- eign commerce, which furnishes employment whenever it is can water-courses for many domestic purposes, as well as for deemed the most desirable or lucrative, but this class frequently the of all foreign commercial movements. Generally engages also in coastwise or domestic commerce. Indeed, all king due allowa nsive develop- American vessels engaged in foreign commerce have the privi- Atlantic and may be said lege, whenever they choose to exercise it, of engaging in any Digitized by Google 140 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN THE SIXTH DECADE. branch of domestic or coastwise traffic, and this right has been ing the Atlantic and its tributary waters a much more import- very frequently exercised, while additional custom-house form- ant channel than any other of transportation movements that alities are necessary to enable a vessel that is only licensed or compete with one class or another of railway operations, and enrolled to engage in foreign commerce. There have been at the same time constitute aids of incalculable significance to periods when it was common for some classes of vessels to en- many descriptions of industrial labors and commercial ex- gage in foreign trade during certain portions of each year and changes. coasting trade in other portions of the same year. There is scarcely any sort of freight traffic originating at or destined for points near the Atlantic coast, that cannot be or is INCREASE IN SIZE OF VESSELS. not alternately moved by rail and vessel, and railway interests Of an American merchantman built in 1841, of 1,133 tons, it are so complex and antagonistic that there is scarcely any im- was said that she was then the largest in the world. A few portant line which is not constantly throwing the full weight previous attempts to find remunerative traffic for vessels of of its influence for some of the Atlantic water routes against about 1,000 tons had generally proved unsuccessful, and com- others. The wonderful reductions in the cost of water move- paratively few merchant vessels of more than 500 tons were ments arising from an increase in the size of vessels, improve- built, but after 1850 large merchant vessels were frequently con- ments of rivers and harbors, and use of steam, have exerted a structed, a tonnage exceeding 2,000 being not uncommon, and powerful influence in stimulating railways to reduce the cost one of the vessels of 1853, the Great Republic, having a ton- and charges of their competitive movements, and in this strife nago of 4,555. This increase of the size of merchant vessels, between land and water systems the Atlantic has been one of increase of the number of vessels of all sizes applicable to coast- the most important factors. It is the one great channel which ing trade, and extensive application of steam to vessels engaged never freezes, never suffers from low water, and which can be in plying between Atlantic ports, have had the effect of mak- traversed with equal facility in all directions. RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN THE SIXTH DECADE. MAGNITUDE OF THE EXTENSIONS. RAIL CARRIERS TAKE THE LEAD OF WATER CARRIERS. D URING the sixth decade of the nineteenth century, from Before 1850 the aggregate amount of domestic traffic trans- 1850 to 1859, inclusive, railway construction progressed ported on the lakes, the gulf, the rivers and canals, and coast- with marvelous rapidity. The events of that epoch have left wise on the Atlantic, greatly exceeded the contemporaneous an indelible impress upon the transportation systems of the movement on American railways. After 1860 the relative im- country, on account of the extraordinary magnitude of the portance of land and water carriers was radically changed, and additions made to mileago, the peculiarly advantageous loca- ever since that period cars have continued, in a steadily in- tion of many of the lines and extensions, and the gigantic creasing degree, to exceed boats, vessels, and all descriptions of strides towards an advancement of railways as leading agencies water craft combined, in the amount of freight and number of for all descriptions of freight and passenger movements. passengers conveyed between different points in the United Daniel Webster said, about 1820, that the improvement in States. American facilities for transportation during the preceding The extent of this transition is partially indicated by the score of years, or the first two decades of the nineteenth cen- fact that the number of persons returned as railroad men in tury, in the way of constructing turnpikes, bridges, canals, and the list of occupations in the United States, as furnished by the improving roads, exceeded in importance all the advances census returns of 1860, had increased from 4,831 reported in made from the time of the first colonial settlements up to the 1850 to 35,567, and these figures fell far below current estimates. close of the eighteenth century. It is scarcely an exaggeration The number reported in each state and territory in 1860 was to say that the railway construction of the sixth decade ap- as follows: Alabama, 626; Arkansas, 133; California, 65; Con- proximately equaled, if it did not exceed, in actual expenditure necticut, 655; Delaware, 84; Florida, 110; Georgia, 948; Illinois, and amount of labor performed, all that had previously been 2,514; Indiana, 1,806; Iowa, 738; Kansas, 2; Kentucky, 904; done in this country in creating useful internal improvements. Louisiana, 147; Maine, 502; Maryland, 745; Massachusetts, 2,075; It is impossible to convey an adequate idea of the import- Michigan, 791; Minnesota, 11; Mississippi, 466; Missouri, 1,560; ance of the work accomplished without descanting at length New Hampshire, 853; New Jersey, 1,158; New York, 6,272; upon the particulars which are appended, but the magnitude North Carolina, 366; Ohio, 3,041; Pennsylvania, 3,729; Rhode of the tasks achieved may be inferred from the statement of Island, 162; South Carolina, 364; Tennessee, 2,194; Texas, 44; the preliminary report on the census of 1860, that the railway Vermont, 881; Virginia, 1,583; Wisconsin, 1,024; Nebraska, 6; mileage was increased from 8,589.79 miles in 1850 to 80,793.67 District of Columbia, 13. The number of steamboat men re- miles in 1860, and that the cost of construction was swelled ported in 1860 was 7,553, and the number of canal men 2,699. from $296,060,148 in 1850 to $1,151,560,829 in 1860. Here was Aside from temporary interruptions, or the pressure of pecu- an absorption of $851,900,681 by a single interest in less than liarly adverse influences, the four great water systems by which ten years, and that was a great deal of money "before the war." the older portions of the country are environed, viz., the At- The states in each of which more than one hundred millions lantic, the gulf, the Mississippi, the lakes and their eastern of dollars was expended for new lines included Pennsylvania, outlets, have steadily continued to furnish channels for exten- Ohio, and Illinois, and in proportion to resources and ability sive movements, and they probably always will. But in the to supply traffic Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, early days of development they supplied the only channels for Tennessee, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin and Missouri were lengthy movements of bulky articles; up to the end of the quite as progressive as the three states first named. fifth decade their supremacy was scarcely affected in a serious It is difficult to account for the immense forward strides degree; after 1860 they assumed a subordinate position, although made during the decade on any other theory than that a large it was still a very important one. portion of the country, and foreign capitalists, were dazzled by the tremendous display of wealth apparently resulting from NEW ROADS EAST OF THE ALLEGHENIES. the discovery and successful operation of the California and The list of railways constructed east of the Alleghenies in- other American gold and silver mines, and the passage of cluded a number of important local lines; roads connecting the Kansas and Nebraska act of 1854, which first opened for some of the New England states, which rounded off the sys- settlement the entire region west of the Missouri, and thus tem of that section; important north and south lines in several nearly doubled the available area of the Republic. of the Southern Atlantic states; useful bituminous coal roads, Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN THE SIXTH DECADE. 141 and material additions to the list of anthracite railways, secure a large share of through traffic. Most of them stimu- which included not only considerable extensions of the old lated the erection along their lines of a greater array of product- coal roads, but the construction of the Lehigh Valley and the ive industries than had ever previously been concentrated in the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western. The New England con- vicinity of any interior river or other water-course, and pros- struction exceeding one hundred miles in length included pered or failed in proportion to the magnitude of this local 114.58 miles by the Atlantic and St. Lawrence, 122.20 miles by development. the New York and New England, and 173.40 miles by the FOUNDATION OF GREAT WESTERN SYSTEMS. Maine Central. In New York; in addition to the marked ad- Before most of the trunk lines had reached their western vance of her trunk lines, 171.86 miles were built by the Rome, termini, as originally projected, much had been done to con- Watertown and Ogdensburg. In Pennsylvania, the Philadel- struct connecting lines which would extend from those termi- phia and Eric constructed 146 miles, and the Philadelphia and nal points to leading western cities. During the sixth decade Reading 107.10, aside from the active efforts of the Pennsyl- a number of important roads of this class were completed. vania to complete its main line. The additions to mileage in The Pennsylvania had been particularly active in assisting the the Southern Atlantic states include 146 miles by the Atlantic, construction of lines extending westward or northward from Gulf and West Indian Railroad and Transit Company; 428.36 Pittsburgh, and some of the fruits of this activity and of the by the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio (now the Norfolk and independent exertions of various companies or organizations Western); 188 by the Carolina Central; 106.40 by the Charlotte, are to be seen in the completion of 124.42 miles by the Pitts- Columbia and Augusta; 146.80 by the Chesapcake and Ohio; burgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis; 468.32 miles by the Pittsburgh, 144.65 by the Richmond and Danville; 109 by the Selma, Rome Fort Wayne and Chicago; 197.66 miles by the Cleveland and and Dalton; 163.50 by the South-western Railroad, of Georgia; Pittsburgh; and 400.30 miles by the Columbus, Chicago and 221.20 by the Washington City, Virginia Midland and Great Indiana Central. To what subsequently became the Vander- Southern; 138 by the Western and Atlantic, and 149 by the bilt system, a number of corresponding additions were made, Washington and Ohio. including 390.95 miles constructed by the Cleveland, Columbus, THE EAST AND WEST TRUNK LINES. Cincinnati and Indianapolis; and 720.35 miles by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern. The Baltimore and Ohio As the vicinity of the interior water channels of the Missis- gained important allies leading to Cincinnati and St. Louis by sippi and its tributaries, and the lakes and their connections, the construction of 258.40 miles by the Marietta and Cincin furnished the locations of the homes of a very large proportion nati; and 338.05 miles by the Ohio and Mississippi. To provide of all the pioneers who had emigrated west of the Alleghenies, connections between leading points on the Ohio and the Missis- and their descendants, various places on the water courses sippi, and the southern trunk lines extending across the Alle- formed the principal objective points of much of the construc- ghenies, 270 miles were constructed by the East Tennessee, tion perfected during the sixth decade. Virginia and Georgia, 290 miles by the Nashville, Chattanooga The era was peculiarly prolific in completing the links of and St. Louis, and 290 miles by the Memphis and Charleston. connection between all the important Atlantic seaboard cities A number of other roads designed to serve analogous purposes and the great west. What New York had accomplished in were constructed, which might be classified under the general 1825 by her Erie Canal, and Pennsylvania a few years later by head of western connections of the trunk lines. her main line, in the way of furnishing artificial avenues across Another important class of roads which sprung into exist- the mountains, was much more thoroughly accomplished ence aimed at providing connections between the Ohio and through rail connections, by every ambitious seaboard state; Mississippi rivers and lake Erie or lake Michigan. By such and with the completion of these competing lines, which each lines the Mississippi was reached at ten points, and the Ohio aimed to secure a share of the traffic of the Mississippi valley, at eight different points. To a certain extent nearly all these and which were each then considered possible carriers of much lines were built either in the interest of their terminal points, of the through business secured by either contestant, began an or with the expectation of attracting traffic to them, one set unparalleled strife for the privilege or opportunity of moving being intended to promote the prosperity of Cleveland, and persons and property. others, respectively, of Toledo, Cincinnati, Chicago, Louisville, The list of this class of roads, commonly known as the trunk St. Louis, Columbus, Indianapolis, or less prominent cities. lines, and their southern competitors, which were only fairly Chicago was particularly fortunate in strengthening her rail- brought into action during the sixth decade, includes the New way connections, and broad foundations were laid for the ex- York Central (for although its different links had been pre- pansions which have since made her one of the greatest railway viously constructed, they were consolidated, and thus rendered centres of the world. Louisville not only aimed at securing effective as through freight carriers, in or about 1854); north- northern outlets to the lakes, but 222.53 miles of the Louisville eastern connections of the Grand Trunk, of Canada, by which and Nashville were constructed, by which important connec- Portland and Boston gained access to the west, some of which tions with interior Kentucky and Tennessee, and subsequently were completed in 1850, and others opened in 1853; the New other states, were secured. St. Louis adopted a similar policy York and Erie, opened on the 22d of April, 1851; the Pennsyl- by securing connections in Missouri, extending westward, as vania, opened in 1852, but then laboring under disadvantages, well as eastern outlets; and Milwaukee began to gain promi- which were subsequently removed during the decade, first by nence as a railway centre as well as a lake port. opening its mountain division, and at a later date by purchas- The amount of construction completed by some of the great ing the main line of the state works; the Baltimore and Ohio, western lines not heretofore specially referred to includes 220.10 opened in 1853; the extension westward in 1858 of the Virginia miles by the Chicago and Alton; 405.82 by the Chicago, Bur- system of railroads, by which a connection was secured with lington and Quincy; 665.77 by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. the Memphis and Charleston, and Nashville and Chattanooga Paul; 428.90 by the Chicago and North-western; 286.25 by the railroads; and the opening of the Western and Atlantic, lead- Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; 705.50 by the Illinois Central, ing from Atlanta to Chattanooga, in 1850, which furnished to and 531 by lines subsequently combined with the Wabash, St. Georgia and her seaboard cities a connection with the Tennes- Louis and Pacific. see river, analogous in significance, in that latitude, to the ex- tensions of the northern trunk lines to their respective termini TRANS-MISSISSIPPI, GULF STATE, AND PACIFIC RAILROADS. at Buffalo, Dunkirk, Pittsburgh, and Parkersburg. Here were Extensive preparations were made to extend railways west seven distinct railway routes, which each furnished an avenue of the Mississippi, and a considerable amount of work was open all the year round, leading, with comparatively few de- done on lines west of that river. The first of some of these flections, from a direct route between Atlantic seaports and efforts in Missouri include the construction of 206.41 miles by lines connecting with points contiguous to the heart of the the Hannibal and St. Joseph; 171.25 by the Missouri Pacific; Mississippi valley, which either crossed or flanked the great 89.69 by the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern. natural barrier between the interior and the Atlantic ocean, Still another class of railways which attracted much atten- and which they each promoted local ends of great im- tion were lines built to connect gulf cities with the Ohio or portance, more or less force and determination, to Upper Mississippi, thus partially paralleling the Father of Digitized by Google 142 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN THE SIXTH DECADE. Waters, and aiming at attracting the traffic of central portions 1852, 12,134.38; 1853, 14,304.00; 1854, 17,746.16; 1855, 20,198.99; of the Mississippi valley southward instead of permitting it to 1856, 21,669.86; 1857, 23,746.90; 1858, 25,712.95; 1859, 27,420.07. go either northward to the lakes or directly eastward. Con- The number of miles constructed in each geographical group, struction of this class included the completion of 347.50 miles during the sixth decade, was as follows: Group I. The New by the Mobile and Ohio, and 442 by the Chicago, St. Louis and England states, 1,382.67; Group II. New York, Pennsylvania, New Orleans, now the southern extension of the Illinois Central. Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, A small amount of mileage was also completed in Texas and District of Columbia, 8,479.57; Group III. Virginia, West Vir- California, and a series of elaborate surveys of rail routes be- ginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, tween the Mississippi valley and the Pacific coast established a Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, 5,424.26; Group IV. broad basis for the subsequent efforts to construct transconti- Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri, Minnesota, 4,607.70; Group nental roads. V. Louisiana, Arkansas, Indian Territory, 100.75; Group VI. Dakota, Texas, California, &c., 114.68. The following table ADDITIONS TO RAILWAY MILEAGE FROM 1850 TO 1859. shows the number of miles constructed in each year, by each The number of miles completed at the end of each year of company, as reported by the operating companies to the censús the sixth decade was as follows: 1850, 8,571.48; 1851, 9,845.94; bureau in 1880:- Corporation. Miles of railroad built. 1850-59 1850. 1851. 1852. 1858. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1867. 1858. 1859. Decade. GROUP I. MAINE, NEW HAMPSHIRE, VERMONT, MASSA- CHUSETTS, RHODE ISLAND, CONNECTICUT. Ashuelot 23.78 23.73 Atlantic and St. Lawrence 11.00 44.25 58.08 1.25 114.58 Bennington and Rutland 58.90 58.90 Boston and Albany 9.30 9.30 Boston, Clinton, Fitchburg and New Bedford 13 90 16.47 30.37 Boston, Concord and Montreal 13.62 19.38 43.43 76.43 Boston and Lowell 16.80 16.80 Central Vermont 22.60 22.60 Concord 5.00 5.00 Concord and Claremont 8.52 8.52 Cencord and Portsmouth 29.02 29.02 Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers 40.00 21.00 29.00 90.00 Danbury and Norwalk 23.80 23.80 Danvers 9.26 9.26 Dover and Winnipiseogee 10.25 10.25 Eastern (of Massachusetts) 28.02 15.85 43.87 Fitchburg 20.84 3.17 3.54 27.55 Grand Trunk (of Canada), section of in United States 16.00 16.00 Horn Pond Branch 0.66 0 66 Maine Central 12.00 53.10 76.60 5.90 21.60 4.20 173.40 Manchester and North Weare 19.50 19.50 Newburyport 14.98 12.00 26.98 New Haven and Northampton 28.17 29.80 57.97 New London and Northern 64.88 20.00 84.88 New York and New England 17 90 6.20 2.30 81.10 14.70 122.20 New York, New Haven and Hartford 9.84 9.84 New York, Providence and Boston 12.40 12.40 Norwich and Worcester 6.73 6.78 Old Colony 1.65 18.34 8 04 28.03 Portland and Rochester 18.00 18.00 Portsmouth, Great Falls and Conway 2.00 4.00 6.00 Providence, Warren and Bristol 13.60 13.60 Rutland and Whitehall 6.83 6 83 St. Croix and Penobscot 3.00 11.25 14.25 Salem and Rutland 29.32 29.32 Shore Line 49.51 49 51 Sullivan County 0.52 0.52 Troy and Greenfield and Hoosac Tunnel 13.09 13.09 Vermont and Canada 8.00 17.70 25.70 Vermont and Massachusetts 8.24 8.24 Vermont Valley 23.61 23.61 Wilton 15.43 15.43 GROUP II. NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, MICHIGAN, INDIANA, MARYLAND, DELAWARE, NEW JERSEY, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Albany and Vermont 12.18 12.18 Allegheny Valley 44.00 44.00 Avon, Geneseo and Mount Morris 17.56 17.56 Baltimore and Ohio 54.00 71.00 82.50 207.50 Barclay Coal Company 16.23 16.23 Bellefonte and Snow Shoe 21.40 21.40 Belvidere-Delaware 15.79 25.81 8.78 13.92 64.25 Buffalo, New York and Erie 139.95 139.95 Canada and Atlantic 16.50 43.50 60.00 Catasauqua and Fogelsville 9.00 3.00 12.00 Catawisea 63.00 63.00 Central, of New Jersey 60.80 3.00 63.80 Central Ohio 137.29 137.29 Champlain and St. Lawrence 1.21 1.21 Chester Valley 21.52 21.52 Chestnut Hill 4.13 4.13 Chicago, Cincinnati and Louisville 30.00 30.00 Chicago, Detroit and Canada Grand Trunk Junction 59.25 59.25 Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton 50.88 59.88 Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN THE SIXTH DECADE. 143 Corporation. Miles of railroad built, 1850-59. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. Decade. Cincinnati, Hamilton and Indianapolis 14.00 14.00 Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Chicago 63.50 89.00 152.50 Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley 132.15 132.15 Cincinnati, Richmond and Chicago 24.80 11.20 36 00 Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis 138.00 252.95 390.95 Cleveland and Mahoning Valley 67.46 67.46 Cleveland, Mount Vernon and Delaware 13.26 48.12 61.38 Cleveland and Pittsburgh 38.00 38.00 31.00 25.02 65.64 197.66 Columbus, Chicago and Indiana Central 47.00 36.00 21.00 67.10 49.00 106.20 74.00 400.30 Columbus, Springfield and Cincinnati 20.00 20.00 Cornwall 8.07 8 07 Cumberland and Pennsylvania 4.82 8.19 10.91 4 66 28.58 Dayton and Michigan 70.20 69.60 139.80 Dayton and Union 31.74 31.74 Dayton and Western 37.23 37.23 Dayton, Xenia and Belpre 16.00 16.00 Delaware 70.83 13.00 83.83 Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 50.75 80.00 69.25 200.00 Detroit, Grand Haven and Milwaukee 25.00 28.00 110.25 163.25 Detroit, Monroe and Toledo 37.21 21.87 59.08 East Pennsylvania 36.00 36.00 Elmira, Jefferson and Canandaigua 46.60 46.60 Elmira and Williamsport 52.50 52.50 Evansville and Terre Haute 27.18 24.41 57.41 109.00 Fairland, Franklin and Martinsville 26.30 26.30 Fall Brook Coal Company 6.09 6.09 Fayette County 11.80 11.80 Flemington Railroad and Transportation Company 11.67 11.67 Flushing, North Shore and Central 7.85 7.85 Freehold and Jamesburg Agricultural 11.44 11.44 Hanover Junction, Hanover and Gettysburg 13.00 17.00 30.00 Harrisburg, Portsmouth, Mt. Joy and Lancaster 18.13 18.13 Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain R. R. and Coal Co. 24.10 6.00 8.30 1.30 3.25 42.95 Indianapolis, Peru and Chicago 22.00 50.87 72.87 Iron 13.00 13.00 Jackson, Lansing and Saginaw 12.55 6.30 18.85 Jeffersonville, Madison and Indianapolis 40.31 23.86 64.17 Junction and Breakwater 9.00 9.00 Kalamazoo and White Pigeon 3.80 7.50 11.30 Lake Erie and Western 36.50 36.50 Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 22 51 69.26 269.60 136.67 65.13 5.72 151.46 720.35 Lehigh Valley 46.00 2 00 48.00 Little Saw Mill Run 3.00 3.00 Little Schuylkill Navigation Railroad and Coal Company 8.10 8.10 Littles Town 7.00 7.00 Long Island 4.00 4.00 Louisville, New Albany and Chicago 35.20 252 80 288.00 Marietta and Cincinnati 37.40 57.30 55.30 60.00 41.00 7.30 258.30 Marquette, Houghton and Ontonagon 15.00 1.87 16.87 Michigan Central 9.35 42.65 52.00 Mill Creek and Mine Hill Navigation and Railroad Co 3.47 3.47 Millstone and New Brunswick 6.14 6.14 Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven 2.50 2.80 14.00 4.00 2.70 4.00 30.00 Morris and Essex 18.46 18.46 Newark and Bloomfield 3.69 0.56 4.25 New York and Canada 23.00 23.00 New York Central and Hudson River 74.47 70.00 18.00 80.75 243.22 New York and Flushing 4.30 4.30 New York and Harlem 50.50 50.50 New York, Lake Erie and Western 77.29 129.16 59.85 266.30 Niagara Bridge and Canandaigua 98.46 98.46 North Pennsylvania 10.10 57.50 67.60 Northern (of New Jersey) 21.28 21.28 Northern Central 27.00 53.05 80.05 Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain 117.48 117.48 Ohio and Mississippi 29.00 204.63 104.42 338.05 Pennsylvania 87.80 56.80 26.00 28.51 16.11 215.22 Philadelphia and Baltimore Central 9.00 9.00 Philadelphia and Erie 28.00 12.00 106.00 146.00 Philadelphia and Reading 53.40 53.70 107.10 Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore 4.76 4.76 Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis 7.80 116.62 124.42 Pittsburgh and Connellsville. 24.70 24.70 Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago 188.00 131.32 65.00 1.00 83.00 468.32 Rensselaer and Saratoga 6.83 18.97 15.65 41.45 Richmond and Miami 7.19 7.19 Rochester and Genessee Valley 18.26 18.26 Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg 18.21 52.21 25.34 30.00 24.60 21.50 171.86 Schuylkill Valley Navigation and Railroad Company 4.00 4.00 Shamokin Valley and Pottsville 18.73 10.89 29.62 Shelby and Rush 18.33 18.33 Strasburg 4.25 4.25 Sussex 30.40 30.40 racuse, Binghamton and New York 81.00 81.00 Digitized by Google 144 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN THE SIXTH DECADE. Miles of railroad built, 1850-59 Corporation. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1858. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1867. 1858. 1859. Decade. Terre Haute and Indianapolis 72.50 72.50 Tioga 4.00 4.00 Troy and Bennington 5.38 5.38 Troy and Boston 34.74 84.74 Troy Union 2.14 2.14 Union, of Indianapolis 3.23 8.23 Utica and Black River 10.00 18.75 34.75 Warren 18.25 18.25 West Chester and Philadelphia 13.00 4.00 0.30 26.30 West Jersey 17.57 17.57 Western Maryland 1.60 7.90 9.50 Western Pennsylvania 24.00 24.00 Wheeling, Pittsburgh and Baltimore 82.00 82.00 GROUP III. VIRGINIA, WEST VIRGINIA, KENTUCKY, TEN- NESSEE, MISSISSIPPI, ALABAMA, GEORGIA, FLORIDA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA. Alabama Central 16.00 14.00 80.00 Alexandria and Washington 4.96 4.96 Atlantic and West Point 10.00 23.00 25.00 21.07 79.67 Atlantic, Gulf and West India Railroad and Transit Co 5.00 22.00 20.00 26.00 73.00 146.00 Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio 106.91 75.94 86.08 21.07 56.74 45.34 36.28 428.36 Atlantic and North Carolina 83 00 62.00 95.00 Blue Ridge 53.00 53.00 Brighthope 32.50 32.50 Cape Fear and Yadkin Valley 12.00 12.00 Carolina Central 50.00 60.00 50.00 28.00 188.00 Central Railroad and Banking Company, of Georgia 17.00 17.00 Charlotte, Columbia and Augusta 106.40 106.40 Cheraw and Darlington 18.00 22.00 40.00 Chesapeake and Ohio 21.00 27.54 10.45 29 12 32.06 7.07 19.56 146.80 Chester and Lenoir, N. G 23.09 23.09 Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans 207.20 234 80 442.00 East Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia 42.00 55.00 89.00 56.00 28.00 270.00 Eatonton Branch 21.00 21.00 Florida Central 59.50 59.50 Georgia Railroad and Banking Company 18.00 18 00 Grand Gulf and Port Gibson 7.50 7.50 Greenville and Columbia 45 00 50.00 11.50 9.50 116.00 Jacksonville, Pensacola and Mobile 27.00 27.00 Kentucky Central 80.00 80.00 , Laurens 31.04 31.04 Lexington and Big Sandy 16.93 16.93 Louisville, Cincinnati and Lexington 65.20 65.20 Louisville and Nashville 37 30 185.23 222.53 Maysville and Lexington (Southern division) 19.00 19.00 Memphis and Charleston 43.00 49.00 44 00 52.00 60.00 42.00 290.00 Mississippi and Tennessee 12.00 10.00 87.00 6.07 65.07 Mobile and Girard 20.00 4.00 22.00 4.00 5.00 55.00 Mobile and Ohio 33.00 63.50 56.50 44.50 34.50 86.50 29.00 347.50 Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis 150.00 35.00 40.00 234.00 Nashville and Decatur 119.09 119.09 North Carolina. 90.00 41.15 131.15 North-eastern, of South Carolina 102.00 102.00 Parkersburg Branch 103.50 103.50 Raleigh and Augusta Air Line 42.00 42.00 Richmond and Danville 14.35 31.67 30.28 11.55 10.40 82.70 13.70 144.65 Rogersville and Jefferson 11.73 11.73 Selma and Greensborough 13 39 13.39 Selma, Rome and Dalton 9.00 13.00 9.00 24.00 17 00 17.00 10.00 10.00 109.00 South-western, of Georgia 50.50 21.00 21.00 35.50 35.50 163.50 Spartanburg, Union and Columbia 68.00 68.00 Tennessee Coal and Railroad Company 10.00 8.00 18.00 Upson County 16.00 16.00 Vicksburg and Meridian 15.00 15.00 Washington City, Virginia Midland and Great Southern 160.20 61.00 221.20 Western and Atlantic 138.00 138.20 Washington and Ohio 140.00 149.00 GROUP IV. ILLINOIS, Iowa, WISCONSIN, MISSOURI, MIN- NESOTA. Chicago and Alton 70.10 150.00 220.10 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 12.02 165.60 152.30 75.90 405.82 Chicago, Iowa and Nebraska 82.40 82.40 Chicago and Milwaukee 85.00 85.00 Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 10.10 24.00 27.00 18.10 23.60 88.40 138.30 232.08 104 29 665.77 Chicago and North-western 50.00 48.10 135.50 91.30 30.00 74 00 428.90 Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific 182.25 67.00 87.00 286.25 Dubuque and Sioux City 80.00 80.00 Elgin and State Line 36.34 86.34 Hannibal and St. Joseph 30.00 98.77 46.45 31.19 206.41 Illinois Central 14.00 117.00 294.75 202.47 77.28 705.50 Joliet and Chicago 37.20 37.20 Joliet and Northern Indiana 45.00 45.00 Keokuk and Des Moines 39.20 39.20 Mineral Point 33.00 38.00 Digitized by Google BRIDGE OF COLUMBIA AND PHILADELPHIA RAILROAD OVER THE SCHUYLKILL RIVER. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google THE FIRST RAILWAY PANICS. 145 Corporation. Miles of railroad built. 1860-59 1850. 1851. 1862. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. Decade. Missouri Pacific 4.75 32.25 44.00 44.00 41.25 5.00 171.25 Peoria and Bureau Valley 46.72 46.72 Peoria, Pekin and Jacksonville 58.15 58.15 Rock Island and Peoria 11.50 11.50 St. Louis, Alton and Terre Haute 80.00 106.00 21.00 207.00 St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern 89.69 89.69 St. Louis and San Francisco 19.00 19.00 Sheboygan and Western 13.90 13.90' Sycamore, Cortland and Chicago 4.90 4.90 Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw 16.90 15.70 53.00 11.50 97 70 Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific 383.50 60.75 64.00 22.75 531.00 GROUP V. LOUISIANA, ARKANSAS, INDIAN TERRITORY. Clinton and Port Hudson 0.75 0.75 Morgan's Louisiana and Texas Railroad and Steamship Co. 32.00 2.00 48.00 82.00 Vicksburg, Shreveport and Pacific 18.00 18.00 GROUP VI. DAKOTA, NEBRASKA, KANSAS, TEXAS, NEW MEXICO, CALIFORNIA, &c. Houston and Texas Central 26.29 10.00 15.30 41.19 92.78 Sacramento and Placerville 21.90 21.90 THE FIRST RAILWAY PANICS. THREE of the most direct results of the enormous additions the second the shock of 1857. They were both caused largely to railway mileage during the sixth decade were two by revulsions in railway affairs, and the confusion or de- panics, the creation of permanent incitements to competition rangements arising from the sudden engulfment of vast sums between rail and water carriers and rival rail routes for nearly of money in new and temporarily unprofitable lines. There all important classes of the traffic of the Mississippi valley and had been panics before, and much more serious ones, some of various other sections, and an immense increase of the value which were attributable partly to a collapse of state credit of the land and the agricultural products of the great west originating in large appropriations for internal improvements, and north-west. These outgrowths are each of 80 much im- but the checks of the sixth decade were the first produced by portance that they will be discussed under separate headings, the operations of railway companies; and a noticeable feature the first of which relates to the of the industrial history of the period is the extent to which FINANCIAL DIFFICULTIES. the amount of construction in each year was affected by the fluctuating financial tendencies. To fully comprehend the extent of the drain upon resources While the number of miles of railroad in operation, accord- made by the additions to mileage, it is necessary to remember ing to the census report of 1880, was 7,310.44 at the end of 1849, that the cost of construction, according to the census report of and 27,470.97 at the end of 1859,-an increase of 20,109.63 miles, 1860, increased in the New England states from $97,254,201 in or at the rate of nearly 2,011 miles per annum, there was a 1850 to $148,366,514 in 1860; in the Middle Atlantic states, great variation in the number of miles built in each year, the from $130,350,170 to $329,528,231; in the Southern Atlantic culminating period being 1854, or the year of the first railway states, from $36,875,456 to $141,739,629; in the Gulf states, from panic. The number of miles built in each year of the sixth $5,286,209 to $64,943,746; in the interior Southern states, from decade was as follows: 1850, 1,261.04 miles; 1851, 1,274.46; 1852, $1,830,541 to $49,761,199, and in the northern interior states, 2,288.44; 1853, 2,169.62; 1854, 3,442.16; 1855, 2,452.83; 1856, including Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, 1,470.87; 1857, 2,077.04; 1858, 1,966.05; 1859, 1,707.12. It will be and Missouri, from $25,063,571 to $413,541,510. Ohio, which seen that, reversing the natural order of things, more than had 575.27 miles of railroad, that had cost $10,684,000, in 1850, twice as many miles were built in the fifth year of the decade, had 2,999.45 miles, that had cost $111,896,351, in 1860. Illinois, or 1854, as in the tenth, or 1859. that had 110.50 miles, costing $1,440,507, in 1850, had 2,867.90 miles, that cost $104,944,561, in 1860. Missouri, which had no THEORIES OF THE CAUSES OF THE PANICS. railways in 1850, had commenced operations by constructing Something had evidently happened to check the onward 817.45 miles, at a cost of $42,342,812. Tennessee, which reported march of the projectors, engineers, graders, and contractors. no mileage in 1850, had closely followed the example of Mis- The following reference to the causes and nature of the panic souri, by constructing 1,197.92 miles, at a cost of $29,537,722, of 1854 was made in the Pennsylvania Railroad report of 1855:- and Virginia had increased her mileage and railway outlays "Unavoidable delays in procuring legislative authority to in- from 515.15 miles, costing $12,585,312, in 1850, to $64,958,807 crease the loans of the company, prevented the board from in 1860. In several of the Southern states, and notably Vir- presenting to capitalists their second mortgage bond (issued to ginia and Tennessee, many of the lines were liberally aided meet the demands for the second track and increased equip- by loans of state credit or bonds, and large debts were thus ment), until hostilities in eastern Europe had assumed an incurred, which have been fruitful causes of acrimonious dis- aspect 80 serious that the capitalists of England-where our putes between unsatisfied creditors or bondholders and tax- bonds had been chiefly disposed of heretofore-became payers or state governments ever since. In Tennessee during alarmed, and declined for a time to invest further in American the sixth decade, while the state outlays were being made, very railroad and municipal securities on terms that were deemed impressive assurances were given that they would create no satisfactory on this side. It is admitted that the exist- financial difficulties, because the state only provided means for ing embarrassments in financial and commercial affairs are furnishing the iron rails and superstructure of roads graded by largely due to the excessive expansions of credit throughout private capital. In some of the other commonwealths numer- the Union in the various forms it assumes in the active busi- ous towns, cities, and counties pledged their credit to support ness transactions of life. It is believed, however, that but for new enterprises, and learned, to their sorrow, how much easier the crises referred to-aggravated as they have been by the it was to run into debt than to pay interest on the cost of unre- frauds that have occurred in the management of some of the munerative securities, and the cases were not infrequent in eastern railroads-no serious disturbance of confidence would which these grants of local credit were obtained by question- have taken place until a later period. Although to some extent able means or shamefully abused. sufferers from the difficulties attending this condition of the The two panics of the decade may, perhaps, justly be con- money market, we cannot but feel satisfied that the general sidered a twin convulsion, the first being the shock of 1854 and good will in the end be advanced by the timely check placed 19 Digitized by Google 146 THE FIRST RAILWAY PANICS. upon many of the wild schemes of improvement that had terprises of different kinds abandoned, and thousands of useful been commenced and were maturing throughout the west, as laborers thrown out of employment and reduced to want." well as in our own state. It is hoped that the lessons of the To some extent, the extracts given above represent four past will be a warning to capitalists to use greater discrimina- theories in regard to the causes and nature of the first railway tion in future in the investment of the means with which for- panics. These theories each refer to some of the most obvious tune has favored them." or plausible reasons for the misfortunes which befell the coun- The President of the United States, Franklin Pierce, in his try, but neither describes at length the influences that had annual message dated December 4th, 1854, referred to the same been gradually undermining confidence in railway securities. subject, in connection with a protest against land-grant legisla- Probably the suggestions contained in the reference to this tion, which had been greatly stimulated by the interest excited subject, in the Pennsylvania Railroad report, attributing the in and rapid progress made by the Illinois Central. He said that first difficulty to the counter drain of European capital, caused "the applications at the last session contemplated the construc- by the Crimean war, and stating that capitalists should use tion of more than five thousand miles of road, and grants to greater discrimination in their railway investments, come the amount of nearly twenty millions of acres of the public nearest to depicting the most potent causes of the panics. domain. Even admitting the right of Congress to be unques- There is at many periods a tendency to rush into extremes, tionable, is it quite clear that the proposed grants would be one ern being characterized by such overweening confidence productive of good, and not evil? The different projects are that almost anything styled a railway bond can readily be sold confined, for the present, to eleven states of this Union, and one at something near its par value, and another by such excessive territory. The reasons assigned for the grants show that it is distrust that it is almost impossible for the richest railway com- proposed to put the works speedily in process of construction. panies to obtain meagre financial accommodation. Subse- When we reflect that since the commencement of railways in quent experience has shown that railway panies may occur the United States, stimulated, as they have been, by the large even under the soundest banking system yet devised, and while dividends realized from the earlier works, they are the great tho. the country is teeming with wealth. But there is little doubt roughfares, and between the most important points of commerce that the panics of 1854 and 1857 were aggravated by the char- and population, encouraged by state legislation, and pressed acter of the state banking systems then existing, and perhaps forward by the amazing energy of private enterprise, only sev- still less doubt that the practice of building speculative rail- enteen thousand miles (at the end of 1854) have been completed ways, which was either inaugurated, or at least greatly ex- in all the states in a quarter of a century; when we sec the crip- tended, during the sixth decade, did much to engender distrust. pled condition of many works, commenced and prosecuted As American credit was rapidly rising, on account of the ex- upon what were deemed to be sound principles and safe calcu- traordinary growth of the country, the rich yield of the Cali- lations; when we contemplate the enormous absorption of capi- fornia gold mines, the marked increase of productive power of tal withdrawn from the ordinary channels of business, and ex- all descriptions, the foundation of great settlements on the travagant rates of interest at this moment paid to continue Pacific coast, immense addition to the population of the west- operations, the bankruptcies not merely in money, but in char- ern and north-western commonwealths, the restoration of the acter, and the inevitable effect upon finances generally, can it credit of nearly all the states, and the material improvement be doubted that the tendency is to run to excess in this matter? of banking systems, very active efforts to dispose of enormous Is it wise to augment this excess by encouraging hopes of issues of railway bonds were made. In a large majority of sudden wealth expected to flow from magnificent schemes de- cases the purchasers of these bonds made very good bargains, pendent upon the action of Congress? Is it not the better as they bought at prices ranging from ten to twenty per cent. rule to leave all these works to private enterprise, regulated below par, securities that paid from six to seven per cent. on and, when expedient, aided by the co-operation of states? If their face value, and the better classes of the corporations that constructed by private capital, the stimulant and the check contracted these loans established a sound basis of credit by go together, and furnish a salutary restraint against speculative large and judicious actual outlays of money obtained from schemes and extravagance." stockholders or appropriations or subscriptions of solvent The following brief reference to the panic of 1857, at its out- cities, counties, and states. The bulk of these securities were set, was published in the American Engineer, of August 29th, not seriously affected in intrinsic value even by the panics, as 1857:- the worst thing that happened to investors in them, was a post- "The financial world is in the midst of a panic. There have ponement of a few interest payments. been a portentous number of failures. Erie stock (a gauge for most fancy stocks) has touched 20-the banks are hauling in, SPECULATIVE CONSTRUCTION. and the large grain crop being sent forward does not promise But the tendency to diminish the proportion that actual pay- either ready sales or high prices. The largest part of this con- ments on capital stock bore to floating and bonded indebted- dition has been owing to the simple delusion that railroads ness was rapidly strengthened during the sixth decade, and could be worked for 50 per cent. of their gross receipts-or, in throughout the entire history of railway financiering it has other words, overlooking depreciation. There are one thou- probably been this tendency more than any other that has sand million dollars invested in railroads in the United States, caused corporate difficulties and engendered distrust, inas- and where it has been believed that this property could pay much as it involves the task of doing business almost exclu- $70,000,000 yearly, it does not pay $40,000,000-n yearly deficit sively on borrowed capital; the practice of incurring large of more than $30,000,000. This is a good deal of money to be floating debts while construction or improvements were pro- wasted yearly, but the country, if it does not plunge still deeper gressing in the hope that bonds would be sold in time to meet in debt, will soon outgrow it. The present panic will not exist short notes discounted by banks or note shavers, was resorted a great while, although money will be 'tight' all winter." to on an extensive scale, even by a number of the best compa- The annual message of President Buchanan, sent to Congress nies; and all the possibilities of financiering in connection with in December, 1857, in referring to the panic of that year, these expedients were in some instances grossly abused by un- attributes it largely to an unsound banking system, and the scrupulous speculators, and thus made sources of considerable encouragement it afforded to speculating schemes and stock loss to innocent investors. gambling. In describing the nature of the disturbance he says: The practice of soliciting the subscriptions of cities or coun- 'Up till within a brief period, our manufacturing, mineral, ties to railway projects which had been resorted to at an earlier and mechanical operations have partaken largely of the gen- period in behalf of sound enterprises, began to be the source eral prosperity. We have possessed all the elements of mate- of 80 many evils that some of the states conceived it to be rial wealth in rich abundance, and yet, notwithstanding all their duty to strictly prohibit such subscriptions, while in these advantages, our country, in its monetary interests, is at other states they continued to be still freely resorted to in the present moment in a deplorable condition. In the midst every neighborhood unsupplied with railroads, especially in of unsurpassed plenty in all the productions of agriculture, commonwealths in which free railroad laws had been enacted, and in all the elements of national wealth, we find our manu- giving the power to any small body of men to organize a rail- factures suspended, our public works retarded, our private en- road company; and this departure from the original practice of Digitized by Google THE FIRST RAILWAY PANICS. 147 requiring special legislative authority for each new line began and some pokerish curves, just to save cost of construction. A to be common, but not universal, during the sixth decade. sort of semi-professional and semi-proprietary consultation is held, and the ugly grades and pokerish curves are set aside VARYING FINANCIAL METHODS AND MOTIVES FOR RAILWAY CON- forthwith. The contractors are mollified, and all hands deter- STRUCTION. mine to build a first-rate road, and no mistake. Meanwhile In connection with projects intended to promote commer- the construction account expands thermometrically in the heat cial objects and improve localities, there was a considerable of the zeal for a good road. period during which financial contributions for the construc- We might have said, as we have already introduced the con- tion of railways were made, sometimes by individuals, as well tractors, that perhaps they did not take hold on the engineer's as cities, counties, or states, which were scarcely expected to estimates, but staked one out for themselves, and got the job at yield direct money returns, in the shape of interest or divi- their own figures. But if the company is not $250,000 out for dends. The sentiment which prompted such action was forci- all these little accidents, nobody need be troubled in spirit. bly expressed by one of the daily journals advocating it, during Now comes the next pull for cash. The road has lengthened the sixth decade, in this appeal: "Railroads now ramify all out, in probable cost, to perhaps $3,500,000. The subscriptions parts of our country. Their history is that of our national have not netted, deducting forfeitures, collections, and interest, greatness, and individual wealth and happiness. They have over $1,300,000, a part, perhaps, yet resting in the dim future. been the great pioneers of civilization. They have overcome A formal mortgage is accordingly executed on the whole line distance. They have linked distant communities in the golden and deposited in trust with suitable parties. Upon this mort- chain of identity. They have spread the light of learning as gage, as a security, the company come out to borrow money, from a radiant sun. They have added terrors to our armies. payable in twenty or twenty-five years, and issue their bonds They have made peace more peaceful. With them hours are to represent the same. The bond simply expresses the obliga- but moments, and miles but imperceptible lines. The mighty tion to repay the money, and binds the borrowers to the provi- weights which break the sinews of beasts of burden are to them sions of the mortgage in case of failure of repayment. but bubbles sporting on the billows of strength. They perform Each bond is for $1,000. It ordinarily draws 7 per cent. in- for us the labor of millions of men, and the cry of weariness terest, payable semi-annually. Executed in full, the bonds are comes not from their iron mouths as they thunder along the ready for sale. Who bids? One says 85, another 86,-the bonds plain, leap across the river, roll over the hill, or dart through go at 86. For $860 a bond for $1,000 is given up, and $70 in- the mountain. terest obligation to be paid, equal to over 8 per cent. actual It is a question worthy of consideration whether railroads interest on the money lent on the bond. should ever be built with a view of dividends among stock- The whole issue of bonds under the mortgage is, perhaps, holders. They should be constructed as great national enter- $2,000,000. These 'net' at the selling rate $1,720,000, and prises, from which individual benefits are to arise from the deducting commissions, &c., say $1,640,000. increased value of the lands through which they pass, and the Thus, with money raised on stock, the whole cash basis is advantages of speedy communication with different parts of now $2,940,000, against which is a debt of $2,000,000,-and at the country. The farmer who owns a hundred acres of land least $550,000 are still required to complete the road. through which a railroad is to pass, and values it at $2,500, When the time comes round for more money, a second may well afford to take stock in the road to the amount of mortgage, covering the whole road, but subject to the claim of $1,000, simply because the value of his land will increase more the first mortgage, is executed. This is, perhaps, for $500,000, than this sum. But should he expect dividends from this road? and nets $375,000. What is still wanted to complete the road Has he not been paid back his $1,000 in the increased value of is supplied, perhaps, by borrowing on notes, or the road is left his property? May not the same thing be said of the merchant uncompleted to that amount, or the earnings, above interest, who has gotten back what he paid for stock in the increased are appropriated. sales to customers brought to him by railroad communication?" It is a blue time when poor lines, or lines covering unprofit- It is evident, however, that the desire to secure returns able routes, get into this fix. But per contra-take a good road, for money advanced, was one of the most powerful incentives and in five years' time its debt will be half converted into stock to financial supporters of the railways of all decades, and it if there is a clause in the mortgage which allows it. Its yearly was on this basis, rather than any other, that they were con- payments for interest will be reduced, its line completed from structed. earnings, and its stock bearing 8 per cent. dividend, and selling FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR LEGITIMATE RAILROADS IN THE in the market at 110." EARLY PART OF THE SIXTH DECADE. A contemporaneous description, in Colburn's Railroad Ad- TRANSITION TO "WILD-CAT" FINANCIERING OPERATIONS. vocate, after explaining the impossibility of obtaining all the How free-railroad-law privileges were sometimes misused is money needed for construction from stock subscriptions, and shown in the following extract from an article in Colburn's stating that its remarks apply to legitimate roads, and not to Advocate, of October 27th, 1855:- wild-catting enterprises, says:- "Railroad building (not mechanically, but financially), has "The estimated cost of the road is perhaps $31,127.224 per become a considerable profession. It is notorious that many mile (a very precise sum indeed); and if the road be a hundred a good road has been originally commenced merely as a means miles long, its cost, of course, will be $3,112,722.50 (exactly). of acquiring a single fortune from mere 'operating.' The directors have resolved, probably, to issue stock to the Let us see how a railroad may be built nearly entirely on amount of $1,500,000. They offer as much for subscription credit, and to realize a ready net cash product to the builders. among the crowd. One man strains his cash account for $5,000, It requires tact and address to obtain a town, county, or city and another trusts to his crops to shell out $600. Another cal- subscription, payable in bonds, with twenty years to run; but culates on a speculation with some unimproved real estate the task is not difficult, anywhere, to men of cheek. Next a then on his hands, and confidently chalks down $15,000. Safe handsome subscription of improved real estate, at a round men sign their names for $1,000 each, and after much drum- valuation, and a fair exertion will secure a show of cash sub- ming the stock list becomes pretty full. There are always a scriptions from impressible farmers. Here, then, is a basis for few widows and orphans who will venture to the tune of $100, a loan, and custom has often sanctioned loans equal to two- $300, $700, and so on, being told the 'railroad is as good as a thirds of the whole nominal security, or double the original bank.' nominal or actual basis. Well, perhaps $1,302,400 have been subscribed. All this must Now, to this point, every step may be taken by men without draw interest when paid in, until the road is built and at work. means. Having established a project, they have then only to Meanwhile a few subscribers flunk out, and their stock is for- step into it as contractors, securing, as they may, liberal pay feited, and sold at auction. The sacrifice is not much, though, on consideration of taking stock and bonds. Now, by sustain- and perhaps the installments paid in, if any, will cover it. ing these securities at the highest possible price, the projector But while the installments are coming in, and the work is unloads at a paying figure, relieves himself of all liability and going on, it is found that the engineer let in some ugly grades risk, and permits the concern to settle itself in the hands of the Digitized by Google 148 THE FIRST RAILWAY PANICS. new parties who are suddenly found in it. The flush over, its company are fast giving out. Another issue of bonds, based stock quito often runs down from 20 to 50 per cent., and the upon the expected income of the road, is manufactured, and road is found to be uncompleted, requiring fresh sacrifices on given for work. After a struggle the rails are all laid, a light bonds and short paper to bring it into full working efficiency." stock of equipment is furnished, but the company are unable If all railway construction that had an element of speculation to save anything from earnings, because the road is indiffer- in it, had been prohibited from the outset, the mileage of the ently stocked and badly ballasted. The first year finds it with American system would fall far below its present proportions. just enough money from traffic to pay running expenses, but We do not wish to be understood as condemning every enter- saddled with a large floating debt, created by being short of prise that had a tinge, or even a deep tinge, of speculative means at the start, and subsequently promising to pay nearly support. But there is a wide distinction between roads that double for everything. This is no fancy sketch, but are manifestly intended to serve useful purposes, and that are true with nearly one-half of the western roads built within the constructed and capitalized at a rate which will probably secure last three years. The different classes of liabilities bind- a fair return to investors unless exceptionally. disastrous condi- ing the same piece of property would be sure to end in disaster tions prevail, on the one hand, and roads which are projected, to one or more holders if it covered anything else but a rail- constructed, capitalized, and managed under conditions which road. Out of a large number of reports which the render them little better than organized swindles, on the other compiler has had under review he has been unable to find hand. That the disastrous tendencies displayed in construction more than about thirty roads whose construction accounts are were sometimes supplemented with equally deplorable ten- closed. In leaving this account open, managers of dencies in management, during the sixth decade, is indicated railways possess a license for expenditures for 'construction' by the following extract from an article styled a "Picture of oftentimes without increasing the facilities for traffic. In many Railroad Management," which was published in Colburn's instances the account serves to absorb a large number of im- Railroad Advocate, of July 5th, 1856:- proper charges, and to cover-up extravagancies. Tak- "Before the company had spent their money, and when they ing the average seasons of crops, there is aniple business for were consequently flush, they dispatched an agent to a rolling every well-located road in operation, and if the compensation mill in the interior to contract for their iron. This agent, lest charged by railways for transporting passengers and freight he should see the company's funds wasted, very wisely put could rest upon a similar foundation for profits that stock- their bonds, to the full amount of the iron wanted, into the holders realize in banking and insurance companies, the capi- hands of the parties who contracted to supply the iron. Un- tal employed in railways would be remunerative and popular. fortunately, these gentlemen failed, and after getting a part of Unfortunately, however, they have, in a great majority of cases their iron, the-railroad company took a mortgage on the mill, in this country, proven failures." which, whenever the hour of foreclosure comes, will enable them to find the rest of their iron, if it is 'there.' FREE RAILROAD LAWS. Fully impressed with the great value and future magnitude The free railroad laws, passed in or about 1850 in New York of their enterprise, the company bought from one of their and Ohio, and speedily adopted by a number of other states, directors, and on his advice, one hundred acres of land on the made a radical change in many of the conditions affecting outskirts of the large town which was the principal terminus of railway construction. Before that time a specific check existed their road. This land cost them $100,000. It was a regular on each proposed project, as it required legislative sanction; goose pasture, unsuited to any possible wants of the road, and and an important consideration, in connection with the grant was just where the station and works of the company should of any charter, was whether any or all of the interests of the not be. To this day it remains unbroken in its pristine loveli- state to be traversed would be injured or advanced. The dis- ness, a pleasant resort for the porcine inhabitants of the neigh- position to jealously guard state interests was frequently illus- borhood, and an accommodating receptacle of the wash from trated by refusals to incorporate companies which were con- the surrounding hill-slopes. sidered rivals by older lines, or likely to afford facilities for The road, finally put in operation, terminates nowhere, being diverting trade to adjacent commonwealths. Pennsylvania minus its western connection, of 25 miles, with the railroad was made the scene of important struggles of the kind indi- system of the adjoining state. The stockholders and bond- cated. The spirit which formerly prevailed is illustrated by a holders have delightful times in the agreeable society of each report of the committee of the Pennsylvania senate, on roads, other, each vieing with the other in self-sacrificing devotion to bridges, and inland navigation, on granting the Baltimore and the fortunes of the old concern. 'Beautiful in their lives, in Susquehanna Railroad Company the privilege of extending death they shall not be separated." their railroad into the state of Pennsylvania, which was read on January 17th, 1829. It opposed the proposed grant, various FINANCIAL METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION IN 1859. reasons being assigned for the unfavorable action, but the prin- Of the financial methods sometimes adopted shortly before cipal grounds of objection are summed up in the following the close of the sixth decade Storr's Capitalists' Guide and Rail- extract:- way Annual for 1859 says:- "The case may be stated thus: The state of Pennsylvania has "The plan of constructing railroads with bonds to such an projected and is now carrying into execution an enlarged and extent as has been practiced since 1854 should never have been comprehensive system of internal improvement, designed to permitted by stockholders, especially at a time when it was furnish to its citizens the advantage of a cheap transportation not difficult to find subscribers for stocks in all feasible enter- and an easy access to market; and to make its own city that mar- prises. The system of construction has been wrong ket; to foster its commerce, which, ever grateful, repays the from the beginning. If a company, with a nominal capital of favors conferred on it; and this great work, involving an im- $2,500,000, having 150 miles of road to build, with a cash sub- mense expenditure, is to be constructed at the expense of the scription of $600,000, instead of completing and equipping 25 state; and it is asked of the legislature to give to a rival city the miles of road, it would put the whole line under contract at privilege of intersecting these great improvements at a point once, pledging the road and appurtenances for $1,800,000 in within its own territory, for the purpose of conducting the bonds, and depending upon contingencies for the remaining trade from Philadelphia to Baltimore, to enable that city to $1,400,000. The plan has been to pay the contractors in cash, reap the benefits of the system of internal improvements say 25 per cent., bonds 50 per cent., and stock 25 per cent. The executed at the expense of this state, and to deprive the state contractor was shrewd enough to obtain a sufficient margin to of the revenue derived from the trade of its own commercial cover the most extravagant discount upon the securities of the city, and of the large amount of tolls which it is confidently company, while rails that would command but $45 cash per anticipated will be derived from the great line of communica- ton readily brought from $60 to $70 in railway bonds, and to tion from Middletown to the city of Philadelphia. The city of convert these into money would require a discount of 25 to 30 Baltimore having refused to this state the right of intersecting per cent., because every capitalist throughout the country was within its territory a great line of communication projected by full of them, and it was 80 in everything supplied to the com- that city, for the purpose of directing to it the trade of the Union, -any for construction. Meantime the funds of the most certainly can have no just cause of complaint, at the re- Digitized by Google RAILROAD STATISTICS OF 1855. 149 fusal of this state to give to that city the right of intersecting producing regions, railways assumed, to an increasing extent, its great improvements within the territory of Pennsylvania the status of commercial enterprises or speculations, and lost for the avowed purpose of drawing to Baltimore the trade des- in a considerable degree, their original characteristics as special tined to be conducted to the city of Philadelphia." protectors and trade allies of the states which granted their As the Pennsylvania state system of public works had been charters. In effect, at the outset, legislatures had said to the injured, in some respects, by the refusal of the lines of adjacent railways, help the state or some of its sections, and we will states to permit advantageous connections, her legislature, for help and protect you, even to the extent of granting pecuniary я considerable period, including action in 1845, refused to them aid in your hour of difficulty, and certainly in the sense of not opportunities for traversing portions of her soil on routes they permitting rival lines to jeopardize your prosperity. After free wished to occupy. Roads proposed in the north-western por- railroad laws were passed, a new order of things prevailed. tion of the state, which were intended to afford a continuous The commonwealths which adopted them thereby warned all connection between the New York trunk lines and Ohio, were companies concerned that they must look out for themselves; only authorized on condition that there should be a divergence that they could not rely upon state protection against injurious in gauges which would necessitate a transfer of freight at or rivalries; and that if they could strengthen their financial posi- near Erie. But after an acrimonious struggle, which formed tion by forming vantageous alliances with roads that traversed one of the most exciting of the early railway wars, these laws other sections of the country they would probably advance the were repealed. Analogous contests occurred in other states; interests of the stockholders by such proceedings. Speculative and under free railway systems, which enable any small body construction was also, of course, greatly facilitated by the ease of men who can obtain the requisite capital to select any prac- with which charters giving the right of eminent domain, or ticable route, without regard to the interests of older lines or power to acquire such real estate as might be necessary for other considerations affecting the welfare of particular cities or tracks, stations, and depots, could be procured. RAILROAD STATISTICS OF 1855. I NSTRUCTIVE illustrations of the nature of some of the ductive, either because much grading had been done on pro- changes that had been inaugurated in connection with jected roads that had not procured rails, or because the princi- railway expansions, and of the general condition of the Ameri- pal points which were expected to furnish traffic had not been can railway system, are furnished by a statement which forms reached, and when panics or unlooked-for financial difficulties part of the report of the Secretary of the Treasury for the year thwart the efforts of companies which have reached such stages ending June 30th, 1856, entitled Railroad Statistics of the they are placed in the unfortunate position of being responsi- United States. It represents the first serious effort of the Fed- ble for large outlays from which no immediate returns can be eral Government at any other period than a census year to ob- derived, and left in a state of fearful uncertainty as to when tain and publish such information. It was perhaps due to the expensive but wholly unproductive deep cuts and high embank- fact that the Secretary at that time was Hon. James Guthrie, ments can ever gain earning value. of Louisville, whose active participation in the effort to con- TRANSITIONS TOWARDS LARGE INDEBTEDNESS. struct leading Kentucky railways inspired a better comprehen- sion of and a more lively interest in such subjects than has Another cause of embarrassment was the extent to which a been shown by most of his successors. considerable number of lines had substituted or were sub- Although some companies neglected or refused to make re- stituting, for the practice which had previously been found turns, which were intended to represent as'clearly as possible safe, of deriving at least half the capital spent, and frequently the operations of the year 1855, efforts were made to supply a much larger proportion, from the money of stockholders all important deficiencies, and the statement is presumed to be actually paid in, the relatively new device of relying largely, approximately correct. The aggregates are as follows: Railway if not principally, for pecuniary assistance upon money derived mileage completed, 19,936}; miles unfinished, 16,069; amount from the sale of bonds, or from the still more precarious prac- of capital stock paid in, $433,286,946; amount of bonds issued, tice of creating floating debts. The radical difference between $303,187,973; amount of floating debt, $40,126,958; estimated cost these systems is closely akin to, if not substantially identical when completed, $1,090,381,114; receipts, $91,182,693; working with, the difference between doing an extensive business that expenses, $48,712,381; net profits, $41,929,404; number of pas- is subjected to serious vicissitudes with owned capital on the sengers carried (way and through), 30,826,450; number of pas- one hand, and borrowed capital on the other. Nearly all rail- sengers carried one mile, 1,113,871,498; tons of freight carried way companies stand in need of large new advances of money, (way and through), 121,990,998; number of tons carried one and the soundness of the various methods adopted, or nature mile, 3,401,526,452. The extent to which the railway capital of the securities issued to obtain it, may vary greatly with the invested was held abroad was estimated at $9,000,000 out of peculiar circumstances of each case or class of cases. Thus $433,286,946 of railway stocks, and $73,871,000 out of $303,137,973 with a land-grant road, known to possess much valuable real of railway bonds, or about 2.08 per cent. of the stocks and about estate which can gradually be sold, it is by no means as neces- 24.34 per cent. of the bonds. sary as in many other cases that the means derived from the The Secretary of the Treasury, in referring to this subject, sale of capital stock should approximately equal or exceed the said that "the condition of the European money market dur- sums procured by loans or the sale of bonds. There may be ing the recent war between Great Britain, France, and Russia, sundry other exceptions. But the general rule that doing and since, has not been such as to afford a market for addi- business on borrowed capital involves risks of serious em- tional American stocks, whilst many of them have been re- barrassments during panic eras, and either frequently or con- turned to America and cashed." tinuously subjects stockholders to the penalty of dispensing with dividends, found many illustrations during the period UNFINISHED CONSTRUCTION. under discussion, as at all subsequent stages of American rail- Details of the tables and of the returns made by the respect- way development. ive companies embrace sundry facts bearing on the main topic THE DIVIDEND PAYERS OF 1855. of the causes of the panics. Indications of the correctness of these observations are fur- One of the most important is, that although the railway sys- nished by the list of roads that declared dividends in 1855 and tem had then attained the considerable magnitude of 19,936 the characteristics of their capital account in that year. miles, the work unfinished and in process of construction 80 Generally speaking, all the earlier New England roads that closely approached the finished ,lines that the aggregate was had been built mainly with the capital procured from the 16,069 miles. This relation necessarily implied the existence stockholders paid dividends of from 41 to 8 per cent., and of a large amount of railway work that was temporarily unpro- usually from 6 to 7 per cent., and the railway capital of all the Digitized by Google 150 RAILROAD STATISTICS OF 1855. New England states was represented by $94,474,291 of capital Company, 10. The Camden and Amboy failed to answer in- stock paid in, $46,522,689 of bonds issued, and $8,798,024 of terrogatories and the amount of its debt was not stated, but all floating debt. The favorable character of this exhibit was the other dividend-payers named reported a larger amount of largely due to the specially large proportion of stock capital on stock capital than of bond capital, except the Central of New the Massachusetts railways, amounting to $48,861,450, against Jersey, which then had $2,000,000 of capital stock paid in, $16,403,860 of bonds issued, and $3,976,425 of floating debt, but $3,000,000 bonds issued, and $135,795.35 of floating debt. The in each of the New England states capital stock represented a aggregate of New Jersey railway capital reported was $11,399,456 larger sum than bonds issued. In Maine, in which state bonds of capital stock paid in, $5,309,400 of bonds issued, and $1,302,610 and floating debt combined slightly exceeded the stock capital, of floating debt. and in Vermont, in which the two classes of debts fell but little The aggregate statement of Pennsylvania was also of a con- short of the amount of capital stock, the dividend-paying mile- servative character, being $62,693,265 of capital stock paid in, age was comparatively small, and in proportion to the territory $32,443,475 of bonds issued, and $4,486,591 of floating debt, and covered the ground-work was laid for a tolerably extensive crop most of the old lines paid fair dividends. The list was as fol- of non-dividend-paying railway stock. lows: Beaver Meadow, 10 per cent.; Columbia and Philadelphia New England did not wholly escape the disasters of the (then a state railroad) earned 84 per cent. on its reported cost period. One was reflected in the statement of the Eastern, to the commonwealth; Cumberland Valley, 8; Harrisburg, of Massachusetts, which had $2,853,400 of capital stock and Portsmouth, Mount Joy and Lancaster, 11; Little Schuylkill $2,759,386.33 of debt. It reported "no dividend since 1854, for- Navigation, Railroad and Coal Company, 8; Mine Hill and merly 8 per cent." This decline in profitableness was proba- Schuylkill Haven, 12; Pennsylvania, 8; Philadelphia, German- bly due largely to some of the early exemplifications of the town and Norristown, 12; Philadelphia and Reading, 8 per cent. usual effects of railway parallelism. Another disaster was the cash and 4 per cent. stock; Philadelphia, Wilmington and Bal- statement of the New York and New Haven Railroad Com- timore, 4; West Chester, 4. The capital account of the two lead- pany that it had declared no dividends, "owing to the Schuyler ing companies was as follows: Pennsylvania, stock, $12,480,000; over-issue of stock, now in suit." This was probably the fraud bonds, $7,050,000; floating debt, $500,000. Philadelphia and referred to by Mr. J. Edgar Thomson as one of the leading Reading, stock, $10,830,360; bonds, $7,438,800; floating debt, causes of the panic of 1854. Its perpetrator was a prominent $1,758,246.90 (but a note stated that an equal amount was due New York railway official and speculator. In abusing his the company). trust by the fraudulent issue of the stock of the company for SOUTHERN AND WESTERN STATES. his personal advantage, he inflicted one of the first great shocks The older Southern states made similar exhibits in regard to on public confidence in railway management. It is a notice- the relation between share and bond capital, the figures being able fact that although similar frauds have since occasionally as follows:- occurred in connection with the issue of the stock of street rail- Amount of capital Amount of bonds Amount of stock issued. issued. floating debt. ways or other small corporations, they have very rarely since Maryland $13,515,902 $9,828,239 been perpetrated by officers of important steam railway lines. Virginia 18,810,831 7,071,590 1,452,626 North Carolina 8,392,426 2,009,222 2,897,761 RAILWAYS OF THE MIDDLE STATES. South Carolina 10,066,423 5,156,140 976,320 In the state of New York railway capital was represented by Georgia 19,562,386 1,634,467 20,000 $66,775,053 of stock, $72,606,430 of bonds, and $4,994,058 of float- Of the Maryland railways the capital reported is almost ex- ing debt. A sum larger than the entire excess of the debt over clusively that of the Baltimore and Ohio, which declared a the stock, in the state, was represented by the excess of that dividend of 6 per cent. on its main stem, and 9 per cent. on its kind in the capital account of the New York and Erie, which Washington branch. Its capital stock represented $13,118,902; then reported $10,023,958.84 of capital stock paid in, and bonds, $9,754,939.78, and it had no floating debt. $26,102,768.64 of bonds and floating debt. It followed, almost Several of the Virginia roads declared dividends varying from 3 as a matter of course, in such an extensive enterprise, that it to per cent., and a number of them reported that they were ap- paid no dividends during a period of depression, and it has plying surplus earnings either to the extension of their lines or paid very few at any period, while the New York Central, a reduction of debts. Of the North Carolina roads the Raleigh which reported $24,154,860.69 of capital stock paid in, and and Gaston declared a dividend of 6 per cent., and the Wil- $14,462,742.32 of bonds, with no floating debt, declared a divi- mington and Weldon 7 per cent. The South Carolina Railroad dend of 8 per cent., and has always been a dividend-payer. A Company, which owned the leading railway of the state it tra- number of other dividends, ranging from 5 to 8} per cent. were versed, declared a dividend of 81 per cent. Nearly all the declared, but in every instance by railways that had derived railways of the south-western states were such comparatively more of their capital from stockholders than from creditors, new enterprises that they furnish little instructive data bearing while the lines which, like the Erie, had adopted the other on dividends and the relation between bond and share capital. financial expedient, failed to pay dividends. Unfortunately in It will be seen that the capital of the Georgia railways was New York, as in some other of the states, some roads which represented by stock to an extraordinary extent, her showing had been built chiefly with money obtained from stockholders in this respect being much better than that of any other state. failed to promptly become dividend-payers, and there were This policy was accompanied with the unusual result of every certainly some roads of such a class that declared no dividends completed railway in the state paying dividends of from 7 to in 1855. There is no royal road to railway success, and we do 10 per cent. except two, one of which was the state road lead- not wish to be understood as asserting that it can be universally ing from Atlanta to Chattanooga, which earned a surplus of secured by reliance upon contributions from stockholders for near 9 per cent. on its cost, that was paid into the state treasury, capital, or that none of the roads which obtained much more and another was the Augusta and Savannah, a road which had capital from bondholders than from stockholders were success- only been completed the previous year. ful or unable to pay dividends on capital stock. Either assertion The great theatre of new construction that had recently been would be absurd, in view of actual developments. But what we completed, or was progressing, was in western and north-west- do mean to say, and what the statistics of 1855, and of all sub- ern states, and it was in this region more than in any other that sequent periods goes far to prove, is that the chances for making the practice of establishing a precarious relation between the companies reliable dividend-payers are immensely increased by various classes of capital was being adopted. On the surface the acquisition of a large proportion of bona fide stock capital, the figures seemed to be sufficiently endowed with an excess of in contradistinction to the creation of burdensome indebted- bonded indebtedness, especially in the states of Missouri, Ohio, ness. In the one case the excess of current receipts over ex- and Illinois, in each of which the acknowledged debts con- penditures naturally and properly goes to stockholders, and in siderably exceeded the reported amount of capital stock paid the other a large share of it must go to creditors. in, and there are reasons for the supposition that the bona fide In New Jersey the leading dividend-payers of 1855 were as payments of stockholders represented a much smaller amount follows: Camden and Amboy, 12 per cent.; Central, 7; Morris of the reported receipts from such sources than had originally and Essex, 7; and New Jersey Railroad and Transportation been common in the financiering of the early lines of the old Digitized by Google RAILROAD STATISTICS OF 1855. 151 states. Amount of capital stock paid in" was beginning to had $974,800 of capital stock, $675,400 of bonded debt, and no mean something which differed materially, in some instances, floating debt. from actual payments of cash by stockholders, such as subscrip- The reporting railways of Illinois were phenomenally suc- tions or bonds of towns, cities, or counties, which subsequently cessful as dividend-payers, notwithstanding an excess of bonded endeavored to evade their promised payments during years of debt on some of the profitable lines, but this was due either to protracted litigation, and considerable advances of stock to con- peculiarly fortunate localities or to revenue derived from land tractors as a partial remuneration of their labors, or to bankers grants. The list included the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, or purchasers of bonds as an inducement to purchase or ad- which reported an average dividend of 16 per cent.; Chicago vance money on bonds. and Milwaukee, 10 per cent.; Chicago and Rock Island, 10 per Some of the new departures were apparently justified by the cent.; Illinois Central, 5 per cent.; Galena and Chicago, 22 per substantial aid expected from land grants. A partial excuse for cent. all of them was furnished by the extraordinary rapidity with In Michigan the Michigan Central reported a dividend of 10 which the west was advancing in productiveness, wealth, and per cent. Its capital stock was $6,033,432, and bonded and population, and the remarkable success of a few of the early floating debt, $6,506,823. western lines; and much of this western construction derived These statistics help to show the fallacy of the assertion fre- peculiar coloring from the essential difference between all the quently made that bond capital exclusively built American circumstances attending the origination and progress of a great railways in nearly all cases; to indicate the importance of a line managed chiefly by prominent citizens of the communities relatively large share capital and the extent to which it usually in which it was located, with means furnished principally by affects the dividend-paying power of stocks; and the woful in- them, as stockholders, and the concomitants of a line built fluence of a relatively large bonded and floating indebtedness mainly by comparative strangers, with means provided by dis- in generating railway panics. While watered stock, represent- tant investors. ing no real capital, has sometimes gained earning value, of the The statements of all the lines of Missouri, Ohio, Indiana, bulk of it this assertion might be made: Water it was, water it Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa for 1855 present the is, and water it always will be. following aggregates: Miles completed, 5,122}; miles unfinished, RAILROAD STATISTICS OF 1860. 7,1024; amount of capital stock paid in, $95,850,146; amount of bonds issued, $110,270,317; amount of floating debt, $10,377,872; The increase of the mileage and cost of construction of steam estimated cost, completed, $375,099,029; receipts, $19,320,744; railways from 1850 to 1860 in each state was reported in the net profits, $9,512,221. preliminary report of the eighth census to be as follows:- Evidently the great west and north-west, or rather the men who represented their railway interests, were disposed to make States. Mileage Cost of construction, &c.- 1850. 1860. 1850. 1860. heavy drafts on the future. In a large number of cases these Maine 245.59 472.17 $6,999,894 $16,576,385 drafts were duly or finally honored, but the instances are by no New Hampshire 465.32 656.59 14,774,133 23,268,659 means rare in which the construction completed, progressing, Vermont 279.57 556.75 10,800,901 23,336,215 or projected in 1855 became a fruitful source of financial diffi- Massachusetts 1,035.74 1,272.96 47,886,905 58,882,328 Rhode Island culties. 68.00 107.92 2,802,594 4,318,827 Connecticut 413.26 603.00 13,989,774 21,984,100 Ohio led off with 2,233 miles completed, and 1,992 miles un- New York 1,403.10 2,701.84 65,456,123 131,320,542 finished. Her dividend-payers consisted of the following com- New Jersey 205.93 559.90 9,348,495 28,997,033 panies: Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati, 15 per cent.; its Pennsylvania 822.34 2,542.49 44,683,054 143,471,710 capital was represented by $4,547,020 of stock, and only $112,018 Delaware 39.19 136.69 2,281,690 4,351,789 of debt. Cleveland, Painesville and Ashtabula, 10 per cent., Maryland 253.40 350.30 11,580,808 21,387,157 and 10 per cent. stock; its capital stock was $2,207,200, and Virginia 515.15 1,771.16 12,585,312 64,958,807 bonded debt, $1,367,000. Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton, 5 North Carolina 248.50 889.42 3,281,623 16,709,793 per cent.; its capital stock was $2,153,900, and bonded and float- South Carolina 289.00 987.97 7,525,931 22,385,287 ing debt, $1,433,656.55. Columbus and Xenia, 10 per cent.; its Georgia 643.72 1,404.22 13,272,540 29,057,742 Florida 21.00 401.50 210,000 8,628,000 capital stock was $1,484,550, and aggregate debt, $146,249.99. Alabama 132.50 743.16 1,946,209 17,591,188 Little Miami and Xenia, 10 per cent.; its capital stock was Mississippi 75.00 872.30 2,020,000 24,100,009 $2,981,327.19, and aggregate amount of debt, $1,094,706.01. Mad Louisiana 79.50 334.75 1,320,000 12,020,204 River and Lake Erie, 7 per cent.; its capital stock was $2,697,090, Texas 306.00 11,232,345 and aggregate debt, $2,675,473.60. The relations between stock Arkansas 88.50 1,155,000 and debt reported by these dividend-payers present a striking Tennessee 1,197.92 29,537,722 contrast with the statement of the new lines, on which con- Kentucky 78.21 569.93 1,830,541 19,068,477 Ohio 575.27 struction was then progressing, that led from Ohio to and 2,299.45 10,684,400 111,896,351 Indiana 228.00 2,125.90 3,380,533 70,295,148 through the adjacent states west of Ohio, viz.: The Eastern Michigan 342.00 799.30 8,945,749 31,012,399 division of the Ohio and Mississippi, with $5,000,000 of capital Illinois 110.50 2,867.90 1,440,507 104,944,561 stock paid in, and $10,000,000 of bonds issued, and the Toledo, Wisconsin 20.00 922.61 612,382 33,555,606 Wabash and Western, with $2,500,000 capital stock paid in, Iowa 679.77 19,494,633 and $7,000,000 of bonds issued. Missouri 817.45 42,342,813 The dividend-payers of Indiana were the Indiana Central, 6 California 70.05 3,600,000 per cent.. which had a stock capital of $612,350, and a debt of Oregon 3.80 80,000 $1,251,000; the Terre Haute and Richmond, 10 per cent., which Total 8,589.79 30,793.67 $296,660,148 $1,151,560,829 Digitized by Google 152 COMPETITION FOR THROUGH TRAFFIC. COMPETITION FOR THROUGH TRAFFIC. O NE of the inevitable results of the extensive railway con- avenues for bulky freight movements between each seaboard struction designed to facilitate intercourse between the and gulf state, and they have continued to promote such ends Atlantic and Gulf states and the Western and interior South- to a great extent. But after emigration into the interior had ern states was to create a broad ground-work for an excessively created important markets for merchandise, and after they intricate and complicated system of competition for through yielded considerable quantities of surplus products which their traffic. farmers desired to sell or send to distant customers, each am- ADVANTAGEOUS POSITION OF WESTERN SHIPPERS. bitious seaboard city endeavored to follow up the march of the There is scarcely a pivotal point in the interior of the Missis- emigrants who had removed from the districts its merchants sippi valley at which the shipper who has a considerable quan- had been trading with for generations. New England and New tity of produce to forward, or a merchant who desires to re- York, represented chiefly by Boston and the city of New York, ceive a large consignment of goods from the seaboard, cannot sought intercourse with the west via the lake route, and such have the choice of a large number of rival routes. Before the ramifications of it as railways and canals furnished. Philadel- railway era there were but two great routes and their ramifica- phia endeavored to follow in the wake of the army of emigrants tions-one via the Mississippi and its tributaries, and the other that had gone chiefly into the states lying directly west of via the lakes and their eastern outlets. Both these water chan- Pennsylvania, first by the turnpikes to Pittsburgh; second by nels have been materially improved by various descriptions of the state main line of public improvements; third by the Penn- river and harbor improvements, the construction of the Well- sylvania Railroad, and subsequently by the Philadelphia and and Canal,-through which a vessel of several hundred tons Erie Railroad leading to the lake port at Erie. Baltimore burthen, loaded with wheat, was sent from Chicago to Liver- aimed at the accomplishment of similar objects through the pool, before the close of the sixth decade,-the enlargement of Baltimore and Ohio. Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, and the Erie Canal, and the removal of some of the most serious Alabama made analogous struggles, with varied success, to obstructions on the Ohio and Mississippi and other rivers. But reach the states lying directly west or north-west of their in addition to a choice between these water routes, the new frontiers, which had largely been peopled with their native rail lines, with the improvements since perfected, furnish citizens. While the star of empire was wending its way west- opportunities for a selection between such a multiplicity of all- ward the general course of roads and improvements was natu- rail routes, and combinations of rail and water routes, that rally taking a similar direction, and the power of old associa- only trained experts could at short notice name all the possible tions and trade relations which had been in gradual process of avenues. After they had apparently exhausted the list it is by formation during a long period helped to retain trade in some- no means improbable that an advertisement soliciting proposi- thing like its original channels. There were, of course, nume- tions for the movement of a large amount of freight would rous obstructive or antagonistic influences, some of which ex- elicit bids based on some routes that had been overlooked or ercised a controlling influence, and the extent to which com- forgotten. The maxim that all roads lead to Rome might be mercial vitality and enterprise existed in various seaboard paraphrased by saying that nearly all American roads lead to cities and was lacking in others had much to do with final the Mississippi valley, or out of it, and that there are as many results. But 80 far as regards the formation of routes and ways of getting in as there are cities or sections that earnestly transportation systems the general purpose of enabling each desired to make such an entrance, and as many ways of getting old state to follow up its emigrants by convenient connect- out as the interests and ingenuity of numerous rival western ing links of internal communication had a very important cities could devise. influence in giving to a number of the existing through rail From almost any point it may become a serious question routes their present locations, and also in stimulating the com- whether a northern, southern, central, intermediate, all-rail, petitive contests of rival through lines. rail-and-lake, or rail-and-river route shall be chosen; whether a "RUINOUS COMPETITION." movement shall be made wholly on American soil, or partly through Canada; whether the first seaport reached shall be It was reserved for the northern trunk lines, however, includ- New Orleans, Mobile, Brunswick, Savannah, Charleston, New- ing the New York Central, Erie, Pennsylvania, and Baltimore port News, Norfolk, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, Bos- and Ohio to take leading positions in matters connected with ton, or Portland, and whether, in view of the extraordinary through traffic, and an indication of the rapidity with which inducements sometimes presented, the most direct or the most damaging rivalries sprang up is furnished by the fact that the indirect route is the cheapest. Such conflicts or competitions annual report of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company for 1854, of routes and rival carriers are virtually a part of the system dated January 31st, 1855, and signed by J. Edgar Thomson, which planned railways with a view of extending lines from president, says:- every important seaboard and gulf state into the interior, and "With a view of agreeing upon general principles which then created alliances between such trunk lines and roads ex- should govern railroad companies in competing for the same tending in all directions to as many points as possible. trade, and preventing ruinous competition, a free interchange of Before 1860 the full force of these competitive influences was opinions took place during the past year between the officers not realized, inasmuch as a number of lengthy southern roads of the four leading east and west lines, and also with those of leading into the Mississippi valley were then scarcely prepared their western connections. The influence of these conferences, for vigorous action, but they were constructed for the purpose it is believed, will be felt in reducing expenses, correcting of securing to the respective states and cities they were in- abuses, and adding to the net revenue of the several com- tended to serve a liberal share of interior traffic, and they have, panies, while the public will be served with equal efficiency at various periods, been engaged in through movements. and greater safety. Instead of an army of drummers and runners, spread over the country, and paid by each company, an agent EFFORTS OF MERCHANTS TO FOLLOW EMIGRATING CUSTOMERS. is now maintained, at the joint expense of the four lines, Nearly all American transportation systems that have assumed at all important points in the west, to distribute bills and give considerable magnitude, leading from the Atlantic to the inte- unbiased information to the traveler. The propriety of con- rior states, have been materially influenced by considerations tinuing even this modified system is doubted, as the same analogous to those which, during the colonial era, naturally led amount expended in advertising more extensively through the England, France, and Spain to establish and encourage trade western press will, it is believed, prove more advantageous to with their respective American colonies. The Atlantic ocean the companies and satisfactory to the public." and gulf of Mexico furnished for many years the principal There are few more important chapters in railway history Digitized by Google shaft No.1 shaft no.3. Shaft shaft 6 and ridders Depth of Each Shaft: No. 1, 116L ft. No. 2,120[sft, No. 3, 139'. ft. No. 4, 138'. ft. No. 5,100! ft. No. 6, 82'o ft. 1.9. feet End View of Tunnel. CK ROCK TUNNEL, ON PHILADELPHIA AND READING RAILROAD. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google COMPETITION FOR THROUGH TRAFFIC. 153 than those relating to the numerous conferences of a similar wife. No one would be surprised to find that he is a colonel in character which have since occurred, and the extent to which the militia, for 'good whips' in the old coaching time are such agreements have repeatedly failed to accomplish their known to have boasted that distinction. At all events, the avowed objects. conductor would need to be a person of some integrity, for the There are reasons for supposing that while "ruinous com- check upon his transactions is infinitesimally small. One thing petition" between trunk lines speedily reached the proportions is remarkable about him-you do not get a sight of him till referred to in the extract reprinted above, a large part of this the train is in motion, and when it stops he disappears. I can competition related to classes of business differing from those account for this mysterious feature in his character, only by which subsequently furnished the most damaging elements of supposing, that as soon as he touches terra firma, he removes corporate strife. At all events it certainly did not relate to from the front of his hat the word blazoned in metal, which through east-bound movements of breadstuffs and provisions indicates his office, and so all at once becomes an ordinary to anything like the extent subsequently attained, and referred human being. The suddenness of his appearance, when the more particularly than in late years to train gets under way, is very marvelous. Hardly have the THROUGH PASSENGER TRAFFIC. wheels made a revolution, when the door at one end of the car is opened, and the conductor, like a wandering spirit, begins his All the trunk lines were earnestly endeavoring to establish rounds. Walking down the middle, with a view of seats on popular routes of travel over which western merchants would each side, and each seat holding two persons, he holds out his pass on their way to and from seaboard cities, all were en- hand right and left as he proceeds, allowing no one to escape deavoring to assist the merchants of the cities they respectively his vigilance. All he says is 'tickets,' and he utters the word represented to retain and increase their western trade, and they in a dry, callous tone, as if it would cost something to be were also endeavoring to establish good records in connection cheerful. If you have already bought a ticket, you render it with the cheap transportation of some particular articles, and up to this abrupt demand, and a check ticket is given in ex- especially flour, provisions, and live stock. But the most active change. Should you have followed the ordinary practice, and strife was then presumably for passengers, and although this have no ticket to produce, the conductor selects the ticket you strife has been continued, in various phases, ever since, it has require from a small tin box he carries under his arm, and you generally been of less real relative importance during recent pay him the cost of it, increased in price to the extent of five years than it was previous to 1860. The Pennsylvania made cents, as a penalty for having had to buy it in the cars-such particularly active exertions to attract travel, and its success fine being imposed in accordance with a printed notification was increased by its acquisition of convenient connections on the walls of the station houses." leading from Harrisburg to Baltimore, via the Northern Cen- Much has been done, since this description was written, to tral, and from Harrisburg to New York via the Allentown increase the checks upon the operations of conductors; on route, and Central of New Jersey-so that it presented induce- some lines the necessity of such changes was clearly indicated; ments to travelers whose destination or point of departure was and modern English tourists would be less likely to find in the New York or Baltimore, as well as those who desired to visit or older states a conductor acting as a colonel of a militia or vol- depart from Philadelphia. unteer regiment, and lounging about an expensive hotel with The Baltimore and Ohio laid much stress then, as at later a fashionable wife. periods, upon its advantages as a route that gave passengers an opportunity to visit Washington city. A bitter contest sprung THE BASIS OF WESTERN TRAFFIC. up between the Erie and the New York Central for the passen- For some years before the trunk lines had been extended to ger traffic between New York city and Lake Erie, which led to points west of the Alleghenies, and especially during the turn- exceptionally hostile demonstrations in a few years after the pike and canal eras, it had been feasible to send west from the date of the conference referred to by Mr. Thomson. north Atlantic seaboard numerous descriptions of merchandise This strife, which was exceptionally acrimonious, and led to to districts which sought an outlet for their surplus agricultural a fearful cutting of rates, was followed by another treaty or products over other routes, including those furnished by the agreement in 1858, signed by the presidents of each of the four Mississippi and the Welland Canal, and an analogous condition American trunk lines, with the understanding that S. M. L. of affairs helped to restrict, in a similar manner, the range of Barlow, then president of the Ohio and Mississippi, should act trunk-line labors during their early operations. An east-bound as umpire in case of a renewal of strife; and a number of rules traffic in western manufactured articles, such as agricultural were clearly laid down relating not only to passenger traffic, implements, glassware, &c., sprang up at a comparatively early but to the rates to be maintained on various classes of freight period. Generally speaking, the original idea that railways traffic, and especially the east-bound movement of live stock, should not seriously attempt to carry exceptionally cheap and and the west-bound movement of merchandise forwarded from bulky articles, which could not afford to pay remnnerative Boston. rates, continued to prevail to a much greater extent than in THE CONDUCTOR OF THE SIXTH DECADE. later years. For the reasons given above, the early wars and competitive The limited extent of the freight business of the trunk lines, struggles of rival trunk lines were more likely to become in- previous to 1860, can scarcely be realized by those who do not tensely active in connection with passenger traffic than in con- unite familiarity with their modern statistics to a knowledge of nection with the western movement of merchandise, or eastern their transactions before that time. movement of live stock and grain, and this or other causes The following particulars relating to the tonnage of the Penn- may have increased the necessity for selecting as conductors sylvania and New York Central in 1859 help to explain the specially popular or influential persons. At all events, the limited amount of freight moved over their lines at that time:- conductor, as the representative of the railroad company who On the Pennsylvania Railroad 129,767 tons were carried from was brought into closer direct contact with the public than Pittsburgh to Philadelphia and Baltimore; 223,397 tons from any other railway official, was formerly a more important per- way stations to Philadelphia, making a total east-bound move- sonage than he is apt to be at present on old lines. ment, way and through, of 353,164 tons. The largest amount William Chambers, one of the most intelligent and unpre- of tonnage furnished by any single article was derived from judiced of modern English tourists, who visited this country coal forwarded from points east of Pittsburgh to Philadelphia. and subsequently printed his impressions of it, in a work re- It consisted of 218,853,843 pounds, or 109,427 tons. The only cording his views of American railways, founded on a tour in other articles furnishing more than 10,000 tons of traffic were 1853, gives the following description of the conductor of that the following: Flour, through from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia era:- and Baltimore, 64,642,265 pounds, and from way stations to "An American conductor is a nondescript being, half clerk, Philadelphia, 39,396,464 pounds; grain, all kinds, not specified, half guard, with a dash of the gentleman. He is generally well 14,550,235 pounds from Pittsburgh dolnhia and Balti- dressed; sometimes wears a beard; and when off duty he passes more, and 47,441,734 pounds fror iladelphia; for a respectable personage at any of the hotels, and may be live stock, through from Pittsb' Balti- seen lounging about in the best company with a fashionable more, 65,103,756 pounds, and 1. 20 Digitized by Google 154 INCREASE OF NATIONAL WEALTH. phia, 33,731,504 pounds; salt meats, through from Pittsburgh, merchandise, 13,692; all other classes, 518,708. The "other 31,199,251 pounds, and from way stations to Philadelphia, classes" consisted chiefly of animal and vegetable food, and 195,240 pounds; lumber and timber, 57,891,445 tons, forwarded the latter slightly exceeded the former in furnishing way traffic, from way stations to Philadelphia. while the through tonnage eastward consisted of 112,210 tons The articles carried westward on the Pennsylvania Railroad, of the products of animals, against 101,288 tons of vegetable in 1859, consisted of 103,839 tons forwarded through from food. The west-bound tonnage of the New York Central, in Philadelphia and Baltimore, and 86,866 carried to way stations 1859, consisted of 113,838 tons through and 149,554 tons way, from Philadelphia. The only articles furnishing more than a total of 263,392 tons, classified as follows: Manufactures, 10,000 tons of traffic, consisted of 57,297,296 pounds of dry goods 18,509; merchandise, 165,090; all other classes, 79,793 tons. forwarded through to Pittsburgh and 8,440,136 pounds for- The statistics of the other trunk lines are all of an analogous warded to way stations from Philadelphia; and 19,286,909 character so far as they bear on the matter of the relatively pounds of groceries (except coffee) sent through to Pittsburgh, limited amount of freight of all classes then carried by those and 29,806,037 pounds sent to way stations from Philadelphia. lines, and, indeed, on all the other American railways of The above statistics relating to the Pennsylvania Railroad, that period, except the coal roads. A very considerable omit local freight taken up at various points along the line to through movement of western agricultural products was be sent to Pittsburgh and places further west and they make no nevertheless then progressing, but a larger proportion of it was mention of freight forwarded east from Pittsburgh to way sta- forwarded over water routes to the seaboard than in later tions,-so that they do not fully report all freight movements years, and the change which subsequently occurred in this on the Pennsylvania Railroad. But after sufficient allowance particular direction forms one of the most remarkable and im- is made for these exceptions the relatively limited extent of the portant features of American railroad development. It was freight traffic before 1860 is illustrated. hastened and intensified by the marvelous increase in the The through tonnage eastward of the New York Central, in population, productiveness, and commercial transactions, as 1859, was 244,441 tons; eastward way tonnage 336,686; total way importers and exporters, of the western and north-western and through 570,927, classified as follows: Manufactures, 38,527; states. INCREASE OF NATIONAL WEALTH. IN addition to the important effects of the extensive railroad By giving the farmer the benefit of the best markets and the construction during the sixth decade, which have already highest prices, railroads have increased the agricultural pro- been discussed, viz., railway panics and railway competition, ductions of the interior states beyond anything heretofore there was another of much greater consequence-an immense known in the world. We have already shown that this in- increase in national wealth and productiveness. On this sub- creased production, or rather its surplus, could not have been ject statisticians of the seventh decade who carefully studied carried to market without the aid of railroads, more than two- the returns of the census of 1860, and other contemporaneous thirds of the whole being carried off by that means. Let us writers, speak in the most positive terms. Various forms of now reverse this operation, and we find, on the other hand, western agriculture were practically revolutionized. It became that railroads have stimulated and increased production. possible to cultivate with profit a large amount of land that The North-western states are those in which the influence of could not previously be advantageously utilized. railroads on agriculture is most obvious. In the five states of From 1850 to 1860 the national wealth, according to the Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin there were census estimates, was more than doubled, the rapidity of in- comparatively few miles of railroad prior to 1850, but from crease being never equaled in this or any other coun- 1850 to 1860 the construction of roads was most rapid. In try of corresponding wealth or magnitude. The aggregate 1850 there were only 1,275 miles of railroad in those states, but estimates of the marshals, who were directed to ascertain as in 1860 there were 9,616 miles. Let us now examine the pro- correctly as possible the true value of real estate and per- ducts of those states in 1850 and 1860, and see how the pro- sonal property, were as follows: 1850, $7,135,780,228; 1860, gress of railroads has sustained and stimulated agricultural $16,159,616,068; increase, $8,925,481,011, or 126.45 per cent. The production. The following table shows the increase of the most remarkable gains occurred on the Pacific coast, and the principal vegetable and animal production in the five states of Western, North-western, and South-western states. Various Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin in the ten causes helped to create this wonderful increase of wealth, and years from 1850 to 1860:- in some localities it was only due in a slight degree, or not at In 1850 (bushels). In 1860 (bushels). Inc. p.c. all, to railway construction. But in many other sections the Wheat 39,348,495 79,798,163 100 Corn new railways were leading causes of the great advance. 177,320,441 280,268,862 58 Oats 32,660,251 51,043,334 50 INCREASE OF AGRICULTURAL WEALTH CAUSED BY RAILROADS. Potatoes 13,417,896 27,181,692 100 The census report on agriculture in 1860, in discussing this Cattle (number) 3,438,000 5,371,000 59 subject, says:- This increase is decidedly beyond that of population, show- We now proceed to show the positive advantages which all ing that the products of agriculture are in those states profit- departments of agriculture have derived from the construction able. The aggregate of grain products in those states, includ- of railroads. So great are their benefits that if the entire cost of ing wheat, rye, corn, oats, barley, and buckwheat, was, in 1850, railroads between the Atlantic and Western states had been levied on 255,240,444 bushels, and in 1860, 422,369,719 bushels. the farms of the central west, their proprietors could have paid it What part railroads have had in carrying this product to and been immensely the gainers. This proposition will become market we shall see by ascertaining the surplus, and the man- evident if we look at the modes by which railroads have been ner in which it was transported. A report to the legislature of beneficial, especially in the grain-growing states. These modes Ohio, estimates (in the actual carriage of railroads and canals) are, first, in doing what could not have been effected without that three-fifths of the value of agricultural products of Ohio them; second, in securing to the producer very nearly the prices are exported, excepting, of course, pasturage, fruits, garden of the Atlantic markets, which is greatly in advance of what products, &c. In 1859-60 twelve millions of bushels of wheat could have been had on his farm; and third, by thus enabling were exported from that state, and an equal proportion of the producer to dispose of his products at the best prices at all corn, reduced into other forms, such as fat cattle, hogs, pork, times, and to increase rapidly both the settlement and the lard, whisky, cheese, &c. Three-fifths of the aggregate grain annual production of the interior states. production of these states (1860) will give two hundred and Digitized by Google INCREASE OF NATIONAL WEALTH. 155 fifty millions of bushels of grain. This is vastly greater than 1850. 1860. the whole tonnage of the canals and railroads, and would, Ohio $358,758,602 $666,564,171 Illinois therefore, seem incorrect. This, however, is not 80. The heaviest 96,133,290 432,531,072 Indians 136,385,178 344,902,776 article (corn) is reduced to a fourth, perhaps less weight by Michigan 51,872,446 163,279,087 being changed into whisky, pork, and cattle. The same is true Wisconsin 28,528,563 131,117,082 of oats, and thus ten millions of tons represented by the canals and railroads may cover all the surplus which finds the ex- Aggregate $671,678,075 $1,738,394,188 treme eastern markets. A large quantity of the surplus products Increase in ten years $1,066,716,113 of these states is consumed in way markets. We see now, that It is not too much to say that one-half this increase has been since railroads carry two-thirds of this immense export, they caused by railroads, for we experience already the impossibility represent nearly or quite the same proportion of the capacity of conveying off the surplus products of the interior with our of those states to raise any surplus, and, therefore, two-thirds of railroads. Putting the increase of value due to railroads at a the profit made upon it. If we now consider the question of little more than one-third, we have four hundred millions of the profits of agriculture the case becomes still stronger. The dollars added to the cash value of farms in these five states by actual cash value of the products carried to market from these the construction of railroads. If the effect on the cen- five states (that is, the surplus), is two hundred millions of dol- tral western states has been 80 great, it is still greater in the lars, and it is safe to say that one-half this sum is due to the new states which lie beyond the Mississippi. They are still influence of railroads. There are some interesting facts on further from market, and will be enriched in a greater ratio this subject, to some of which we will briefly allude. Take, by the facilities of transportation. Indeed, railroads are the for example, the price of both products and lands in the inte- only means by which the distant parts of this country could rior states, and compare them at different periods. Forty have been commercially united, and thus the railroad has be- years ago (1824-25) the surplus products of Ohio had already come a mighty means of WEALTH, UNITY, AND STABILITY." accumulated beyond the means of transportation. In conse- quence of this fact, wheat was sold in the interior counties for THE RAILROAD NOT ALWAYS A PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. 37 cents per bushel, and corn at 10 cents. After the New York Many other statements published soon after 1860, which were canal (Erie) was finished in 1825, and the Ohio canals several based on the census reports of that year, or other statistics, years later, these prices were raised more than fifty per cent.; referred to facts scarcely less significant than those reported but when two or three of the main railroad lines were finished above, illustrating the beneficial effect of railroads in increasing in 1852-53, the rise in prices and the amount carried forward the wealth of cities, or the value of coal lands, lumber districts, to the eastern markets were even more increased. To show, or cotton-producing regions, as well as western and north-west- in sóme measure, the effect of the improved means of trans- ern farms. It seemed as if the railroad, above all other things portation on the value of produce in the interior, we make the previously tried, had the power of creating wealth or turning following table of prices at Cincinnati at several periods:- everything it touched into gold. Subsequent developments In 1826. In 1885. In 1858. In 1860. have shown, however, that some of the theories advocated Flour, per barrel $3 00 $6 00 $5 50 $5 60 were delusive, and that some of the expectations encouraged Corn, per bushel 0 12 0 32 0 37 0 48 were not realized. There is a limit to the power of railroads Hogs, per cwt 2 00 3 12 4 00 6 20 in creating advantageous markets for surplus agricultural pro- Lard, per pound 0 05 0 08 0 081 0 11 ducts or anything else, and there is a limit to the list of profit- We find that in 1860 the price of flour was nearly double that able advantages any community or interest can derive from an of 1826; the price of corn nearly four times as much; the price increase of the number of the railroads by which it is served, of hogs three times as much, and the price of lard double. especially if they are parallel or competing lines and paid for From 1835 to 1860 (when the railroads were completed), under with home capital. the influence of railroad competition with canals, the price of While Ohio was greatly benefited in 1860 by the lines built corn advanced 50 per cent., and that of hogs 100 per cent. Per- to and through her territory, it is not improbable that some of haps no articles can be selected which furnish a more complete her agricultural interests were temporarily injured in several test of the value and profits of farming in the states of the respects, by the extension of these lines or their connections north-west than that of these staples, corn and hogs. to more distant western states, and analogous efforts may have But there is another respect in which the influence of rail- been produced in various other sections. roads is almost as favorable to agriculture as that of cheapen- It is also a fallacy to suppose that because one railway adds ing the transportation of produce. It is that of cheapening the greatly to the wealth of a particular city or district, equal gains transportation, and, therefore, reducing the prices of foreign will be derived from each addition to the number of its rail- articles and eastern manufactures consumed by the farmers of ways of a given class or capacity. However useful one railway the interior. Again, the influence of railroads on the may be, its unnecessary duplication is more apt to mean a value of farming lands is too great and striking not to have waste of capital than anything else, and if the burden of this been noticed by all intelligent persons. We have, however, waste or loss is thrown upon the community served, it may be some remarkable instances of the specific effect of certain rail- impoverished, rather than enriched, by the useless new con- roads. We have, for example. the immediate effect produced struction. It is easy to understand that a farmer who gradu- on the lands of Illinois by the Illinois Central Railroad. That ally extends the area of his arable land, by increasing the company received from the Government a large body of land number of horses that can be worked advantageously upon it at the time when the Government could not sell it at a dollar from one to four, may be materially benefited by each of these and a quarter ($1.25) per acre. Since then the company has additions; but if four horses can do for him all the useful work constructed its road and sold a large part of those lands at an that he is prepared to apply to his farm, he will be more likely average of $11 per acre, and the greater part of the lands is fully to grow poor than to increase his wealth, if he doubles his worth that. Notwithstanding the rapid growth of population, equine force, for he will then be burdened with the cost of the large part of this advance is due to railroads. The follow- maintaining four useless animals that add nothing to his reve- ing table shows the advance (by the census tables) of the cash nues, while they swell his expenses and annoyances. Some- value of farms in the five states mentioned in the ten years thing analogous occurs in connection with the unnecessary from 1850 to 1860:- duplication of railway facilities. Digitized by Google 156 CHANGES IN PERMANENT WAY. CHANGES IN PERMANENT WAY. ADVANCE FROM EDGE-RAILS TO T-RAILS ON THE COLUMBIA AND DISAPPOINTING RESULTS ON ACCOUNT OF DEFECTIVE FROGS AND PHILADELPHIA RAILBOAD. INFERIOR T-RAILS. O NE of the events of the sixth decade, which was presum- Notwithstanding the advantages anticipated from practical ably typical of similar occurrences elsewhere, was the reconstruction, which included the substitution of a heavier substitution of T-rails for edge-rails on the portions of the rail, of a better shape, and the liberal use of ties and ballast, Columbia and Philadelphia Railroad which had been originally the improvements did not fully meet anticipations. The great laid with the latter. As on this road it had been considered immediate gain was in the avoidance of rail-straightening re- necessary to substitute T-rails for the strap-rails used on por- quirements, and of the labor and anxiety arising from the tions of the line some years before, and after the latter had necessity of constantly tightening the wedges used in the chairs. been in use for only a comparatively short period, a notable But a new source of danger was developed in the unsatisfactory proof of the excellence of the iron used in the edge-rails was working of the new chairs used in connection with the T-rails. furnished by the fact that many of them were used continu- For a number of years after their adoption had ceased to ren- ously on this road for more than a score of years. There was der chairs useful for their leading original purpose of acting as evidently much to justify the very decided preference of the a sustaining base of the rail, chairs of various materials, shapes, civil engineers of the early lines for edge-rails over strap-rails, and patterns were deemed necessary as joints or connecting but the difficulty of keeping the edge-rails fastened in their links of rails, and a considerable period elapsed before a rea- chairs, and other troubles, arising from the use of stone blocks sonably satisfactory substitute was devised. Inventive efforts as a foundation, and absence of ties, except a very limited then generally took the shape of changing the material or form number, increased with the progress of years and the growth of chairs, in its efforts to provide rail-joints, instead of radical of traffic. In proportion to the amount of labor employed for changes which dispensed entirely with the use of chairs for this all maintenance-of-way purposes, the single task of keeping purpose. The first chairs used on the Columbia and Phila- tight the wedges on the side of the rails at the places where delphia Railroad, in connection with the T-rail, which suc- they were supported in chairs, was specially onerous and ex- ceeded the edge-rail, were made of cast iron, and for this or pensive. In spite of the greatest care, too, more or less uncer- other reasons were decidedly unsatisfactory. They were suc- tainty existed in regard to the real condition of the track, and ceeded by a wrought-iron chair, made at Phoenixville, which it was specially liable to become unsafe in the spring of the was considered at the time a great improvement. year, when the frost was coming out of the ground, and rails There was considerable difficulty with the new T-rails on would not unfrequently be raised out of the chairs by the this as on many other roads, arising from imperfections of pressure underneath. One of the effects of the opposing in- material, or workmanship, or other causes. In this particular fluences to which the rails were subjected was that they often instance it had been considered very desirable, on account of became seriously bent, and it was necessary that they should the demonstrated excellence of the iron used in the old edge be taken out of the chairs and straightened by appliances and rail, to require that it should be rerolled and used as a portion devices of a rude description. In addition to the difficulties of the material of the new T-rails provided. As the edge rails arising from this cause, the general system of drainage was de- were removed they were sent to the rolling mill to be used in fective, as on other early American lines. The provisions for this manner. It was subsequently supposed that the union of keeping the road-bed in order, except in matters of absolute this material with other iron was not as thoroughly effected as necessity, were of a scanty and primitive nature, and track- was desirable. For this or other reasons it became common, spreading was much more common than at present. after some of the new T-rails had been in service for a com- As a result of this state of things, great care was requisite in paratively short period, for considerable portions of their upper running trains over the road, derailments of trains were com- surface to scale off as if it had consisted of thin pieces of hoop mon, and the establishment of reliable fast schedules for pas- iron. It was necessary to renew a number of such rails; the senger trains was not even attempted. wearing quality of all of them fell below expectations; and it At periods of the sixth decade prior to the sale of the road to was a common occurrence for rails to break at times when the Pennsylvania Railroad Company in 1857, the state relaid sudden changes in temperature occurred, or when the frost with 64-pound T-rail the portions of the line on which T-rails was coming out of the ground. had not previously been placed. Many benefits were expected SWITCHES AND FROGS. from this change, especially as a large amount of ballasting was done, either with broken stone or with cinder, which, In connection with the substitution of T-rails for edge rails although far inferior to best modern methods, represented an the switches and frogs used on the road were changed. At important advance; and as a new road was substantially cre- various periods different patterns and materials had been em- ated on the basis of the old one, it being raised at many places ployed, the frogs being at one time made of cast iron and by the ballast and ties about or nearly two feet, although at tongue switches being used. At another period a pivot rail had other places, such as the approaches to bridges, the old grade been used as a substitute for a frog. It was about nine feet in was retained. A considerable number of the old stone blocks, length, and about four and a half feet from either end of the used as the foundation of the chairs by which the edge-rails rail a bolt went down from its base into a plate set on a tie and were supported, were removed, and used for various purposes, keyed fast there. A fulcrum was furnished, and a sideling but many others were left remaining or practically buried in movement at either end of the rail insured a corresponding their original positions. Wooden ties were used at the rate of movement at the other end. This was found to be an incon- twelve ties to a 25-foot rail, but they were generally much in- venient or troublesome device, and was succeeded by what was ferior in desirable qualities to the ties used on the same road known as the Lewis frog.. Tongue switches were also suc- at the present day. The width between the tracks was also in- ceeded by stub switches, and after the change from edge-rails creased from four and a half to six feet, which was subsequently to T-rails various modifications of the frogs and switches pre- increased, some years later, to seven feet. viously in use were introduced, to which considerable import- In making the change from the edge-rail to the T-rail, the ance was attached. part of the road on which work was progressing was tempo- CHANGES WHICH SUCCEEDED THE TRANSFER OF CONTROL TO THE rarily abandoned for operating purposes, and all movements, PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. in both directions, transferred to the adjacent track, on which After the Pennsylvania Railroad purchased and acquired the process of "running the gauntlet," or having trains run in possession of the Columbia and Philadelphia Railroad, during both directions, was conducted, 80 that ample opportunities the closing years of the sixth decade, some of the first changes were afforded for radical changes. made consisted of the establishment of ticket offices-and pas- Digitized by Google CHANGES IN PERMANENT WAY. 157 senger stations at various points; the erection of platforms at roads and the appliances used upon them, or the relatively passenger stations; the purchase of buildings previously used high rate of labor in this country, or other causes, the English by forwarding and commission merchants, which served as roads were reported to be capable of doing about twice as freight depots; the improvement of facilities for storing and much work for a given amount of money as the railways of furnishing wood, or other fuel, and water, to the locomotives; the United States. During the last quarter of a century the the construction of a few crossings, by which trains could move position of a number of representative lines of the two coun- from one track to another, SO as to enable freight trains to give tries has been reversed, and an elaborate discussion of this sub- the right of way to passenger trains, which crossings were sub- ject in 1885 indicated that American roads could carry freight sequently materially increased in number, and supplemented for about half the cost then common on English lines. Such by extensive sidings and stretches of third and fourth tracks; a great change was not speedily effected, and it required the adoption of a regular system of frogs and switches, involv- very extraordinary advances of the systems prevailing previous ing some differences in the preceding methods, especially in to 1860. frogs; and a notable improvement in all details relating to The relative cost of maintenance and running expenses, maintenance of way, especially in the liberality of the supplies under the old order of things, was reported to be as follows on of labor, tools, and materials, and in the degree of account- the typical English and New York lines named below in 1855:- ability of those entrusted with all forms of authority in super- intending labors and outlays, or acting as custodians of supplies. It was also soon found necessary to devote much attention to Name of roads. common roads, as well as the more important structures, and of single track. Number of miles daily. the strengthening of bridges, including overhead crossings of Average number of 21.17 trains both ways, single track. pairs per mile of Average cost of re- run, in cents. pairs per 6.24 Average cost of re- to increase the effectiveness of culverts. English lines:- London and North-western 1,290 $432 88 ESTABLISHMENT OF PASSENGER STATIONS. Eastern Counties 168 13.3 356 22 8.40 A notable illustration of one of the differences between old London and Brighton 354 19.95 544 39 8.18 and new railway methods is furnished by the fact that the road Great Northern 628 25.37 709 16 8.88 had been in operation for about a quarter of a century previous New York lines:- to its acquisition by the Pennsylvania Railroad, with not a pas- New York Central 862 12.42 841 03 24 96 senger station along its line, public houses or inns furnishing New York and Erie 741 12.55 687 57 18.62 Harlem 181 9.63 785 29 28.18 such accommodations as were considered necessary, and no Average New York roads 3,542 10.30 655 97 23.20 tickets being sold. This condition of things was largely due to the fact that the state, as the owner of the road, only furnished It was estimated that in 1857 the average expenditure for totransporters opportunities for using it and locomotive power, maintenance of way per mile run on English roads was 10.56 and not being the owner of passenger or freight cars, or the cents; in France, 7.8 cents, and in the United States, 25 cents. direct transporters of either freight or passengers, it had no THE NECESSITY OF KEEPING DOWN THE COST OF ORIGINAL CON- special interest in supplying passenger stations or freight depots. STRUCTION But to a considerable extent this lack of convenient accommo- dations for passenger and freight movements was typical of a to a very low standard was one of the main causes of imperfec- corresponding deficiency on many of the railway lines of the tions in the permanent way which materially increased operat- country which were operated in the fullest sense by the com- ing expenses. Railways are often in danger of being driven too panies owning them. Deficiency of station, depot, and terminal closely either to the Charybdis of spending 80 much on their facilities was a notable feature of nearly all American railways lines that it becomes very difficult to earn interest on their out- up to the end of the sixth decade, and similar deficiencies con- lays, or the Scylla of spending 80 little that there is a very slight tinued to exist on nearly all lines up to a considerably later margin for profit left above inevitable current expenses. To period, as it exists at many points even at the present day. work cheaply considerable outlays must in any event be made, The large expenditures necessary to partially supply these de- and on many lines immense sums have been advantageously ficiencies have been one of the most prominent causes of the expended which had no other immediate object than the reduc- increased cost and capitalization of numerous lines. tion of the necessary cost of a given amount of current business. In one of the early reports made by J. Edgar Thomson, as DEFECTS OF IRON T-RAILS. president of the Pennsylvania Railroad, he earnestly advocated Another influence affecting many roads, which was illus- endeavors to make the operations of that company profitable trated by developments on the Columbia and Philadelphia, rather by doing a very large freight business at low rates and was the inferior nature of the material or workmanship of small profits, than by carrying a small amount of freight at many of the iron T-rails used on the line. This was a chronic high rates and large profits. This course has since been pur- trouble, and the tendencies were rather towards deterioration sued on many important lines, but it obviously could only than improvement. It would have seemed a natural suppo- have been rendered successful by very expensive improve- sition that if edge-rails had stood the wear and tear of traffic ments of the original lines, and large outlays on new roads, as for a score of years or more, iron T-rails of greater weight and it would have been ruinous to attempt on the old style roads better shape should at least possess approximately equal powers such cheap transportation as now forms part of current rail- of endurance; but partly on account of the increased amount way labors. During the sixth decade much remained to be of transportation and increase of the weight of cars and loco- done in this direction. The drainage of many roads had been motives, and more particularly on account of inferior material sadly neglected, many bridges were inferior or defective, and and method of manufacture, the life of the new T-rails laid attempts to construct them over some of the great rivers which down on the Columbia and Philadelphia Railway was at ex- are now crossed at many points had scarcely been commenced. posed points only extended over two or three years, and on IMPROVEMENTS OF RAIL-JOINTS nearly all the road renewals became necessary after they had been in service six or seven years. Similar and even much were attracting considerable attention, but something like the more notable defects of iron rails were developed on many original chairs were still used very extensively. A transition other roads, and at later periods. In fact, defective iron T-rails was progressing in the United States. Of the nature and utility furnished during a protracted period one of the most damaging of a corresponding movement on English lines, an English en- and deplorable features of the entire American railway system, gineer, in an address delivered in 1883, said: "Cast-iron chairs whether regard is paid to financial results, assurances of safety, were used to hold the rail in position; and as, owing to the nature or provisions for efficiency. of the material employed, those chairs were frequently injured, the first efforts for the improvement of the rail IMPERFECTIONS OF AMERICAN LINES. to dispensing with the chairs. But the forms It is part of the history of the sixth decade that, either on for this purpose did not effect their object account of the rapidity with which new lines had been con- which it is not necessary here to go structed, or the imperfect nature of many of the American duced the double-headed rail, the 158 BRIDGE-BUILDING PROGRESS. made to rest in the chair; but the effect of this plan was found feet in length, which were no longer considered unwieldy, and to be that the rails were speedily worn at the ends, and they there was a decided tendency to increase the weight per yard, had to be replaced. The fish-plate was introduced to remedy of new rails laid down on important lines. Switches and frogs this defect. The fish-plate was a great improvement in the were also receiving much attention, and inventors were rapidly permanent way of railways. It consists, as you are aware, of swelling the list of available new railway appliances. two plates of iron placed on each side in the hollow of the rail Other changes of material consequence were the rapid sub- immediately under the head, the plates being held together by stitution of iron for wood as a material for railway bridges, the bolts passing through them and through the rail, the bolts improvement of designs for bridges, and modifications of the being screwed up tight to the rail at the joint by nuts. The methods of using cast and wrought iron in the construction effect is to make the rail as nearly continuous as is practically of bridges. The Pennsylvania Railroad was specially active possible." in promoting the construction of iron bridges on its western RAILS, SWITCHES, FROGS, AND IRON BRIDGES. division, and the Reading, Erie, and Baltimore and Ohio also The American rail mills had commenced rolling rails thirty made important advances. BRIDGE-BUILDING PROGRESS. IN connection with the iron bridge building of the sixth decade standing the prevalence of a different opinion, but methods of in the United States, three classes were then being tested, construction which are considered preferable have been devised viz.: First, combinations of cast and wrought iron, deemed and almost universally adopted. The length of the Niagara available for a span of from 50 to 200 feet; second, suspension, bridge from centre to centre of tower was 821 feet 4 inches; considered available for a span of from 200 to 2,000 fect; and, elevation above mean water was 245 feet, and the depth of the third, boiler-plate girder, considered available for a span of river was 200 fect. Four wire cables were used, of an ultimate from 25 to 100 feet. Tests of a Bollman trussed bridge, on strength of 12,000 tons. The cost of the bridge was $400,000. the Baltimore and Ohio, of a clear span of 124 feet, which con- The final report of Mr. Roebling, in describing its capacity, said: tained 65,137 pounds of cast iron and 33,527 pounds of wrought "The trains of the New York Central, and Canada and Great iron, had been considered very satisfactory. A famous sus- Western railroads have crossed regularly at the rate of thirty pension bridge had been erected at Niagara for the use of the trips per day for five months. A load of 47 tons caused a de- New York Central and Canada and Great Western, which is de- pression at the centre of 51 inches. An engine of 23 tons' scribed below. A 55-foot boiler-plate bridge had been built for weight, with four driving wheels, depressed the bridge at the the Baltimore and Susquehanna, by James Millholland, in 1847. centre 0.3 feet. The depression immediately under the engine A number of Whipple iron bridges had been erected, on one of was one inch, the effect of which extended one hundred feet. which, on the line of the New York and Erie Railroad, cast The depression caused by an engine and train of cars is 80 iron was used as a top chord, and wrought iron employed to much diffused as scarcely to be noticed. A load of 326 tons resist the tensile forces. Wooden bridges continued to be in produced a deflection of 0.82 feet only. The specified test for almost universal use, and a very large number were erected the wire was that a strand stretched over two posts, 400 during the decade. Improvements in the methods of their feet apart, should not break at a greater deflection than 9 construction were devised and patented, some of which fur- inches; also, that it should withstand bending square and re- nished the plans for iron bridges. Few, if any, of the new bending over a pair of pliers without rupture. This test cor- bridges were then rising more rapidly in importance than those responds to a tensile strain of 90,000 pounds per square inch, or of Fink and Howe, and the use of the latter was especially ex- 1,300 pounds per wire of 20 feet per pound." tensive. THE ROCK ISLAND BRIDGE. Wooden trestling was frequently resorted to during the sixth decade, and the railways of that era furnished numerous ex- Probably the bridge of the decade which exerted the most amples of trestling of various arrangements, and of heights of important influence on the transportation systems of the from twenty to two hundred feet. It was divided into two country, and on the general subject of the relations between leading classes, one of which was intended for temporary use rail and water carriers, so far as a conflict of interests arose in enabling a road to pass over low ground with the expecta- between them in connection with the bridging of navigable tion that it would be eventually filled up and converted into rivers, was a bridge built between the years 1853 and 1856 to embankments; while the second was intended to furnish a connect the Chicago and Rock Island in Illinois with the permanent foundation for a bridge crected over a deep dry Mississippi and Missouri Railroad (which subsequently was consolidated with the Chicago and Rock Island) in Iowa. It gorge or river. The most notable example of the second of these classes was the first railway bridge across the Mississippi. The route, was the Genessce high bridge, over the Genessee river, near as located, extended over Rock Island, then a military reserva- Portageville, on the Buffalo and New York Railroad, built by tion. The only authority for the erection of the bridge con- H. C. Seymour. It was 800 feet long, 230 feet above the river. sisted of an act of the legislature of Illinois and the purchase It had eight stone piers, 30 feet high, upon which were placed of the rights of the land owner on the western bank of the trestles 190 feet high, 75 feet wide at base, and 25 at top. river, in Davenport, Iowa, to which the bridge was extended. Above the trestle work was a bridge 14 feet high. The cost of This absence of definite authority from either the state of Iowa this structure was $140,000. or the United States government, and numerous complaints of steamboat captains and owners, that the bridge seriously ob- BRIDGING NIAGARA AND THE MISSISSIPPI. structed the navigation of the river, led to a protracted agitation The most important railway bridges of the sixth decade pro- in the courts and in Congress, which finally culminated in the vided for the passage of trains over the Niagara river, a short adoption of a definite policy, by Congress, in reference to the distance below Niagara Falls, and over the Mississippi at Rock bridging of the Mississippi, about ten years after this bridge Island. It was evident that if such feats could be performed was completed, and the passage of an act providing that the many other gigantic tasks were feasible. first Rock Island bridge should be taken down and supplanted The bridge across Niagara river was built by John A. Roeb- with a new bridge to be erected at the joint expense of the ling, in 1854, on the suspension principle, and it attracted United States and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Rail- scarcely less attention and admiration at that time than the road Company,-a change of structures which was finally com- famous Brooklyn bridge, when it was finished under the direc- pleted in 1872. tion of his son, substantially in accordance with his theories. The following description of the original bridge at Rock The Niagara bridge demonstrated that serviceable railway sus- Island is embraced in an official report of the United States pension bridges of long spans could be constructed, notwith- army engineers, made in 1859: "The railroad bridge is placed Digitized by Google CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAY TUNNELS. 159 at the foot of the rapids, and is thrown from the island of Rock 355 feet long and 40} feet broad at the top, and 386 feet long Island to the city of Davenport, Iowa. It is supported by two and 45 feet broad at the bottom. stone abutments on the shores and six stone piers. The spans This pier is composed of a stone centre pier 35 feet in diam- (five in number) are 250 feet broad, the draw-spans being at the eter at the top, the remainder being crib-work filled up with water level (9) feet stage) 117 and 112 feet, respectively, making stone. The up-stream starlings of all the piers are isosceles, the whole length of the bridge 1,535 feet. right-angled triangles. The centre line of the roadway crosses The piers, except those at the draws, are 35 feet long and the turn-table pier 210 feet from its head; this pier being 115 seven feet broad at top, and 53 feet long and 11 feet broad at feet longer and 19 feet wider on top than the truss which forms the bottom. The two small draw-piers are 38 feet long and 10 the draw. The superstructure of wood, built upon Howe's feet broad at top, and 54 feet long and 14 broad at the bottom. patent, is 20 feet above ordinary high and 33 feet above ordi- The turn-table pier, including the guard-pier and starling, is nary low water." CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAY TUNNELS. O NE of the outgrowths of the vigorous efforts during the FROM 1850 TO 1860, sixth decade to complete railways leading westward from in addition to a large number of tunnels varying from a few the Atlantic seaboard to the Mississippi valley, across the in- hundred to several thousand feet in length, the following tervening mountain barriers, was the construction of a large tunnels, exceeding three thousand feet in length, were com- number of tunnels, and the prosecution of important work on menced, viz.:- some extensive tunnels which had been commenced before Sand Patch tunnel, on Pittsburgh branch Baltimore and 1850, and others which were not finished until after 1860. Ohio, in Somerset county, Pennsylvania, through Sand Patch The elaborate and highly creditable work on tunneling by summit, built 1854-71, 4,725 feet in length, cost $375,000. Henry S. Drinker, E. M., published by John Wiley & Sons in Stump House tunnel, on Blue Ridge Railroad, in Pickens 1878, contains many interesting particulars in regard to the district, South Carolina, built 1855-58, 5,865 feet in length. railway and other American tunnels up to that period, as well Blue Ridge tunnel, on Chesapeake and Ohio, 121 miles west as an interesting history of tunneling in all ages and countries. of Richmond, Virginia, built 1850-57, 4,262 feet in length, cost In discussing tunnels in this country previous to 1850, it states $488,000. Lewis tunnel, on Chesapeake and Ohio, 2201 miles that up to that time 52 had been constructed, of which "7 were west of Richmond, Virginia, built 1858-73, 4,033 feet in length, on canals, 16 on the Croton Aqueduct, and 29 on railways; 48 cost $400,000. Allegheny tunnel, on Chesapeake and Ohio, 223 of them were commenced and completed prior to 1850, and in miles west of Richmond, Virginia, built 1864-70, 4,711 feet in the second quarter of the century. The Factoryville tunnel, length. on the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, built Oxford or Van Nest Gap tunnel, on Warren Railroad, in War- in 1850-52, opened tunnel construction in the decade from ren county, New Jersey, built 1854-62, length 3,006 feet. 1850 to 1860, during which so many railroad tunnels were Bergen or No. 1, on Erie Railway, through Bergen Hill, in built. From this time on, of course, tunnels multi- Jersey City, built 1855-61, 4,388 feet in length, cost $800,000. plied with railroads, and 80 many were built that it would be Allegheny or Summit tunnel, on Pennsylvania Railroad, tedious to cite them in detail here. It is interesting to note, Western division, summit Allegheny mountains, built 1851-54, however, that no canal tunnels have been built in the United length 3,612 feet. States since 1838, and that the decades from 1850 to 1860, and Hoosac tunnel, on Troy and Greenfield Railroad, in Massa- 1870 to 1880 have been the most active in railroad-tunnel con- chusetts, built 1854-76, 25,081 feet in length, cost $10,000,000. struction." The completion of these and many other shorter tunnels in- OF THE RAILWAY TUNNELS COMPLETED BEFORE 1850, volved some of the most expensive, difficult, and dangerous work ever undertaken in connection with the construction of the first was on the Allegheny Portage Railroad, and the sec- American railways. The cost of the tunnels varied from a ond, the Black Rock tunnel, on the Philadelphia and Reading rate of a little less than half a million of dollars per mile to Railroad, to which reference has already been made. The from two to four times that sum, the cost of the Bergen tunnel third railway tunnel in the United States, in the order of com- being at the rate of about one million of dollars per mile, and mencement, (1835-38,) was the Elizabethtown, on the line of of the Hoosac tunnel at the rate of nearly two millions of dol- the Harrisburg, Portsmouth, Mt. Joy and Lancaster Railroad, lars per mile. Such outlays naturally had an important in- which now forms part of the Pennsylvania Railroad, but it was fluence in increasing the average cost per mile of lines which not completed as soon as the Harlem tunnel, on the New York sanctioned them. and Harlem Railroad (1836-37). These were each works of considerable magnitude for that period, the Elizabethtown tun- INCIDENTAL FEATURES OF RAILWAY TUNNELS. nel (which has since been all taken out as open cut) being 900 Aside from the cost of tunneling, serious disasters occurred feet in length, and the Harlem tunnel 844 feet in length. Dur- at some points, including such as caused the death of work- ing the period intervening between 1837 and 1850 the tunnels men and led to protracted delays. There were instances, too, completed included three on the Philadelphia and Reading in which, on account of tunnels not being finished as soon as system, five on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, one on the the connecting links of main lines, temporary tracks with excep- Lehigh and Susquehanna, one on the Albany and West Stock- tionally heavy grades were laid over the summits or hills being bridge, two on the Boston and Albany, and one on the New tunneled. One of the most notable of these was a track laid York and New England. The tunnels commenced but not over the top of the hill on the east side of the Kingwood tun- finished before 1850 included one on the Rensselaer and Sara- nel, on the Baltimore and Ohio, on a grade of 528 feet per mile, toga Railroad, ten on the Hudson River, and one on the Balti- and on a curve of 300 feet radius, up which, it is said, a 25-ton, more and Ohio. 8-wheel, coal-burning locomotive of Ross Winans' build pro- The longest railway tunnel completed before 1850 was the pelled itself, tender, and a car-load of rails, weighing 15 tons of Doe Gully, built by the Baltimore and Ohio, about sixty miles 2,000 pounds, at the rate of 10 or 12 miles an hour. It is stated west of Harper's Ferry, constructed in 1839-41, which was 1,207 that, although this exploit could easily be performed when the feet in length. The Kingwood, on the Baltimore and Ohio, rails were dry and clear, when the rails were slippery the en- 4,100 feet in length, was commenced in 1849, but not finished gine and its load would sometimes slide, with all wheels locked, until the sixth decade. down this grade. Digitized by Google 160 CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAY TUNNELS. In other cases, on account of the length of time required to Railroad were, on the other hand, arched after a lapse of from complete tunnels, they were pressed into service before they two and a half to six years from the opening of the road, with were thoroughly arched, and, for this reason, expensive and a much heavier business than in the case of the two first tun- troublesome labors subsequently became necessary. In other nels just mentioned, and the cost was, therefore, vastly in- cases, the tunnels as originally built were not wide enough or creased, as it embraced the support of the excavations mostly high enough to meet modern requirements, and it was found in friable slate rock by heavy timbering subject to rapid decay. necessary to enlarge them under difficult circumstances. Much of the fallen material had to be removed, and a large proportion of it required to be blasted to make it capable of OF THE INHERENT DANGERS, DIFFICULTIES, AND ANXIETIES OF being handled, and the explosions were often destructive of the TUNNELING timber supports. many details are given in Mr. Drinker's work. A note credited The delays from frequent passage of trains and from the to B. H. Latrobe, appended to a description of the Broad Tree smoke of the engines was a large element of cost, and the tunnel, on the Baltimore and Ohio, 39 miles east of Wheeling, difficulty of maintaining a supply of suitable skilled labor in which was 2,350 feet in length, and built in 1851-53, at a cost the face of perpetual risk of life and limb, was, as may be sup- of $603,000, gives, in condensed form, a vivid picture of events posed, most serious. Under these circumstances, it is not to connected with the construction of the tunnels of that road, be wondered at that the cost of some of the tunnel-arching on which, to a considerable extent, resembled occurrences else- the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad went up as high in one case where, although other roads were generally more fortunate. It as $134 per foot run, or about six times the average of the Doe is as follows:- Gully and Paw Paw tunnels, the latter also being arched (in "Broad Tree Tunnel. To expedite the laying of the track, a 1840-42) when prices of labor and materials were much lower temporary road was made in October, 1852, over the top of the than in 1855 to 1869. The average cost of arching all the tun- ridge, which is some 300 feet above the railroad grade. The nels, except the Doe Gully and Paw Paw, upon the Baltimore hill being so high and also very steep, it was necessary to resort and Ohio Railroad, between Baltimore and Wheeling, was to a system of switches by which the movement of the train $77.31 per running foot, or a total of $955,990 for 12,379 linear was reversed at the angles of the zigzag line which had to feet. The cost of excavation, including the Doe Gully and Paw be adopted. There were two of these on the east and five on Paw, ranged from $22.74 up to $106.40 per foot run, according the west side of the ridge, making in all seven. The extreme to character of rock, length of tunnel, and circumstances at- grade was 1 in 20 feet, about 264 to the mile on a curve of 300 tending the work, the average being $70.83 per foot linear, or feet radius, equivalent to about doubling the resistance on a a total cost of $979,979 for 13,826 of their total length. The straight line. The Winans 25-ton engine propelled two loaded arching of all the tunnels upon the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- cars of 15 tons (of 2,000 pounds) up this grade with ease, and road, between Baltimore and Wheeling, was completed on at times three cars. This mode of surmounting the hill was February 1st, 1859. The arching of all the tunnels, except projected and executed by Benj. H. Latrobe, chief engineer. Everett's, was done under the immediate direction of the mas- The track over the hill, though abandoned on the completion ters of the road, W. Bollman and John L. Wilson, and their of the tunnel, was subsequently restored when the arching was assistants, some of whom had been previously the assistants of being done, and successfully and safely used in carrying the the chief engineer, who had retired shortly after the work was trains during interruptions from falls in the tunnel, and to commenced. The road officers acquitted themselves with great avoid interference with the workmen; in this very greatly pro- credit in executing this difficult work." moting the economy of the arching and the working of the road. The tunnel, after being opened for use, was well tim- INVENTION OF MACHINE DRILLS. bered, and for two or three years gave little trouble. It had On the Hoosac tunnel, which proved to be the most expen- been excavated 16 feet wide by 22 feet high for a single track, sive of American railway tunnels, considerable work was done and the roof would have stood better for this reason, but it was during the sixth decade, and yet not enough to form a large in a seamy and friable slate rock, softer than that of the King- proportion of the labors necessary to insure its completion. wood tunnel, and the rock began to settle 80 heavily upon the Various causes led to protracted delays, one of which was an timbers as to make them give way and endanger passing trains. enormous discrepancy between the estimated and actual cost It was, therefore, decided to arch the tunnel, which was done of the work, and another, financial questions connected with in 1856-57-the side walls being of stone, and the arch of brick. the assumption of the heavy responsibilities it involved by the The treacherous character of the roof of this tunnel led to commonwealth of Massachusetts. The original estimate of its many accidents from falls, which not only blocked up the road, probable cost was less than two millions of dollars, or about but cost many lives, and maimed many of the men. These one-fifth the sum actually expended. This calculation was casualties seemed confined more particularly to the miners and made in 1851, and contains a reference to steam drills, from laborers; the bricklayers and mechanics generally escaped in- the use of which a material reduction in cost was anticipated. jury. By the falling of a slab from the roof five men were Inventive effort of the character indicated had been greatly crushed to the floor at once. These slabs, which had settled stimulated by the agitation of the Hoosac tunnel project. The upon the tunnel supports, had often to be blasted while resting early contractors made strenuous efforts to avail themselves of on the wood work, which they often, indeed generally, brought some of the new devices, but the results were not satisfactory. down with the explosion. The arching also was done by the It was, nevertheless, true that the possible utility of drilling company by day's work, and this and the numerous interrup- machines had been demonstrated by the invention in 1849, by tions and accidents attending it will account for its excessive J. J. Couch, of Philadelphia, of the first promising labor-saving cost. This remark will apply to all of the tunnels upon the machine for drilling rocks. In the same year a caveat for an Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and its Parkersburg branch. improved rock-drilling machine was filed by J. W. Fowle, who Had the tunnels been arched immediately after the excava- had assisted Mr. Couch in the construction of his drill. Of tions were made, the cost of arching would probably have been these two inventions, Mr. Drinker says that Fowle's was really less then it was in the proportion of from 1:1} to 1:6 Thus the the precursor of the rock-drill as we now know it. To Couch Paw Paw tunnel, which, being of a very soft shale rock re- belongs the honor of designing the first percussion drill as dis- quiring immediate protection, was arched at a cost of $22.62 tinguished from a rotary borer, and to Fowle we owe the direct- per foot vein; and the Doe Gully tunnel, which was arched action principle." These inventions were the first to clearly shortly after the road was opened, but with a light business, indicate the practicability of the advantageous application of was arched for $22.52 per running foot, including the walling machinery to rock-drilling, and by the numerous improve- of its shafts. It had a better roof than the other, and, being ments which have since been made upon them, and additional longer, the cost of its portals bore a smaller proportion to its devices, together with the discovery of improved explosive com- entire cost. These two tunnels were also arched by contract, pounds, the art of tunneling has been revolutionized. But com- the Paw Paw with the contractors for the excavation, and the paratively few, if any, important advantages were derived from Doe Gully with other competent contractors. The other tun- either of these sources by the contractors engaged in construct- is which required arching upon the Baltimore and Ohio ing American railway tunnels during the sixth decade. Ma- Digitized by Google Irni Imits First Bogic Locomative fips. Plant 1 Date EARLY LOCOMOTIVES. # Digitized by by Google First Regers Locumative. I X - $ 1 be- any and dug tern ald, lock- now rigin said @ glish, 161 Digitized by Google IMPROVEMENTS OF LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. 161 chine drills were then in an experimental stage, and dynamite natural circumstances affecting the work as any of the English, had not been introduced. Belgian, French, or German and Austrian systems can be said to be distinct, separate methods of timbering." Of the origin AMERICAN SYSTEM OF BLOCK-TIMBER ARCHING. of the American system proper he says: "So far as it can now Considerable changes in details of the methods of timbering be determined, the variation from three rafter pieces to block- tunnels were progressing during the sixth decade which gradu- timber arching was first made by the late Mr. James Archbald, ally led to the establishment of what Mr. Drinker, in his work chief engineer of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western on tunneling, terms the American system of block-timber Railroad, in the construction of the Oxford or Van Nest Gap arching. He says that "American tunneling, as a system, is tunnel, in New Jersey, in 1854; it proved most successful, and not universally recognized as such, nor is it generally known, subsequently has been used in the construction of 80 many especially in Europe, that we have here as distinct and marked tunnels, throughout all parts of the country, that it has be- a national system, that has been gradually developed out of the come, in fact, the national system of tunnel timbering." IMPROVEMENTS OF LOCOMOTIVES AND CARS. COAL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVES. before his inauguration, and opening the Annapolis route to The coal-burning for wood-burning Washington in April, 1861. Another was a miniature locomo- during the sixth decade, tive and tender, made of gold and silver, which were exact but on only a very small proportion of the locomotives then in models of the "Webster," an engine alleged to be the first use, the number of which was estimated at about 9,000, had really successful one for burning coal on passenger trains, the the changes necessary to render them economical and effective construction of which was the final outcome of prolonged coal-burners been made. We are apt to forget that the use of efforts made at the instance of Mr. Felton. His own expe- coal as a fuel for domestic and miscellaneous purposes was riences and statements on this subject, as stated at the time of much less common then than now, for, while the population the presentation of the models to him, which was on Septem- has about doubled, the quantity of coal annually mined and ber 9th, 1865, furnish such an instructive illustration of the consumed is about six times as great now as it was then, and struggles that preceded the success finally achieved, that we most of the railways followed the general custom in continuing republish a portion of his speech here:- to burn wood in their locomotives. It was, however, considered "This beautiful and exact model of the first really successful a demonstrated fact that a ton of average bituminous coal fur- locomotive for burning coal on passenger trains, is an appro- nished as much available fuel as 11 cords of average wood, and at priate and touching memorial, for it will always remind me of many places a ton of coal was decidedly cheaper than 11 cords my trials, as well as my final success in that department. of wood. On the other hand, the use of coal necessitated more Many years ago, while I was upon the Fitchburg Railroad, I frequent and more expensive repairs than were usual on wood- came to the conclusion that if railroads multiplied in the future burning engines. Nearly all the locomotives had been built to as they had in the past, our beautiful and green hillsides would burn wood, and alterations were generally necessary to convert be stripped of their foilage, and become barren wastes, unless them into coal-burners, and the firemen, locomotive engineers, some other fuel than wood could be found for locomotives, and and locomotive manufacturers of England had at that time ac- accordingly, in 1849, I got up a locomotive for burning coal. quired greater familiarity with the requirements necessary to It succeeded, by a good deal of nursing, in making now and insure an effectual and economical use of coal than was then then a trip when all the circumstances conspired in its favor. common in this country. Considerable progress had been It, however, served no really useful purpose, save as a scarecrow made, bowever, on some of the important American lines, to those who furnished wood, persuading them, through their especially in Pennsylvania and on the Baltimore and Ohio, in fears, that it was or would be a success, to reduce the price of the direction indicated, but even at the present day much of wood at once fifty cents a cord. So far, so good, but it was not the heat-producing power of the coal used on locomotives is a success as a coal-burner. It only paved the way to better unnecessarily wasted. Aside from the change in fuel, the loco- things. motive was growing in weight and capacity, as in previous de- I see opposite me Mr. Dimpfel, a gentleman to whom the cades, and a successful anthracite passenger engine had been railroad interests are greatly indebted for his untiring zeal and built in the Reading shops by James Millholland. persistent efforts in introducing coal as a fuel for locomotives; In connection with these coal-burning difficulties, it should be for though his plans are not generally adopted, yet his efforts stated that they related more particularly to anthracite coal, and and his experiments turned the attention of railroad men to to inferior and particular descriptions of bituminous coal, than the subject, and gave an impulse to inventions and contrivances to superior qualities of bituminous coal. There is much practi- which did not stop till success was achieved. He was the cal force in the following reference to this subject in a catalogue pioneer in devising ways and means of making coal a successful of Baldwin's Locomotive Works: "The result of experience and fuel on passenger locomotives, but his reward, I am sorry to study had meantime satisfied Mr. Baldwin that to burn soft say, is as yet nothing more substantial than the consciousness coal successfully required no peculiar devices; that the ordinary of having done a good work. form of boiler, with plain fire-box, was right, with perhaps the In 1855 Mr. William A. Crocker, of Taunton, and myself addition of a fire-brick deflector, and that the secret of the built at our own cost and trouble a passenger locomotive for economical and successful use of coal was in the mode of firing, burning coal on Mr. Dimpfel's plan. We were very sanguine rather than in a different form of furnace." of its success, but the subject was comparatively new. En- gineers and firemen were used to wood, and coal was black GRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF SOME OF THE EARLY COAL-BURNING and dirty to handle, and there were a thousand prejudices to EXPERIMENTS. contend with. We obtained leave to try some experiments on Shortly after the retirement of Mr. S. M. Felton as president the Worcester and Western railroads, as the locomotive was of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore, in 1865, he then in Massachusetts. Our second experiment there was with was the recipient of numerous evidences of esteem and respect a very heavy passenger train, composed mostly of emigrants from his former associates and public-spirited citizens generally. for Kansas. We proceeded successfully for twenty or thirty One was a service of solid silver plate, valued at $6,000. The miles, and began to think the problem was successfully demon- committee which had the presentation of the last-named gift strated, when the engine began to lessen its speed. The pulsa- in charge adopted a series of resolutions awarding to Mr. tions of its life grew less and less vigorous, till finally it came Felton credit for frustrating the plot to assassinate President to a stand-still. Then it was that a storm of indignant rage Lincoln, while he was on his way to Washington, a short time was showered upon our heads by the delayed passengers. We 21 Digitized by Google Digitized by Google RAILWAY SUPPLIES-SHOPS AND TELEGRAPHIC SERVICE. 163 and running gear, built by Harvey Rice, Esq., are well got up, four-wheeled cars, were considered heavy loads, and the system and, although the same kind are already in use in other cars of construction was not deemed very satisfactory. The report of on the road, they are a novelty off the road. The axles are Joseph B. Baker, superintendent of the Philadelphia and Co- spread six feet apart centres, and have both outside and inside lumbia Railroad, for the fiscal year ending November 31st, journals. The inside journals have grooved collars on each 1855, says: "Whether the present plan and construction of cars end, and are fitted with Harvey Rice's improved box. The is the best adapted for the cheap and safe transportation of axles are from the Brunswick works, England, and the wheels, freight is very questionable. A long or eight-wheeled car is 33 inches in diameter, are Bush & Lobdell's patent. The from twenty-eight to thirty-three feet in length; weighs, in- worst fault with the trucks is in using rubber springs, which, cluding the trucks 16,000 pounds, and is permitted to carry if they stand the great weight at all, will become frigid or 18,000 pounds of loading. This loading, in addition to the freeze. The entire weight of these cars is not far from weight of the box, is borne by two bolsters, each resting on a eighteen tons, empty." centre bearing or pivot. The weight being so great upon these On some of the southern lines an expedient was occasionally two points, renders it difficult to construct bolsters sufficiently adopted, similar to that employed on the early English lines, strong to carry the weight without bending." Mr. Baker also of making provision for fastening private carriages on plat- states that in moving 481,012 tons 196,939 cars were used, 80 forms of freight cars, 80 that gentlemen could ride on the rail- that the average load was less than two and a half tons. way in their own conveyances if they desired to do so. Although passenger-car construction had been improved, the cars in use on some lines fell 80 far behind modern standards CAPACITY OF FREIGHT CARS. that critical English travelers were apt to speak of some of the The capacity of freight cars continued to be comparatively vehicles in which they journeyed over our roads as but little limited. Nine tons per eight-wheeled car, and four tons for more than huge wooden boxes. RAILWAY SUPPLIES-SHOPS AND TELEGRAPHIC SERVICE. D URING the sixth decade large additions were made to the necticut, three of the Middle States, and Virginia. Of loco- list of establishments in which rails, the superstructure motives the report says:- of bridges, rolling stock, and various classes of railroad sup- LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. plies were manufactured, and also to the number and facilities of railway shops. Various devices were materially improved, "Locomotives were manufactured in seven or eight states to and the desirability of additional improvements was recog- the number of 470 or upward. The number of establishments nized by many companies. engaged wholly or chiefly in this branch of machinery was 19, which together employed a capital of $3,482,592, and 4,174 RAILROAD IRON, CAR WHEELS AND SPRINGS. hands. The value of the engines made was $4,866,900, an The Census Report of 1860 on manufactures contains statis- average of $10,355 each. tics which show that during the year ending June 30th, 1860, The largest value was made by four manufactories in New 235,107 tons of railroad iron" were produced in the United Jersey, from which were turned out 166 locomotives, valued at States, exclusive of considerable quantities of iron classified $1,565,000, of which sum $765,000 was the product of one of under other titles which was probably used for railway pur- three factories at Paterson, which employed 720 men, and built poses. Of car wheels it is stated that they were made in 90 locomotives. The fourth shop was that of the Camden and 17 establishments, returned from 7 States, to the value, annu- Amboy Railroad Company at Bordentown, which made a few ally, of $2,083,350, which was the value of 142,000 car wheels. engines and a number of cars. Next to New Jersey came The principal car-wheel factories are in the Middle Pennsylvania, in which two large factories in Philadelphia, States. Five establishments in the State of New York, at among the oldest and largest in the country, employed capi- Troy, Albany, Rochester and Buffalo, made 30,000 car wheels, tals, respectively, of $900,000 and $750,000. The largest, with averaging nearly 5 to the ton, and valued altogether at $386,550. 675 hands, constructed 89 engines, worth $750,000, and the Four establishments in New Jersey, three of them in Jersey other, with 800 men, turned out 79 locomotives, valued at City and one in Warren county, turned out 18,000 car wheels, $670,000. Two locomotives were built in Scranton, and two in worth $271,800. Three factories in Pennsylvania employed a Pottsville, the values of which are not included in the statistics capital of $503,700 and 121 persons, and made 45,000 car of this branch. Five locomotive shops in Massachusetts built wheels, valued at $613,000. The principal one at Philadelphia 54 engines, worth $643,000. The two largest were at Taunton, employed a capital of $490,000 and 100 hands, and manufac- one of which, with 175 hands, built 23 locomotives, valued at tured 24,000 car wheels, which were cooled by a patent process, $180,000, and the other, with 425 men, made $250,000 worth of and valued at $270,000, besides 725 axles, worth $80,000. One cotton machinery and 14 complete locomotives, including the factory at Hawley, in Wayne county, made 20,000 wheels, wheels, valued at $80,000. Others were manufactured at Wor- worth $250,000, and one in Columbia county, 1,000 wheels, cester and Roxbury. Four shops New Hampshire constructed valued at $13,000. The largest car-wheel factory in the United 43 engines, valued at $805,900. The largest were two at Man- States was at Wilmington, Delaware, and had invested a cap- chester, one of which, the machine department of the Amos- ital of $200,000. This celebrated foundry consumed 10,000 keng Manufacturing Company, employed 450 men, and turned tons of iron, and with 200 hands cast 30,000 car wheels, valued out 37 locomotives, valued, with mill machinery and castings, at $500,000, besides 1,000 chilled tires and 300 tons of other at $695,000. The Manchester Locomotive Works, formerly castings-a total value of $562,000. An establishment at Cin- extensively engaged in the business, built about 5 engines, cinnati, with 20 hands, made 1,200 tons of car wheels (about worth $37,500, and the railroad shop, at Lake Village, a few 6,000), valued at $75,000, and one at Chicago, 1,000 tons of car locomotives and 32 cars. Another repaired engines and built wheels, or 4,000 in number, worth $56,000." The form assumed 70 cars. An old locomotive establishment in Baltimore, not by this car-wheel industry, consisting of a chilled iron rim or in full operation in 1860, built in that year about 6 engines, wearing surface exposed to the rails, is peculiarly of American worth $50,000. Four railroad shops in Kentucky executed development, and numerous improvements have been made work of the value of $250,000, of which $235,000 was the value from time to time in methods of manufacture. of about 10 locomotives, some cars and repairs made by one, Springs for cars, carriages, and locomotives were manufac- and the balance chiefly repairing by the other. The greater tured in 40 establishments, to the value of $2,117,377. Although part of the locomotives made in the country, however, are made in 9 States, the principal values were produced in Con- built by two shops in Boston, two in Taunton, three in Pater- Digitized by Google 164 RAILWAY SUPPLIES-SHOPS AND TELEGRAPHIC SERVICE. son, and two in Philadelphia. One at Portland, Maine, one at hundred and fifty dollars. The shops at Parkesburg require Baltimore, and perhaps one or more in the State of New York, some additional tools this year. The repairing of engines has built a few locomotives, but were chiefly engaged in other become 80 large an item in our expenses, and 80 important, work." that in all probability we will have to erect an addition next SHOPS AND MACHINE TOOLS. spring, to accommodate the coppersmiths, as the space they Another important development of the decade was the now occupy will be required for forge fires. The steam ham- establishment of numerous railway shops, including the gigan- mer, for which an appropriation was made last year, will be tic works at Altoona, and their equipment with machine tools put up this month. The new tools required, and cost of each, and appliances for constructing, as well as repairing, rolling are as follows:- stock and various descriptions of railway supplies. The extent An engine lathe, with screw-cutting gearing $350 00 to which these works act as a bulwark or support of the entire Planing machine. 4} feet by 24 inches wide 650 00 railway edifice, or power behind the throne, and the degree in Bolt-cutting machine 400 00 which railway effectiveness and prosperity depend upon the And for building coppersmith shops 400 00 amount of wisdom displayed in shop operations, is not realized $1,800 00" by the general public, who are more ready to detect imperfect Of mechanical operations on the Philadelphia and Columbia service in the track, car, or locomotive than to inquire into the Railroad for some years after its construction, and up to a com- agencies by which safeguards against serious defects are pro- paratively late period of its management by the state, a gentle- vided, and a sufficient equipment always kept in working man who acted as a locomotive engineer on the line during a order. As the railway is a gigantic machine for pressing many large part of that period informed the writer that when loco- kinds of machinery into the manufacture of facilities for trans- motives needed repairs at either end of the line there was no portation, it is peculiarly liable to an infinite variety of provision for making them except such as was furnished by mechanical derangements, and railway shops, with their tools, blacksmiths and helpers, who acted under the direction of the and skilled artisans, and superintendents, form indispensable engineer, while at the Parkesburg shops, near the centre of the adjuncts. This fact received much more liberal and extensive road, only a few machinists were employed. recognition during the sixth decade than in previous periods; and the desire of sagacious railway managers to provide addi- USE OF-THE TELEGRAPH AS AN AID TO RAILWAY OPERATIONS. tional facilities for repairing and manufacturing was promptly One of the new aids to effectiveness in railway operations, recognized and effectively seconded by the proprietors of which has proved to be indispensable, that first came into gen- American works for manufacturing machine tools, which have eral use during the sixth decade, was the free employment of since gained a world-wide reputation. The Census Report of the telegraph to forward orders in regard to train movements, 1860 on manufactures says: Machinists' tools employed .17 &c. The New York Times gives the following account of the manufactories, a capital of $536,150, and 455 hands, and the incident which is alleged to be the first resort to this exceed- value of the manufacture was $540,292, of which $205,000 was ingly useful practice:- the product of one establishment in Philadelphia, having a "The year 1850 marked an era in railroad management, not capital of $280,000 and employing 190 hands, and turning out only in this country, but in the world, for in that year it was machinists' tools of acknowledged excellence. Nine establish- successfully demonstrated that trains need not be run blindly ments in Massachusetts reported a value of $165,600 made, from station to station, but that the telegraph could be made and two in New Haven, Connecticut, a product of $71,600. the means of directing them on their way. Up to that time it Three in New York made tools of the value of $47,950, one in was the rule of trains going west on the Erie to run to regular New Jersey $2,800, and one in Delaware $22,142." stopping places, where they took the switch until the train run- Indications of the imperfect nature of the shop appliances ning 'against them' from the west should pass, and vice versa, used on some of the early roads, and of the new kinds of ma- as locality made necessary. The train in the switch could not chinery coming into use, are furnished by the following ex- go on until the opposite train passed, and, consequently, de- tracts from a report of Mr. J. B. Baker, superintendent of the lays of hour duration were common. One day in 1850, when Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, for the year ending No- Charles Minot was superintendent of the road, a passenger vember 30th, 1855:- train from New York reached Turner's Station, where it was to "For some years the arrangement of the engine house at wait for an east-bound train to pass. It did not arrive on its Philadelphia has been ill adapted for the accommodation of time. Superintendent Minot was on the train. He telegraphed our large engines. The turn-table was not large enough to to Port Jervis, and learned that the train had not reached that turn an engine and tank together, rendering the operation of place yet. Then the idea struck him that he could run both turning laborious and tedious. Neither were the tracks long trains by the telegraph, and save hours of delay to the west- enough to hold the large engines with their tanks. To expedite bound train. He telegraphed to the agent at Port Jervis to the business of turning the engines it was considered necessary hold the east-bound train when it arrived there until he heard to put in a 50-feet turn-table, and lengthen the tracks by build- from the superintendent. The latter then told the engineer of ing additions 15x22 feet to the round-house, opposite the ends his train to go ahead, that they would run on telegraph signals. of the tracks. The turn-table is made of cast iron, and The engineer refused to take the risk. Superintendent Minot manufactured by William Sellers & Co., of Philadelphia, with ordered him off the engine, and grasped the lever himself. He Parry's anti-friction box, or pivot, of which I cannot speak too ran the train, telegraphing orders ahead at each station. The highly. No gearing is required, and two men can turn the east-bound train reached Port Jervis, and was run to Otisville, heaviest locomotive in one-third the time that half a dozen twelve miles eastward, while the west-bound train was making could with the old arrangement. its way westward at the same time on telegraph signals. At The Columbia shops are of considerable importance for re- Otisville the east-bound train took the switch, and the other pairing engines during the time they are laying at that end. train passed it, reaching Port Jervis on time. This was the end They have never had any suitable tools, and I have been com- of the old system of running trains, and was the origin of tele- pelled to order a drill press for them, which will cost eight graphic signals in running railroad trains." Digitized by Google TONNAGE AND RATES IN THE SIXTH DECADE. 165 TONNAGE AND RATES IN THE SIXTH DECADE. NTATISTICS pertaining to railways affairs, previous to 1860, Roads. Length of Tons trans- miles. ported. were comparatively incomplete and unsatisfactory. Even Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati 141 295,835 at the present day there is an absence of uniformity in the re- Little Miami 120 343,961 turns of the roads of different states, and in the reports of com- Cleveland and Toledo 147 250,483 panies operating in given commonwealths, which frequently Michigan Central 282 378,570 renders it difficult to obtain reliable data relating to aggregate Michigan Southern 525 398,679 results of any description. Before the sixth decade the laws of Illinois Central 700 496,390 Massachusetts requiring definite statements relating to a variety Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 310 538,670 Chicago and Rock Island 228 301,668 of subjects, from each company, were exceptional; and the ne- Galena and Chicago 259 381.188 cessity of more comprehensive information than that available was beginning to be recognized. The fact that Massachusetts Total 2,712 3,386,393 required such returns from the outset, and that they were Average per mile 1,250 tons." widely circulated, may have had some influence in promoting RAILWAY RATES IN THE SIXTH DECADE. the success of some of the important New England companies, as they presumably helped to inspire confidence, to decrease Judged by modern standards the business of the trunk lines the difficulty of obtaining necessary capital, and to increase the and other leading railways, previous to 1860, was of very limited probabilities of judicious and economical management. New proportions, and the average freight rates high, but the actual York was one of the first states to follow the example of Massa- transactions represented a remarkable advance on any of the chusetts in requiring annual returns to a state official or depart- railway operations of preceding periods. ment, but partly on account of the tardiness displayed by nearly The great utility of through lines as freight carriers consisted all other commonwealths, and the strong disposition of some largely in their transportation of merchandise westward, and managements to adopt close corporation" policy, the records the east-bound movement of freight possessing greater value of early railway operations are necessarily incomplete. per ton than grain, such as live stock. Strenuous efforts to In regard to carry flour eastward at low rates, however, were made, and this was probably the first comparatively cheap article moved THE TONNAGE OF AMERICAN RAILROADS IN 1860 over long distances in which successful competition with the the information contained in the following extract from the canals was established. preliminary report on the eighth census, shows the views then The first continuous line of railway to connect the lakes and prevailing, and it will be seen that the calculation is largely tide-water was that from Albany to Buffalo, now the New York based upon the returns made to the state governments of Central. It closely followed the route of the canal, and as it Massachusetts and New York:- was considered a competitor of the state works, the canal tolls "It is well ascertained that our railroads transport in the were imposed upon all freight it carried, in addition to the aggregate at least 850 tons of merchandise per annum to the railway charges. The state derived a large revenue from this mile of road in operation. Such a rate would give 26,000,000 source. The tax had a strong tendency to confine the freight tons as the total annual tonnage of railroads for the whole business of the railroad to the less bulky and more valuable or country. If we estimate the value of this tonnage at $150 per perishable articles. Andrews' report, made in 1852, says: "The ton, the aggregate value of the whole would be $3,900,000,000. tax was removed on the 1st of December, 1851, by an act of the Vast as this commerce is, more than three-quarters of it has legislature; hence the road is now brought into free compe- been created since 1850. To illustrate the correctness of the tition with the canal, and has, during the present season, car- estimate made, the following statement is added of the tonnage ried flour from Buffalo to Albany for sixty cents per barrel, transported by the railroads of the state of New York for 1860, which is nearly fifty cents below the average price by canal for with the estimated value of the same. The classifications are nearly twenty years subsequent to its opening." made by the companies:- In referring to New England roads, Andrews' Report of 1852 Kinds of freight. Tons Value Total says:- carried. per ton. value. "The distance from Boston to Ogdensburg is about 425 miles. Products of the forest 373,424 $20 00 $7,468,480 The rates charged for the transportation of a barrel of flour Products of animals 895,519 200 00 179,103,800 50 00 between the two places have ranged from sixty to seventy-five Vegetable food 1,103,640 55,182,000 Other agricultural products 143,219 15 00 2,148,055 cents per barrel, which is less than the cost on the Erie Canal Manufactures 511,916 250 00 127,979,000 for the same article from Buffalo to Albany (a distance of 363 Merchandise 783,811 500 00 391,905,500 miles) for many years after its opening." Other articles 930,244 10 00 9,302,440 The tonnage tax imposed by the legislature of Pennsylvania 4,741,773 $163 00 $773,089,275 upon the Pennsylvania Railroad had an important influence in restricting its early operations as a through freight carrier, If we make a deduction of one-quarter for duplications-a analogous to that arising in New York from the state tolls im- portion of the tonnage passing over more than one road-the posed on the New York Central. aggregate would be 3,556,330 tons, having a value of $579,681,790. In S. W. Roberts' lecture on the Portage road he says: The railroads of Massachusetts transported for the same "The charter of the Pennsylvania Railroad did not authorize year 4,094,369 tons; or, making the deductions for duplications, the use of the Portage Railroad, as the legislature was afraid of 3,070,027 tons, and having a value of $500,524,201. The num- competition with the main line of the public works. Thero ber of miles of railroad employed in the transportation of was also a tonnage tax imposed, to protect the business of the freight being 2,569 in the state of New York, and 1,317 in the main line during the season of canal navigation, which was at state of Massachusetts, with the deductions named, the amount the rate of five mills, or half a cent, per ton per mile, between of freight transported in these states average 1,700 tons per the 10th of March and the 1st of December in every year, but mile. We have estimated the tonnage of all the railroads of the railroad was to be free from the tonnage tax in what was the United States to average one-half the amount of the roads considered to be the winter season. Although this tax was in these states. That this is not an overestimate is shown by modified, it was not abolished until after the purchase of the the following statement of the tonnage of several interior main line by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company." lines:- Even the managers of roads exempt from such exactions Digitized by Google 166 MISCELLANEOUS TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENTS. could not then have regarded the reduction of freight charges 126,076 were through passengers. The gross receipts were to the low figures subsequently reached as a possibility. The $1,883,685 for coal transportation, $479,888 for transporting mer- prevailing sentiment in railway circles shortly before the close chandise, and $365,720 for carrying passengers, the mail, &c. of the sixth decade is typified by the fact that at a convention TRAFFIC AND RATES OF THE TRUNK LINES AND THEIR WESTERN held in New York, attended by officers of the four great lines CONNECTIONS. between the Atlantic and the west, a joint report was submitted by the superintendents of the several roads, in which they state The tendency towards a reduction of average freight rates, that "experience has proved that the lowest rates at which ordi- and an increase of tonnage on the trunk lines and their western nary freight can be carried to pay interest and expenses will connections is shown by the following statistics:- average about two cents per ton per mile for heavy agricultural PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD AND BRANCHES. products, three cents for groceries, and four cents for dry Tons of freight Tons moved Per ton mile Earnings Years. one mile. Earnings. Expenses. Net. from goods." At a subsequent convention of the railroad companies moved. Cents. Cents. Centa. freight. of Ohio and Indiana similar resolutions were adopted. 1855. 356,006 102,171,312 2.746 1.662 1 084 $2,805,306 On the railways of the state of New York in 1855, the average 1856. 454,092 119,836,501 2.707 1.662 1.045 3,244,292 receipts per passenger per mile were 1.95 cents; per ton of 1857 826,518 139,994,548 2.411 1.536 0.675 3,374,041 freight, 2.79 cents; per passenger or per ton, 2.38 cents; ex- 1858 1,046,899 162,121,735 2.181 1.289 0.892 3,536,206 1859 penses, 1.38 cents. 1,170,240 180,333,140 2.027 1.176 0.851 3,656,111 About 1855 the average cost of passenger transportation in NEW YORK CENTRAL. Massachusetts was 1.062 cents per passenger per mile, and the 1854. 549,805 99,309,600 2.954 1.309 1.645 $2,943,966 cost of merchandise transportation, 3.095 cents per ton per 1855. 670,073 114,827,792 3.270 1.341 1.929 3,755,320 mile. 1856. 932,844 165,819,708 3.046 1.542 1.504 5,052,059 There are few, if any, reports of any extensive railway move- 1857 1,075,589 165,515,934 3.187 1.698 1.489 5,275,876 ments during the sixth decade at a lower rate than 1} cents per 1858. 925 004 161,103,043 2.635 1.374 1.261 4,244,639 1859 ton per mile, and it was considered remarkable that, in con- 1,093,284 187,291,130 2.162 1.281 0.881 4,049,530 nection with the movement of agricultural products in the NEW YORK, LAKE ERIE AND WESTERN. Western states, the competitive railways of that region adopted 1852. 456,460 96,697,695 1.948 1.026 0.922 $1,883,198 that rate, which seems to have been the "cut rate" of the 1853. 631,039 101 626,522 2.496 1.277 1.219 2,537,215 period. 1854. 743,250 130,808,034 2.576 1.406 1.170 3,650,590 In October, 1853, Henry C. Carey wrote as follows: "Agree- 1855. 842,055 150,673,997 2.424 1.155 1.269 2,653,002 ably to a table now before me, when corn is worth at market 1856. 983,221 183,458,043 2.477 1.169 1.308 4,545,722 $24.75 per ton, it is worth nothing at a distance of only 160 1857 978,067 165,100,850 2.457 0.897 1.560 4,097,610 1858. 816,964 165,895,636 2.316 0.649 1.667 3,843,310 miles when it is required to be carried by a wagon, because the 1859. 869,072 147,127,039 1.621 1.344 0.277 3,195,869 cost of transportation is equal to the selling price. By rail- road, where competition exists, the cost of transporting the same ton PITTSBURGH, FORT WAYNE AND CHICAGO. is set down at $2.40, one and one-half cents per ton per mile, and 1857. 304,769 28,893,960 2.27 1.57 0.70 $567,686 there remains to the farmer $22.35, the amount of tax that he 1858. 285,663 35,168,323 1.90 1.32 0.58 667,269 is saved by the construction of the road." 1859. 362,606 58,421,205 1.65 1 18 0.47 693,995 The tonnage of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, which On the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 43,304 tons were probably carried a greater number of tons of freight during the forwarded from Chicago, in 1858, at an average rate of 2.380 sixth decade than any other railway in the United States, con- cents per ton per mile; and 69,088 tons were forwarded from sisted in 1859 of 1,632,932 tons of coal and 334,609 tons of mer- Chicago in 1859 at an average rate of 2.292 cents per ton per chandise. The number of passengers was 379,406, of whom mile. MISCELLANEOUS TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENTS. POST ROUTES IN 1850 AND 1860. Railroad Steamboat Turnpike and other road Total length in EW things illustrate more forcibly the nature of important routes, miles. routes, miles. miles. F routes, miles. 1850. 1860. 1850. 1860. 1850. 1860. 1850. 1860. transportation changes during the sixth decade, the in- Tennessee 833 21 7,371 7,087 7,371 7,941 crease of railway utility and mileage, and the rapidity of various Arkansas 1,134 5,463 11,723 kinds of progress than the post routes of the years 1850 and Texas 78 80 2,185 7,618 16,193 7,698 18,456 1860. Statistics bearing on this subject include the following:- Kentucky 379 140 140 6,978 7,763 7,118 8,282 Ohio 280 Turnpike and 3,401 439 187 11,548 9,267 12,267 12,855 Railroad Steamboat Total length in routes, miles. routes, miles. other road miles. Michigan 344 937 424 725 4,420 5,178 5,188 6,840 routes, miles. 1850. 1860. 1850. 1860. 1850. 1860. 1850. 1860. Indiana 104 1,509 7,158 6,451 7,262 7,960 Maine 494 4,284 4,416 Illinois 2,591 100 10,314 7,606 10,314 10,297 N. Hampshire 429 60 1,219 2,213 1,780 Wisconsin 907 60 4,572 5,467 4,572 6,434 Vermont 489 1,732 2,519 2,221 Iowa 140 379 3,664 7,313 3,664 8,232 Massachusetts 1,297 240 1,185 3,241 2,722 Minnesota 270 620 419 4,598 689 5,218 Rhode Island 109 28 434 363 Missouri 440 1,156 659 8,546 13,385 9,702 14,484 Connecticut 745 260 1,852 1,063 Kansas 5,722 New York 1,191 2,893 989 160 11,217 7,890 13,397 10,951 California 22 260 290 3,469 4,880 3,729 5,192 New Jersey 217 455 28 12 2,092 1,679 2,336 2,146 Oregon 130 121 405 500 535 631 Pennsylvania. 458 1,568 85 10,964 11,465 11,422 13,118 W. Territory 340 416 756 Delaware 85 488 454 488 539 Nebraska 1,772 Maryland 416 843 2,022 2,100 2,438 2,943 Utah 1,450 Virginia 296 1,360 610 637 11,017 11,748 11,923 13,745 PLANK ROADS AND STREET RAILWAYS. North Carolina. 247 648 282 132 7,402 8,301 7,931 9,081 South Carolina. 247 1,054 880 175 4,327 4,269 5,464 5,498 There were two developments of the sixth decade which had Georgia 668 1,284 358 332 5,995 5,125 6,921 6,741 widely different destinies. One was a furore in favor of the Florida 23 142 280 1,860 2,304 2,328 2,607 4,330 construction of plank roads, of which scarcely a trace is now Alabama* 7,004 7,803 left, on account of the perishable nature of the materials used, Mississippi 59 693 75 276 5,326 7,296 5,460 8,265 and the other was a vigorous start towards the construction of Louisiana 304 1,195 1,895 2,956 5,612 4,151 7,811 city passenger street railways, which has been followed by Exclusive of railroads. large additions to the number of such enterprises. Digitized by Google MISCELLANEOUS TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENTS. 167 Plank roads were in some states designed to serve as feeders Southern Pacific, was the shortest and cheapest, and about or of steam railroads, or, at all events, to act as decided improve- shortly before 1860 it was the prevailing opinion that it would ments of the roads leading to railway stations, and sanguine furnish the first railway route to California. expectations of their utility for such purposes were at one time cherished. A number of laws authorizing the formation of THE OVERLAND PONY EXPRESS. plank-road companies were passed, and a few legislatures au- Meanwhile telegraphic communication had not been estab- thorized the grant of state aid to such undertakings. The move- lished through the vast districts west of the Missouri, mail com- ment was first commenced in or about 1846, but did not assume munication was frequently dilatory and uncertain, and the de- very extensive proportions before 1850. Soon after that year sire to secure the rapid dispatch of letters between such points it was reported that a number of plank-road companies had as New York and San Francisco was becoming intense. This been very successful in New York and Illinois, and that they state of affairs, and propositions pending in Congress, led to a had earned large dividends, amounting in a few cases to the remarkable incident, typical of the spirit of the period, which entire cost of the road in a single year. A number of compa- was described by the St. Joseph (Missouri) News in the follow- nies were organized in Pennsylvania and various other states. ing extract from that journal:- But it did not require much experience to satisfy the public "In 1859 St. Joseph was the terminus of railroad communi- that this movement was in the wrong direction, not because cation. Beyond, the stage-coach, the saddle-horse, and the ox- improvements of the roads were undesirable, but because their trains were the only means of commerce and communication condition deteriorated after the planks decayed, and the pro- with the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Slope. In the visions for keeping them in repair were generally totally inade- winter of 1860 there was a Wall street lobby at Washington quate. trying to get $5,000,000 for carrying the mails overland one The street railways, on the other hand, being usually laid year between New York and San Francisco. The proposition down on paved city streets, with iron tracks, and catering to was extremely cheeky, and William H. Russell, backed by the wants of increasing populations, were frequently attended Secretary of War Floyd, resolved to give the lobby a cold with remarkable and enduring financial success, and although shower bath. He, therefore, offered to bet $200,000 that he very few of such lines had been in existence in 1850, by 1860 could put on a mail line from Sacramento to St. Joseph that their length and cost in leading cities were reported to be as should make the distance-1,950 miles-in ten days. The bet follows:- was taken and the 8th of April fixed upon as the day of start- Length, miles. Cost. Boston 67.39 $2,964,875 ing. Mr. Russell called upon his partner and general manager New York 61.79 5,002,835 of the business upon the plains, Mr. A. B. Miller, now a citizen of Brooklyn 79.92 2,071,678 Denver, and stated what he had done, and asked him if he could Hoboken 1.79 32,000 perform the feat. Miller replied: 'Yes, sir; I will do it, and do Cincinnati 17.38 403,163 it by a pony express.' To accomplish this Mr. Miller purchased St. Louis 26.30 576,590 three hundred of the fleetest horses he could find in the west, Philadelphia 148.00 3,811,700 and employed 125 men. Eighty of these men were to be post- 402.57 $14,862,840 riders. These he selected with reference to their light weight PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION MOVEMENTS WEST OF THE MISSOURI. and their known daring courage. It was very essential that the horses should be loaded as light as possible; therefore, the While railroads had gridironed a large portion of the coun- lighter the man the better. It was necessary that some por- try east of the Mississippi, and a few lines had been extended tions of the route should be run at the rate of twenty miles an west of that river, a great wave of emigration was moving west hour. The horses were stationed from ten to twenty miles of the Missouri to Kansas and Nebraska, Colorado, California, apart, and each rider would be required to ride sixty miles. Oregon, and the travel and trade which grew out of this move- For the change of animals and the shifting of the mails two ment, and out of the Utah war, and the necessity of supplying minutes were allowed. Where there were no stage stations at frontier forts, was conducted chiefly by such primitive methods proper distances, tents sufficient to hold one man and two as had been followed a generation before by the pioneers who horses were provided. Indians would sometimes give chase, had sought homes in eastern portions of the Mississippi valley. but their cayuse ponics made but poor show in their stern The irksome nature of the protracted journeys over excess- chase after Miller's thoroughbreds, many of which could make ively long routes, and the time lost and sufferings endured by a single mile in a minute and fifty seconds. those who endeavored to reach the Pacific coast or Rocky All arrangements being completed, a signal gun on the mountain districts with ox teams, greatly heightened public steamer at Sacramento proclaimed the meridian of April 8th, interest in the 1860-the hour for starting-when Border Ruffian, Mr. Miller's SURVEYS OF PROPOSED ROUTES FOR PACIFIC RAILWAYS, private saddle horse, with Billy Baker in the saddle, bounded which were duly described in official documents, discussed in away toward the foot hills of the Sierra Nevadas, and made his Congress, and made part of the subject-matter of platforms of ride of twenty miles in forty-nine minutes. The snows were political parties. A presidential candidate was nominated in deep in the mountains, and one rider was lost for several hours 1856 whose leading claim to distinction was that he had been in a snow storm; and after the Salt Lake valley was reached one of the earliest pathfinders. Five leading routes were sur- additional speed became necessary to reach St. Joseph on time. veyed, at the expense of the Federal government, from the From here on all went well until the Platte was to be crossed Mississippi or its tributaries to the Pacific, and modifications at Julesburg. The river was up and running rapidly, but the of four of these routes were also investigated. The cost of one rider plunged his horse into the flood, only, however, to mire near the thirty-eighth and thirty-ninth parallels was considered in the quicksand and drown. The courier succeeded in reach- 80 great that it was pronounced impracticable. The estimated ing the shore, with his mail-bag in hand, and traveled ten miles cost of the others ranged from $68,970,000, for the line pro- on foot to reach the next relay. Johnny Fry, a popular rider posed near the thirty-second parallel, from Fulton to San of his day, was to make the finish. He had sixty miles to ride Pedro, 1,618 miles in length, to $169,210,265, for a route near with six horses to do it. When the last courier arrived at the the thirty-fifth parallel, from Fort Smith to San Francisco, 2,174 sixty-mile post, out from St. Joseph, he was one hour behind miles in length. The estimated cost of the route near the time. A heavy rain had set in, and the roads were slippery. Two forty-first and forty-second parallels, via South Pass from hundred thousand dollars might turn upon a single minute. Council Bluffs to Benicia, 2,032 miles in length, which ap- Fry had just three hours and thirty minutes in which to win. proximately represents the route of the Union and Central This was the finish of the longest race, for the largest stakes, Pacific, was $116,095,000. The estimated cost of the route near ever run in America. When the time for his arrival was nearly the forty-seventh and forty-ninth parallels, from St. Paul to up, at least five thousand people stood upon the river bank, Vancouver, 1,864 miles in length, was $130,781,000. It ap- with eyes turned toward the woods from which the horse and proximately represents the line of the Northern Pacific. Of the its rider should emerge into the open country in the rear of four routes considered practicable, the one nearest the south- Elwood-one mile from the finish. Tick, tick, went the thou- western boundary of the Republic, which corresponds with the sands of watches! The time was nearly up! But nearly seven Digitized by Google 168 IMPROVEMENT OF NATIONAL WATERWAYS. minutes remained! Hark ! a shout goes up from the assembled the bow and makes the run of the last mile in one minute and multitude. 'He comes! he comes!' The noble little mare, fifty seconds-landing upon the ferry-boat with five minutes Sylph, the daughter of little Arthur, darts like an arrow from and a fraction to spare." IMPROVEMENT OF NATIONAL WATERWAYS. THERE is is is , useful class of improvements, or aids to trans- In the progress of the discussion of the constitutional issues, which has possessed varying degrees of import- four sets of theories have been promulgated, viz.:- ance at different periods, and which began to secure during or First. That the constitutional objections are of no practical shortly before the sixth decade additional attention. They are moment, and should, therefore, be disregarded, in behalf of all works conducted under the authority and at the expense of the meritorious works on land or water which possessed genuine United States government for the purpose of facilitating the national importance. navigation of the numerous external and internal waterways Second. That the constitutional objections could and should of the country. The coast lines of the Atlantic, the Pacific, the be avoided by an amendment of the constitution, which was lakes, and the gulf of Mexico, and the channels of tidal and the plan proposed by President Madison, who succeeded Jeffer- non-tidal rivers, afford illimitable opportunities for wise and son, and who made the following reference to this subject in unwise, judicious and injudicious, outlays of public money, his annual message of December 5th, 1815:- which have as their ultimate object or avowed purpose the "Among the means of advancing the public interest, the diminution of the dangers to which water craft are exposed, occasion is a proper one for recalling the attention of Congress the removal of obstructions, the deepening, concentration, or to the great importance of establishing throughout our country enlargement of channels, and the construction or improvement the roads and canals which can best be executed under the national of harbors. authority. No objects within the circle of political economy 80 richly It would be impossible to assign limits to the sums that could repay the expense bestowed on them. There are none, the utility of be expended if the country persistently engaged in the perform- which is more universally ascertained and acknowledged; none ance, to the fullest extent, of all the tasks involved in such pro- that do more honor to the Government, whose wise and en- jects as have been proposed, and their logical counterparts, in- larged patriotism duly appreciates them. Nor is there any cluding the complete realization of this poetic conception:- country which presents a field, where nature invites more the Bid the broad arch the dangerous flood contain, art of man, to complete her own work for their accommoda- The mole, projected, break the roaring main; tion and benefit. The considerations are strengthened, more- Back to his bounds the subject-sea command, over, by the political effect of these facilities for intercommuni- And roll obedient rivers through the land- tion, in bringing and binding more closely together the various These honors Peace to happy nations brings; parts of our extended confederacy. These are imperial arts, and worthy kings. Whilst the states, individually, with a laudable enterprise In connection with such undertakings many complicated and emulation, avail themselves of their local advantages, by questions have arisen, relating to the extent to which it is new roads, by navigable canals, and by improving the streams right or expedient for the general government to undertake susceptible of navigation, the general government is the more internal improvements of any kind or to improve rivers and urged to similar undertakings, requiring a national jurisdiction, harbors; and the manner in which appropriations should be and national means, by the prospect of thus systematically distributed between multitudinous projects. Some adminis- completing 80 inestimable a work. And it is a happy reflection trations and statesmen have regarded certain classes of works that any defect of constitutional authority which may be encountered as unconstitutional which other administrations and statesmen can be supplied in a mode which the constitution itself has providently warmly approved. So much importance has been attached to pointed out." these constitutional issues that they have at various periods Third. That the constitutional restrictions were of controlling exercised a controlling influence. The condition of the trea- significance; and that the law-making powers should scrupu- sury has also affected, in a notable degree, the character and lously respect them. This doctrine was strongly asserted in magnitude of the expenditures authorized at different times. veto messages of several presidents, including Madison, Mon- roe, Jackson, and Pierce, but with special emphasis by THE CONSTITUTIONAL QUESTIONS General Jackson in exercising the veto power on sundry bills began to atract attention some time after the first important authorizing subscriptions to the stock of turnpike companies, works of internal improvement were undertaken by the Gov- appropriations for building light-houses, light-boats, bencons, ernment, which was during Jefferson's administration, when monuments, placing buoys, and improving harbors and direct- Gallatin favored not only the construction of the national ing surveys, authorizing subscriptions to the stock of a com- road, or turnpike, but various other roads and also appropria- pany chartered to construct the Louisville and Portland Canal, tions intended to promote the construction of canals, such as and an act making an appropriation for improving the naviga- the Chesapeake and Ohio and the canal which connects the tion of the Wabash river. Delaware with the Chesapeake. There were then special rea- Fourth. That the most serious constitutional objections could sons for unusual efforts to improve internal communications be obviated by concert of action between the National or Fed- which grew out of the fact that the first great field of develop- eral government, and the respective states in which various ment opened after partial recovery from the struggles and works of conceded importance were located, such as placing derangements caused by the protracted war of the Revolution, the Cumberland or National road, for instance, under the con- viz., opportunities for very extensive and profitable participa- trol and direction of the various states it traversed; or making tion in the carrying trade of Europe, occasioned by the pro- donations of public lands to Wisconsin for the improvement of tracted wars in which her rival countries were engaged while the Fox and Mississippi rivers, or to Indiana for river or canal the United States remained a neutral power,-were waning in improvements, &c. magnitude, and the necessity for increasing attention to home In actual practice, nearly all possible modifications of these development was strongly felt. Loss of great commercial ad- doctrines, between the extreme limits of latitudinarianism and vantages enjoyed during the Napoleonic wars threw this coun- strict construction, have been applied to internal and coast try back upon its own resources and steadily stimulated nume- improvements by different congresses and administrations, and rous and diverse movements originated in various quarters during a lengthy period nearly all interior water improvements for the purpose of increasing the facilities for internal trans- were made by the respective states, only a very limited amount portation. of aid being granted by the general government. Digitized by Google 0 a a . 0 5 N © X n a X Original Drawings of Best Friend, first American Locomotive built for Actual Service. o O o o O Grasshopper Locomotive, Constructed for the Baltimore and Ohio in 1833. EARLY AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google LIGHT-HOUSES, LIGHT-SHIPS, AND BUOYS. 169 The real importance of the constitutional questions dimin- country similar exactions have not been made. In some re- ished after the spects, and at many periods, this exemption has been beneficial READINESS AND ABILITY OF PRIVATE CAPITAL to all concerned, but it has probably led, at other periods, to a to construct the most necessary works became demonstrated. perilous neglect or postponement of useful works; and the ex- This view of the subject was forcibly illustrated in an address, tension of the principle of treating nearly all national improve- delivered by Hon. Levi Woodbury in New York in 1849, in ments of waterways, and safeguards of navigation, as govern- which he said:- mental bounties which were not to be paid for by those specially "I enter no debatable ground as to whose expense great in- benefited by their use, to almost every class of oceanic, river, ternal improvements should be made, under the restrictions and harbor improvements, has probably given rise to much of belonging to our political systems; nor whether much exists in the uncertainty in regard to the amount and character of the such objections as I-once heard in the senate to removing a work performed at various periods. sand-bar at the mouth of the Mississippi-the great Mediter- In all fundamental discussions of questions relating to the ranean sea of some eight or ten sovereign states-that it 'had nature of the authority or organization that should provide the been placed there by God and nature, and hence should means for expensive improvements of the routes over which remain;' nor to what particular localities they ought to be persons and property can be or are to be moved; one of the applied, except that they be those of national importance to most important of the vital issues involved, is whether the foreign trade or to internal commerce among the states. But burden of the contemplated outlay is to be partly borne by this question will be one of diminished magnitude hereafter, as the particular persons and interests benefited, or wholly by an the enterprise and capital of our country have at last attained entire community, state, or nation; and in a general sense, it such a giant growth that where a prospect of remuneration exists, may be assumed that this question has practically been decided whether with or without public aid, mountains will be tunneled or in this country in favor of the exemption of water carriers from cloven down, valleys filled, rivers bridged, sand-bars removed, charges based on national expenditures which are intended to and harbors excavated. Already have the iron rail and steam improve the channels they use, while traffic moved over land horse pierced through the White Hills, though sustained only routes is generally expected to pay a proportionate share of the by private means; overcome, in like manner, the ridges of the cost of the improvements of the roads over which it is moved, Green mountains, and are fast approaching, nothing daunted, either indirectly, through local taxation, or directly, in addi- the Alleghenics, and seek a passage through the gorges of the tions to the freight bills of railway companies. Rocky mountains, even to the Pacific, without fear or faint- So far as the primitive condition of water channels is con- heartedness, if but backed by grants of the public domain, cerned, this advantage of water carriers is entirely legitimate which, thus applied, under proper guards, are certainly in the or a bounty of nature that is freely placed at their disposal, end most likely to enrich the donor most." without money and without price. Formerly it conferred an Conflicting influences have resulted in the adoption of absolute or overwhelming superiority upon localities and in- terests endowed with excellent watercourses, or convenient A SEE-SAW POLICY, access to them, over all localities and interests that were involving unnecessary or useless expenditures for particular obliged to depend exclusively upon overland methods of trans- purposes at some periods, and a refusal or neglect to make any portation, but this superiority or advantage has been neutral- provision whatever for works of great importance at other ized, to a very great extent, by enormous reductions in the cost times. This tendency to rush from one extreme to another, of land movements, and it may eventually become a serious and to spend either too much or too little money for almost question how far due regard for the welfare of the entire body any given object, in any particular year, has been materially of the American people, including many millions who reside increased by the adoption of a system of making the Govern- at points remote from excellent water channels, is consistent ment outlays gratuitous in nearly all cases, 80 that instead of with some of the actual and proposed national expenditures being governed by business principles and constructing im- for river, harbor, and canal projects which are not expected to provements. of the kind that would probably be of sufficient yield any direct return or revenue. importance to yield a revenue proportionate to the interest of Under the system now in force, the general government their cost, this element or consideration has been almost wholly may do any conceivable thing, or nothing, in behalf of the ignored, and it depends upon favor, or temporary influence, transportation interests of districts located near navigable whether a particular project will or will not receive any aid waters, while little or nothing in the way of aid or appropria- whatever, in any special year, and it is always to some extent tions from Congress can be expected by districts that are uncertain how much will be appropriated at any session of obliged to depend exclusively upon land routes. Congress for the continuance of any work. The matters thus briefly referred to gain importance from The United States adopted at the outset, in the first task the wonderful extent of the actual and possible exterior and assumed in connection with the protection of nautical opera- interior water channels with which this country has been mag- tions, which was the construction and maintenance of light- nificently endowed, the numerous competitive struggles be- houses, a course different from that pursued by most other tween land and water carriers, and the great differences in the civilized governments, inasmuch as it was the general custom degree in which various communities are directly benefited by elsewhere to impose on vessels light-house charges correspond- such appropriations for the improvement of waterways as are ing with the sums spent for maintaining them, while in this usually made. LIGHT-HOUSES, LIGHT-SHIPS, AND BUOYS. O NE of the first subjects over which the general government of exacting from the vessels benefited by the light-houses the assumed control to the exclusion of state authority, about cost of maintaining them has been general among European or before the time of the adoption of the Federal constitution, nations, although of late years there are a few exceptions, with the free consent of the states, was the maintenance of while the United States government has rendered all its light-houses along the Atlantic coast. Originally they were light-house service gratuitously. In addition to the light-house few in number. The first light-house built in the present limits near Boston it is known that the ports of Portland, Portsmouth, of the United States was erected at Little Brewster Island, in Newburyport, Cape Ann, Plymouth, Nantucket, Newport, New Boston harbor, in 1715-16, at a cost of £2,385 17s. 8d., at the London, New York, the capes of the Delaware, the capes of expense of the General Court of the Province of Massachusetts. the Chesapeake, the port of Charleston, and the mouth of the It was maintained by the on all Savannah river were all lighted previous to 1789. Since that incoming and outgoing period great additions have been made in the number of 22 Digitized by Google 1 ? LIGHT-HOUSES, LIGHT-SHIPS, AND BUOYS. light-houses, and in the list of other classes of available Atlantic Aids. Pacific Lake Total for and gulf Rivers. entire danger signals, such as buoys, beacons, and light vessels. coast. coasts. coast. coast, 1885, Originally such works were located exclusively on the Atlantic Third-order lights 26 4 21 51 coast, which, on account of its importance as a channel for Three-and-a-half-order lights 3 8 11 nearly all extensive freight movements between the original Fourth-order lights 130 16 69 224 Fifth-order lights 98 4 31 133 states, and between this country and foreign nations, im- Sixth-order lights 68 58 126 peratively needed all the aid of the kind furnished, and Lens lanterns 25 24 4 53 received much less attention than was desirable. After the Range lenses 17 17 acquisition of Louisiana and Florida, the commencement of River lights 130 9 1,061 1,200 extensive shipments on the lakes, the acquisition of California Reflectors 34 4 38 and establishment of settlements on the Pacific coast, and the Light-ships in position 22 22 improvement of numerous rivers and harbors, the field of light- Lighted buoys 4 4 house operations expanded to an enormous extent. Up to a Total lighted aids 622 61 207 1,061 1,951 period near the close of the sixth decade the total national ex- Fog signals operated by steam penditures for such purposes had been about $10,000,000, or at or hot air 34 16 21 71 the average rate per annum of less than $150,000, while shortly Fog signals operated by clock- before 1860 the annual expenditures were nearly $1,000,000. work 114 5 12 131 On June 30th, 1859, there were 491 light stations on the Day beacons 270 43 1 314 oceanic, lake, and gulf coasts, and on the shores of various Whistling buoys 27 8 35 bays, sounds, and rivers, and between 5,000 and 6,000 buoys Bell buoys 34 1 35 and beacons. Subsequently the number of lights was greatly Other buoys 3,190 161 347 8,698 increased, especially on the shores of interior navigable rivers, Total unlighted aids 3,669 233 382 4,284 and there has been a corresponding increase in the outlays for Total aids to navigation 4,290 294 589 1,061 6,235 such purposes. A very useful life-saving service has also been THE LOCATION OF THE DISTRICTS established along the seacoasts. The right and duty of the and number of aids in each in 1885 are shown by the following general government to provide such aids to commerce has statements:- rarely been seriously questioned, and an immense amount of The first district extends from the north-eastern boundary of useful service has been rendered by them to water craft engaged the United States, Maine, to and including Hampton harbor, in domestic and foreign trade. New Hampshire, and includes all the aids to navigation on the EXPANSION OF THE LIGHT-HOUSE SYSTEM. coasts of Maine and New Hampshire. In this district there The extraordinary extent to which the light-house system are- has expanded since 1860 is shown by the annual reports of the Light-houses and lighted beacons 54 light-house board, made to the Secretary of the Treasury. The Day or unlighted beacons 93 report for the fiscal year ended June 30th, 1885, embraces an Fog signals operated by steam or hot-air engines 10 estimate of $2,144,000 for general appropriations, and $1,346,250 Fog signals operated by clock work 8 Whistling buoys in position 7 for special appropriations, and it states that at the close of the Bell buoys in position 10 year there were under the control of the light-house establish- Other buoys in position 481 ment the following-named aids to navigation:- Steamer Iris, buoy tender and for supply and inspection 1 Light-houses and lighted beacons, including stake lights, in Third, Steamer Myrtle, used for construction and repair in the first and Sixth, and Eighth Light-house districts 864 second districts 1 Light-ships in position 22 Light-ships for relief 7 The second district extends from Hampton harbor, New Lighted buoys in position 4 Hampshire, to Gooseberry Point (entrance to Buzzard's bay), Fog signals operated by steam or hot air 71 Massachusetts, embraces all the aids to navigation on the coast Fog signals operated by clock-work 131 of Massachusetts. In this district there are- Beacon lights on the western rivers 1,061 Light-houses and lighted beacons 63 Day or unlighted beacons 314 Light-ships in position 8 Whistling buoys in position 35 Light-ships for relief 2 Bell buoys in position 35 Day or unlighted beacons 53 Other buoys in position, including 178 pile buoys and stakes in Fog signals operated by steam or hot-air engines 7 Fifth district, and 14 buoys in Alaskan waters 3,712 Fog signals operated by clock work 8 In the construction, care, and maintenance of these aids to Bell boat in position 1 navigation there were employed:- Whistling buoys in position 6 Bell buoys in position 5 Steam tenders 24 Other buoys in position 455 Steam launches 3 Ice buoys for winter use 8 Sailing tenders 2 Steamers Verbena and Putnam, buoy tenders and for supply and Light keepers, including laborers in charge of western river lights 1,927 inspection 2 Other employés, including crews of light-ships and tenders 663 Steamer Myrtle, used for construction and repair in the first and During that year there had been an increase of 101 lighted second districts 1 aids and 207 unlighted aids to navigation, making the number of the former 1,951, and of the latter 4,284, a total of 6,235. The third district extends from Gooseberry Point, Massachu- They were distributed among fifteen districts, into which all setts, to include Squan Inlet, New Jersey, and embraces all the portions of the oceanic, lake, gulf, and river regions to which aids to navigation on the sca and sound coasts of Rhode Island, light-house or analogous aids to navigation had been furnished Connecticut, and New York, Narragansett and New York bays, are divided. In addition to the general supervision of the Providence and Hudson rivers, Whitehall Narrows, and lakes light-house board, each of these districts is in special charge of Champlain and Memphremagog. In this district there are- an inspector, who is an officer of the United States navy, and Light-house and lighted beacons 156 an engineer, who belongs to the engineer corps of the United Light-ships in position 5 States army. Light-ships for relief. 3 The number of the aids to navigation of each class which Lighted buoy 1 Day or unlighted beacons 41 were furnished in 1885 on the various coasts and rivers is shown Fog signals operated by steam or hot-air engines 11 by the following table:- Fog bells operated by clock work 31 Atlantic Aids. and gulf Pacific Lake Total for Rivers. entire Whistling buoys in position 8 coast. coasts. coast. coast. 1885. Bell buoys in position 4 Electric lights 1 1 Other buoys in position 514 First-order lights 39 12 51 Steamers John Rodgers and Cactus, buoy tenders and for supply Second-order lights 16 1 3 20 and inspection 2 Digitized by Google LIGHT-HOUSES, LIGHT-SHIPS, AND BUOYS. 171 Steamer Fern, used for supplying with illuminating and cleansing Day or unlighted beacons 8 materials the light stations of the Atlantic and gulf coasts 1 Fog signals operated by steam or hot-air engines. 2 Steamers Mistletoe and Grace Darling, used for works of construc- Fog signals operated by clock work 5 tion and repair of light houses, fog signals, &c 2 Whistling buoys in position 2 The fourth district extends from Squan Inlet, New Jersey, to Other buoys in position 84 Steamer Pansy, buoy tender and for supply and inspection 1 and including Metomkin Inlet, Virginia. It includes the sea- Steamer Arbutus, for construction and repairs in the seventh and coasts of New Jersey below the Highlands of Navesink, the eighth districts 1 bay-coasts of New Jersey and Delaware, navigable route of the Schooner Mignonette, for construction and repairs in the seventh Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, seacoasts of Delaware and and eighth districts 1 Maryland, and part of the seacoast of Virginia. In this dis- [No report of the ninth district was made in 1885, but the trict there are- creation of a new district was recommended.] Light-houses and lighted beacons 46 The tenth district extends from the mouth of St. Regis river, Light-ships in position 4 New York, to and including Grassy Island, Detroit river, Michi- Light-ship for relief 1 gan, and embraces all the aids to navigation on the American Day or unlighted beacon 1 shores of the St. Lawrence river, lake Ontario, lake Erie, and Fog signals operated by steam or hot-air engines 3 the Detroit river, within those limits. In this district there Fog signals operated by clock work 7 Whistling buoys in position 3 are- Bell buoys in position 2 Light-houses and lighted beacons 67 Iron ice buoys in position 3 Fog signals operated by clock work 5 Other buoys in position 158 Buoys in position 164 Steamer Geranium, buoy tender and for supply and inspection 1 Steamer Haze, buoy tender and for supply and inspection 1 The fifth district extends from Metomkin Inlet, Virginia, to The eleventh district embraces all aids to navigation on the include New River Inlet, North Carolina, and embraces part of northern and north-western lakes above Grassy Island Light the seacoast of Virginia and North Carolina, Chesapeake bay, station, Detroit river, and includes lakes St. Clair, Huron, the sounds of North Carolina, and the James and Potomac Michigan, and Superior, and the straits connecting them. In rivers. In this district there are- this district there are- Light-houses and lighted beacons 93 Light-houses and lighted beacons 140 Day or unlighted beacons 12 Day or unlighted beacons 1 Fog signal operated by steam engine 1 Fog signals operated by steam 21 Fog signals operated by clock work 53 Fog signals operated by clock work 7 Lighted buoys in position 2 Bell buoy in position 1 Whistling buoy in position 1 Other buoys in position 183 Bell buoys in position 2 Steamer Dahlia, buoy tender and for supply and inspection 1 Other buoys in position, including pile buoys and stakes 1,036 Steam barge Warrington, used for construction and repair 1 Steamer Jessamine, used in construction and repair 1 The twelfth district extends from the boundary line between Steam-launch Nettle, used in construction and repair 1 California and Mexico to the boundary line between California Steamers Holly and Violet, buoy tenders and for supply and in- spection 2 and Oregon, and embraces all the aids to navigation on the Steam-launch Bramble, used to supply gas to the beacons in the coasts and bays of California. In this district there are- sounds of North Carolina 1 Light-houses and lighted beacons 22 Day or unlighted beacons 29 The sixth district extends from New River Inlet, North Caro- Fog signals operated by steam or hot-air engines 12 lina, to and including Cape Canaveral, Florida, and includes all Fog signals operated by clock work 3 the aids to navigation within these limits on the coasts of North Whistling buoys in position 6 Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. In this district Buoys in position 34 there are- Steamer Manzanita, buoy tender and for supply and inspection 1 Light-houses and lighted beacons 110 The thirteenth district extends from the southern boundary of Light-ships in position 3 Oregon to the boundary between the United States and British Light-ships for relief 1 Columbia, and embraces all aids to navigation on the Pacific Lighted buoys in position 1 coast of Oregon and Washington Territory, and in the Columbia Day or unlighted beacons 22 and Willamette rivers, straits of Fuca and Puget sound. There Fog bells operated by machinery 2 are in the district- Whistling buoys in position 4 Bell buoys in position Light-houses and lighted beacons 39 11 Day or unlighted beacons 14 Other buoys in position 258 Fog signals operated by steam 4 Steamer Wistaria, buoy tender and used for inspection and supply 1 Fog signals operated by clock work 2 Schooner Pharos, used for construction and repair 1 Whistling buoys in position 2 The seventh district extends from just south of Cape Canaveral, Other buoys in position 127 Florida, to the mouth of the Perdido river, Florida, and includes Steamer Shubrick, buoy tender and for supply and inspection 1 all the aids to navigation on the Atlantic and gulf coasts of The fourteenth district extends from Pittsburgh, Pa., to Cairo, Florida within these limits. There are in this district- Ill., a distance of 964 miles, and embraces all the aids to navi- Light-houses and lighted beacons 19 gation on the Ohio river. In this district there are- Day or unlighted beacons 40 Fixed beacon lights 416 Whistling buoys in position 1 Floating beacon lights 22 Other buoys in position 201 Steamer Lily, for supply and inspection 1 Steamer Laurel, buoy tender and for supply and inspection 1 The fifteenth district extends on the Mississippi river from the Steamer Arbutus, used for construction and repairs in the seventh head of navigation to New Orleans, on the Missouri to Kansas and eighth districts 1 City, and on the Red river a distance of 8 miles, being, in all, a Schooner Mignonette, used for construction and repairs in the seventh and eighth districts distance of over 2,500 miles, and embraces all the aids to navi- 1 The eighth district extends from the mouth of the Perdido gation within these limits. In this district there are- river, Florida, to the mouth of the Rio Grande, the southern Beacon lights 623 boundary of Texas, and includes all the aids to navigation on Steamer Joseph Henry, for supply and inspection 1 the gulf coast within the above limits, and the Mississippi Steam launch Ivy, for supply and inspection 1 sound, lake Pontchartrain, lake Maurepas, and the Mississippi It will be seen from the above statements that the operations river below New Orleans. In this district there are- of the light-house system not only include a variety of appli- Light-houses and lighted beacons (including six stake lights on the ances for aiding navigation on all national oceanic, gulf, and Mississippi river) 55 lake coasts, but also many river lights, the number of the latter Light-ships in position 2 in 1885 being 1,200, and the rivers illuminated including the Digitized by Google 172 LIGHT-HOUSES AND LIGHTING APPARATUS. Hudson, Delaware, James, Potomac, Ohio, Detroit, Mississippi, but with a marked tendency to a notable improvement at Missouri, and Columbia. nearly all points, at all periods, either in their number or char- The aids furnished are necessarily, to some extent, in a acter, or both respects, and as new methods of lighting have transition state, M they are liable to decay or various injuries, been devised they have usually been promptly adopted. LIGHT-HOUSES AND LIGHTING APPARATUS. great task presented was the construction of light- consisting of a 10-inch whistle, a 30-horse power locomotive some of which are in localities that rendered their boiler, a 4X9 inch vertical engine, whistle gear, whistle valve, erection peculiarly difficult. At first a style of architecture force pump, and inspirator. There is also a boiler-iron water resembling that of the first light-house in the country was closely tank of 50 cubic feet capacity, sufficient to fill one boiler with adhered to, consisting of a solid stone edifice circular or taper- water. ing, with the smallest diameter possible for the construction of In connection with the lighting of rivers a class of lights a spiral staircase and just enough space on the top to provide peculiar to the United States, known as stake lights, and which room for such lights as were necessary. But during later years are used extensively on the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio various deviations from the old style were authorized, some of was adopted. They were substituted in lieu of permanent which consist of the erection of light-houses of a class best structures, on account of the variability of the channels of described by their title of iron skeleton tower light-houses. these rivers. They consist of a large lantern or locomotive An article on light-house engineering, as displayed at the head-light suspended from a post or wooden scaffolding easily Centennial Exhibition, written by J. Barnard, of the United removable, and generally called a stake, on the banks, the posi- States army, and published in the Transactions of the Ameri- tion of which may be shifted to correspond to the shifting of can Society of Civil Engineers, states that the light-house on the channels. Minot's Ledge, a body of rocks at the entrance to Boston harbor IN THE LIGHTING APPARATUS was, at that date, the most important engineering work that belongs to our light-house system, and indeed it ranks, by the used in the light-houses of various grades remarkable progress engineering difficulties surmounted in its erection, and by the has been made. With the increase of the number of light- skill and science shown in the details of its construction, among houses along the coasts the objects to which they were applied the chief of the great sea-rock light-houses of the world." On extended from indications of the entrances of important rivers account of these difficulties, he states that the structure was and harbors to an illumination of the entire coast; and it be- made solid (around a central wall) up to the level of the en- came necessary that means should be devised for enabling trance door. Above that there is a hollow, cylindrical space, mariners who were approaching American shores to distin- fourteen feet in diameter, arched over at the level of the cornice. guish between the different light-houses. For this purpose, as This space is divided into five stories by four iron floors. These well as to increase the aquatic area that can be illuminated, five compartments, and a sixth, immediately under the lan- when necessary, a variety of ingenious devices have been in- tern, constitute the keeper's rooms, store rooms, &c." Work vented and applied. The methods of creating distinguishing on this structure was commenced in 1855, and several years features include the following:- were required for its completion. (1.) By grouping; that is, by building two lights in close prox- Another class of light-houses, of which more than fifty had imity to each other, 80 far apart that at any distance they been constructed before 1876, are known as screw-pile light- will appear separated; and sufficiently close, that they will houses, from the manner in which a foundation is secured in always be recognized as belonging to each other. sand shoals, or other formations in which peculiar difficulties (2.) By means of colors (red, blue, and green light.) exist. The first structure of this class was erected in 1847-50 (3.) By means of giving the light a varying intensity, in such at Brandywine shoal, near the mouth of Delaware bay. a way, that within a certain period of time it decreases from In other instances foundations are secured by ordinary greatest brilliancy to entire darkness, and then again increases methods of pile driving, or by excavations of rocks. to greatest brilliancy. The height of light-houses varies greatly with the require- This latter method is the one most frequently employed. ments of different localities, and in the cases where an eleva- Various illuminating fluids have also been used at various tion of at least 150 feet is necessary, special efforts must be periods and places, but mineral oil has of late years been gen- made to obtain a secure foundation, and all other elements of erally used, although an electric light was successfully intro- stability and well-devised interior arrangements. duced in Hell Gate channel, near the city of New York. The Other light-houses rise only a comparatively small distance varieties of lights produced in the stationary light-houses of above the surface of the surrounding or adjacent waters. One the United States are chiefly the following: 1, fixed white; 2, of this class, on which a fog whistle operated by steam is used, fixed red; 3, flashing white; 4 flashing red; 5, flashing white and in addition to the display of lights, was completed in 1885. It red; 6, fixed white, varied by white flashes; 7 fixed white, va- is located at the west end of lake Erie, at the mouth of the ried by red flashes; 8, fixed white, varied by red and white Detroit river. The foundation pier is composed of a crib built flashes; 9, flashing red and white. These forms are further diver- with 12X12-inch timbers, with solid bottom of same-sized tim- sified by variations in periods of intensity or other methods. ber, both sides and bottom being calked, the whole filled with Aside from the use of glass of various colors, and lamps of concrete to within 4 feet of lake level, the cut-stone masonry great illuminating power, the desired effects are produced by facing, backed with concrete, rising 11 feet above the same scientific combinations of reflectors or refracting apparatus, level. worked by clock-work. The tower is located on the south end, and is the frustrum of Independent of the aids to navigation furnished by lights, a cone 32 feet high, forming 4 stories, surmounted by a main there are a number of fog signals operated by steam, hot air, or gallery deck, a cylindrical watch room 10 feet in diameter and clock-work; a considerable number of day beacons, some of 8 feet high. The lantern is ten-sided, and of the fourth order, which consist of wrought-iron shafts painted in colors that will of the standard pattern. The fog-signal house is located on attract attention, and a large number of buoys classified as the north end of the pier. The fog signals are in duplicate, whistling buoys, bell buoys, and other buoys. Digitized by Googl THE COAST SURVEY. 173 THE COAST SURVEY. The The of governmental operations has had about as much to do with topography as with hydro- is illustrated by the graphy, and that part of the work which really pertains to the protracted postponement of efficient measures for surveying coasts, and which is necessary to the safety of mariners, has the extensive coasts of this country, and detecting their hidden been delayed by the pressure of work of a different sort, which, dangers during one period, and large outlays of questionable whatever its scientific value or interest may be, is foreign to the utility at other periods. It now seems almost incredible that original purpose of the survey. The present title, Coast and the first attempt to organize a national coast survey was made Geodetic Survey, was not legalized until 1879, although an act in 1807, and that despite a considerable amount of discussion was passed in March, 1871, which legalized the determination and preliminary efforts, intermingled with a few actual labors, of geodetic points in each state of the Union and across the a quarter of a century elapsed before a coast-survey system was continent. Assistant Baker, of the survey, testifies that 'since finally established at first under the direction of F. R. Hassler. the creation of the survey by the act of 1807, the field of the Still more time was required to secure the establishment of a survey's operations has been gradually extended, until it now comprehensive mode of procedure, which began with the ap- by law embraces the entire United States and the waters off pointment of Prof. A. D. Bache, in 1843. Under his direction the coast to a limit incapable of sharp definition.' The result extensive operations were skillfully and economically con- of this large extension of the field is that the coast of the ducted for nearly an additional quarter of a century. An im- United States is not yet surveyed, and there are portions of it mense amount of useful work was performed under the direc- where any vessel venturing is subject to risks which, at this tion of his successors, but comparatively recent operations of time, nearly eighty years from the commencement of the work, coast-survey superintendents have been severely criticized, place a high degree of culpability on this organization. On this partly on the ground of inefficient or careless management. point Commander Bartlett says: 'The triangulation carried on An abstract of a report presented to Congress in May, by this organization has been of the most refined and expen- 1886, by a committee of which representative Herbert, of sive character. The topography has been executed with the Alabama, was chairman, says that "in regard to the coast and utmost elaboration. The character of its work, from a scientific geodetic survey, the report refers to the fact that after an ex- standpoint, cannot be assailed. But in the meantime the 'sur- penditure of over $24,000,000 and an existence of more than vey of the coast' has dragged along, and no time is yet set for three-quarters of a century it has not even completed the first its definite completion. survey of our coast line. The loose and corrupt management For the reason, then, that the accomplishment of its princi- which was discovered by the investigation under direction of pal object was being delayed-indirectly, perhaps-this or- the Secretary of the Treasury last summer is alluded to and ganization assumed a grave responsibility in not changing its many of the incidents of extravagance specified. The report methods long ago. then shows that the bureau has sought scientific methods From the standpoint of the sailor, who has to venture into instead of practical results, has made slow progress, has in- unknown waters, how can the expenditure, by this organiza- dulged in unnecessary and expensive topography which cost tion, of millions of money for purposes more or less foreign to about $250 per square mile, and that the dangers of the sea a coast survey be justified?" have been neglected. DIFFICULT NATURE OF SOME OF THE LIGHT-HOUSE AND COAST- It is recommended that the coast survey should be under SURVEY OPERATIONS. the Navy Department for various reasons, chiefly because such A considerable proportion of the labors performed in con- surveys are under the conduct exclusively of the marine minis- nection with the construction and maintenance of light-houses, tries in Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Japan, and the coast survey, required a large amount of scientific Sweden, Holland, Chili, British India, Portugal, Denmark, knowledge, and in the prosecution of the extensive works by Spain, Russia, Belgium, Norway, and Java (East Indies.) In which additional protection has been furnished to the coasts, fact, it is believed that in no country except the United States channels, and harbors of this country a number of important can such a survey be found conducted in other departments." improvements were, from time to time, devised which reflect A controversy had arisen, partly from a desire to secure a great credit on their originators. The general fact that all transfer of the direction of coast-survey operations from the classes of modern transportation movements are largely based Treasury Department to the Navy Department, and partly upon the application of scientific principles to the prosaic but from a feeling among officials connected with the geological vitally important work of moving persons and property usually survey, that there had been undue interference with its opera- receives less recognition than it deserves, and there are few tions. The nature of the issues raised, and character of the fields in which a higher range of intellectual effort has been complaints made, are indicated by the following article from required than those directly connected with the protection of the Boston Journal, on the cargoes and seamen that traverse the vast distances cm- THE METHODS OF THE COAST SURVEY. braced within water channels of the United States. If erroneous methods have sometimes been adopted, they are probably due, "Lieutenant George I. Dyer's paper on 'The Survey of the in a great measure, to the inherent defects of governmental Coast,' reprinted from the proceedings of the United States efforts to perform complicated tasks, which are not subjected Naval Institute, makes a strong presentation of arguments for to the contemporaneous criticism of parties who are obliged to transferring the work of the coast survey from the Treasury to defray a material portion of the expenses incurred. It is possi- the Navy Department, and for carrying on the work with a ble that the lavish bounty of the nation, in such matters, may closer regard to the needs of navigators. In every other coun- be carried to an extent that finally thwarts the original objects, try save our own this work devolves, as a matter of course, and something like this must have occurred if the assertion is upon naval officers. From 1834 to 1836 it was conducted by well founded that an expenditure of $24,000,000 for a coast the Navy Department, but since the latter date has formed a survey has not been found sufficient to secure a reliable survey part of the Treasury Department, constituting practically an of the coast, despite the unquestionable ability of a large pro- independent bureau. Several things have resulted. The work portion of the men who were entrusted with the performance done has been very costly; it has been needlessly minute; it of that task. Digitized by Google 174 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1860 TO 1869. RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1860 TO 1869. the first time in the history of American construction, 20,109.63 during the ten years ended with 1859, the civil war, FOR one decade witnessed a smaller amount of additions to for a time, leading to a total cessation of new construction in mileage than its predecessor, the gross amount being 16,090.36 many portions of the country. The new mileage of the seventh miles during the ten years ended with the close of 1869, against decade, in each group, each year, was as follows:- 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. Decade. Total United States 1,497.72 1,015.85 720.00 573.90 974.40 818.72 1,403.58 2,540.68 2,467.86 4,102.65 16,090.36 I. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Mas- sachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con- necticut 5.79 61.21 3.97 15.70 33.74 39.04 56.93 81.42 84.49 93.87 476.16 II. New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michi- gan, Indiana, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, and District of Columbia. 242.18 113.23 399.90 440.40 406.25 372.13 543.61 724.75 513.06 1,108.76 4,865.05 III. Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, and South Carolina 777.81 578.05 132.00 27.10 24.56 10.75 26.50 452.10 336.44 511.43 2,876.74 IV. Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri, and Minnesota 246.77 161.51 184.13 56.30 331.70 278.05 326.82 763.54 579.93 1,475.57 4,410.22 V. Louisiana, Arkansas, and Indian Ter- ritory 103.00 61.60 19.40 184.00 VI. Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Mon- tana, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Califor- nia, Nevada. Oregon, and Washington 124.17 40.25 34.40 151.15 117.67 430.32 513.87 953.34 913.02 3.278.19 The names of the companies reporting this new mileage in 1880 were as follows:- GROUP I. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1807. 1866. 1869. Decade. Bangor and Piscataquis 40.00 40.00 Boston, Clinton, Fitchburg and New Bedford 13.97 13.97 Boston and Lowell 2.37 2.37 Concord 2.00 2.00 Concord and Portsmouth 11.46 11.46 Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers 15 00 5.00 20.00 Dexter and Newport 14 00 14.00 Eastern (of Massachusetts) 4.00 4.00 European and North American 26.71 31.29 58.00 Fall River, Warren and Providence 5.79 5.79 Hanover Branch 7.78 7.78 Housatonic 3.00 3.00 Maine Central 31.00 3.00 34.00 Milford and Woonsocket 3.88 3.88 New Cansan 8.30 8.30 New Haven and Northampton 7.49 7.49 New London and Northern 14.96 14.96 New York and New England 12.75 1.60 10.90 9 40 20.70 55.35 New York, New Haven and Hartford 3.20 3.20 Old Colony 18.74 18.84 33.56 71.14 Portland and Oxford Central 27.50 27.50 Portland and Rochester 14.00 14.00 Rockville 4.80 4.80 South Manchester 2.25 2.25 Suncook Valley 17.33 17.33 Troy and Greenfield and Hoosac Tunnel 13.26 16.33 29.59 GROUP II. NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, MICHIGAN, INDIANA, MARYLAND, DEL- AWARE, NEW JERSEY, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Adirondack 25.00 12.00 12.00 49.00 Albany and Susquehanna 3.00 32.00 10.00 37.00 21.00 17.00 22.11 142.11 Allegheny Valley 10.00 14.00 24.00 Bald Eagle Valley 53.87 53.87 Belvidere-Delaware 3.24 3.24 Brookfield Coal 2.09 2.09 Brooklyn, Bath and Coney Island 7.25 7.25 Brooklyn and Montauk 51.53 51.58 Brooklyn and Rockaway Beach 3.50 3.50 Buffalo, Bradford and Pittsburgh 25.97 25.97 Buffalo, New York and Philadelphia 16.69 16.69 Camden and Burlington County 29.61 29.61 Catasauqua and Fogelsville 8.00 2.00 2.00 12.00 Catawisea 2.48 2.48 Central of New Jersey 11.50 6.20 17.70 Chester 10.00 10.00 Chester Creek, 7.25 7.25 Chicago, Cincinnati and Louisville 41.47 41.47 Chicago, Detroit & Can. Grand Trunk Junc. 62.80 62.80 Tincinnati, Hamilton and Indianapolis. 5.50 8.00 14.30 17.80 39.30 84.90 Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1860 TO 1869. 175 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. Decade. Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis & Chicago 24.80 24 80 Cleveland and Mahoning Valley 13 36 35.41 48.77 Clove Branch 4.00 4.00 Colebrookdale 12.80 12.80 Columbia and Port Deposit 4.80 4.80 Columbus, Chicago and Indiana Central 60.20 50.00 70.00 180.20 Columbus and Hocking Valley 31.13 30 52 61.65 Connecting 7.31 7.31 Corning, Cowanesque and Antrim 16.00 16.00 Cumberland and Pennsylvania 10.25 2.41 12 66 Delaware 16.67 16.67 Delaware and Chesapeake. 10.00 14.00 24.00 Delaware and Hudson Canal 2.12 262 4.74 Detroit, Lansing and Northern 36.80 86.80 Dorchester and Delaware. 25.00 25.00 East Brandywine and Waynesburg 16.00 16.00 East Mahanoy 7.54 0 92 1.01 0.33 10.70 Eastern Shore 6.00 32.00 38.00 Ebensburg and Cresson 11.00 11.00 Erie and Pittsburgh 84.47 84.47 Evansville and Terre Haute 21 88 21.88 Fairland. Franklin and Martinsville 12 00 12.00 Flint and Pere Marquette 34.00 17.00 32.35 5.00 88.35 Flushing, North Shore and Central 6.74 4.00 10.74 Fort Wayne and Jackson 36.00 36.00 Fort Wayne, Muncie and Cincinnati 12.50 13.40 18.00 43.90 Freehold and Jamesburg Agricultural 7.61 7.61 Glen Falls 5.74 5.74 Goshen and Deckertown 11 65 11.65 Grand Rapids and Indiana 40.40 40.40 Grand River Valley 24.26 26.66 50.92 Harlem Extension 58.00 58.00 Harrison Branch 7.75 7.75 Hecla and Torch Lake 4.17 4.17 Hibernia Mine. 4.00 1.50 5.50 Hoboken Land and Improvement 3.21 3.22 Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain 3.25 12.57 15.82 Indianapolis and Vincennes. 116.63 116.63 Ironton 5.00 5.00 10.00 Jackson, Lansing and Saginaw 7.00 0.90 24.49 12.15 49.88 94.62 Jamestown and Franklin 42.91 42.91 Jefferson 8.18 8.18 Jeffersonville, Madison and Indianapolis 4.54 4.54 Junction 3.68 3.68 Junction and Breakwater 16.00 16.00 Kalamasoo, Allegan and Grand Rapids 25.21 33.21 58.42 Kalamazoo and White Pigeon 25.27 25.27 Kent County 10.00 5.00 15.00 Lake Erie, Evansville and South-western 7.38 7.38 Lake Erie and Louisville 20.84 20.84 Lake Erie and Western 30.70 30.70 Lawrence 17.98 17.98 Lehigh Coal and Navigation 8.20 67.80 46.70 122.70 Lehigh and Lackawanna 15 00 15.00 Lehigh Valley 1.21 18.25 23.00 17.00 42.66 30.65 3.32 136.09 Lewisburg Bridge 0.24 0.24 Lewisburg and Tyrone 1.26 1.26 Lewistown and Tuscarora 0.11 0.11 Long Branch and Sea Shore 11.00 11.00 Long Island 10.25 12.96 11.07 35.20 69.48 Lykens Valley 5 19 5.19 Marietta and Cincinnati 17.50 17.50 Marquette, Houghton and Ontonagon 16.00 1.04 17.04 Massilon and Cleveland 12.23 12.23 Michigan Air Line 14.10 14.10 Middleburg and Schobarie 5.75 5.75 Middletown, Unionville and Water Gap 13.90 13.90 Mifflin and Centre County 12 42 12.42 Montgomery and Erie 10.22 10.22 Morris and Essex 7.21 23.55 0.51 31.27 Mount Holly, Lumberton and Medford 6.19 6.19 Mount Hope Mineral 3.50 3.50 Newburgh, Dutchess and Connecticut 43.90 15.52 59.42 Newburgh and New York 12.59 12.59 New Castle Railroad and Mining 5.00 5.00 New Castle and Beaver Valley 14.98 14.98 New Jersey Southern 5.00 73.00 7.50 85.50 Newry 1.00 1.00 New York and Canada 15.38 4.44 19.82 New York Central and Hudson River 40.29 40.29 New York and Fort Lee 1.79 1.79 New York, Lake Erie and Western 0.10 0.10 New York, Ontario and Western 100.00 100.00 New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio 34.00 27.00 101.00 147.00 103.91 8.78 421.69 Digitized by Google 176 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1860 TO 1869. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. Decade. Northern Coal and Iron 18.89 18.89 Ogden Mine 10.80 10.80 Oswego and Rome 28.49 28.49 Paterson, Newark and New York 10 91 10.91 Peach Bottom 4.00 4.00 Pemberton and Hightstown 24.47 24.47 Pennsylvania 3.95 1.33 4.02 9.30 Pennsylvania Coal 15.61 15.61 Pennsylvania and New York Canal and R. R. 51.96 53.86 105.82 Perkiomen 6.00 5.03 11.03 Perth Amboy and Woodbridge. 6.30 6.30 Philadelphia and Baltimore Central 22.00 8.00 7.00 37.00 Philadelphia and Erie 49.70 67.50 24.29 141.49 Philadelphia and Reading 190 64.60 42.20 1 20 109.90 Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore 3.76 3.76 Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis 43.14 43.14 Pittsburgh and Connellsville 34.80 34.80 Pittsburgh, Titusville and Buffalo 27.80 111.80 139.60 Queen Anne and Kent 4.00 4 00 Reading and Columbia 26.00 13.57 8.00 1.60 49.17 Rocky Hill Railroad and Transportation 6.53 6.53 Rocky River 5.53 5.53 Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg 19.50 19.50 Salem 16.58 16.58 Schoharie Valley 4.38 4.38 Shenango and Allegheny 20.50 20.50 Skaneateles 5.00 5.00 South Branch 15.50 15.50 Southfield Branch 1.00 1.00 State Line and Sullivan 24.00 24.00 Staten Island 13.00 13.00 Sterling Mountain 7.60 7.60 Summit Branch 0.82 0.82 Swedesborough 10.80 10.80 Tioga 4.00 4.00 Tyrone and Clearfield 20.50 8.90 1.91 18.65 49.96 Ulster and Delaware 12.00 12.00 United New Jersey Railroad and Canal 5.52 5.52 Utica and Black River 9.50 14.10 23.60 Utica, Chenango and Susquehanna Valley 21.48 24.77 46.25 Vincentown branch of the Burlington County 2.84 2.84 Walkill Valley 12.27 12.27 Warwick Valley 10.16 10.16 Washington County 24.25 24.25 Waverly and State Line 0.25 0.25 West Jersey 41.90 41.60 83.50 Western Maryland 22.60 22.60 Western Pennsylvania 11.00 28.50 39.50 White River 18.00 36.00 8.00 62.00 White Water 23.00 23.00 Wilmington and Northern 33.00 33.00 GROUP III. VIRGINIA, WEST VIRGINIA, KENTUCKY, TENNESSEE, MISSISSIPPI, ALA- BAMA, GEORGIA, FLORIDA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA. Alabama Central 51.00 51.00 Alabama Great Southern 43.00 82.00 125.00 Atlantic, Gulf and West India Transit 9.00 9.00 Atlantic, Tennessee and Ohio 48.00 48.00 Brighthope 3.00 3.00 Cape Fear and Yadkin Valley 29.00 2.00 31.00 Charlotte, Columbia and Augusta 84 60 84.60 Chesapeake and Ohio 10.34 21.74 32.08 Cincinnati, Cumberland Gap and Charleston 40.00 40.00 Eastern Kentucky 12.00 12.00 Georgia Southern 26.20 26.20 Jacksonville, Pensacola and Mobile 83.00 24.00 107.00 Knoxville and Augusta 16.00 16.00 Knoxville and Ohio 9.00 23.00 7.19 39.19 Laurel Fork and Sand Hill 3.50 2.00 5.50 Louisville, Cincinnati and Lexington 81.00 81.00 Louisville and Nashville 276.40 33.80 310.20 Macon and Brunswick 20.00 10.00 5.00 3.00 10.25 150.00 198.25 Mississippi and Tennessee 26.00 8.00 34.00 Mobile and Girard 9.00 9.00 18.00 Mobile and Montgomery 113.00 50.00 163.00 Mobile and Ohio 84.75 53.25 138.00 Montgomery and Eufala 40.00 40.00 Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis 182.00 182.00 New Orleans, Mobile and Texas 141.00 141.00 Owensborough and Nashville 35.00 35.00 Pensacola 44.50 44.50 Pensacola and Perdido 9.00 9.00 Piedmont 24.10 24.56 48.66 Digitized by Google Early Car on B. & O. First Passenger Car. # Improved English Car. Private Coach on Truck. Car on Erie and Kalamakoo in 1837. English Railway Omnibus, American Street Car of 1832. Early Mohawk Valley Car. o Tioga Railroad Cars of 1840. South Carolina R. R. Car. EARLY PASSENGER CARS. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google RAILWA Y CONSTRUCTION FROM 1860 TO 1869. 177 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. Decade. Pontchartrain 5.00 5.00 Richmond, York River and Chesapeake 38.50 38.50 Rogersville and Jefferson 4.00 4.00 St. Louis and South-eastern (Tennessee div.). 37.16 37.16 Savannah and Charleston 98.00 98.00 Savannah, Florida and Western 131.80 36 00 49.30 24.00 241.10 Selma, Rome and Dalton 26.00 36.80 62 80 South-western, of Georgia 44.50 0.50 50.00 95.00 Vicksburg and Meridian 80.00 80.00 Washington and Ohio 37.50 7.50 45.00 Western North Carolina 71.00 10.00 81.00 Wilmington and Weldon 17.00 17.00 GROUP IV. ILLINOIS, Iowa, WISCONSIN, MISSOURI, MINNESOTA. Belleville and Southern Illinois 14.26 14.26 Boone County and Booneville 21.75 21.75 Booneville, St. Louis and Southern 25.75 25.75 Carthage and Burlington 30.41 30.41 Cedar Falls and Minnesota 14.00 28.00 25.10 67.10 Cedar Rapids and Missouri River 70.00 81.00 120.00 271 60 Central Iowa 16.00 27.50 43.50 Chicago and Alton 23.40 12.50 22.30 58 20 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 37.75 25.95 30.90 50.90 96 66 242 16 Chicago and Eastern Illinois 82 93 32 93 Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 13.45 10.00 46.00 138.30 150 03 5.60 39 98 403 36 Chicago and North-western 17.00 20.00 104.13 93.80 5.90 240.83 Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific 77.00 44.00 143 20 264.20 Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha 20.50 33.80 54.30 Des Moines and Fort Dodge 72.80 72 80 Dubuque, Platteville and Milwaukee 10.00 10 00 Dubuque and Sioux City 20 00 42 89 62 89 Dubuque South-western 41.30 2.30 5.40 49 00 Dunleith and Dubuque Bridge 0.46 0.46 Grand Tower Mining. M'f'g & Transport'n 17.58 6.81 24.39 Hannibal and St. Joseph 13.42 51.65 1.40 66.47 Illinois and St. Louis Railroad and Coal 7.00 7.00 Indiana, Bloomington and Western 202.30 202.30 Iowa Falls and Sioux City 48 89 48.89 Kansas City, St. Joseph and Council Bluffs. 19.90 23 80 51.40 78.00 54.70 227.80 Keokuk and Des Moines 36.60 15.90 23.60 13.90 33.20 123 20 Missouri Pacific 13.50 7.50 7.00 22.00 64.00 1.00 115 00 Peoria, Pekin and Jacksonville 10.00 15 00 25.00 Quincy and Warsaw 39.72 39.72 St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern 120.00 120.00 St. Louis, Jacksonville and Chicago 44 50 8.00 37.00 61.10 150.60 St. Louis and San Francisco 58.00 71 00 129.00 St. Louis, Vandalia and Terre Haute 100.00 100.00 St. Paul and Duluth 20.00 60.00 80.00 St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba 10.00 28.60 34.90 17 35 29.50 49.10 169.45 St. Paul and Sioux City 22.00 19.00 16.00 23.07 13.00 93.07 Sheboygan and Western 5.70 23.40 29.10 Sioux City and Pacific 54.76 20.99 31 77 107.42 Southern Minnesota 31.50 20.00 40 00 91.50 Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw 24.70 97.30 122.00 Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific 74.31 103.75 89 75 257.81 Winona and St. Peter 105 00 105.00 GROUP V. LOUISIANA, ARKANSAS, INDIAN TERRITORY. Baton Rouge, Grosse Tête and Opelousas 24.00 24.00 Memphis and Little Rock 85.00 85 00 Vicksburg, Shreveport and Pacific 18.00 37.60 19.40 75.00 GROUP VI. DAKOTA, NEBRASKA, KANSAS, TEXAS, NEW MEXICO, COLORADO, WYOMING. MONTANA, IDAHO, UTAH, ARIZONA, CALIFOR- NIA, NEVADA, OREGON AND WASHINGTON. Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe 26.31 26.31 Black Diamond Coal Mining 6.00 6.00 California Northern 26 50 26.50 Cascade 6.00 6.00 Central Branch Union Pacific 100.00 100.00 Central Pacific 31.25 22.94 37.72 21.51 315.25 495 21 923.88 Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri Valley 10 00 10.00 Gulf, Western Texas and Pacific 38 00 38.00 Houston and Texas Central 9.50 19.10 21.29 8.20 58.09 International and Great Northern 49.82 49.82 Kansas City, Fort Scott and Gulf. 21.00 77.10 98.10 Kansas City, Lawrence and Southern 26.83 14.90 41.78 Leavenworth, Atchison and North-western 21.00 21.00 Missouri River 26.00 26.00 Oregon and California 20 00 20.00 Oregon Railway and Navigation Company 13.30 13.30 Pittsburgh 5.33 5.33 23 Digitized by Google 178 EFFECTS OF THE CIVIL WAR ON RAILWAYS. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1868. 1869. Decade. Sacramento and Placerville 26 23 26.23 Southern Pacific 15.10 34.90 15.80 36 56 102.36 Texas and New Orleans 64.85 40.25 105.10 Texas and Pacific 20.40 20.40 Union Pacific 33.10 68.50 361.27 446.43 474.00 138.74 1,527.04 Vaca Valley and Clear Lake 5.00 5.00 Virginia and Truckee 22.00 22.00 EFFECTS OF THE CIVIL WAR ON. RAILWAYS. CONSTRUCTION dwindled from 1,499.72 miles in 1860 to states, or adjacent to them, which were never seriously injured in 1863, and then subsequently increased by armed foes, or never even attacked, were subjected, on sun- from 812.72 miles in 1865 to 4,102.65 miles in 1869, the latter dry occasions, to imminent danger, or at least to well-grounded being the largest amount of construction in any one year up apprehensions that they might be made objective points of irre- to that period; and there are various other striking peculiarities sistible raids. Railways were the most assailable things in any in the amount of construction in particular sections and the section exposed to hostile inroads, and they represented the entire country in various years, such as the completion of only kind of property that invading armies were most anxious to 10.75 miles in the entire group of Southern states in 1865 and injure or destroy. Aside from the actual devastation of lines the temporary cessation of all new construction in the South- which temporarily fell under the control of an antagonistic western and far Western states and territories. force, great efforts of railway companies or their officers in the A partial explanation of these developments and of various way of securing timely military protection were at some criti- other matters of great moment is furnished by the fact that cal junctures believed to be necessary to avert such calamities. the seventh decade marks the commencement of a new era in Occasionally a large portion of the working railway force was the transportation history of the country, which has its salient temporarily pressed into military service, such as helping to features based partly on the events and influences heretofore throw up entrenchments at exposed strategic points, or arms described and partly on changes wrought by the civil war which were freely distributed among them, and they were drilled in commenced in 1861 and ended in 1865. their use, for their own protection and the protection of their RAILWAYS AS MILITARY ADJUNCTS. roads. On other occasions large quantities of rolling stock were Although few or none of the early railways of this country temporarily sent to sections of a road considered least liable to had been built with reference to military requirements, they attacks, and kept there for days in idleness, even at periods rendered invaluable assistance to the organizers of each of the when a pressing need for its activity existed, until some contending armies in facilitating the prompt movement of specially critical danger had passed. men, munitions, and supplies; and in a financial point of view Current developments abound, to a distressing extent, with the effects of the war, as an entirety, were very beneficial to a reminders of the perils to which various classes of train men number of the northern railways and disastrous to the southern are exposed, and their ordinary duties approximate in danger lines. to those assumed by soldiers, but during the war it sometimes The current of trade down the Mississippi was necessarily became necessary for some classes of railway employés or arrested by the progress of hostilities, and the east-bound move- officials to assume extraordinary hazards, and they were prac- ment of western produce, via the lakes, the Ohio river, and tically converted into soldiers. western connections of the trunk lines, received an extraordi- THREATENED ATTACK ON RAILROADS OF PENNSYLVANIA. nary impetus from the eastern demand for breadstuffs and pro- At the time of the invasion of Pennsylvania by the Confed- visions. The business of the northern trunk lines increased erate forces under General Lee, in 1863, fears were entertained very rapidly, and their position as channels of interstate com- that the lines of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, and merce was greatly improved by the double process of the closing some of the anthracite roads, and even the anthracite coal of the Mississippi river route and the temporary annihilation mines, would be greatly injured, and these apprehensions of the rivalry of southern routes. A number of important prompted earnest efforts, on the part of the officers of the northern railways suddenly obtained marked additions to their Pennsylvania Railroad Company, to incite Federal and state current revenue, through the movement of soldiers and citizens authorities to make timely defensive preparations, which had to and from the armies, and the great increase in the demand a very important effect upon the great struggle that occurred. for all classes of articles that could be used either for peaceful It is within the personal knowledge of the writer that when or warlike purposes. Roads that had been on the verge of appeals for such action were first made they excited much bankruptcy were enabled to earn large dividends. The anthra- ridicule, although the subsequent course of events showed that cite coal carriers were benefited to an extraordinary extent. a very pressing necessity then existed for the course recom- The reverse of all this occurred in reference to a number of mended. While the battle of Gettysburg was progressing im- the southern lines, notwithstanding temporary advantages they mense quantities of rolling stock were concentrated on portions also derived from military traffic, as the course of events tended of the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad near Philadelphia, to make some of them the victims of both armies, and when and the following reference to this subject was made in the hostilities ended they were left in a deplorable condition. annual report of Enoch Lewis, then general superintendent, ARMED ATTACKS ON RAILROADS. for the year ended December 31st, 1863:- While very remarkable mechanical and engineering ad- "In June last, the presence of a hostile army within the vances were made in the seventh decade in a number of direc- borders of the commonwealth, caused the through freight tions, as well as considerable additions to mileage, the radical traffic to be suspended, and the passenger business to be very improvement of many lines was greatly retarded by the events much curtailed for several weeks, but though the close prox- and exigencies of the war, the pressure of demands for in- imity of the enemy rendered it prudent to remove temporarily creased accommodations of special kinds, and the enhanced from the Middle division the rolling stock to n place of safety, cost of labor and materials. Everything happened to some yet the whole property of the company escaped untouched railroads during the war that seemed within the bounds of and unharmed, and it was enabled, as soon as the danger was possibility, from partial to nearly entire destruction, from removed, to resume its operations in full, and with very little pecuniary injuries of the direst nature to a temporary increase delay." of traffic and profits that exceeded the wildest dreams of stock- There were many similar events of varying significance, in- holders and creditors. Interwoven with everything else there cluding numerous cases in which success crowned efforts of were alarming elements of uncertainty. Lines in the border parties sent to injure railways, by tearing up tracks, destroying Digitized by Google EFFECTS OF THE CIVIL WAR ON RAILWAYS. 179 bridges, and capturing rolling stock, in other portions of the New Orleans, consisted of one locomotive, one passenger car, country, to some of which more particular reference is made four box and ten flat cars, one baggage and two cattle cars. elsewhere. Nearly all the stations, depots, platforms, wood sheds, and INJURIES INFLICTED ON THE BALTIMORE AND OHIO. water stations along the line had also been destroyed. The following extracts from the Baltimore and Ohio annual On the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, at a critical stage report, made on October 1st, 1863, not only shows what occurred of the campaign of 1862, both armies fought for the control of on that road while it was under control of a hostile force, but the road and rolling stock, and after the Confederate forces re- typifics similar proceedings elsewhere when Union armies tired southward they removed all the machinery and rolling gained possession of southern railways they desired to cripple, stock they could seize to points further south. In estruggle that or when Confederate armies desired to injure southern roads ensued an important bridge was burned and some of the rolling that had fallen under control of Union forces. The Baltimore stock was destroyed. A large portion of the rolling stock taken and Ohio report says:- from the Memphis and Charleston was distributed among other "General possession was taken by the Confederate forces on southern railroads under Confederate control, and most of it May 28th, 1861, of more than one hundred miles of the main was subsequently burned by either the Union or the Confed- stem, embracing chiefly the region between the Point of Rocks erate troops. When portions of the Memphis and Charleston and Cumberland. Occasional movements were also made, fell under Union control, and Union forces endeavored to put accompanied by considerable destruction, upon the roads be- it in good condition, it was subjected to destructive attacks by tween Cumberland and Wheeling, and Grafton and Parkers- the Confederates, and when portions of its track or rolling burg, during this fiscal year. stock were useful to Confederate armies, they became objective The protection of the Government was not restored through- points of the hostile operations of Union forces. A similar out the line until March, 1862, when the reconstruction was state of things existed, at various periods, on other southern pressed with great energy, and the road reopened on the 29th roads, 80 that they were literally the prey of both armies. of that month. When the line was finally surrendered to the company, after During this period the destruction of the property, bridges, the close of the war, there was a division, from Pocahontas to and tracks of the company was of the most extensive and seri- Decatur, 114 miles in length, which had been almost entirely ous character. destroyed, except the road-bed, the iron rails being bent or The large and costly machine shops and engine houses at twisted or otherwise in very bad condition, the bridges, trestles, Martinsburg were greatly damaged. Fourteen locomotives and and station buildings nearly all burned and the cross-ties de- tenders, and a large number of cars, much machinery from the cayed. shops, and portions of nine additional engines, were taken from Another southern railroad, portions of which alternately fell the road, and transported, by animal power, over turnpikes to into the possession of each of the contending armies, and which southern railways, and thus entirely lost to the company. was of great service to the Confederates, was the Orange and Forty-two locomotives and tenders; 386 cars, chiefly coal; 23 Alexandria, extending from Alexandria, in Virginia, to Lynch- bridges, including 3 between Cumberland and Wheeling, 3 on burg, in the same state, a distance of 178 miles. Although por- the North-western Virginia road, and the great bridge at Harp- tions of this line, and also sections of the Virginia Central and er's Ferry, embracing 127 spans, and a total length of 4,713 the Petersburg and Richmond roads, were occasionally injured feet, were also destroyed, or damaged to a great extent by fire, by raids of Union cavalry, great efforts were made by the Con- and numerous engines and cars were thrown into the Potomac, federates to secure speedy repairs, which were generally suc- Opequan, and other streams. Thirty-six and a half miles of cessful, supplies of new rails, all other requisite materials, and track were torn up, and the iron and track fixtures removed for construction trains being kept constantly in readiness for recon- use on southern roads. The lines of telegraph for 102 miles, struction. two water stations, and much other valuable property were A number of other southern railroads were subjected to in- also destroyed." juries similar to those already described. Their condition at the close of the war was deplorable, but the difficulty of restor- INJURIES INFLICTED ON VARIOUS SOUTHERN ROADS. ing their usefulness was, to some extent, diminished by the The New Orleans, Jackson and Great Northern Railroad was policy pursued by the United States government in the sum- greatly improved in capacity, and amount of rolling stock mer of 1865, in permitting them to purchase, on long credits, during 1861, and it was reported that on January 1st, 1862, the the locomotives and cars it then owned in the Southern states. line from New Orleans to Canton, Mississippi, was in superior In addition to all the other losses to which southern railways condition. On April 24th, 1862, the rolling stock and locomo- were subjected by the war, incidental injuries of considerable tives were taken possession of by Major General Lovell of the magnitude resulted from the prolonged postponement of the Confederate army, and removed to the northern part of the construction of the Southern Pacific Railway, and the adoption road, where it remained under his absolute control for twenty of measures which made the Central and Union Pacific the first days. It was then restored to the officers of the road and of the transcontinental lines. operated by them during the remaining years of the war, sub- ject to the control of the Confederate military authorities, so VITAL RAILWAY QUESTIONS ENGENDERED BY THE WAR. far as operations of any kind were possible in view of the After the war was over, the continuance of a high standard severe injuries inflicted by raids of Union forces, or contests at of wages and prices of materials, coupled with great uncer- various periods between the contending armies. In 1863 and tainty in regard to the future financial policy of the Govern- 1864 the locomotives and cars were nearly all destroyed. At ment, a decline in some classes of revenue, and urgent demands the close of hostilities the line was in the possession of the for new expenditures in special directions, led to the post- Union army, and at that time it was being used and in good ponement of radical improvements undertaken at a later condition between New Orleans and as far north as Poncha- period, and especially about or soon after the commencement toula, 47 miles north of New Orleans. But from that point to of the eighth decade. Traces of another influence are to be Brookhaven, a distance of 81 miles, the road had not been found in a number of the reports of the seventh decade, which used after the spring of 1863, as most of its bridges had been materially affected the policy of some companies, in reference destroyed, and at various places cross ties had been burnt or to all new classes of expensive outlays. It was a strong dispo- rendered unfit for use by decay. Other portions of the road sition to apply extra profits earned during the war to the were also much damaged. Of 49 locomotives, 37 passenger reduction of bonded indebtedness. In a few cases this course cars, and 550 freight, baggage, and gravel cars, there remained was actually pursued, but what happened in many other cases fit for use, though in a damaged condition, between Jackson would perhaps be more accurately described by a statement and Canton, only one locomotive, two second-class passenger that it was only at or near the time when deliverance from the cars, one first-class passenger car, one baggage and one provi- demands of permanent creditors had been hoped for that the sion car, two stock and two flat cars. About the same propor- process of contracting loans on a gigantic scale was fairly com- tion of the original rolling stock was available on other divi- menced. Companies engaged in extensive competitive strug- sions. The amount turned over by the military authorities at gles with energetic and ambitious rivals were compelled to Digitized by Google 180 NEW CONSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SECTIONS. choose between the loss of important portions of their traffic, sequent inflation of the currency, coupled with the increased or practical decadence, and large additions to their capital, to earnings and large dividends of northern railways, and the be expended in acquisition or control of extensions, branches, reported profits of the constructors of the first Pacific roads, or connections, increase of rolling stock, substitution of steel gave a tremendous impetus to stock speculation, speculativo for iron rails, erection of improved bridges and stations, avoid- construction, and the organization of gigantic railway systems. ance of defective drainage, creation of terminal facilities, and Previous experience furnished no precedents for startling new various other classes of improvements. It was a crucial cra developments which rapidly succeeded each other. Although for many of the railway corporations of the country, and the construction was severely checked during the early years of course finally adopted by progressive lines, as a result of their the war, preparations for renewing it on a scale of unparalleled deliberations and the pressure of events during this era, repre- magnitude were completed soon after the cessation of hostili- sented one of the most rapid advances that has ever occurred ties, and even while the war was progressing some stupendous in the industrial world, which was necessarily accompanied and disastrous schemes, notably the Atlantic and Great West- with corresponding outlays. ern, subsequently known as the New York, Pennsylvania and The enormous issue of greenbacks during the war, and con- Ohio, were floated. NEW CONSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SECTIONS. A S at all other periods, a large proportion of the new con- of the 7 per cent. payable on the bonds, and a part of the sys- struction of the seventh decade was intended to furnish tem which traversed the oil regions carning a dividend of 25 minor additions to established lines or to provide new local per cent. for the first year's working. facilities for districts that had not previously obtained them. The longest new line constructed in New York was the Albany Incidentally similar ends are served by lengthy new roads, and and Susquchanna, between Binghamton and Albany, 142.11 this fact forms one of the principal causes of the success of miles, which now forms the Susquehanna division of the Dela- efforts to securo the means requisite for their completion, inas- ware and Hudson Canal Company's system of New York roads. much as the aid of many auxiliary political, social, and prop- Of the New York, Ontario and Western, 100 miles were con- erty influences are secured. It will be seen that in all structed, and this formed the second largest amount of new THE NEW ENGLAND STATES mileage completed by any single company whose lines were no line constructed or added to its mileage more than 71.14 located exclusively in New York. miles, which is the amount reported by the Old Colony. The In Pennsylvania the new construction was of considerable new work of that section of greatest significance, was probably magnitude and importance, especially in connection with coal that done in connection with the Hoosac Tunnel, as it involved and petroleum operations, and the creation of additional facili- expenditures of a magnitude never before attempted on a tun- ties for carrying anthracite and bituminous or semi-bituminous nel in this country, with means provided by the commonwealth coal and petroleum from points of production to various mar- of Massachusetts, for the purpose of improving the railroad kets. The additions to the mileage of anthracite roads include avenues through her western borders to the Hudson and rail- the following: Lehigh Coal and Navigation, 122.70; Lehigh Val- ways extending through Now York to the western states. The ley, 136.09; Pennsylvania and New York Canal and Railroad, direct returns for enormous outlays for the Hoosac Tunnel, in 105.82; Philadelphia and Reading, 109.90. Several new roads, the way of interest on the cost of construction, have been in- which were expected to move considerable amounts of bitumi- finitesimal. It was commenced before 1860 and not finished nous coal, were constructed, and others penetrated districts until after 1870. Its length is a little less than five miles. which contained both bituminous coal and petroleum. These Originally its anticipated cost was about $2,000,000, but on classes include the Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain, 15.82 account of various kinds of mismanagement and delays and miles; Bald Eagle Valley, 53.87; Pittsburgh, Titusville and Buf- difficulties, including changes from the supervision of con- falo, 139.60; Shenango and Allegheny, 20.50; Tyrone and Clear- tractors to commissioners appointed by the state, and a return field, 49.96, and various other roads. to the contractor system, the final cost was about five times the The Philadelphia and Erie, by which, in connection with amount of the first estimates. earlier lines, a direct rail connection was secured between Lake Erie and the south-eastern portion of Pennsylvania, was com- IN THE MIDDLE STATFS pleted in 1864, after the project had been agitated for about the period was one of great prosperity for railway interests, thirty years. It made an addition of 141.49 to the railway mile- and this fact stimulated the construction of numerous short age of the state, and its lines, like a considerable amount of lines, connecting links of considerable significance, and the other new mileage of that period in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, completion of several important new roads. Ohio, and Indiana, passed under the control of the Pennsyl- The greatest amount of new mileage reported by any single vania Railroad Company. Such additions include the Bald company is 421.69 by the New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, Eagle Valley and Tyrone and Clearfield, already named, and known as the Atlantic and Great Western during the early the following additional new mileage constructed during the years of its unfortunate financial career, and extending from decade, viz.: Allegheny Valley, 24; Connecting (by which con- Salamanca, in New York, through Pennsylvania, to south- venient modes of connecting the main line in Pennsylvania western Ohio. The fact that it was built mainly during the with the present New York division were supplied), 7.31; Erie years when the war was progressing, when wages and materials and Pittsburgh, 84.47; Western Pennsylvania, 39.50; various of all kinds were unusually high, materially increased the cost lines in New Jersey, one of the longest of which is the West of the undertaking, but in sundry other respects, and especially Jersey, 83.50; Grand Rapids and Indiana, 40.40; Columbus, Chi- in the extent to which its controlling management was in for- cago and Indiana Central, 180.20; Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and eign hands, a broad ground-work was laid for an exceptionally St. Louis, 43.14, and several other roads. The decade was pe- poor return, or, rather, lack of any return whatever, for much culiarly prolific in extensions of the Pennsylvania Railroad of the capital invested. While the work was progressing, and system through acquisitions of new mileage, as well as of roads approaching completion, great expectations of its profitable- that had been built previous to 1860. ness were cherished. It was stated that more than five thou- sand laborers had been brought across the Atlantic while the IN THE SOUTHERN STATES civil war was progressing for the express purpose of building this more new mileage was constructed in 1860, before the war line; that on the portions of the road completed and in opera- commenced, and even in 1861, before its effects had been tion in 1864 results greatly exceeded the calculations of the severely felt in interior sections, than in any of the other years promoters of the line, the net earnings being greatly in excess of the seventh decade. Extensive and prolonged preparations Digitized by Google RAILWAY OPERATIONS FROM 1860 TO 1870. 181 for new construction led to marked activity in connection with per mile over comparatively level portions of the route, and some lines during the first two years of the decade, while in $48,000 per mile on mountain divisions-this aid to be given other sections considerable activity was displayed a few years in United States government bonds, payable in thirty years, after the close of hostilities. The entire number of new roads for which the United States was to receive a first mortgage was comparatively small. The new mileage of greatest amount on the railroads comprising the line and branches. In 1864 it was that constructed by the Louisville and Nashville, 310.20 was claimed that this aid was not sufficient to secure rapid miles. The other additions approaching or exceeding 100 construction, and the law was so amended as to authorize the miles each were the following: Alabama Great Southern, 125; issue of first mortgage bonds on the roads to the amount of Charlotte, Columbia and Augusta, 84.60; Jacksonville, Pensa- the Government bonds issued, which first mortgage bonds were cola and Mobile, 107; Macon and Brunswick, 198.25; Mobile to be made a prior lion, and the security for the Government and Montgomery, 163; Mobile and Ohio, 138; Nashville, Chatta- advances converted into a secondary lien, or second mortgage. nooga and St. Louis, 182; New Orleans, Mobile and Texas, 141; The land grant was also doubled 80 as to equal 12,800 acrcs to Savannah and Charleston, 98; Savannah, Florida and Western, each mile of road. Under this arrangement construction pro- 241.10; Vicksburg and Meridian, 80; Western North Carolina, 81. gressed very rapidly. The companies sold their first mortgage IN THE GROUPS COMPRISING ILLINOIS, IOWA, WISCONSIN, MISSOURI, bonds at rates not much below par, and had available for con- AND MINNESOTA struction, the sums derived from this source, in addition to the the aggregate additions to mileage were large, and the number Government bonds. The par value of these two classes of of new constructing companies comparatively small. The im- securities was $32,000 per mile for ordinary portions of the road and three times that sum for mountain divisions. It was portant western and north-western systems were materially expanded, particularly in connection with roads that traverse alleged that the actual cost of original construction and equip- Missouri or radiate westward from Chicago. The companies ment on a large portion of the route fell far below the gross that reported in 1880 new construction exceeding one hundred amount of the proceeds of the first mortgage bonds and the miles during the seventh decade include the following: Cedar Government bonds, and that this excess became a profit to Rapids and Missouri River, 271.60; Chicago, Burlington and contractors of the roads, who, by a peculiar arrangement, were Quincy, 242.16; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 403.36; Chi- substantially the corporators, and owners of the main portion cago and North-western, 240.83; Chicago, Rock Island and of the stock. In securing the legislation by which these Pacific, 264.20; Indiana, Bloomington and Western, 202.30; arrangements and various collateral and auxiliary details ro- Kansas City, St. Joseph and Council Bluffs, 227.80; Keokuk lating to the financial operations between the Pacific roads and and Des Moines, 123.20; Missouri Pacific, 115; St. Louis, Iron the Government, were perfected, the friendly action of many Mountain and Southern, 120; St. Louis, Jacksonville and Chi- senators and congressmen was necessary, and sundry charges cago, 150.60; St. Louis and San Francisco, 129; St. Paul, Minne- have been made at various times which are based on the apolis and Manitoba, 169.45; Sioux City and Pacific, 107.42; theory that questionable means were used to procure this Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw, 122; Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific, favorable legislation. The fact that plans had been or could be 267.81; Winona and St. Peter, 105. Much of this new mileage devised to make Pacific railroads a tangible reality was clearly was located west of the Mississippi, and a considerable portion established, and the belief was widely disseminated that the was intended to furnish connections with Pacific roads. Land particular financial methods adopted in connection with the grants furnished to some of the companies a portion of the first of the through transcontinental lines had rendered its means requisite to complete their lines. Some of the new mile- construction a source of very substantial profits to the con- age was peculiarly fortunate in rapidly gaining and increasing trolling parties. earning power, and some of it has been very unprofitable to In connection with the construction of the early Pacific roads, owners of the securities by which its capital is represented. however, it should be remembered that for some time after active labors commenced, and, to a considerable extent, during IN THE STATES AND TERRITORIES COMPRISED IN GROUP VI nearly all the time their construction was progressing, wages the most notable event of the decade was the construction of and the cost of materials were far above the normal standard. Pacific railroads, embracing 100 miles by the Central Branch In reference to a contract with a construction company to Union Pacific (which now forms part of the Missouri Pacific); build one hundred miles of the main line of the Union Pacific 923.88 miles by the Central Pacific; 102.36 by the Southern directly westward from Omaha for $50,000 per mile, a Wash- Pacific; and 1,527.04 miles by the Union Pacific, including the ington correspondent of the New York Tribune said, in August, mileage originally built by the Kansas Pacific and subsequently 1865: "This contract for the construction of the road at $50,000 consolidated with the Union Pacific. The construction of these per mile has been the occasion of some comment. The Gov- lines forms one of the most important events in American rail- ernment directors, however, while they do not justify the action road history, and the character and amount of the financial aid of the company in making this contract, have given to the Sco- given to them by the United States government has elicited retary of the Interior this explanation: That the law required much discussion and protracted congressional agitations. certain sections of this road to be completed within a given In brief, a transcontinental line leading from the Missouri to period. The company were, consequently, compelled to com- the Pacific coast was considered a national necessity soon after mence their work at a time when gold was above 250, and when the commencement of the war of 1861, and in 1862 an act pro- labor and iron and other materials were at a correspondingly viding for its construction was passed, which, in addition to high price. Reducing this $50,000, which was currency, to a granting a broad right of way, privilege of using materials on coin standard, shows the actual cost to be less than $20,000 per adjacent lands, and five alternate sections of public lands on mile, which cannot be considered an extravagant cost for a each side of the roads, guaranteed to the amount of $16,000 first-class railroad in that locality." RAILWAY OPERATIONS FROM 1860 TO 1870. THE seventh decade was probably the most prosperous period by the United States, and of large debts by many cities and ever known, in the matter of enabling a number of north- counties, protracted suspension of specie payments, heavy pre- ern and western railways to earn and declare large dividends. mium on gold, which at one time rose to 185, and remained At the same time, it was one of the most unfortunate of eras above 100 for a considerable period, large number of fortunes in the way of stimulating competitive construction, and in in- made by contractors and speculators in staple products, cotton fusing a reckless speculative spirit, which has rarely, if ever, goods, gold, petroleum, coal, bubble companies, and railway been paralleled, into various railway operations. The enor- stocks, and other analogous influences, helped to bring about a mous expenditures of the Government during the war, im- state of affairs which apparently placed railways on a new basis. mense issues of greenbacks, contraction of a gigantic debt By many they were no longer regarded as struggling enter- Digitized by Google 182 RAILWAY OPERATIONS FROM 1860 TO 1870. prises, which could scarcely hope for success unless they were increased its capital stock from $9,650,000 in 1864 to $16,411,600 carefully managed, and remarkably fortunate in their location in 1869. The Boston and Maine paid dividends of 8 per cent. and surroundings, but rather as bonanzas, which could scarcely from 1862-63 to 1864-65 and of 10 per cent. from 1865 to 1869. fail to enrich all who were prominently connected with them, The New York and New Haven, after large payments on ac- either in construction or operation. Roads that had previously count of the Schuyler fraud, to which it had been subjected, been prosperous increased their dividends, and roads that had began to declare 10 per cent. dividends. A number of the been on the verge of bankruptcy suddenly became profitable. short New England roads raised their annual rate of dividends It was not merely by a marked increase in the business of to 10 per cent. before the close of the decade. The Boston and many lines, arising from the movement of troops, war material, Providence paid dividends of 8 per cent. during five years of and diversified products, that railways were benefited, but by the decade, 9 per cent. in one year, and 10 per cent. in four the changes in the laws and usages relating to the currency, years. The Boston and Lowell paid dividends of 8 per cent. which enabled them to pay with greenback dollars debts, or from 1865 to 1869. A number of New England roads seem to the interest on debts, contracted on a gold basis, and thus con- have been less affected by the war than the lines of any other ferred a liberal share of the sort of prosperity that helped section. They were prosperous before and continued to be so. to enrich all the debtor classes of that period who were en- A table of the net carnings of seven railroads leading into gaged in active business. Many railway stocks advanced greatly Boston in 1860 and 1863 gives their net earnings in cach of in nominal value, not only on account of the large dividends these years as follows:- earned, and inflation of the currency, but because an unusually 1860. 1863. Boston and Lowell $197,909 $167,051 large number of persons had suddenly acquired fortunes which Boston and Maine 475,720 482,657 they wished to invest, and as the standard rate of the dividends Boston and Providence 349,486 397,729 of a number of companies was about 10 per cent., and fre- Boston and Worcester 439,285 488,358 quently more, they furnished one of the best of available in- Eastern 367,653 394,594 vestments. Fitchburg 302,400 328,042 PROFITS OF CONSTRUCTION. Old Colony and Full River 329,208 411,544 In addition to the substantial returns of the older companies, Of the Western, which, in combination with the Boston and it was generally believed, and in some cases there were appa- Worcester, subsequently became the Boston and Albany, it was rently good grounds for such belief, that a number of large for- reported that its net earnings had increased from $888,254 in tunes had been made out of the mere construction of railways, 1860 to $1,228,706 in 1863. Vigorous efforts to promote such a not only or mainly by the intricate process of superintending, consolidation were progressing in 1864. as contractors, the operations of large numbers of men engaged The Hudson River Railroad and the New York and Harlem, in the actual work of tunneling or graduation, but by partici- of both of which roads Cornelius Vanderbilt was president, each pation in the profits of construction companies, which made declared dividends of 8 per cent. or more during portions of favorable bargains with coadjutors acting as directors. In con- the decade, prior to the consolidation of the New York Central nection with the Pacific roads subsidized by United States with the Hudson River, which went into effect October 1st, bonds, and various land-grant roads, devices for speedily secur- 1869, after which time Cornelius Vanderbilt became president ing profits out of construction were specially numerous, but of the consolidated company. The Rome, Watertown and even with other classes of roads, during eras when unbounded Ogdensburg declared dividends of 10 per cent. from 1863 to confidence in the success of railways prevailed, and when bonds 1869. The New York Central paid a dividend of 7 per cent. in could be readily sold, means were devised for rendering con- 1862-63, 9 per cent. in 1863-64, 6 per cent. from 1864 to 1868, struction a profitable operation. and 8 per cent. in 1868-69. The Erie paid two dividends of 8 CHANGES IN BUSINESS SYSTEMS. per cent. and one of 31 per cent. on its common stock, and five Aside from all temporary and speculative influences a radical dividends of 7 per cent. and one of 81 on its preferred stock and permanent change in many vital matters affecting the during the decade. business of the country was progressing. The local and state A committee of the New York Central reported in 1864 that spirit which had previously prevailed was, to a great extent, the net earnings of that company had been sufficient to pay-all supplanted by broad nationalism. It was largely on account interest on indebtedness, a 7 per cent. dividend, and to yield of this change that consolidations, the establishing of fast surplus of a million and a quarter of dollars, applicable freight lines, or other methods for facilitating intercourse be- to permanent increase and improvement of the company's tween distant points became popular. The entire Republic property and reduction of debt." The committee suggested was opened up to all its citizens and the disposition to conduct that at a future period the question should be duly considered commercial transactions with distant communities was greatly "whether such large additions to the permanent value of the increased. Manufactures of many kinds began to flourish to company's property ought not to be represented by a corre- an extent never known before, and as a substitute for a great sponding increase in value in the amount of its capital stock." temporary diminution in the exports of cotton, exports of The United Companies of New Jersey paid a cash dividend petroleum, breadstuffs, and provisions began to assume tre- of 10 per cent. during 1869, and permanently maintained that mendous proportions. After the close of the war, and the rate throughout the decade. withdrawal of an immense number of men from military The class of companies which apparently profited most ex- service, many of them sought new employment in compara- tensively by the events of the period were the anthracite rail- tively new fields of agricultural development, such as portions ways. The Delaware and Hudson Canal Company paid a divi- of Texas and various western, north-western, or south-western dend of 81 per cent. in 1862-63; of 20 per cent. in each of the states and territories, and also petroleum regions, and gold, two following years; of 16 per cent. in each of the two suc- silver, copper, lead, iron, and coal-mining districts. These ceeding years; of 14 per cent. in 1867-68, and 10 per cent. in outbursts of national activity each helped, in one way or 1868-69. The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western declared another, to promote railway construction, by greatly expand- a dividend of 9 per cent. in 1863; dividends of 20 per cent. in ing the area in which there was a demand for a marked in- two of the years of the decade; a dividend of 15 per cent. in crease of facilities for transportation. another year, and dividends of 10 per cent. in other years of the decade. The Lehigh Valley declared a dividend of 20 per DIVIDENDS OF THE SEVENTH DECADE. cent. in 1865-66, and of 10 per cent. in six other years of the The profitable nature of many of the railway operations of decade. The Philadelphia and Reading declared cash, stock, portions of the decade, is partly illustrated by the following or optional dividends ranging from 5 to 15 per cent. in each statement of some of the dividends paid:- year of the decade. Of the New England roads, the Boston and Albany, formed The Pennsylvania Railroad declared cash dividends ranging by a consolidation of the Boston and Worcester and the West- from 6 to 10 per cent. during each year of the decade and the ern, which had paid dividends of 8 per cent. from 1859-60 to following stock dividends: May, 1864, 30 per cent.; May, 1867, 1861-62, and a dividend of 9 per cent. in 1862-63, paid dividends 5 per cent.; May, 1868, 5 per cent. Pennsylvania Railroad of 10 per cent. per annum in each year from 1863 to 1869, and shares, par $50, were selling at from $754 to $771 shortly after Digitized by Google RAILWAY OPERATIONS FROM 1860 TO 1870. 183 a 30 per cent. stock dividend had been declared in the early Mississippi-Mobile and Ohio; Memphis and Charleston; Vicks- part of 1864, so that the original holder of 100 shares which burg and Jackson. had cost $5,000 could have sold his dividend of 30 shares for In some cases the seizure and operation of roads by the from $2,265 to $2,325. The stock dividend represented surplus United States government was presumably more beneficial profits, applied to permanent improvements or investments, than injurious, as it insured protection, and after the close of which had not been divided among the stockholders. the war enabled the companies to quickly obtain equipment. The net revenue of the Baltimore and Ohio was enormously The greatest injuries inflicted on southern railroads arose from increased while the war was progressing, and it declared sub- the destruction inflicted by irate armies at various times and stantial dividends, but applied a considerable portion of its net places; the collapse of the southern financial system, which in earnings to a reduction of its funded debt and sundry invest- some instances carried with it the loss of valuable assets of ments or improvements. A similar policy was pursued by the southern companies; and the temporary diminution of all Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore, which also had its classes of peaceful traffic. The combined effect of some or all net revenue largely increased above the usual standard during of these causes is indicated by the following statements of the war. dividends: The Georgia Railroad, which paid 8 per cent. in The prosperity of the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago 1859-60, paid no dividends from that time until 1866-67, when is indicated by the fact that it was leased to the Pennsylvania 6} per cent. was paid. The same rate was maintained in in 1869, on terms which guaranteed a dividend of 7 per cent. 1S67-68, and increased to 8 per cent. in 1868-69. The South- on the capital stock, after the amount of the latter had been western Railroad, of Georgia, which paid 13 per cent. in increased from $11,500,000 to $19,583,047.71. A prospectus 1859-60, paid 4 per cent. in 1865-66; 9 in 1866-67, and 8 in the issued in 1864 by promoters of a new company stated that in two closing years of the decade. The Nashville and Chatta- 1863 the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati divided 15 per nooga reported profits of $918,547 in 1862-63, a much larger cent.; the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton divided 10 per sum than its profits in any other year of the decade, probably cent,; the Little Miami 30 per cent.; the Michigan Central 18 on account of the extensive use of its lines for the movement per cent.; and the Lake Shore, Cleveland, Painesville and Ash- of troops. Various other railroads, some of which traverse tabula, 23 per cent. territory that remained under the control of the Confederates The Illinois Central paid dividends of 8 per cent. in 1863 and until near the close of hostilities, report a large increase in net 1864, and of 10 per cent. from 1865 to 1869, inclusive. The earnings between 1861 and 1864, followed by a great decline Chicago and Rock Island paid dividends of 6 per cent. in after 1865. The historic South Carolina Railroad, which built 1860-61, 1861-62, and 1862-63; a dividend of 8 per cent. in and operated the first railway exceeding one hundred miles in 1864-65, and dividends of 10 per cent. in each of the four fol- the United States, reported dividends of 6 per cent. in 1861, 8 lowing years. The Michigan Central declared dividends of 8 per cent. in 1862, 12 per cent. in 1863, and 16 per cent. in 1864, per cent. in 1862-63; 12 per cent. in 1863-64; 18 per cent. in and no dividends during the remaining years of the decade. 1864-65; 9 per cent. in 1865-66, and 10 per cent. in each of the three following years of the decade. The Chicago, Bur- BREAKERS AHEAD. lington and Quincy declared large dividends, and also dis- While the increase of the dividends, and the usual rate of the tributed a considerable amount of stock. The Chicago and dividends, of a number of northern and western railways helped North-western in 1867-68 declared a dividend of 10 per cent., to greatly increase public confidence in railway enterprises and payable in stock, and in 1868-69 a dividend of 10 per cent., to stimulate the organization of new projects, success was by payable in cash. The Milwaukee and St. Paul, the forerunner no means universal. The Atlantic and Great Western, built of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, declared a dividend, while the war was progressing, which commenced operations from the earnings of 1869, on preferred stock of 7 per cent., and with great expectations, was in the hands of receivers before 3 per cent. on common stock, and on common stock of 3 per the decade closed. For the year ending June 30th, 1869, its cent. in cash, and 7 per cent. in common stock. net earnings were reported to be $1,638,078.34, and at that time Various other dividends of the period are of a character its capital stock was $30,000,000, and its various classes of in- similar to those already mentioned. So far as any general debtedness amounted to $63,897,472.50. Aside from this disas- deduction can be drawn from them, it is probably to the effect trous showing of one of the most important of the new com- that the prevailing standard of the period for prosperous rail- panies a number of the old lines extensively engaged in com- ways more nearly approximated 10 per cent. per annum than petitive movements found, before the decade had closed, that any other figure, and that sanguine investors were more apt to the rate of profit on a given amount of business had wofully suppose that this rate would be maintained, and occasionally decreased, and declines in gross earnings were common. increased by stock dividends or cash returns exceeding 10 This was one of the most noticeable developments of the per cent. per annum, than that dividends would fall below period. The Baltimore and Ohio, for instance, reported on that rate. gross earnings of $10,138,876 in 1864, a net revenue of $5,092,680, MISFORTUNES OF SOUTHERN RAILWAYS. while in 1868 it reported gross earnings of $8,472,218 and $2,692,106 of net revenue. The Philadelphia, Wilmington While the northern and western railways were enjoying an and Baltimore reported $3,828,464.06 of gross earnings and unusual degree of prosperity a number of southern lines were $1,574,554.39 of net revenue in 1864-65, while in 1868-69 its subjected to great misfortunes. In some instances tracks and gross earnings were $2,565,302.31, and its net revenue $874,094.48 rails were torn up by southern armies to be removed to points -the net revenue being in the latter year 34.15 per cent. of the where they could be more useful for military operations. In receipts, and in the former 54.29 per cent. The Erie reported various other cases bridges were destroyed and tracks injured in 1863-64 that its gross earnings were $12,551,480, and its net as much as possible by northern armics. A considerable num- earnings $3,493,726, while in 1868-69 its gross earnings were ber of lines located in or near the scene of active hostilities $16,721,500, and its net earnings were $2,179,395. Some im- were made the sport and prey of martial requirements. portant roads were able to ward off similar changes, by im- Low's Railway Directory for 1865 gives a list of the military proving their facilities, diminishing the cost of freight move- railroads of the United States, which, on January 1st, 1865, were ments, and obtaining advantageous new connections or classes under the direction of Brigadier-General D. C. McCallum, di- of traffic; but in the absence of exceptionally favorable in- rector and general manager at Washington. They are classi- fluences, there was a strong tendency towards a marked reduc- fied as follows: Military Railroads of Virginia-Alexandria and tion of railway profits, and some of the companies which did Washington; Alexandria, Loudon, and Hampshire; Orange and not promptly counteract this tendency either by reducing ex- Alexandria; Winchester and Potomac; City Point and Army; penses per ton per mile, or other expedients, were drifting Norfolk and Petersburg; Seaboard and Roanoke. Military Divi- towards a disastrous condition. The roads that had been most sion of the Mississippi-Nashville and Chattanooga; Nashville, materially benefited by new influences, and had failed to pro- Decatur, and Stevenson; Nashville and North-western; Nash- vide new sources of profit or to greatly reduce expenses ville and Clarksville; Chattanooga and Knoxville; Knoxville the heaviest sufferers, but many lines were adve and Bristol; Cleveland and Dalton. Military Division of West by the new order of things. Digitized by Google 184 MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS. MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS. ESTIMATE OF THE MILEAGE AND COST OF AMERICAN RAILBOADS had increased to 43,510.43, and the aggregate amount of rail- IN 1865-66 AND 1869. way stock and bond capital then existing was estimated at IN an early portion of 1866 the American Railroad Journal about $2,000,000,000, the increase being mainly on account of published the following estimate of the mileage and cost of additions to construction or improvements, but also partly on the railways of each state shortly after the close of the war:- account of issues of additional capital when consolidations were formed. Mileage Cost of road Total. The Railway Journal, in January, 1870, published the follow- including States. projected Com- or partly pleted. Total. Per mile. ing estimate of the mileage and cost of the railways of each finished state and territory at the end of 1869:- lines. Maine 640.59 509.37 $18,134,925 $35,619 Miles of road. Total, in- Cost of road New Hampshire 659.33 659.33 22,342,947 33,904 States, &c. cluding un- Open. and Vermont 596.73 596.73 24,773,417 41,497 finished lines. equipment. Massachusetts 1,353.55 Maine 1,309.65 59,956,462 45,999 940.79 672.07 $21,183,110 Rhode Island 151.74 119.24 4,941,240 41,513 New Hampshire 785.32 685.32 22,642,600 Connecticut 717.54 637.54 Vermont 23,900,001 37,492 635.09 613.09 28,784,926 New York 3,278.17 2,928.17 Massachusetts 145,240,291 49,603 1,569.75 1,483.70 74,699,443 New Jersey 887.80 868.80 Rhode Island 49,483,532 56,943 121.47 121.47 5,132,672 Pennsylvania 4,364.19 3,797.32 195,982,888 Connecticut 51,615 806.94 698 57 27,359,017 Delaware 172.40 126.90 4,931,709 38,753 New York 4,735.91 3,636.22 209,001,671 Maryland and Dist. of Col. 727.90 486.80 28,558,124 58,641 New Jersey 1 023.65 989.65 74,602,735 West Virginia 361.50 361.50 24,370,667 67,508 Pennsylvania 6,878.36 5,014.45 300,556,508 Kentucky 940.60 613.60 21,639,870 35,244 Delaware and East Maryland 455.50 292.50 8,773,637 Ohio 3,999.26 3,392.89 131,872,472 38,865 Maryland (other than above) 730.02 493.52 31,814,659 Michigan 1,734.12 949.32 39,648,812 41,779 West Virginia 723.75 364.75 27,860,315 Indiana 2,466.50 2,196.07 72,377,489 32,922 Virginia 2,049.11 1,482.94 49,887,481 Illinois 3,759.65 3,171.25 127,798,081 40,302 North Carolina 1,552.97 1,129.67 29,505,425 Wisconsin 1,357,41 1,044.91 39,580,741 37,876 South Carolina 1,439.17 1,089.97 27,348,817 Minnesota 1,608.00 227.00 8,250,000 36,343 Georgia 2,095.41 1,694.70 36,875,552 Iowa 2,023.00 946.30 Florida 36,142,928 38,206 613.20 440.20 9,883,981 Missouri 1,572.39 924.75 50,232,482 Alabama 54,305 2,039.80 1,036.00 36,421,163 Kansas 480.00 122.00 3,500,000 28,699 Mississippi 900.20 900.20 24,910,504 Nebraska Territory 1,200.00 53.00 3,000,000 Louisiana 56,604 928.30 414.50 17,385,223 California 1,285.80 262.50 13,800,000 Texas 52,671 2,529.25 572.25 17,006,000 Oregon 19.50 19.50 500,000 Arkansas 25,641 897.00 86.00 4,310,000 Virginia 2,054.48 1,378.70 45,146,843 Tennessee 32,739 1,876.53 1,435.53 46,918,448 North Carolina 1,352.42 977.30 19,308,018 19,762 Kentucky 1,402.85 849.55 33,511,746 South Carolina 1,072.93 988.93 Ohio 22,423,690 22,673 4,613.96 3,723.89 100,424,507 Georgia 1,635.23 1,421.22 29,169,513 20,527 Michigan 2,293.26 1,198.76 48,793,418 Florida 586.50 401:50 Indiana 8,628,000 21,489 5,331.10 2,977.10 121,162,301 Alabama 1,434.70 891.16 Illinois 21,351,102 23,979 7,186.45 4,707.95 217,559,542 Mississippi 1,072.12 867.12 Wisconsin 24,112,507 27,811 2,779.60 1,490.60 60,358,723 Tennessee 1,392.49 1,317.78 33,977,478 Minnesota 25,779 1,800.00 823.00 27,160,000 Arkansas 701.33 38.50 3,800,500 Iowa 31,169 3,219.28 2,140.83 85,762,043 Louisiana 838.00 335.75 13,627,664 Nebraska 449.00 449.00 40,559 26,450,000 Texas 2,787.00 451.50 16,509,772 Wyoming Territory 560.00 560.00 30,607 43,300,000 Missouri 3,261.79 1,827.00 88,372,121 Total, United States 51,284.87 35,316.40 $1,388,555,268 $38,998 Kansas 1,601.50 930.50 39,623,500 Six New England states 4,119.48 3,831.86 $154,048,992 $40,199 Colorado 350.00 150.00 6,000,000 Five middle Atlantic Utah Territory 365.00 365.00 18,000,000 states 9,430.46 8,207.99 424,186,541 51,679 Nevada 390.00 390.00 19,500,000 Twelve northern interior California 2,397.00 810.60 46,650,000 states, &c 21,502.43 13,970.59 557,913,148 39,998 Oregon 2,019.50 119.50 5,700,000 Two Pacific states 1,305.30 282.00 14,300,000 50,539 Total, January 1st, 1870 76,366.38 48,860.55 $2,212,412,719 Five southern Atlantic states 6,701.56 5,167.65 124,676,061 24,129 RELATIVE RANK OF RAILWAYS AMONG TRANSPORTATION AGENCIES. Six gulf and southern in- terior states 8,225.64 3,901.81 113,428,523 29,064 Reference has heretofore been made to the low relative rank of railways, in comparison with canals, steamboats, and stage- Total, United States 51,284.87 35,361.40 $1,388,555,268 $38,998 coach movements in 1840, and to the rapid forward strides In reference to the method by which the above estimates of made by railways from 1840 to 1850. An indication of the ex- cost of roads per mile were obtained the following explanation tent of the enormous subsequent progress of the railways from is given: "In making the reductions to cost per mile in the 1850 to 1867 is furnished by a United States government report for above table, the aggregate cost in each state has been divided the year ending June 30th, 1867, in tables exhibiting the internal by the completed mileage. This makes a greater or less error revenue for that period on the gross receipts of canals, railroads, in the result, according to the activity of railroad construction ships, barges, &c., stage-coaches and steamboats, the rate of in the states severally. Thus in the New England states gen- taxation on each of these agencies being 21 per cent. The aggre- erally the result obtained by this process is nearly accurate, gates were as follows: Canals, $45,282.40; railroads, $4,128,255.24; since the difference between completed and progressing roads ships, barges, &c., $4,876.54; stage-coaches, $241,297.09; steam- is small. In the new states, however, in which large amounts boats, $91,805.09. have been expended on roads as yet incomplete the difference The taxes levied on railroad companies may have been more is necessarily wider apart." uniformly collected than those imposed on the other classes The census report of 1880 states that the mileage completed named, but after due allowance is made for such a circum- at the end of 1865 was 32,995.66. stance, it is evident that the railways, in amount of business By the end of 1869 the mileage operated in the United States and gross receipts, greatly exceeded all the other agencies Digitized by Google Steamboat with Safety Barge attached, Small Steamboat Running on the Schuylkill running on the Hudson in 1896. in 1824. Fast Steambout Plying on the Hudson in 1837. ? WILL STATES Western River Steamboat Running in 1837. Western River Stern Wheel Boat. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google CONSOLIDATION OF CONNECTING LINES. 185 combined, as the amount of tax paid by all of them only States, &c. Canals, Railroads, Ships. Stage- Steam- slightly exceeds one-tenth of the sum paid by the railways, 2½ ct. 2½ p. ct. barges, &c., coaches, boats, 21/2 p. ct. 2½ ct. 2½1/21 ct. and it falls below the tax paid by the express companies, which Dis. of Col 9,209 61 703 1,921 made nearly all their lengthy movements over railway lines Florida 8,542 12 422 38 759 252 during the same year. This tax was at the rate of 3 per cent., Georgia 328 89,763 40 416 17 1,005 06 1,960 and amounted to $558,359.28. Other internal revenue taxes Idaho 4,003 05 5,255 18 Illinois 370,367 06 6,017 were imposed at the rate of 3 per cent. on the gross receipts Indiana 101,468 39 610 1,295 01 274 04 of bridges and toll roads, from which source a revenue of Iowa 23,217 26 7,021 98 $115,461.20 was derived, and on ferries, which yielded a revenue Kansas 13,532 38 17,370 09 717 82 of $137,239.72. Kentucky 3,275.89 52,666 81 6,771 04 147 84 A relation similar to that mentioned above existed in other Louisiana 2,515 85 68,650 98 138 28 1,253 91 672 23 years in which taxation was imposed on gross receipts, as will Maine 1933 39,675 27 40 52 3,123 99 3,623 63 be seen by the following statement of internal revenue collec- Maryland 135,177 34 284 30 4,844 75 212 98 tions of the fiscal years of 1865 and 1866:- Massachusetts. 283,372 69 129 22 9,025 39 2,066 17 Michigan 101,760 17 307 18 6,407 21 245 32 1865. 1866. Minnesota 18,980 74 3,770 09 Bridges and toll roads $75,268 95 $108,136 31 Mississippi 10 83 207 24 691 34 Canals 92,421 29 99,267 80 Missouri 98,778 63 29 25 5,434.85 16,359 88 Express companies 529,275 89 645,769 02 Montana 1,200 46 3,402 13 Ferries 126,132 57 48,763 56 Nebraska 2,858 44 1,301 72 Railroads 5,917,293 51 7,614,448 13 Nevada 2,614 93 3,332.83 Ships, barges, &c. 431,210 58 39,321 79 N. Hampshire. 58,625 70 00 3,906 00 17 07 Stage-coaches, wagons, &c 469,187 56 572,519 04 New Jersey 7,756 00 307,447 68 89 71 2,650 71 630 60 Steamboats 638,812 28 84,845 New Mexico 3,739 69 An interesting indication of the extent to which railways New York 406 09 632,571 785 27 48,462 84 21,231 66 had supplanted other agencies in the various states and terri- North Carolina 36,946 196 71 684 55 tories, is shown by the following table of the internal revenue Ohio 407,876 33 4534 6,507 02 10,313 33 paid in each of the states, on the gross receipts of the compa- Oregon 1,219 38 1,488 8 8,682 88 7,959 16 nies or interests named, during the fiscal year ended June 30th, Pennsylvania. 3,436 59 749,402 91 148 03 9,946 17 4,295 81 Rhode Island 18,832 21 1,343 36 8,954 01 1867:- Ships. Steam- South Carolina 20,096 50 77 14 224 83 Canals. Stage- 1,167 70 Railroads. States, &c. 2½ 2½ ct. barges, ac., coaches. boats. Tennessee 88,167 95 912 77 17 18 2½ p. ct. 2½ ct. 2½ ct. Texas 21,885 5,701 07 1,616 06 Alabama $61,2 $804 81 $98 83 Utah 24 02 800 91 Arizona Vermont 36,333 69 798 08 2,164 36 Arkansas 538 91 $24 00 245 52 Virginia 5,177 79 45,659 07 106 39 2,462 53 138 59 California $13,142 41 56,939 88 409 83 45,509 04 Washington 401 12 3,898 99 198 Colorado 185 68 737 33 West Virginia. 161 41 1,129 59 809 55 Connecticut 97,516 886 03 573 04 Wisconsin 62,649 35 170 55 2,495 92 1.917 64 Dakota Delaware 551 04 387 33 284 11 7 50 Total $45,282 40 $4,128,255 24 $4,876 54 $241,297 09 $91,805 09 CONSOLIDATION OF CONNECTING LINES. T. 1860. Two of the lines had been fairly merous that they formed a leading feature of the developments of that period. most important were made by the consolidation of the nu- THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD merous companies which originally built the railways now engaged more extensively in such operations than any other forming the main line of the New York Central in 1853, and company. From the beginning made by the construction of a by the purchase of state works of Pennsylvania, and the leasing line between Harrisburg and Pittsburgh, a distance of 249 miles, of a short railway between Harrisburg and Lancaster, which and the purchase of state works, it had, before the close of the gave to the Pennsylvania Railroad a continuous line between seventh decade, secured by construction, purchase, and leases, Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. In view of the fact that the Balti- the control of 2,458.5 miles of railway, including its main line more and Ohio and Erie were each built and operated by a and branches; the Philadelphia and Erie, 287.5 miles; the single company, and designed from the outset to serve as Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago, 468 miles, and other important channels of through traffic, it is obvious that the roads west of Pittsburgh, with an aggregate length of 1,111.6 consolidations which created the New York Central, and the miles, viz., Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis, 200.5; Little purchase and lease which secured to the Pennsylvania Rail- Miami, Columbus and Xenia, 196.6; Columbus, Chicago and road Company the control of a continuous line between the Indiana Central, 600.5, and Indianapolis and Vincennes, 114. two leading cities of the state it traversed, were necessary to It had also secured, by obtaining a controlling interest in the enable them to hopefully contend with their two American Northern Central, good facilities for reaching Baltimore, and trunk-line rivals in the competition for through traffic which relatively convenient connections with New York by the Allen- speedily commenced. Various other consolidations, scarcely less town route, leading from Harrisburg castward, via the Reading necessary to the prosperity of the companies affected, were made and Jersey Central. At an carly period in the eighth decade during the sixth decade, such as the union of the Lebanon it also leased the lines of the United Companies of New Jersey, Valley and various short coal roads with the Reading; the thus giving a direct entrance into Jersey City, and control of union of lines which formed the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and much valuable railway and canal mileage. Chicago; the combinations of various lines in Illinois, and a Next in importance were the consolidations or leases made number of combinations in other states. As a rule, however, by the the prevailing practice before 1860, in most sections, continued NEW YORK CENTRAL AND HUDSON RIVER. to be favorable to the maintenance of the independence of During the sixth decade it had combined the short lines that each company, except in special cases, where there were unu- in the aggregate made a connecting link between Buffalo and sually good reasons for the adoption of a different policy; Albany, and during the seventh decade this construction was while after 1860 a number of important consolidations were supplemented by a consolidation with the Hudson River Rail- made, and during the seventh decade they became 80 nu- road, leading to the city of New York. This union, and the 24 Digitized by Google 186 CONSOLIDATION OF CONNECTING LINES. leased roads controlled by it, made the mileage of the main line the one band, and of making corresponding movements over represented by the New York Central and Hudson River after the same aggregation of lines after they are practically under October 1st, 1869, 842.21. Cornelius Vanderbilt became the head the control of a single vigorous and progressive company. The of the system. He had previously been actively identified for twenty organizations might have twenty sets of passenger or some years with the Hudson River and Harlem roads, leading freight cars and changes, requiring the movement of passen- from New York to Albany (but not with the New York Cen- gers at the end of each of their respective lines, and analo- tral); and about or soon after that period he became promi- gous changes of freight might also be required. Supposing the nently connected with important western railroads under con- number of such changes to be materially reduced, as they fre- ditions which practically secured for the New York Central quently were, in connection with movements over routes formed connections west of Buffalo analogous in importance to those by a combination of short lines, there was always more or less obtained by the Pennsylvania through its lease of the Pitts- of a lack of certainty, completeness, or permanency about such burgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago and the Pittsburgh, Cincin- combinations. There might be relatively good arrangements nati and St. Louis. In 1869 a consolidation was made of the during one season which would be less satisfactory in another. Lake Shore, Michigan Southern, and various shorter lines The condition of the road-bed or locomotives on some parts of forming a through rail connection between Buffalo and Chicago, the line would often be much better than on others. Mechani- and of various branches and laterals, having a total length of cal advances desired by some of the companies, would not 945.15 miles. And of this consolidated company, Horace F. or could not be promptly provided by all their associates. Clark, a son-in-law of Commodore Vanderbilt, was president. In addition to all such difficulties serious questions some- times arose about responsibility for losses or damages to freight, THE ERIE RAILROAD, and if a company controlling a portion of the combined route which had originally built a line 459 miles in length between happened to be bankrupt, speedy payments for losses or in- Jersey City and Dunkirk, had purchased or leased branches juries inflicted while movements were being made over its line 386.75 miles in length, making an aggregate of 845.75 miles; could not be secured. Twenty managements, having a legal and in addition, it was in 1869, under a lease of the Atlantic right to act independently or diversely on many subjects, could and Great Western, operating or moving trains over 565.81 scarcely exist without occasionally displaying antagonistic pro- miles; and it was also moving trains over 34.25 miles of short clivities which would thwart the completeness of through New York roads,-making the total mileage operated directly, freight or passenger connections. or partially by the Erie, 1,355.08. Consolidations of considerable consequence were probably OTHER IMPORTANT CONSOLIDATIONS. made in England before they were attempted here, and one of In addition to these important extensions of trunk-line sys- the results was a remarkable increase in the amount of the tems, a number of other extensions, consolidations, or leases traffic of all the lines united. This is as natural as that more were made during the seventh decade, including the following: trade should originate on a large lake than on a small one, or The Philadelphia and Reading which, in 1862, had 261.13 miles that there should be more steamboats plying on a lengthy of main line and 176.32 of branch lines, a total of 437.45, had, navigable river than on a short one. The circle of commerce in 1869, 326 miles of main line and 815 miles of branch lines, is widened by every step that removes barriers between pro- or sidings and laterals, a total of 1,141.90. The other anthracite ducers and consumers, by reducing the cost of movements and railways had made considerable additions to the mileage owned diminishing other obstructions to free intercourse. Railways or operated. Leading western and north-western railroads had accomplish such ends even more rapidly and effectively than greatly increased their mileage, either by leases or new con- ordinary internal water courses, inasmuch as their operations struction. The Chicago and Rock Island, which had 228.4 are usually conducted with a degree of regularity and celerity miles open in 1860-61, operated 590.5 miles in 1868-69. The never attained by other agencies. Long railways, or combina- Chicago and North-western was in 1869 operating 1,282 miles. tions of a number of short lines under conditions which prac- The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, which in 1863-64 was tically convert them into compact and reliable systems, are operating 264 miles, was operating 602.25 before the end of enabled, by concentrations, to materially increase their useful- 1869. The mileage of the Milwaukee and St. Paul had on ness to all interests and communities they serve. May 1st, 1870, been increased by consolidation to 938. The Massachusetts railroad commissioners, in their report THE GENERAL SUBJECT OF RAILWAY CONSOLIDATIONS for 1873, drew the following conclusions, after an examination of the experience of Great Britain, which may fairly be taken has frequently attracted much attention, and the combinations as an illustration of a general law: "The evidence seems to effected at various times have exercised a marked influence be almost conclusive that positive benefit rather than injury upon the companies concerned and the public. The circum- has there resulted from amalgamation, so far as it has gone. stances of each particular transaction cannot be described Not only have the evils anticipated not resulted, but it would within brief limits, but they should be studied and understood seem that the public has invariably been better and more by those who wish to reach a just conclusion in regard to the economically served by the consolidated than by the inde- terms of either of the numerous compacts made. Such an pendent companies. The larger companies employ abler elaborate inquiry might result in a belief that bad bargains officers, and seem to be managed more on the system of great were made by large roads in some instances, and by small departments of commerce, and less on that of lines of stage- roads in others, but the owners of the securities of the short coaches. The time and attention of the officers are not mainly lines have in a majority of instances probably been materially absorbed in questions of corporate hostility, and the money of benefited by the protection and security derived from an alli- the companies is wasted in a somewhat less degree in warfare ance with longer lines, if they remained solvent. Much of the with each other. There is, in fact, far less of friction in the most desirable railway property of the country is now repre- work of transportation, and far more of system. Finally, as sented by the bonds and stocks of companies whose roads are leased and operated by more powerful organizations. It seems regards the community at large, it is found that large compa- nies can be held to a closer responsibility than small ones. unquestionable that Their prominence enables public opinion to concentrate upon PUBLIC INTERESTS HAVE BEEN PROMOTED them. They are more closely watched, and held to a stricter to an extraordinary extent, in various ways, by the process of account." consolidation, especially in the improvement of facilities for Mr. C. F. Adams says: "The clearer political observers have the cheap, rapid, and convenient movement of passengers and come to realize at last that concentration brings with it an in- freight between distant points, the avoidance of delays and creased sense of responsibility. The larger the railroad cor- changes of cars, the reduction of freight charges, and the in- poration, the more cautious is its policy. As a result, therefore, crease of the responsibility of carriers. of forty years of experiment and agitation, Great Britain has There is a vast difference between traveling or transporting on this head come back very nearly to its point of commence- freight over a distance of say one thousand miles, under a rail- ment." way system made up of loose combinations of twenty compa- In commenting upon the favorable results of railway con- nies, each having lines of an average length of fifty miles, on solidation in Great Britain, the chief of the bureau of statistics, Digitized by Google CONSOLIDATION OF CONNECTING LINES 187 in his report upon the internal commerce of the United States canal, care of such a man at Buffalo, care of some one else at for 1881, says: "A similar result has followed railroad consoli- some point up the lake; some one else at some interior point, dation in the United States. It has, heretofore, been shown and 80 on. In the then ordinary way of doing business, a man that the average of all the rates charged on fifteen leading rail- shipped his property to a certain point, say the terminal of roads of the country, including those of the grent east and west some route, and when he got there it was subject to his order: trunk lines, and the principal railroads west of the Allegheny If he was not there himself, he had an agent or consignee to mountains, engaged in traffic between the western and north- take it. The business of that agent or consignee would be to western states and the Atlantic seaboard, has decreased 39.45 pay the charges if not prepaid when the property was shipped, per cent. since 1870, this reduction in railroad freight charges deliver it to the next party in the line of transportation after having been more than three times as great as the average re- making his bargain with such party, and so on, for every point duction during the same period in the prices of twenty-two of of shipment. The same rule would, abstractly considered, the leading articles of commerce." apply to-day, but all this detail is done voluntarily by the rail- road companies for the convenience of shippers and the public. EFFECT OF CONSOLIDATIONS ON POWER TO DO GOOD OR EVIL. Property shipped from Chicago, St. Louis, and even San Fran- A graphic description of the benefits derived by the public cisco, comes to New York without any special oversight or from consolidations is contained in the following statements charge. If from Canada we even enter it at the custom house, made by Mr. Edwin D. Worcester, secretary of the New York and give a bond for duties. This is all voluntary. Few people Central, before the Senate committee on transportation routes have any conception of the vast amount of troublesome busi- to the seaboard, in 1873:- ness done by railroad companies for them in this way, and yet "All the permanent and progressive reduction of rates that the saving of the expense of transfer or reshipment, instead of being I have spoken of, and the whole practical efficiency of the en- made the source of additional profit, has been applied to the reduo tire railroad system, have been due entirely to consolidation or tion of rates." to the concentration of lines originally distinct. We DENUNCIATIONS OF COMPANIES had ten roads between Albany and Buffalo. There was just which are based on the mere fact that their operations extend about as much efficiency in operating ten roads as there would over a large area and are conducted on a gigantic scale are not be in ten men trying to do a thing that one ought to do. Every justified by actual developments. Great companies, like little board of directors had its own profit to make, and its own ones, may fail to conduct some of their operations in a satis- schemes to advance. There was no obligation on the part of factory manner; but the chances of obtaining reliable service any one company to do anything for any other. Through lines on a lengthy route are usually much better if it is rendered by of cars could be run only by very complicated and embarrass- one company, than if a passenger or shipper is obliged to de- ing arrangements. I can remember the time when conductors pend upon numerous independent organizations. were changed at the end of each one of the roads of the old All this is now 80 well understood by those who have practi- line between Buffalo and Albany. In some cases a ticket could cally tested different methods, that the question of greatest im- not be bought through from Albany to Buffalo. The elements portance is whether the gigantic companies will be enabled to of usefulness and economy were very few. In regard to freight, bear the burden of the obligations they have assumed. Dif- there was no obligation on the part of any one of the roads to ferent solutions will presumably be reached in different cases, take a single pound of it from another. Except 80 far as they hereafter, as they have been reached, heretofore, the particular might choose to agree with each other, it involved changing at results depending largely upon the nature of the compacts each terminus. The policy of consolidation was what first led made in each instance. Consolidation, in itself, has conferred to the prorating of freight charges. They are now prorated, many benefits, and it would be difficult to point out any posi- where the old number of lines could never have been got into tive injuries, except those suffered in some instances by stock- any agreement. Other companies, too, have been carrying on holders or creditors, whose interests were adversely affected by this system of consolidations. All the railroads in France have unjust or unfortunate bargains, or by the facilities which gigan- been combined into four systems. In England substantially tic combinations afforded for ruinous rate-cutting on a stupend- all the railroads have been absorbed into five or six general ous scale. It may be laid down as a rule, however, that there systems. If there is any principle involved in having is a special necessity for careful safeguards against consoli- no railroad in single control exceed, say, one hundred miles in dating under any single management more mileage than it can length, the same general rule might just as well limit to a effectively manage. single mile. The objection that is frequently urged to consoli- dation is the so-called great power created. There seems to be FINANCIAL EFFECTS OF CONSOLIDATIONS. a frightful idea that any power that may be exercised for good The disposition to consolidate many roads into large systems, may be exercised for evil. In limiting the simple exercise of which rapidly increased during the seventh decade, made a power 80 as to surely insure against the possibility of doing material addition to the opportunities for converting relatively evil, it is very easy to defeat the ability to do good. What is short new lines or old ones into sources of profit, as they could the really proper course to take when an absolute advantage is be offered to rival large corporations, and in some instances considered as against & remote contingency of disadvantage, or disposed of on very advantageous terms, and the practice was as against mere possibility, is quite easy to determine. In adopted in some of the consolidations of making issues of new ordinary matters there is never any difficulty. There stock for the purpose of equalizing the values of the respective is, however, no good reason for supposing that consolidation properties combined. does really increase power. For all the purposes of practical Much has been said, at various times, of the effect of these power to accomplish the terrible purposes 80 much feared, new stock issues in increasing railway capital. So far as the there would be a great deal more ability in the separate com- interests of the general public are concerned, they have rarely panies than in the combined company. The combined com- exercised any influence whatever, as few, if any, of the lengthy pany is, at least, answerable as a unit, and the absence of moral railroads engaged in competitive operations are enabled to responsibility that is supposed to exist, because by reason of an make any advance in charges on account of an increase of aggregation of parties it is so divided that no one, as it is said, amount of capital stock. If the supposition that practical ope- is responsible, would be vastly increased if such unit were di- rations on a railway have any connection with the amount of vided into the fractions from which it was formed. Each frac- its capital stock has any foundation, it must be based chiefly tion in this case would have the full effect of the whole unit." on the doings of comparatively small lines or lines that are not In another portion of Mr. Worcester's testimony he said, subjected to the sharp competitive influences which now pre- "There are some features attending the transhipment or trans- vail, almost universally, in connection with nearly all classes fer of property under the old-fashioned way of doing business. of local and through traffic. Certain it is that a number of I was in the mercantile business a good many years ago, before lines which are supposed to have issued a specially large railroads came into use for freight purposes. One of my duties amount of capital stock have rarely been able to earn divi- was to mark goods to be shipped, and I well remember mark- such capital, and it is palpable that earning power, ing to the care of three or four people. For instance, not depend upon, and is not governed or ma- Digitized by Google 188 CONSOLIDATION OF CONNECTING LINES. terially affected by, the amount of capital stock. The question road, to compete for trade. Passenger rates went to 45 cents, may still be asked, however, why did various lines, when con- and coal to 50 cents generally, and once to 30 cents., These solidating, make the nominal amount of their capital stock rates were injurious to the Boston and Lowell, and insupport- differ from the sum it represented previous to such consolida- able by the Salem and Lowell. Compromise and lease fol- tion? There would be a considerable difference in answers lowed. Passenger rates went to 75 cents, then to $1, and now given in different cases. are 75 cents. Coal rates went to $1.25 at once, and subse- If it is supposed that two roads, which each had a capital quently to $1.75; since reduced, I think, to $1.25. Other rates stock amounting to $1,000,000, after maintaining an independ- were affected in the same direction, yet the Boston and Lowell ent existence for a number of years, had agreed to consolidate, Railroad Company, who took the lease, fared no better than it and to substitute for their old certificates new ones, nothing did with low rates before the Salem and Lowell was built." would be more natural than that the aggregate amount of the Mr. Hinckley wisely drew a broad distinction between the new issue, and the proportion of it to be assigned to the share- ease with which competition could be checked on compara- holders of each of the old companies, should receive very tively short parallel lines and the difficulty of arresting it on serious consideration, and be finally determined by various long through routes. He said: "In here speaking of competi- influences. One might be the market value at the time of the tion I do not refer to cases where the business competed for is consolidation, and if the shares of one of the companies were but a portion of the business of the road, and, therefore, is not at a premium and the shares of the other at a discount, it is of prime consideration. Thus the great trunk lines may go on obvious that the new stock would probably not be apportioned competing indefinitely for the western and seaboard traffic, be- without due regard for this important distinction. If the shares cause such competition is not destructively exhaustive, in view of both companies had risen in market value above the par of the large local traffic which those lines enjoy free from com- value, and if the profits of the companies had been sufficient petition. Yet even here the public frequently suffers, as, for to maintain the shares at such advanced quotations during a instance, when competition has reduced the rates to cost, or protracted period, the new stock representing the consolidated even below cost, and the railroad companies, in sclf-preserva- interests would be more likely to represent the market value tion, agree together for a time, forming what we may call a than the par value. Then there was a possibility that the mere temporary consolidation, under which rates are spasmodically act of consolidation would increase the earning power of each raised." of the consolidating companies, and this increase may have It is to be remembered that the famous Stephenson maxim been sometimes represented in the new stock issue. There relating to the cessation of railway competition only applies to were numerous cases, too, in which companies, instead of cases "where consolidation is practicable," and while it does dividing their net earnings among shareholders, had applied apply to them with considerable regularity, there are many an unusually large proportion to permanent improvements, forms of railway competition in this country which never have and for this temporary privation a corresponding equivalent in been, and from the nature of the organizations concerned, an increased amount of the new consolidated stock might be probably never will be, arrested by permanent consolidations. demanded. There were other cases in which a comparatively This remark is applicable to all the great through-route sys- short road was absorbed by a long one, and the circumstances tems, whether they pertain to movements between the Atlantic were such that its shareholders demanded that they should be coasts and the Mississippi valley, or between western traffic guaranteed a high rate of dividends-say 12 per cent., and it centres and adjacent agricultural districts, or between the Pa- was deemed prudent to have this rate practically represented cific coast and the Mississippi valley. In reality these lines by a large issue of capital, drawing-say 7 per cent.; as this ex- have always been competing with each other for through pedient would probably help to evade legislation relating to traffic, since they were in a physical and financial condition to the rate of railway dividends. make such competition effective, even during the brief periods Independent of all legitimate considerations, a field for specu- when agreed rates and all requirements of pooling arrange- lative financiering was opened by some of the consolidations. ments were most faithfully maintained. The real mission of With the best of intentions, and the most earnest desire on the pooling arrangements is not to avert competition, for that is part of all concerned to have the new stock of a consolidated impossible while diverse permanent financial interests exist, system fixed and distributed on entirely equitable principles, but to diminish the evils of unrestrained competition, and to great changes in the earning value of particular properties afford incidental protection to the local interests and industries might speedily show that excessive estimates had been made; which are adversely affected by a ruinous lowering of through and as it may be assumed that the best of intentions did not rates. always prevail in the arrangement of such affairs, existing con- CONNECTION OF RAILWAYS AT TRAFFIC CENTRES. trasts between the earning value and the capitalization of por- tions of some of the consolidated systems are not surprising. Another notable tendency, which, although it did not involve a consolidation of business interests, had an effect analogous EFFECTS OF CONSOLIDATIONS OF RIVAL LINES IN PREVENTING COM- to consolidation in improving the arrangements for through PETITION. movements, and which had been checked at a number of The famous maxim of Robert Stephenson that "railway com- traffic centres until after 1860, and then extensively adopted petition is not possible where consolidation is practicable" is between 1860 and 1870, was towards the construction of tracks generally verified, sooner or later, in cases where a few com- over which connections could be made with locomotive power, paratively short parallel lines compete for all the through and of passenger or freight trains, between the leading metropolitan local traffic of a given region, and it is in such cases, particu- stations of different railways. At some points the construction larly, that the evil effects of building two railways to do the of union depots or stations formed part of this movement. At work of one are felt, by the company that survives a competi- others it did not. There were citics in which the principle of tive death struggle, the company that is ruined, and the com- effective union for the interchange of all classes of traffic was munity served. A remarkable illustration of the results of such carried out to the fullest extent, and others in which there were contests, which has found partial or complete counterparts in important reservations. But, generally speaking, the move- a number of instances, and notably in the case of the West ment towards materially increasing the facilities for forwarding Shore and New York Central, is furnished in a letter of Isaac passengers and freight from one railway terminus to other ad- Hinckley, president of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Balti- jacent termini in the same city was nearly universal. It was more, dated February 23d, 1874, to the Senate committee on of sufficient consequence to constitute an epoch in railway transportation routes to the seaboard, which says: "Lowell, development, and was stimulated or hastened by events and Massachusetts, 26 miles from Boston, was connected with that requirements of the war, such as the movement of large bodies city by the Boston and Lowell Railroad, of which I was a of troops, or many sick and wounded soldiers, through cities, director for fifteen years. We were, in or about 1854, carrying and the additional necessity created for rapid passenger and passengers at GO cents, coal at 75 cents, and other freights in freight movements of various kinds. While the issue of union proportion. The Salem and Lowell Railroad about that time or disunion was being debated at the cannon's mouth, one of commenced, in connection with the Boston and Maine Rail- the most imperative of the military and political requirements Digitized by Google OPERATIONS OF THE TRUNK LINES. 189 in each section was the improvement of means of transporta- same distance as via Allentown, and will doubtless return to tion in all practical ways, including the sweeping away of this end of our road much of the travel which the delays and municipal obstacles; and although each army aimed at crip- obstructions in passing through this city has driven to other pling or diminishing the facilities possessed by its adversary, channels." a constant pressure was exerted in favor of the removal of The changes that occurred at Philadelphia on account of the artificial obstructions, such as those arising from attempts to construction of the Connecting Railroad were of sufficient im- prevent a convenient interchange of the traffic of the lines portance to leave a deep impress on many ramifications of rail- radiating from important business centres. way policy which there is not space to discuss here. Analogous A notable illustration of the tendencies referred to is fur- movements were made in various other quarters, partly on nished by the construction of the Connecting Railroad in account of the pressure of war influences, which favored the Philadelphia, by which a direct connection was secured be- establishment of the closest possible relations between various tween the Philadelphia and Trenton road leading to Jersey sections, and partly on account of a strong disposition, in cases City, and the main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and where cities continued to interpose unnecessary obstacles to (via the Junction) with the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Bal- convenient railway movements through their boundaries, to timore on the south. devise routes by which their territory could be avoided. When the act incorporating the Connecting road was passed UNION DEPOTS OR STATIONS. in 1863, the United States Railroad and Mining Register said: One of the places at which a main depot (or station) was "At the same time that the Connecting Railroad thus fortifies established was Erie. It was constructed in 1865, to be used, and accommodates Philadelphia with reference to the western partly, by the Cleveland and Erie; Buffalo and Erie; Philadel- trade, it likewise carries to Philadelphia the facilities and con- phia and Erie; and Erie and Pittsburgh. A contemporary veniences incident to the main line of communication between description says "the building is of brick, in Romanesque style New York and Washington, as against the rail route between of architecture, and running east and west between the Lake New York and Washington via Reading and Columbia." Shore and Philadelphia and Erie railroad tracks. Including the The following reference to the Connecting Railroad, in the covered platforms-which are in some respects the most use- Pennsylvania Railroad report for 1864, dated February 18th, ful portion of the building-the depot is 475 fect long by 81 feet 1865, also directs attention to the importance of that line as'an in width, two stories high for some distance from its front, and adjunct in the attempt to use the main line of the Pennsylvania surmounted in the centre by a neat cupola, to be some 40 feet Railroad east of Harrisburg, instead of the Lebanon Valley in height." and Allentown line, in conducting traffic between New York There were also several Union depots at Chicago, one of and the west:- which was constructed for the joint use of the Michigan "The construction of the Connecting Railway, chartered to Southern and Chicago and Rock Island about 1866. It occu- join the Pennsylvania Railway in West Philadelphia with the pied a square of ground, and was five hundred and fifty-two Philadelphia and Trenton road at Frankford, a distance of feet long and one hundred and sixty feet wide. seven miles, has been commenced, and will be pushed to com- At Toledo the Toledo, Wabash and Western used the passen- pletion as rapidly as circumstances will permit. The right of way, ger station of the Michigan Southern, which was a large and one of the chief elements of its cost, has been mostly secured. commodious structure, built of brick, four hundred and eighty This connection will bring the line from New York to Harris- feet long and sixty feet wide. burg and the west, via Philadelphia, within twelve miles of the Similar arrangements were made at various other points. OPERATIONS OF THE TRUNK LINES. P ARTICULAR interest was felt during the latter part of the Earn- Net Tons of ings earn'gs seventh decade in the operations of the trunk lines, and Gross Net freight per ton per ton especially the Pennsylvania, New York Central and Hudson earnings. earnings. moved per per one mile. mile, mile, River, and the Erie. At that time John Edgar Thomson was cents. cents. N. Y. Cent. in 1860. president and Thomas A. Scott first vice-president of the Penn- $8,043,484 $3,456,520 239,418,931 2.065 0.722 " 1865. 18,427,904 3,689,382 318,732,070 3.451 0.913 sylvania; Cornelius Vanderbilt was president of the New York " 1870. 22,363,320 8,295,240 769,087,777 1.853 0.710 Central and Hudson River; Jay Gould was president and James Erie in 1860 5,180,322 1,903,326 214,084,396 1.814 0.813 Fisk, jr., vice-president of the Erie; and John W. Garrett was 1865 15,300,575 4,483,385 388,557,213 2.76 0.77 president of the Baltimore and Ohio. Reference has already been 1870 16,179,461 4,106,450 893,862,718 1.333 0.358 made to the important additions to the mileage of most of these Pennsylv'a in 1860.. 5,932,701 2,296,402 214,102,018 1.957 0.781 lines during the decade, and there was even a greater increase 1865.. 17,459,169 4,189,111 420,060,260 2.665 0.384 in the amount of business transacted, of capital, and of the 1870.. 17,531,707 6,271,622 825,979,692 1.549 0.551 energy with which competitive struggles for through east and The vicissitudes of these lines, with alternate periods of peace west-bound traffic was conducted. Financial and business and war, of prosperity and adversity, represent many of the circles were not unfrequently treated to startling surprises by most striking phases of American railway history. Fortu- the magnitude of new enterprises undertaken, or the methods nately for all concerned, they each possess a large amount of by which one of the rival organizations antagonized another. local traffic, which furnishes a reliable revenue, and has only A large portion of the exciting railway incidents of the period been affected in a moderate degree by numerous through-rate hinged on the doings of these lines and their active managers. wars. But they have also been, in conjunction with the Balti- The nature of some of these events is indicated by statements more and Ohio, the leading railway avenues over which the made in annual reports. The increase of capital was as fol- principal passenger and freight movements between the Missis- lows: On the Pennsylvania, main line and branches, the stock sippi valley and the Atlantic seaboard, in the United States, and debt were $31,025,271 in 1860, $36,584,840 in 1865, and since an early part of the sixth decade, have been conducted, $66,610,090 in 1870. On the Erie it was $40,076,620 in 1860, and as a very large proportion of this through business has $43,467,378 in 1865, and $106,935,710 in 1870. On the New York been competitive, each of the four lines struggling to obtain Central it was $51,502,601 in 1860, $53,544,533 in 1865, and the largest attainable share of it, the general result of their $103,110,137 in 1870. Other operations are shown in the fol- efforts has been to develop the most effective and economi- lowing table:- cal system of vallway operation. Labors of other Digitized by Google 190 OPERATIONS OF THE TRUNK LINES. American roads have done much to contribute to the same the sum of $13,570,000 to the state in full for the purchase of result, but nowhere else have the incentives to unremitting the main line and the repeal of the tax. Other provisions of efforts to increase the speed and comfort of passenger move- this law obliged the company to construct several important ments, and to reduce the cost of freight movements, been so branches. Its passage placed the Pennsylvania Railroad Com- powerful. The necessity of a resort to every expedient avail- pany, for the first time, on equal terms with its trunk-line able for the accomplishment of such objects was keenly felt competitors in matters relating to taxation. And as this im- during the closing years of the seventh decade, and many portant legislation was secured largely through the personal methods for promoting them were applied during that period, efforts of Colonel Thomas A. Scott, who was at that time vice- but all that was then done, in view of subsequent develop- president, after having previously been general superintendent ments, may now be regarded as only a very vigorous com- of the Pennsylvania Railroad, it materially increased his pres- mencement of the task of improving and cheapening railway tige as an able and influential railway manager. transportation. CONTESTS FOR CONTROL OF DESIRABLE CONNECTIONS. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THROUGH MOVEMENTS DURING THE SEVENTH DECADE. Some of the most exciting incidents of the seventh decade While there have been severe and injurious struggles for hinged on efforts to gain or preserve control of western con- through-rail traffic ever since routes over which it could be nections, such as the attempt of the Erie managers, in 1869, to carried have been opened, and while the amount of both secure possession of the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago, through and local traffic have enormously increased since the which had previously been, and continued to be, the most seventh decade, the relative importance of through traffic, as valuable connection of the Pennsylvania west of Pittsburgh, well as the amount of profit it yielded, was formerly much in the matter of securing through traffic. The following refer- greater than it is at present, or has been in any recent year. ence to this episode is contained in the annual report of J. In other words, the local traffic of the trunk lines, as repre- Edgar Thomson, made in the early part of 1870:- sented by ton-mileage, increased much more rapidiy than "The original policy of this company was to reach the traffic through traffic, and the through traffic formerly represented a of the north-west, west, and south-west, by assisting the con- much larger proportion of the entire amount of railway labor struction of tributary lines leading to the markets of these sec- performed than at the present time. tions, but not to control their management beyond the state of An illustration of this fact is furnished by the freight move- Pennsylvania. With this object in view, it gave to the Pitts- ments on the Pennsylvania Railroad during 1864, which were burgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway Company at several as follows:- periods of its extremest need, large advances to complete its Ton mileage. lines and preserve its property to its shareholders, and secured 322,497 tons of through freight went eastward 115,453,989 written pledges that its eastward business should follow the di- 147,972 tons of through freight went westward 52,974,629 rection which prompted and justified this company in granting 1,482,647 tons of local freight went eastward 200,041,352 the assistance so earnestly solicited. Under the conviction that 632,263 tons of local freight went westward 52,157,252 this agreement was ample, it was not believed that further 2,584,379 420,627,222 protection to your interests in the north-west was either de- It will be seen that the ton-mileage of west-bound through sirable or important. The rapid growth of this section of the freight actually exceeded the ton-mileage of the local freight country, however, placed that company, in a few years after movement in the same direction, while the ton-mileage of the its completion, in a condition of great prosperity. It then, un- east-bound freight movement represented about 57 per cent. of mindful of its former obligations, endeavored to seek other the volume of the local east-bound movement. Combining the eastern connections that it could control, though this company ton-mileage movement in both directions the figures stood thus: at all times gave to its business the same rates per mile that it Through freight, 168,428,618; local freight, 252,198,604. The charged upon its own line, upon both passengers and freight. through movement represented about 40 per cent., and the Extensive surveys were accordingly made of the regions east of local movement about 60 per cent. of the entire ton-mileage. Pittsburgh by that company to find a suitable line for this ob- ject, followed by material pecuniary advances to n railway com- THE PENNSYLVANIA TONNAGE TAX. pany whose road it was proposed to use, as a part of this rival The importance of the Pennsylvania Railroad as a competitor route to the east; but during the progress of these movements, for through business was greatly increased in the early part of an offer was made by the Erie Railway board to absorb not the seventh decade by the removal or abrogation of the ton- only the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago line, but nearly nage tax, previously imposed on freight forwarded over its all the western connections of the Pennsylvania Railroad Com- lines. The amount of this imposition represented a larger sum pany, which only failed from a misapprehension of the terms per ton per mile than has sometimes been charged for the en- of the law under which they proposed to accomplish their ob- tire movement by railway companies, and its abrogation was ject, and subsequent adverse legislation procured by the presi- an absolute necessity as a precursor of extensive competitive dent of the Fort Wayne company. through movements, as the handicapping of one company by In view of these extraordinary movements, it became evi- such a tax, when its rivals were not subjected to it, would have dent to your board that this company must depart from the created a fatal obstruction. Any reasons that may have existed policy that had heretofore governed it, and obtain direct con- for imposing the tonnage tax while the state owned the main trol of its western connections. Negotiations were accordingly line of combined railways and canals necessarily lost their opened with the directors of the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and force when the Pennsylvania Railroad Company became the Chicago Railway Company, who had become apprehensive, purchaser of that main line, and this fact seems to have been under the vicious system that had been developed in New recognized by the framers of the law which provided for the York, by which stock and bondholders of railways and their sale of those works, passed May 16th, 1857. It fixed the mini- agents sold their proxies to vote at the elections of the com- mum price for the main line at $7,500,000, and provided that if pany, without any regard to the interests involved in the issue, the Pennsylvania Railroad became the purchaser it should pay that their own work might fall into hands whose object would $1,500,000 additional, and in consideration was to be relieved be to seriously impair the permanent interests of their con- of all taxes on tonnage or freight carried over the road, as well stituents. as of other taxes which were specified. But although the Penn- After a lengthy negotiation with the directors of that com- sylvania Railroad became the purchaser under this act, the ton- pany, a lease was agreed upon, and this company entered into nage tax was not at once abolished, on account of a decision of possession of the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Rail- the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania that 80 much of the act of road on the 1st of July last. The terms of this lease, which 1857 as related to the general taxes imposed was unconstitutional. gave to the shareholders 12 per cent. on their capital, were at The company was thus placed in an embarrassing position, from the time considered very onerous, and only justified by the which, after protracted litigation, it was finally relieved by new circumstances already referred to. The results of its opera- state legislation, perfected March 7th, 1861, which provided that tion, however, for the first half year, notwithstanding a di- the Pennsylvania Railroad was to pay, in annual instalments, minished revenue of $304,595.90, compared with that of the Digitized by Google OPERATIONS OF THE TRUNK LINES. 191 same months in 1868, have, through a vigorous retrenchment 1870, 1871, and 1872, forms part of the report of the Senate of expenses, left a net profit of $36,794.43 over all outlays, in- committee on transportation routes to the seaboard, made in cluding the semi-annual contribution of $52,050 to the sinking 1874. It shows that the all-water rates were usually much fund. higher than railways have since attempted to obtain for all- For these favorable results the company is much indebted to rail service; that the water rates were high enough to stimulate the energetic and economical administration of its affairs by J. rail competition; and indicates that, in connection with such N. McCullough, Esq., its general manager." movements, as well as nearly all other important internal The same report also makes important references to negotia- freight movements, really low charges were never permanently tions by which the permanent control of lines leading to Cin- maintained before an era of active rail competition. The table cinnati and St. Louis had been secured. is as follows:- The significance of this and other conflicts between the trunk Average monthly freight charges per bushel on wheat from Chicago to lines for the control of various western connections will be New York by water (lakes, Erie Canal, and Hudson river), by lake and better understood by a brief reference to their original position, river, lake to Buffalo, and thence rail to New York, and by all rail, and to new developments progressing in the closing year of the 1868 to 1872, inclusive:- seventh decade. The Pennsylvania, when it first reached Pitts- 1868 1869. 1870 1871. 1872 burgh was so largely dependent upon the Ohio river for western connections that during the sixth decade it said that the lead- ing element of the prosperity of the railroad was the condition of the navigation of the Ohio. In other words, during a season Month. All water. Lake and rail. All rail. All water. Lake and rail. All rail. All water. Lake and rail. All rail. All water. Lake and rail All rail. All water. Lake and rail. All rail. of low water there were relatively small dividends, while in a cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. cts. high-water season either the dividends or surplus rose to a rela- Jan 51 42 42 39 39 tively high-water mark. None of the other trunk lines were then Feb 51 39 42 39 39 so disadvantageously situated in the matter of western water Mar 48 30 36 30 36 connections, inasmuch as both the New York lines had outlets Apr 28 42 26 30 22 30 22 27 30 on lake Erie, with its superior facilities for water communica- May .20 26 36 19 25 30 16 20 27 16 21 27 18 25 27 tion with the west and north-west, and all the lake cities, while June. 19 25 30 21 25 27 16 21 27 16 21 24 21 23 27 July.18 25 33 18 23 27 15 20 27 16 22 27 23 23 27 the Baltimore and Ohio touched the Ohio at points lower down Aug .22 26 36 19 20 30 15 20 27 18 24 30 22 23 27 the river than Pittsburgh, and less likely than that city to have Sept. 25 33 39 22 22 39 15 23 30 23 28 33 27 32 33 their commercial relations obstructed by low water. Oct 27 34 42 29 27 39 21 25 36 27 32 39 31 37 39 It was, therefore, more necessary to the Pennsylvania than Nov 28 35 45 32 36 42 20 29 39 25 32 39 28 38 39 to either of the other trunk lines to secure reliable rail connec- Dec 45 42 39 39 39 tions with the lakes, and it was probably the pressure of this Av.25.3 426 24.1 35.1 17.5 33.3 21.6 22.3 31 26.6 28.8 33.5 necessity which led, at a relatively early period, to the extra- ordinary efforts of her managers to secure the numerous con- The general effect of the rail competition with water carriers nections with western lake and river ports which they obtained. for the east-bound movement of breadstuffs, during the period referred to above, was to divert to the railways a comparatively COMPETITION BETWEEN RAIL AND WATER ROUTES FOR THROUGH small proportion of the shipments of wheat and corn, but a EAST-BOUND MOVEMENTS OF BREADSTUFFS. very large proportion of the shipments of flour. In 1863 About 1869 the significance of these connections became 1,207,345 barrels of flour were sent east from Chicago by lake greater than ever before, because the length of rail movements and 381,884 barrels by rail. In 1872 323,457 barrels were for- of western produce had then materially increased, on account warded by lake and 1,136,670 by rail, and progress towards this of growing confidence in the practicability of successful rail notable change in the proportions of flour carried by the re- competition with the western lake and river water carriers. spective routes was continuous. The charges of the latter were then usually maintained at a standard that afforded a liberal margin of profit for competi- REDUCTIONS OF RAIL RATES FOR LIVE STOCK AND WEST-BOUND tive rail movements. It was said about 1869 that grain could MOVEMENTS. be moved from St. Louis to the North Atlantic seaboard for a Live-stock shipments were also the subject of frequent rival much smaller sum than the usual rate for carrying it from St. trunk-line movements eastward, some of which were occasion- Louis, on steamboats, down the Mississippi, to New Orleans, ally made at very low rates. At one time cattle were taken and the ordinary charges for all river and lake movements from Buffalo to New York for $1 per car by the New York were much higher than the railway rates for corresponding Central and Erie. service which became common during the eighth decade. West-bound freight movements of merchandise also became The strong tendency towards a relative increase in the east- the subject of sharp competition, and the extreme measures bound rail shipments is shown by the following statement of resorted to at sundry periods are indicated by the fact that the the shipments of wheat and flour east from Chicago in the Financial Chronicle, of February 27th, 1869, says: "The war years named:- between the Pennsylvania Central, New York Central, and Erie Years. Wheat, bushels Flour, barrels. By lake. By rail. By lake. By rail. railways, as to rates on through freight from New York or 1863 10,646,552 89,861 1,207,345 311,884 Boston to Chicago, has resulted in a reduction in price to 30 1864 9,983,567 173,392 1,034,793 249,417 cents per 100 pounds on all classes of freight. This is the 1865 6,502.575 866,028 646,356 646,372 lowest price ever made, and is a decline of $1.58 per hundred 1866 5,827,846 4,055,303 481,491 1,499,816 in ten days." 1867 8,492,187 1,899,277 650,367 1,364,576 This extreme reduction seems to have been followed, after 1868 8,896,647 1,402,816 774,565 1,624,500 1869 a brief period, by an advance in rates, which, in turn, was suc- 11,279,514 1,895,123 829,272 1,508,855 1870 13,429,069 2,902,953 574,393 1,129,074 ceeded by a prolonged reduction, as will be seen by the follow- A very important feature of the trunk-line operations hinges ing table of west-bound rail rates from 1862 to end of 1870:- on the fact that it was only towards the close of the seventh NEW YORK TO CHICAGO. decade that it became common to regard them as important In cents per 100 pounds. Date. First Second competitors for the east-bound movement of grain from Chi- Third Fourth Special Special class. class. class. class. class. cago or other traffic centres in the Mississippi valley, or even January 1st, 1862 160 128 107 66 from Buffalo to the city of New York, during summer months, April 7th, 1862 149 117 85 50 when navigation on the lakes and canals was practicable, while October 29th, 1862 180 150 124 75 during the next decade they frequently competed with the lake May 14th, 1863 166 117 94 55 October 5th, 1863 160 128 and canal carriers. 107 November 23d, 1863 180 150 124 A table of the average rates charged on wheat, per bushel, July 25th, 1864 200 166 111 by the three routes, viz., all rail, lake and rail, and lake, canal, September 20th, 1864 215 180 120 and Hudson river, during each month of the years 1868, 1869, May 24th, 1865 215 180 106 Digitized by Google 192 FAST FREIGHT LINES. First Second Third Fourth Spe ial Special Date. Date. First Second Third Fourth Special Special class. class. class. class. class. class. class. class. class. class. class. class. October 16th, 1865 215 180 90 82 September 8th, 1870 125 110 85 65 50 February 5th, 1866 215 170 82 82 November 28th, 1870 160 130 100 65 March 5th, 1866 188 160 127 82 December 26th, 1870 180 150 120 80 60 May 15th, 1867 188 160 127 82 RELATIVE DECLINE OF WATER-ROUTE MOVEMENTS. November 5th, 1867 202 170 138 86 June 4th, 1868 188 160 127 82 The extent to which prevailing influences have promoted the August 10th, 1868 149 128 120 82 rapid growth of railway tonnage, while canal and some other September 7th, 1868 188 160 127 82 55 water-route movements were actually or relatively declining, February 4th, 1869 188 160 127 82 55 is shown by the following table, which, in illustrating what February 18th, 1869 45 45 45 45 45 occurred in New York, typifies, to a considerable extent, cor- February 24th, 1869 40 40 40 40 40 March 15th, 1869 160 160 127 82 55 responding changes elsewhere:- July 1, 1869 188 160 127 82 55 Total tonnage moved each year on the Erie Canal. on the Erie Railway, July 31st, 1869 70 60 55 50 30 and on the New York Central and Hudson River Railway, from 1856 to Angust 2d, 1869 45 45 45 45 40 1872, inclusive:- August 4th, 1869 40 40 40 40 30 Tons moved on the August 5th, 1869 30 30 30 30 Year. New York Central Erie Erie 30 and Hudson River R. R. Railway. Canal. August 7th, 1869 25 25 25 25 25 1856 776,112 943,215 2,107,678 August 23d, 1869 38 38 38 33 38 1857 838,791 978,066 1,566,624 August 30th, 1869 43 43 43 43 43 1858 765,407 816,954 1,767,004 September 22d, 1869 40 40 40 40 40 1859 834,319 868,073 1,753,954 September 24th, 1869 35 35 35 35 35 1860 1,028,183 1,139,554 2,253,533 September 30th. 1869 30 30 30 30 30 1861 1 167,302 1,253,418 2,500,782 October 4th, 1869 50 50 50 50 50 1862 1,387,433 1,632,955 3,204,277 October 9th, 1869 75 75 75 50 50 1863 1,449,604 1,815,096 2,955,302 October 13th. 1869 125 100 75 65 50 1864 1,557,148 2,170,798 2,535,792 November 1st, 1869 140 125 100 80 50 1865 1,275,299 2,234,350 2,523,490 November 29th, 1869 150 130 100 80 55 1860 1,602,197 3,242,792 2,896,027 June 13th, 1870 112 90 70 55 45 1867 1,667.926 3,484,546 2,920,578 July 12th, 1870 80 70 60 50 42 35 1868 1,846,599 3,908,243 3,346,986 July 25th, 1870 65 60 55 45 40 35 1869 2,281,885 4,312,200 2,845,072 July 28th, 1870 50 50 50 45 40 35 1870 4,122,000 4,852,505 3,083,132 August 12th, 1870 50 50 50 50 40 1871 4,532,056 4,844,208 3,580,922 August 22d, 1870 100 90 70 55 45 1872 4,393,965 5,564,274 3,562,560 FAST FREIGHT LINES. O NE of the developments which commenced, on a limited lines, the railway companies charging and receiving in one scale, previous to the seventh decade, greatly increased in form or another a toll and a charge for motive power, or other importance between 1860 and 1870, and subsequently exercised similar compensation, for the use of their roads, instead of a great influence on all lengthy competitive railway operations, attempting to secure all the profits that could be realized from and in attracting traffic, was the establishment of fast freight the ownership of cars, and assuming the accompanying risks. lines. This was designated the non-co-operative fast freight line sys- There are few subjects which have elicited a greater variety tem, and from time to time it was vigorously denounced, chiefly of contradictory opinions among experts, not in regard to the on the ground that it enabled officers of the lines traversed to value of fast freight lines, in themselves, which is universally make profits that should have been secured for stockholders, conceded, but in reference to the conditions under which they until finally, after the lapse of years, the clamors became so great should be organized. that in substantially all important instances this form of non- NON-CO-OPERATIVE FAST FREIGHT LINES. co-operative fast freight lines was abolished, by the purchase of their cars and other appurtenances, and the acquisition of the Soon after the commencement of the civil war, the closing control of their organizations, by some one or more of the rail- of the Mississippi as an outlet for western produce, and the way lines over which they had conducted traffic movements necessity of sending portions of it eastward over rail or water during the period of their independent corporate existence. routes to north Atlantic ports from regions which had pre- Other companies, or combinations of companies, constructed viously usually found a market either in southern or south- and organized fast freight lines, consisting of cars applicable to western states, or through their water channels, together with lengthy competitive movements, or to some other particular a rapid growth of the eastern and European demand for Ameri- specified kind of transportation, which were known as can breadstuffs and provisions, and various other causes, greatly increased the requirements for the freight cars available for CO-OPERATIVE FAST FREIGHT LINES. through movements. The leading feature of this class of lines hinges on the fact This occurred at a time when nearly all prices were abnor- that all the cars used by them belong to some one or more mally high, and when the first cost of such cars, in greenbacks, of the companies whose lines are traversed, as absolutely as represented a much larger sum than had previously been the freight cars used in local traffic (except 80 far as ownership paid for them in gold or its equivalent. There was no doubt may be modified by car-trust obligations.) of the fact that, temporarily, there was an abundance of profit- The usual practice in forming such lines, when they are in- able employment for such cars, but much uncertainty pre- tended to run over the tracks of three or four independent but vailed in regard to the duration of this urgent demand, as it connecting roads, has been for each road to furnish a propor- was thought it might suddenly cease, through the close of the tion of the entire number of cars used, corresponding as closely war or the reopening of the Mississippi, in which event com- as possible to the length of its track or the probable amount of panies that had purchased abnormally expensive cars might the through traffic it would secure, and at frequent intervals find their investment unprofitable. the respective companies present and settle accounts, the settle- Partly on account of this consideration, some railroad com- ments being based on the theory that each railway company panies adopted the policy of leaving private organizations, in shall receive its just share of the proceeds of the work per- which it was alleged a number of their officers were interested, formed by all the participating companies. to assume the risks of constructing and operating fast freight On some important roads the principle of prorating freight Digitized-by Google Leveling Party. Viaduct in. Course of Construction. Diagram of Gradients. Track-Laying. Making a Cutting. Making an Embankment. Overhead Farm or Road Bridge. PROGRESS OF CONSTRUCTION. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google FAST FREIGHT LINES. 193 harges was never successfully applied before co-operative where a choice between them was necessary, counter objections freight organizations commenced operations, and, generally were made to the co-operative system. speaking, it may be said that only a very small proportion of What has happened in American railway development, in the through-rail freight movements of the country would ever this connection, is substantially this: The non-co-operative have been possible without the aid of either the non-co-opera- method was applied, on an extensive scale, to three things, viz.: tive or the co-operative freight lines, because it was mainly, First, express company movements; second, fast freight line and almost exclusively, through them, that the transfer of movements; third, sleeping and palace car movements. There freight from one set of cars to another set of cars, at the con- has been at different times, an urgent demand for an assump- necting point between two lines, was abolished, and many tion of the risks and a procurement of the profits of all these delays and additions to the cost of lengthy movements thus three classes of business, by each of the important railway avoided. Such avoidance was absolutely necessary to secure companies whose lines were traversed, and this demand has, for the railways interested much of the traffic they have ob- in a comparatively few instances, received sufficient attention tained. to secure complete compliance; but on the main portion of the GENERAL EFFECTS OF FAST FREIGHT LINES. mileage concerned, the express and sleeping-car movements It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of fast freight have always been conducted on the non-co-operative system, lines as promoters of the free and frequent railway movement or by companies which maintained an independent existence, of immense quantities of products of all descriptions between while a different conclusion has almost uniformly been reached distant points. They accomplished a leading purpose of in reference to fast freight lines. consolidations of connecting railways by rendering prompt, There may, or may not, have been sufficient reasons for this rapid, and continuous movements over the roads of numerous divergence in particular cases, but if the matter be reviewed as companies possible, and by furnishing reliable guarantees to an abstract question, or an original proposition, or with refer- shippers in respect to payments for damages arising from thefts, ence to its bearing on railway prosperity, it seems by no means accidents, or other causes. They also established effective com- certain that non-co-operative freight lines, in themselves, de- mercial agencies, or corps of drummers or solicitors, as well as serve the condemnation they have received. authorized agents, at numerous points, and provided every Public opinion on this subject apparently rushed from one desirable adjunct for obtaining, stimulating, and transacting in extreme to the other. At the outset great discontent prevailed a satisfactory manner all classes of freight business that could in some localities because every man could not drive his own be diverted to the roads they respectively represented. In vehicle, with his own horse, on a railway, and even after it was many instances, instead of waiting for business, they sought it, discovered that the benefit of steam power, exerted through especially from shippers who forwarded considerable quanti- locomotives, could not be utilized by those who were unwilling ties, and the American drummer, who travels for metropolitan to submit to such regulations as were necessary to insure speed wholesale establishments, seeking custom in competition with and safety, much stress was laid upon the doctrine that all rail- keen rivals of his own class, has found a worthy prototype ways should be public highways in as full a sense as their pe- among attachés of some of the fast freight lines of the country. culiar characteristics permitted. In short, the opportunity of supplying transportation at a vast This doctrine has been deeply rooted in the railway legislation number of times and places has been bid for, and underbid for, of some states, and in accordance with it, much transportation to an extent which can scarcely be conceived, and very often service has been performed by a number of cars which did not the winners in the numerous strifes that have occurred be- belong to the companies whose lines were traversed, or to any tween rival lines have finally carried off the prize of a con- other railway company. So far from such transactions being tested shipment under conditions that netted a loss instead of necessarily objectionable, provided the cars were kept by their a profit to the fast freight line and the railway companies con- owners in proper condition for movement, they have not un- cerned. While much mischief has been done in this way-so frequently been encouraged, and in general terms it may be much that it may be questioned whether there is any single said that there are few, if any, important railway companies cause of the demoralization of freight rates, and injurious dis- whose lines are not frequently traversed by cars that belong crimination between persons and localities, more potent than either to individuals or other companies. those arising from the operations of fast freight lines-they But notwithstanding the continuance of such practices, a have been principal instrumentalities in hastening the won- strong sentiment has been developed, in many quarters, chiefly derful development of internal commerce between distant among owners of railway securities, that every railway company points, in diverting traffic from water to rail routes, and in should make strenuous efforts to provide all the cars required attracting to the lines of leading railways the enormous amount for all classes of traffic that pass over its lines. Ifit was absolutely of through-freight business they have transacted. Their opera- certain that the pecuniary interests of all railway companies tions, in the aggregate, have been conducted on a gigantic would uniformly be promoted by a rigid adherence to such a scale, in reference to the capital employed, number of cars policy, there would be very good reasons for its enforcement. used, and extent of freight movement. But this is by no means the case. The real question involved hinges on the extent to which the interest of sundry companies RELATIVE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THE CO-OPERATIVE AND might be promoted if the general public, or combinations which NON-CO-OPERATIVE SYSTEMS. desire to organize fast freight lines, could be induced to furnish Practically, the non-co-operative fast freight line system and forward cars. The opponents of the co-operative fast freight stands condemned and abolished. It has been almost, if not line systems have contended that one of their inevitable effects quite, universally supplemented by the co-operative system, has been to stimulate the demoralization of rates, and if all the under which the railway companies concerned, collectively, numerous pooling systems which have been tried with varying own all the cars employed and assume all the risks. During success should finally prove to be hopeless failures, it is among the seventh decade such a conclusion had by no means been the possibilities of the future that partial relief may eventually reached; fast freight lines of both classes were then, and for be found in a general adoption of non-co-operative fast freight some years later, in vigorous operation; and at sundry times line systems. 25 Digitized by Google 194 OPERATIONS OF THE ANTHRACITE COAL ROADS. OPERATIONS OF THE ANTHRACITE COAL ROADS remarkable developments of the seventh decade made it its policy to carry for and co-operate with the operators more interest in financial circles, and made a greater of mines, as likewise has also the Schuylkill Canal. impression upon money markets, industrial centres, and trans- Of the outlets down the Lehigh, the Lehigh Valley Railroad portation systems, than those interwoven with the anthracite is, like the Philadelphia and Reading, a common carrier; the coal trade, and the operations of the canal and railway anthra- Lehigh Navigation Company, on the other hand, mines and cite coal carriers. The lines of these carriers formed the oldest sells as well as carries coal. important artificial routes that had been constructed by private Of the outlets from the Lackawanna coal field, all the three capital. It was to carry coal from the anthracite regions that tideward outlets combine and exercise mining, commercial, the first American railways of considerable consequence had and transportation privileges, to wit: The Pennsylvania Coal, been built. It was on an anthracite railway that the first the Delaware and Hudson Canal, and the Delaware, Lacka- American locomotive service had been performed. It was on wanna and Western railroad companies." early anthracite railways that the movement of a large freight Attempts to secure combined powers, however, were occa- tonnage, in proportion to mileage, commenced. Before the war sionally made. In January, 1864, A. G. Curtin, Governor of these anthracite roads and routes had attained great magnitude, Pennsylvania, vetoed several bills which were intended to for that era. A list or estimate, compiled about 1857, showed confer joint privileges of mining and transporting coal, and in that at that time there was in operation 758 miles of canal and one of these veto messages he said: "I am determined to ap- 1,030 miles of railway, including underground roads and roads prove no bill giving a new monopoly of the kind, or giving to owned by individuals, which had cost $67,297,569, that had one already existing, the right of holding a larger quantity of been built chiefly for the movement of anthracite. Although land than they are now authorized to acquire." that business had then been progressing for more than a gene- EXTRAORDINARY PROSPERITY DURING THE WAR ERA. ration, and a considerable increase of shipments had been reported each year from 1820 to 1856, inclusive, except 1834 One of the results of the war was to temporarily give to the and 1838, it was still comparatively in its infancy, and subso- business of mining and transporting anthracite a degree of quently there was a great increase in the traffic and the capi- profitableness which far exceeded the most sanguine expecta- tal of coal roads. The aggregate amount of the shipments in tions of the projectors, operators, and investors interested. At 1856 was 6,927,580 tons. The tonnage from 1856 to 1870 was, last, after years of struggles, many of which had been as dis- according to one of the statistical reports pertaining to this astrous as they were difficult, the "black diamond" mines had subject, divided between the respective anthracite fields or proved veritable bonanzas for all concerned, on account of the regions, as follows:- great increase in the demand and market price of anthracite PROGRESS OF THE ANTHRACITE COAL TRADE. coal, which carried with it enormous wages for the miners, and Wyoming. Lykens Val., high profits for operators and transporters. Year. Lehigh. Schuylkill. shamokin. Total. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. The extent of these profits is indicated, but not fully ex- 1856 1,351,970 3,289,585 1,972,581 313,444 6,927,580 plained by the following comparative statement of cash or 1857 1,318,541 2,985,541 1,952,603 388,256 6,664,941 stock dividends declared by leading anthracite mining or carry- 1858. 1,380,030 2,902,821 2,186,094 370,424 6,759,369 ing companies from 1862 to 1867, inclusive, which is compiled 1859 1,628,311 3,004,953 2,731,236 443,755 7,808,255 from a tabular statement in the railroad report of the Auditor- 1860 1,821,074 3,270,516 2,941,817 479,116 8,513,123 General of Pennsylvania for the year 1867, viz.:- 1861 1,738,377 2,697,439 3,055,140 463,308 7,954,314 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 1867. 1862 1,351,054 2,890,593 3,145,770 481,990 7,875,412 Delaware and Hudson Canal 1863 1.894,713 3,433,265 3,759,610 478,418 9,566,000 and railroad 7 81 363 34 16 1864 2,054,669 3,642,218 3,960,836 519,752 10,177,475 Delaware, Lackawanns and 1865 2,040,913 3,755,802 3,254,519 621,157 9,652,391 Western 24 5 15 20 *10 175 1866 2,179,364 4,957,130 4,736,616 830,722 12,703,822 East Mahanoy 6 6 6 1867 2,502,054 4,334,820 5,325,000 826,851 12,991,725 Hazleton 5 8 12 10 10 9 1868 2,507,582 4,414,356 5,990,813 921,381 13,834,132 Lehigh Luzerne 6 8 12 94 141 6 1869 1,929,523 4,821,253 6,068,369 903,885 13,723,030 Lehigh Valley 8 10 20 10 20 10 1870 3,172,916 3,853,016 7,825,128 998,839 15,849,899 Little Schuylkill Navigation In no other portion of the United States has the amount of and Coal 31 6 3 2 tonnage represented by the above figures, to be moved by Lykens Valley 12 8 6} 41 9 9 canals or railways (and as years progressed, to an increasing Mill Creek and Mine Hill Navi- extent by railways), originated in a territory no larger than the gation 10 10 10 10 10 10 anthracite area worked. One of the very greatest of the schools Mine Hill & Schuylkill Haven. 84 8 713 8 8 8 for all descriptions of railway training, including mechanical Mount Carbon 6 6 6 6 G 6 Mount Carbon & Port Carbon 12 12 12 12 12 12 progress, labor troubles, financial ingenuity, corporate rivalry, Philadelphia and Reading 17 101 7 31 7 15 10 10 and pooling devices or their equivalent, has been furnished by Schuylkill Valley Navigation 5 5 5 5 5 anthracite coal traffic and production and its adjuncts. All Shamokin Valley & Pottsville. 11 3 4 4} 51 the coal reported above was moved for some distance either to points within the state of Pennsylvania, or to places beyond its On stock. t Per share-scrip. $ On preferred stock. 8 5 cash and 5stock. boundaries, many shipments being to comparatively distant The Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, which is not in- points. Much of that coal was mined by managers or compa- cluded in the above list, although one of the important anth- nies controlled by the transporting lines, which thus combined, racite carriers, paid a dividend of 5 per cent. on November to an extent unparalleled in other pursuits, the business of miners 27th, 1866, and a dividend of 3 per cent. on May 28th, 1867. and sellers of coal with that of transporters. Of the relative During the flush times it was spending large sums for the con- position of the companies in this respect, which formerly pre- struction of a railway. The Schuylkill Navigation paid a divi- vailed, the United States Railroad and Mining Register, of dend of 6 per cent. per annum for the year 1867. May 21st, 1864, said: "The great trunk outlets from the Schuyl- The determination of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Com- kill or southern coal field, which includes the Mahanoy basin, pany to speedily construct a railway from the Lehigh coal are simply carriers, nothing more, the Philadelphia and Read- mines to Easton, that would parallel the Lehigh Valley, first ing Railroad, the most potent of all the lines, having always became known about June, 1864. About the same time the Digitized by Google OPERATIONS OF THE ANTHRACITE COAL ROADS. 195 Lehigh Valley effected a consolidation with the Beaver Meadow. Tons. One of its effects was to extend the control of the Lehigh Val- Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 1,302,456 Delaware and Hudson Canal* ley over roads leading to numerous important portions of the 848,076 Pennsylvania Coal Company 759,544 anthracite coal regions. The significant changes in the price of anthracite were ac- 9,029,650 companied, to a considerable extent, with fluctuations in the The Pennsylvania Coal Company in 1864 shipped 504,507 tons by the Dela- market value of leading anthracite stocks. Delaware, Lacka- ware and Hudson Canal. which makes the whole tonnage moved on that canal wanna and Western, which sold in New York for 54, in Janu- for the year 1,862,583 tons. ary, 1860, sold for 130 in December, 1862; 225@230 in December, The coal tonnage of the Philadelphia and Reading, during 1864; 175 in December, 1865; 144} in December, 1866; 111}@114 each year of the seventh decade, is reported by that company in December, 1867; 125@131 in December, 1868; 105}@108 in as follows: 1860, 1,946,195 tons of 2,240 pounds; 1861, 1,639,535; December, 1869; and 1011@110} in December, 1870. Philadel- 1862, 2,310,990; 1863, 3,065,261; 1864, 3,065,577; 1865, 3,090,814; phia and Reading sold in the New York market, for 291@361 1866, 3,714,684; 1867, 3,446,826; 1868, 3,574,874; 1869, 4,239,457. in December, 1860; 30}@34} in December, 1861; 741@771 in What west-bound transportation of anthracite coal cost in December, 1862; 1114@122 in December, 1863; 1121@137} in 1865 may be inferred from the fact that on January 20th the December, 1864; 1052@117 in December, 1865; 108@1124 in wholesale prices at Detroit were, for Lehigh, $19; Scranton, $16; December, 1886; 91}@06f in December, 1867; 96}@98} in Dc- and Blossburg $14.50 per ton. cember, 1868; 977@101} in December, 1869; and 96t@104} in The fluctuations in the value of the Delaware, Lackawanna December, 1870. The figures given above represent, in each and Western, as well as its profits and dividends, were much instance, twice the actual sum paid for a single share of stock, greater than those of the Reading, mainly because the first- as the par value of the stock of both companies is $50, while named company combined the functions of mining with all New York stock transactions are reported on the basis of those of transporting to a considerable extent, thus deriving n par value of $100. large profits from mining operations, while the Reading was On March 4th, 1864, sales occurred at the New York Stock not then the owner or operator of coal lands. Stock Exchange at these prices:- The remarkable advances that had occurred are shown by Capital shares Delaware and Hudson Canal Company $230 the following graphic statement in the United States Railroad Capital shares Pennsylvania Coal Company 204 and Mining Register, in October, 1863:- Capital shares Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad Co. 230 "In September, 1861, Schuylkill lump coal sold in Phila- Capital shares Reading railroad 136} delphia, by the cargo, for $3.25 per ton. Now it sells for $7.25 per ton-more than twice as much. The advance is divided On March 30th, 1864, a notable event at the Philadelphia between the operators and the carriers, the first parting with a stock boards consisted of an advance of the price of Reading portion of his increase to his miners and laborers, the carrying stock to higher figures than those which Pennsylvania Rail- corporation dividing its increased profits among its stock holders. road shares commanded on that day, this being the first time When coal was sold for $3.25 at the state line, it commanded for years that such a relation had existed. The highest price about $2 for the operator at the shipping point in the mining of the Pennsylvania shares on that day was $751, and of the region, leaving about $1.25 for transportation to the state line. Philadelphia and Reading, $764. (These prices were based on Now, whilst it sells for $7.25 at the state line, it commands the recognition of the true par value of $50 per share.) about $4.75 for the operator at the shipping point in the mining Of the earnings of the Philadelphia and Reading for Septem- region, leaving about $2.50 for transportation to the state line. ber, 1863, on the main line of 93 miles, it was stated that they And as the coal mined on the anthracite territory this year were $714,302, equal to $7,680 for each mile of main road, in a will be about ten million tons, of which 60 per cent., or six single month. Of its earnings for October, 1863, it was reported million tons, will cross the boundary of the state into outside that they were $815,902.03, or at the rate of $8,773 per single markets, the advance of four dollars per ton on the six million mile of main line, in a single month. These receipts, how- tons exported will bring into Pennsylvania from her anthra- ever, presumably included charges for a considerable amount cite customer states in 1863 about twenty-four million dollars of service on lateral lines leading to coal mines. over the proceeds of the anthracite exported in 1861, only two The tonnage of six leading anthracite carriers in 1863 was subdivided as follows:- years ago." Tons. The duration of anthracite prosperity, and its accompani- Schuylkill Canal 854.554 ments, is indicated by the fact that the average price of Schuyl- Philadelphia and Reading Railroad 2,849,408 kill white ash lump coal, by the cargo, at Philadelphia, per ton Lehigh Canal 699,598 of 2,240 pounds, subsequently fluctuated, in the month of Lebigh Valley Railroad 1,195,555 October of each of the remaining years of the seventh decade, Delaware and Hudson Canal 1,490.105 as follows: 1864, $8.90; 1865, $9.93; 1866, $5.34; 1867, $4.01; 1868, Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 1,223,166 $4.50; 1869, $6; 1870, $4.19. In addition to these movements from the mines, or their im- mediate vicinity, the Central of New Jersey was an important REASONS GIVEN FOR EXTENSIVE PURCHASES OF COAL LANDS BY agent in transporting coal through New Jersey. In 1863 it re- THE READING. ported the carriage of 1,049,881 tons, against 816,570 tons in One of the effects of the profitableness of a combination of 1862; an increase of 111,579 tons in Lackawanna coal and mining and transporting that had existed during the war was to 121,732 tons in Lehigh coal; and an increase in receipts for inspire the active coal transporting companies which had not coal trausportation from $661,280.85 in October, 1862, to previously been mining coal, especially the Reading, with the $1,021,151.57 in 1863. The report refers to the fact that rates desire to make such combinations on an extensive scale, and for transportation had been previously advanced with the in- out of this desire, and the manner in which it found expression, crease in the price of coal. various results of considerable significance were subsequently In 1863 there were also shipped from the Philadelphia and developed. Reading Railroad, through the Delaware and Raritan Canal to The Philadelphia and Reading report of 1877 contains a New York, 514,583 tons of coal, and the amount forwarded statement of the reasons which led it to embark in the exten- over the same route that had come to tide-water on the Dela- sive purchases of coal lands which commenced about or soon ware from the mines, via the Schuylkill Canal, was 529,219 after the end of the seventh decade. It embraces the following tons. remarks:- The coal tonnage forwarded over anthracite coal roads and "The anthracite district of Pennsylvania is embraced in three canals in 1864 was as follows:- principal coal fields and the attached Lehigh basins, and con- Tons. Philadelphia and Reading 3,065,577 tains about four hundred and seventy square miles. The Schuylkill Canal 1,000,500 Schuylkill or lower coal field was first opened and developed, Lehigh Valley Railroad 1,295,419 and has depended principally upon the lines of this company Lehigh Canal 758,087 for an outlet to market. As the second or Mahanoy coal field Digitized by Google 196 NORTH-WESTERN OR GRANGER ROADS. was opened, the lines owned or controlled by the company the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad Company, were gradually extended into it, 80 that, nt the close of the late and the Central Railroad of New Jersey, then in friendly alli- war, the Mahanoy and Schuylkill coal fields depended princi- ance, had united to locate and construct a line of railway, pally upon the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company entering the southern coal field at Tamaqua, and extending for transportation; the detached Lehigh basins, upon the Le- westward to the centre of the region, and were actively en- high Valley Railroad and the Lehigh Navigation Company; gaged in preliminary examinations preparatory to purchasing while the Northern or Wyoming coal region was principally coal lands to supply the new line with tonnage." owned or controlled by the three large coal-mining and trans- DIFFICULTIES OF THE ANTHRACITE LINES. porting companies of New York, each of which united under one charter the power to own lands, mine coal, and transport The notable advance in the price of anthracite during the and sell the product of their own estates. The demand caused war also stimulated competition on the part of mining and by the war very greatly increased the productive capacity of transportation companies engaged in the development of bitu- all the coal regions, but especially that of the Wyoming or minous and semi-bituminous coal fields in central, southern, upper coal field, for the transportation of the product of which and western Pennsylvania and Maryland. The output of bitu- the Lehigh Valley Railroad Company and the Lehigh Naviga- minous coal in other states also began to increase rapidly be- tion Company gradually entered into competition with the fore the end of the seventh decade, the general tendency from three New York companies. that time until the present day being to diminish the ratio of Had the policy of permitting railroad companies to become anthracite to the total annual product of coals of all kinds, not- the owners of lands, and miners and merchants of coal, not withstanding the rapid increase in the output of anthracite. been inaugurated by the commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the This tendency increased the difficulties involved in a suc- Reading railroad company might never have been obliged to cessful and profitable management of anthracite railway com- resort to the acquisition of coal lands. The regions it drained panies, heavily burdened with interest charges for coal lands, were nearest to tide-water; its railroad possessed the great ad- mining improvements, and lateral railroads leading to coal vantage of good alignment and favorable grades; and in any mines. competition on terms of equality with other regions, the Partly for this, as well as numerous other reasons, including Schuylkill coal field and the Reading railroad could have the extraordinary vicissitudes and fluctuations of the coal trade, maintained their full share of coal tonnage. During the war, the powerful coal-carrying companies have for many years when the demand was 80 great that every miner could sell his made numerous endeavors of various kinds to add to their entire product, there appeared to be no cause for unfavorable business sundry other profitable branches than coal mining or comparison, and this company, in common with others, made coal carrying. From the location of their lines, and diversified large profits out of the business of transporting coal; but when character of the interests they serve, all the important anthra- the demand of the war ceased, it was soon discovered that the cite rail carriers were, from the outset, engaged in other rail- control of most of the coal markets of the country could be way labors than coal carrying, and some of these lines have taken by those companies, which, owning, mining, transport- transported so many passengers and 80 much miscellaneous ing, and selling their own coal, united all the profits of the merchandise, exclusive of coal, that they would have been im- business, as against the product of a region where tenants paid portant factors in the railway system if no coal trains had run rent to a landlord for the privilege of mining, and only reached over their tracks. The Reading, Delaware and Lackawanna, the consumer through the hands of a factor. But in addition and Lehigh Valley have been specially active in these efforts to the disadvantages resulting from the different systems of to extend the scope of their operations. On the other hand, mining, the territory which had been considered as properly the Pennsylvania, Northern Central and Erie railways have tributary to this company, and to develop which its railroads made strenuous exertions to add to their miscellaneous railway were constructed, was being encroached upon and absorbed by labors a large amount of anthracite traffic. rival companies, who extended their lines and purchased coal One set of numerous contests which have occurred between land for the purpose of diverting tonnage to their own roads. trunk lines, and another set of conflicts between anthracite The Lehigh Valley Railroad Company had purchased con- carriers, have gained increased complexity from the extent to trolling interests in large estates near Ashland, and, becoming which the diverse interests of these two classes of roads were the owners of the Quakake Railroad, extended the latter interwoven in connection with the affairs of some of the com- through the entire northern section of the Mahanoy coal field panies named. as far as Mount Carmel, where a junction was effected with the Independent of this particular complication, the anthracite railway system of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, who, roads, in performing their gigantic labors as coal carriers over through the Northern Central Railroad, entered the same coal tracks on which large movements of miscellaneous kinds were field from the west, and in the neighborhood of Shamokin had simultaneously being made, were obliged to give attentive con- acquired large interests in coal property. This same company, sideration to many of the most intricate of the mechanical through its ownership in the Northern Central Railroad Com- and engineering railway problems which demanded solution, pany, had obtained control of the Summit Branch Railroad especially those relating to locomotives, movement of heavy Company and of the Lykens Valley coal region, which forms the trains, and condition of tracks, and they thus furnished one western extremity of the northern fork of the southern coal field. of the most useful and important of the Americans schools of In addition to these, the Lehigh Valley Railroad Company, railway training. NORTH-WESTERN OR GRANGER ROADS. THE during the eixth gigantic systems radiating from Chicago, Central, but even before it was commenced, a basis was estab- and seventh decades, formed one of the lished for various other important enterprises. most important railway events of that period. While effective The process of extending the great north-western systems links were being established with the eastern trunk lines, and has been progressing since 1870 at a rate which bears a close falling, to a great extent, under their control, independent analogy to its remarkable advancement before that year. A organizations of stupendous magnitude, which led from Chi- complete history of this rise would require much more space cago in northern, north-western, south-western, and south- than is here available, but it is necessary that at least brief ern directions, were rising in importance, through new con- reference should be made to one of the most important achieve- struction, consolidations, and growth of traffic, with a rapidity ments up to the end of the seventh decade. rarely equaled. The first powerful impulse to these move- We have already printed statistics showing how large were ments was probably given by the construction of the Illinois the additions to their mileage, and referring to the liberal divi- Digitized by Google NORTH-WESTERN OR GRANGER ROADS. 197 dends some of them had earned previous to 1870, but a few of Council Bluffs, on the Missouri river, crossing the Mississippi the numerous other particulars relating to their operations river at Clinton, and proceeding through Iowa, 491 miles. may help to convey a realizing sense of their high relative Important portions of the three states of Illinois, Wisconsin, rank as one of the most important portions of the American and Iowa were traversed by these lines, and a connection with railway system. the eastern terminus of the Union Pacific was secured. Since In their forward strides few of the standard railway vicissi- 1867 many other extensions and new acquisitions have been tudes were avoided. Temporary bankruptcy was found un- made. During the year ending May 31st, 1865, the gross earn- avoidable by the ings of the road were $6,820,750, which represented an increase ILLINOIS CENTRAL over the earnings of the previous year of $2,138,942, or 45.69 in 1857, about the time of the completion of the main line, per cent. although a few years later, and at all subsequent periods, its The origin of the financial position was exceptionally strong. CHICAGO, BURLINGTON AND QUINCY, The difficulties arose out of the existence of a floating debt which has now become one of the most important of American of several millions of dollars, the panic of 1857, and the fact railway systems, and extends through more than half a dozen that the net earnings and cash received in the land department states, is traced to two roads, as follows: On February 12th, 1849, during the early years of the operation of the road were not a railroad company was organized in Illinois under the name sufficient to pay interest on its construction bonds. of the Aurora Branch Railway Company. In June, 1852, the In 1860 the latter difficulty was overcome, and from that Chicago and Aurora Railroad Company obtained its charter, and time forward a career of great prosperity was secured. It was immediately proceeded to lay its tracks between Chicago and reported in 1863 that the Illinois Central then had the largest Aurora. The Central Military Tract Railroad Company owned amount of rolling stock of any road in the west, and that it the road between Mendota and Galesburg, and in 1856, just consisted of more than 3,000 first-class freight cars, 100 passen- after the Chicago and Aurora company had completed its line, ger and mail cars, and 150 locomotives. The net earnings in- these two roads consolidated. The company thus formed creased from $527,952 in 1855 to $850,765 in 1860, and the cash adopted the name of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy received in the land department increased from $234,439 in Railroad Company. From this grew the system which covers 1855 to $653,312 in 1860. The interest paid on construction 80 extensive an area. bonds was $1,099,723 in 1855 and $1,026,507 in 1860; and while In 1867 it extended from Chicago to Galesburg, in a gen- this current annual indebtedness was slightly decreasing, the eral south-west direction, where it forked, one branch reach- available net revenue, including proceeds of land sales, was ing the Mississippi river at Burlington, and the other at nearly doubled, as it increased from $762,391 in 1855 to Quincy. At Burlington it made a connection, after crossing $1,503,987 in 1860. The net earnings of 1866 were $2,175,447, the Mississippi river, with the Burlington and Missouri River and the contract value of the lands sold in that year was Railroad, a road designed to extend the Chicago and Burling- $1,683,694. In that year two dividends of 5 per cent. each ton system through Iowa to Council Bluffs, on the Missouri, were paid to stockholders. for the purpose of making a connection with the Union Pacific, The Illinois Central was the first of the land-grant roads, and of which a considerable proportion had been completed. At the transitions in its fortunes noted above were largely due to Quincy it made a connection with the Hannibal and St. Joseph, the fact that the principal portion of its main line was built through Missouri, which road extended to St. Joseph. Origin- through a region containing very few inhabitants, and it was ally the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy entered Chicago from necessary that production should be stimulated by its efforts to Aurora over the lines of another road, but in 1860 it con- attract purchasers for the lands embraced in its grant, and the structed a line of its own over this route, 40 miles in length, adjacent Government lands, before a considerable amount of and it had previously completed a branch to Peoria, as well as either freight or passenger traffic could be secured. Its success the lines to Quincy and Burlington. The aggregate length of in surmounting these difficulties had a powerful influence in all these lines in Illinois was nearly four hundred miles, which promoting numerous other land-grant railway projects, and in forms only a small portion of its present mileage. increasing the number of land grants made by Congress; and It has been noted at all periods for excellence of manage- in financial results a considerable proportion of these schemes ment and readiness to adopt improved mechanical devices. It more closely imitated the unfortunate episode of the Illinois was one of the first of the western lines to put in use a steamer Central than its good fortune. on the Mississippi which was large enough to transport a con- By a remarkable series of strokes of good fortune in original siderable number of loaded cars without breaking bulk, which construction, consolidations, and management, the it did at Quincy, Illinois. During 1866 its gross earnings were CHICAGO AND NORTH-WESTERN $6,175,553, and its net earnings, $2,799,435. THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND ST. PAUL, had attained before 1870 a very prominent rank among north- western lines, which it has since preserved. The original move- which now probably owns a larger number of miles of main ment for the construction of any portion of its present line is line than any other railway company, and holds a high rank traced to the old Galena and Chicago road, which was chartered in the magnitude and success of its operations, is of later in 1836. A panic followed in the footsteps of the charter, origin than its competitors. It was organized by William which delayed further operations until 1847, eleven years later, Wallace Pratt and William H White, purchasers of a portion when the first rail was put down. This was done on what is of the La Crosse and Milwaukee Railroad, on the 5th day of May, known as the Galena division, or the Freeport Line. In 1853 1863, taking the title of the Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway the line from Chicago to Freeport, a distance of 121 miles, Company, under the revised statutes of the state of Wisconsin was completed. The Illinois Central, which passes through of 1858. The name of the company was changed to the Chi- Freeport to Galena, enabled the road to extend its operations cago, Milwaukce and St. Paul Railway Company, February to the lead mines at Galena. This pioncer was absorbed by the 11th, 1874, by a vote of the company, in pursuance of the Chicago and North-western road in 1864. In 1854, ten years general laws of Wisconsin relating to railways, passed in 1872. prior to this consolidation, the Chicago and North-western con- A few important leases and numerous extensions were made, structed a line which connects Chicago and Milwaukee. including the acquisition of a line leading from Chicago to the In 1867 the Chicago and North-western had acquired control state line of Wisconsin, a distance of 47 miles. Previous to of and was operating more than a thousand miles of main line, 1870 the relative rank of the company was materially below which practically formed five lines, radiating in northern, west- that which it has since attained. ern, or north-western directions from Chicago, including the THE CHICAGO, ROCK ISLAND AND PACIFIC ROAD, following: 1. A road from Chicago to Milwaukee, 85 miles. which was the first to connect Chicago with the Mississippi 2. A road from Chicago to the head of Green bay, 242 miles. river, was begun in 1852. In 1847 a company was formed 3. A road from Chicago to Madison, by way of Elgin and under the name of the Rock Island and La Salle Railroad Com- Beloit, 147 miles. 4. A road from Chicago to Freeport, by way pany, and procured its charter in the same year. Good man- of Elgin and Rockford, 121 miles. 5. A road from Chicago to agement has been characteristic of the road since its opening, Digitized by Google 198 SUBSTITUTION OF STEEL RAILS FOR IRON RAILS. combined with continual readiness to make advantageous ex- the year ending March 31st, 1866, were $3,154,236 and the net tensions and acquisitions. earnings $1,442,781. As the road had land grants which event- In 1851, by an act of the legislature, the name was changed ually became very valuable, its operations during a large por- to the Rock Island Company, and it was under that name that tion of its career have been phenomenally profitable. the road was constructed between Chicago and Rock Island. In 1866 the road consolidated with another in Iowa called the THE CHICAGO AND ALTON Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific road, and as its termini and is the outgrowth of a corporation chartered in 1847. In 1867 connections were such as to warrant the managers in adopting it was in operation between Chicago and St. Louis, forming the the name of the road with which it consolidated, this was done. most direct line between those cities, and doing a large local It has been known by that name ever since. At the time the business. Its gross earnings in 1866 were $3,840,092, and its charter was granted Illinois was a border state, Iowa being a net earnings $1,833,517. It was subsequently extended to Kan- territory, but since the border line has been moved further sas City, and has long been noted for the excellence of its west, the road has contributed vastly to the development of management, good condition of its permanent way and rolling both Illinois and Iowa, as well as other states. Its reward has stock, and profitableness of its operations. It was one of the been a wide reputation and bountiful earnings and profits. first. of the Illinois roads to commence relaying its track with There is probably no railway in the west which earns a greater steel rails, and probably the first in the world to construct an revenue in proportion to its mileage. It is a central line from all-steel bridge, which is located at Glasgow. Chicago westward, passing through fertile portions of Illinois The joint effect of these and other lines in developing, bene- and Iowa, and forming connections which make it a through fiting, and enriching the states adjacent to the Mississippi river line to the Pacific coast. and north of the Ohio cannot be overestimated. Yet for rea- It was one of the first of the roads to bridge the Mississippi, sons which are difficult to comprehend one of the most ex- which it crossed at Rock Island, and was one of the earliest of traordinary popular, legislative, and judicial demonstrations the roads radiating from Chicago to establish a connection with against railway property that has ever occurred was made the Union Pacific at Council Bluffs. Its gross earnings during against them during the early years of the eighth decade. SUBSTITUTION OF STEEL RAILS FOR IRON RAILS. was prolific in railway improvements of SIR HENRY BESSEMER'S DESCRIPTION OF THE EARLY TRIALS OF there was none which left a more per- BESSEMER STEEL RAILS. manent and important impression than the commencement of In 1865 a paper written by Mr. Henry Bessemer, inventor of efforts to substitute steel for iron rails. No other single influence the Bessemer steel process, was published, in which, after re- has been equally effective in reducing the cost of transporta- ferring at length to the gradual steps by which his process had tion and improving the general condition of leading lines. The been improved, and its products applied to various purposes, movement gained a great impetus from a variety of causes, including locomotive tires and cranks, he gives the following one of which was the relative scarcity, at some periods, of the interesting description of the early tests of the value of steel supply of iron rails, and another the inferiority of many of the rails:- iron rails then in use, and consequent necessity of frequent "The engineer of the permanent way (of the London and renewal of tracks. North-western), Mr. Woodhouse, took in hand a thorough in- The condition of the iron rail industries of the country during vestigation of a no less important problem, viz., the substitu- the early portion of the decade is indicated by the following tion of cast-steel for wrought-iron bars. For this purpose some statements:- five hundred tons of rails were made, and put down at various CAPACITY OF IRON RAIL MILLS IN 1865. stations, where the traffic was considerable, 80 as to arrive, at A letter sent to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, in the earliest period, at a true comparison of the respective en- 1865, by Samuel J. Reeves, Esq., the chairman of the executive durance of wrought-iron and cast-steel rails. It will be unneces- committee of the American Iron and Steel Association, embo- sary here to enter into the numerous details of the extensive died, in a lengthy discussion of proposed changes in the duty series of experiments systematically carried out by Mr. Wood- on rails, the following statements:- house. The trials made at Camden will suffice to show the "1st. That the quantity of railroad iron now being produced extraordinary endurance of steel rails. It is supposed that in the loyal states is over 275,000 tons per annum, with an ulti- there is not one spot on any railway in Europe where the mate capacity, in the present mills, of double that quantity. amount of traffic equals that at the Chalk Farm bridge at 2d. That they are able to keep all the present roads in repair, Camden town. At this spot there is a narrow throat in the and furnish a surplus equal to the requirements of nearly 2,000 line, from which converges the whole system of rails employed miles of new track per annum. at the London termini of this great railway. Here all passen- 3d. That from June 30th, 1861, to June 30th, 1864, all the ger, goods, and coal traffic have to pass. Here, also, the mak- rails required by the railroad companies, as well as the demand ing-up of trains and shunting of carriages is continually going of the United States government for military purposes (with on. At this particular spot two steel rails were fixed on May the exception of 206,000 tons imported during the three fiscal 2d, 1862, on one side of the line, and two new iron rails were years), were supplied by the American mills." on the same day placed precisely opposite to them, 80 that no About the same time a table was published giving the names, engine or carriage could pass over the iron rails without pass- address, capacity, and production for the year ending November ing over the steel ones also. When the iron rails became too 16th, 1864, of the railroad iron mills of the United States. The much worn to be any longer safe for the passage of trains, they total number was 38, capacity 684,000 tons, production 283,560 were turned the other way upwards, and when the second side tons. The capacity of the mills located in Pennsylvania was of the iron rails was worn as far as the safety of the iron would 291,000 tons, and their production 138,000 tons. The mills that allow, the worn-out rail was replaced by a new iron one, the had severally produced 20,000 tons or more, during the year same process being repeated as often as was found necessary. named, were the following: Cambria Iron Company, Johns- Thus we find, at the date of the last report, on March 1st, 1865, town, 40,000 tons; Lackawanna Iron Company, Scranton, that seven rails had been entirely worn out on both faces. 22,000; Pennsylvania Iron Company, Danville, 20,000. Since then another rail has been worn out up to July, making It was announced as a notable event that in the six working sixteen faces worn out, the seventeenth face being in use on days ended March 19th, 1864, the Cambria Iron Company August 22d, when the steel rail that had been placed opposite rolled 993 tons of rails, equal to an average of 165} tons per day. was taken up in the presence of the writer, and, by the kind Digitized by Google SUBSTITUTION OF STEEL RAILS FOR IRON RAILS. 199 permission of Mr. Woodhouse, now lies on the table before the this difficulty, but this would require time, as none of the rail meeting. The first face of the rail only has been used, and mills have the required furnaces to refine their metal. In this is now become much thinner than it was originally, but, Europe this subject has been longer considered, and the deter- in the opinion of the plate-layers, is still capable of wearing out mination appears to be general to gradually substitute a still another half a dozen (iron) faces. Taking its resisting powers more expensive material, either a rail made wholly of steel, at three more faces only, it will show an endurance of twenty with a steel head only, or the wearing surface converted into to one in favor of steel. steel after the iron rail is made. The present high cost of Mr. Woodhouse has ascertained, by careful and continued rails made entirely of steel will probably prevent their general testing for twenty-four hours at a time, that an average of 8,802 adoption, although the rapid destruction at the termini and engine tenders or carriages pass over the steel rails every stations, where the iron rail in some positions does not last six twenty-four hours, equal to 16,164 wheels every day for 1,207 months, will fully justify their introduction. For the purpose days, making a total of 9,754,974 wheels passed over the rail. of testing the relative value of steel and iron rails in such posi- Subject to this excessive wear the rail appears to have been tions, we have procured 150 tons of rails made wholly of cast reduced 71 pounds per yard, hence, for every grain in weight steel. A trial is also being made of a rail with a steeled wear- of steel lost by abrasion, no less than 371 wheels had to pass ing surface passed through the rolls, when drawn from the con- over it. Another steel rail, put down also in May, 1862, at a verting furnace, which promises well. It is understood that place much less subject to wear, has had four faces of iron rails favorable results have been obtained from rails, the top plate worn out opposite to it, and still appears as if very little used; in the pile from which they were made being puddled steel. this rail is also placed on the table. An iron rail wears out by If the two metals can thus be firmly welded together, this im- the giving way at various parts of the imperfectly welded mass, provement in railway bars will be generally adopted. This is and not by the gradual loss of particles of metal, as in the case a subject of such great importance to the company that it will of the steel rail, which no amount of wear and tear seems continue to meet the earnest attention of your directors, and, capable of disjointing. It must be borne in mind that this if necessary to effect the reformation desired in the quality of enormous endurance of cast steel is not owing to its hardness rails, it should become important to erect works to effect that or brittleness, as some have supposed, for, in fact, Bessemer object, such a policy will be adopted. The frequent renewal steel possesses an extreme degree of toughness. There is of rails is not only expensive, but it adds to the interruption of before the meeting an example of this fact; one of the same the traffic of the line." quality of steel rails having been attached at one end to the The Pennsylvania Railroad report for 1864, dated February main driving shaft of a steam engine 80 as to twist it while cold 18th, 1865, says: "Notwithstanding our unremitting efforts to into a long spiral, measuring 9 feet in length at top and bottom, secure the best rails that are made, each succeeding year adds and only 6 feet if measured along the centre of the web. A its testimony to those preceding it of the want of a better ma- single glance at this spiral rail will, it is presumed, dispel any terial than that now used. In addition to their rapid destruc- idea of brittleness that may have been entertained." tion from ordinary wear, is added the risk to the trains from their frequent breakage. To obviate this our new rails have AMERICAN RECOGNITION OF THE UTILITY OF STEEL RAILS. been increased in depth to an extent (4) inches) that will give Facts like those cited above naturally attracted the attention them 30 per cent. additional vertical strength, which it is be- of astute American railway managers, and their views are lieved will, with increased care in the selection of ores and the partly indicated by the following statements:- manufacture of the rails, prevent further damage from this The Canada Grand Trunk Railway report for 1863 says that source. The steel rails introduced upon the road show no "arrangements are in progress for the manufacture, under con- evidence of wear, but their great cost at present precludes their tract, of steel and steel-headed rails, to be laid down in place of general introduction. The manufacture of rails with a steeled- iron rails on the main line; and the information and reports wearing surface, referred to in our last annual report, has not which the board have received confirm their previous impres- proved successful upon a scale that would render it of practical sion of the greatly superior endurance of the proposed new value." material. The proved results on the London and North-western RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD. line afford most valuable evidence; it has in fact, been found, as stated by the chairman of the London and North-western Two years later, describing operations of the Pennsylvania company at their recent half-yearly meeting, that the new rails Railroad Company, for the year 1866, president Thomson in laid down on the busiest portions of their line have already his report dated February 19th, 1867, says: "Every effort to lasted ten times as long as the ordinary iron rails." materially improve the quality of the iron to meet the wants The Pennsylvania Railroad annual report, dated February of the augmenting traffic of the trunk lines, having heretofore 15th, 1864, says:- failed, attention was directed to the introduction of steel rails, "The rapid destruction of iron under the high speeds and and, with a view to test their efficiency, the president, while in heavy locomotives now used upon railways has become a sub- England, in 1862, ordered a few hundred tons for trial. These ject of serious consideration, not only to the managers of these proved so satisfactory that larger importations of Bessemer improvements in this country, but also in Europe. When the steel have been made, which entirely confirmed our expecta- Pennsylvania Railroad was planned a locomotive weighing tions of their success. The cost of steel rails is at present about from 45,000 to 50,000 pounds was considered as the extreme twice that of the best iron rails, while their durability is fully limit of these machines, justified by prudence. But the de- eight times greater. It is confidently believed, however, that mands of the public for high speeds has compelled the intro- with enlarged works, increased knowledge of the ores required duction upon all thoroughfares of more powerful engines. to produce the best quality of this metal, and great experience These could only be obtained by adding to their dimensions in its production, they will be successfully manufactured at and weight, which has produced its natural result-great wear home, and the price very largely reduced. At present the and tear of iron rails, and the superstructure of the road. This demand is equal to the supply, and prices are maintained. To evil has been still further increased by the inferiority of the avoid the heavy annual outlays, that a change from a cheap to rails now manufactured, compared with those placed upon a dearer material would necessarily entail upon the revenues, railways when the edge-rail was first introduced. It was then it is proposed to continue for the present to reroll the worn-out deemed essential that rails should be made from the best rails, and replace the annual wear and tear with steel rails. refined iron produced from selected ores. The great increase The general introduction of steel rails is now wholly a com- in the demand for iron under the rapid development of the mercial question, in which the cost of the increased capital railway system in England and this country soon caused the required for their purchase becomes the chief impediment to substitution of an inferior article, which seemed for a time to their general adoption. While the business of a line is small, answer the purpose, but which experience has proven to be it will still be economy to use the iron rails, at an ordinary rate insufficient to resist the causes referred to as continually ope- of interest upon capital until the cost of producing steel is re- rating for its destruction. A return to the quality of the iron duced to its minimum. When that result is accomplished the originally used on railways would be the natural remedy for general public will be materially benefited by the reduced cost Digitized by Google 200 PRODUCTION OF AMERICAN STEEL RAILS. of transportation which the introduction of steel rails will en- the number removed on account of lamination, crushing, or able railway companies to afford." wearing out was much greater. February will show a worse record than January. With the ten miles laid with the IRON AND STEEL RAILS ON THE ERIE RAILWAY. John Brown Bessemer steel no fault need be found. Only one In a letter written by H. Riddle, general superintendent of rail has broken during the winter, and no lamination and very the Erie Railway, to John S. Eldridge, president of that road, little wear is perceptible. Twenty steel rails were laid in Jersey dated March 3d, 1868, he states that during the preceding three City yard last March. The iron rails adjoining, subject to the winter months "the iron rails have been broken, laminated, same wear, have been renewed four times since the steel was and worn out beyond all precedent, until there is scarce a mile put down, and I have no doubt the steel rails will outlast three of your road, except that laid with steel rails, between Jersey times as many more iron rails. This winter's experience has City and Salamanca or Buffalo, where it is safe to run a train satisfied me that the quality and weight of the iron rails in use at the ordinary passenger-train speed, and many portions of cannot be depended upon to sustain the weight of the Erie the road can only be traversed safely by reducing the speed of Railway. Forty-two-ton locomotives, hauling trains of fifty and all trains to twelve or fifteen miles per hour, solely on account sixty loaded cars, and passenger engines weighing thirty-seven of the worn-out and rotten condition of the rails. Broken tons, running at a speed of thirty to forty miles per hour, wheels, axles, engines, and trains off the track have been of literally crush and grind out the iron rails beneath them. In- daily, almost hourly, occurrence for the last two months, stances have been reported to me of rails removed from track, caused mostly by defective rails. Fully one thousand broken too much worn for safety, where the first imperfection was rails were taken from the track in the month of January, while visible but the day before." PRODUCTION OF AMERICAN STEEL RAILS. V IEWS similar to those announced in the extracts printed of your difficulties, and wanted you to hear some of the praises above were entertained in a number of advanced railway bestowed upon your labors as you richly deserve. I know this circles, and corresponding action was taken. A number of ex- would make no sort of difference to you, and yet we all have perimental trials were made, with satisfactory results, but the vanity enough (especially in such cases as this) to feel gratified price of steel rails was an insurmountable obstacle to their at any little compliments we know we are entitled to, but I will general introduction before Bessemer steel works were estab- not tire you with any more, as your cousin [the late Durfee] lished in this country. can tell you all and more than I can write, but with kindest re- FIRST STEEL RAILS MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES. gards allow me to remain, Yours most obt., O. W. POTTER. It is claimed that the first steel rail rolled in America was made at the Chicago Rolling Mill, under the direction of W. F. ORGANIZATION OF THE EARLY AMERICAN STEEL-RAIL INDUSTRIES. Durfee, engineer, on May 25th, 1865. The ingots used had In 1882, in a letter addressed to Judge Kelley, Mr. James M. previously been manufactured at the Wyandotte Rolling Mill, Swank gave the following account of the organization of the located at Wyandotte, Michigan, in accordance with the Kelley early steel-rail works of this country:- process, an American patented invention, which conflicted with "Each of the two experimental Bessemer steel works which the claims based on the Bessemer patent to an extent that pre- were established in this country in 1864 and 1865, one at Wyan- sumably led to a postponement of the active operations subse- dotte, Michigan, and the other at Troy, New York, lost money. quently undertaken until these antagonisms were reconciled. The Wyandotte works were abandoned in 1869, and were al- The following contemporaneous announcement was made in a most a total loss. The Troy experimental works were suc- letter forwarded to W. F. Durfee:- ceeded in 1867 by permanent works, and these were burned in S. CLEMENT, E. B. WARD, O. W. POTTER, 1868. New works were completed in 1870, and it was not until President. Treasurer. Sec. and Gen. Sup't. after this event that any money was made in the manufacture OFFICE OF THE CHICAGO ROLLING MILL, of Bessemer steel at Troy. 16 and 18 River Street, Chicago, May 26th, 1865. The first works established in Pennsylvania expressly to My DEAR DURFEE: The meeting of the iron and steel men manufacture Bessemer steel were those of the Pennsylvania adjourned yesterday to meet in Cleveland the fourth Wednes- Steel Company, near Harrisburg, which were commenced in day in August. I regret very much you could not have been 1865. In 1867 steel was first manufactured at these works, here, particularly to see how well your steel behaved, and you since which time they have been steadily in operation. But it must allow me to congratulate you upon its entire success, and was not until 1873, eight years after the erection of the works I assure you I was but too proud for your sake that everything had been undertaken, that a cash dividend was declared, and we had to do with it proved so very successful. The hammer then it amounted to only two per cent. upon the capital stock. was altogether too light, of course, and it took more time than At this time the stock exceeded one and three-quarter million it otherwise would to draw the ingot down, yet all the pieces dollars. A short time prior to this dividend one of the stock- worked beautifully, and we have made six good rails from the holders sold his stock for one-half its original value. ingots sent over, and not one bad one in any respect. The The second Bessemer steel works in Pennsylvania were those piece you sent over forged is now lying in state at the Tremont of the Freedom Iron and Steel Company, near Lewistown. House, and is really a beautiful rail, and has been presented to They were undertaken in 1866. In 1868 they commenced to the Sanitary Fair by Captain Ward. We rolled three rails on make steel, and in 1869 the company failed, and the works Wednesday and three on Thursday. At the first rolling only were subsequently dismantled. Over one and a half million your cousin and George Fritz were present; at the rolling yes- dollars, in capital and bonded and unbonded debts, was sunk terday were senator Howe, of Wisconsin; B. F. Jones, of Pitts- in this abortive enterprise. burgh; R. H. Lamborn, of Philadelphia; Mr. Phillips, of Cin- The Cambria Iron Company, at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, has cinnati; Mr. Swift, of Cincinnati; Mr. Kennedy, of Cincinnati; manufactured Bessemer steel since 1871, but it was originally Mr. May, of Milwaukee and three ladies; Mr. Scofield, of Mil- organized in 1853 to manufacture iron rails. Its capital stock waukee; Mr. Fritz, of Johnstown; and Mr. Thomas, of Indian- was one million dollars. In 1854 the company failed, and in apolis, with four strangers. Everything went 80 well I really 1855, fresh capital having been added, it failed again. The wanted you to see some of the good of your labors for 80 long works were then leased. In 1861 the company was reorgan- a time and under such trying circumstances. You have done ized, and placed upon a firm financial basis, the original stock- what you set out to do, and done it well, and I am glad to con- holders, who had paid a million dollars, surrendering their gratulate you and rejoice with you, for I can appreciate some stock, and receiving in exchange one hundred thousand dol- Digitized by Google Baldwin's Six-Wheel Connected Engine, 1843. Winan's "Camel" Engine. Baldwin's Eight-Wheeled Engine, 1845. Rogers Engine, 1844. Baldwin's Fast Passenger Engine, 1848. Rogers' Ten- Wheeled Engine, 1848. IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVES FROM 1840 TO 1850. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google PRODUCTION OF AMERICAN STEEL RAILS. 201 lars of new stock, or one hundred dollars for every thousand of increase in the quantity used, which was generally accom- dollars they had invested. Thus the original promoters of this panied by a large annual decrease in price per ton, except enterprise absolutely lost nine hundred thousand dollars. during years when unusually large amounts of new railway The Bethlehem Iron Company, at Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, construction were progressing. It was estimated in 1885 that was organized in 1863 to manufacture iron rails, and in 1873 it up to that year 10,000,000 tons of steel rails had been produced commenced also to manufacture Bessemer steel. It has con- in this country, of which less than 50,000 tons had been made tinued the manufacture of Bessemer steel until the present before July, 1870, and the price had fallen from $106.75 per ton time. From 1869 to 1873 only stock dividends were made, and in 1870 to such an extent that sales were reported in 1885 at from 1873 to 1879 neither stock nor cash dividends were de- less than $30 per ton, or $28.50 at the mills. clared. In these latter years the company's operations were The limited product of rails in American Bessemer mills be- conducted at an actual loss. In 1874 a bonded debt of a mil- fore 1871 indicates that the works of this country before that lion dollars was created, and in 1877 additional bonds were time had only been making preparatory efforts for the gigantic issued to the amount of $278,000. labors they subsequently performed. The effort to establish the Bessemer steel industry in the TABLE SHOWING THE PRODUCTION, IMPORTATION, CONSUMPTION, AND PRICE west has been attended with many discouraging vicissitudes. OF RAILS IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1860 TO 1880, WITH THE MILEAGE The works of the Joliet Iron and Steel Company, at Joliet, OF RAILROAD BUILT. Illinois, were commenced in 1870, and in 1873 they first manu- Production Imports. factured Bessemer steel. In 1874 the company failed, and the works were stopped. The company made another effort to Year. achieve success, but after a long struggle again failed, but not Apparent con- sumption.t Miles of rail- road built. Average price of iron rails. until fresh debts had been created, the whole investment aggre- Iron. Steel. Total. Iron. Steel. Average price of steel gating three million seven hundred thousand dollars. After 1860.205,038 205,038 139,835 341,873 1,846 48 passing through bankruptcy, the works were sold in 1879 for a 1861.189,818 189,818 83,429 273,247 651 42a sum not sufficient to pay all the bondholders, and the original 1862.213,912 213,912 9,644 223,556 834 411 capital was lost. The works of the Vulcan Steel Company, at 1863.275,768 275,768 19,138 294,906 1,050 761 1864.335,369 335,369 132,959 468,328 738 126 St. Louis, Missouri, were built in 1872 to roll iron rails, but in 1865.356,292 356,292 86,820 443,112 1,177 981 1875 the company commenced the erection of Bessemer steel 1886.430,778 430,778 87,368 518,146 1,742 861 works. In 1876 these works were completed, and steel was 1867.459,558 2,550 462,108 163,049 625,157 2,449 831 made by them in that year. Soon afterwards the company 1868.499,489 7,225 506,714 250,081 756,795 2,979 787 158} failed to meet its obligations, and the works were stopped, but, 1869.583,936 9,650 593,586 313,163 906,749 4,953 771 1324 after many serious losses, it has been reorganized, and the 1870.586,000 34,000 620,000 399,153 1,019,153 5,690 724 1061 works are now in operation. Probably two million dollars has 1871.737,483 38,250 775,733 566,202 1,341,935 7,670 701 102} been expended in building up this enterprise, which has until 1872.905,930 94,070 1,000,000 381,064 149,786 1,530,850 6,167 851 112 1873.761,062 very recently been exceedingly unprofitable." 129,015 890,077 99,201 159,571 1,148,849 4,105 764 120} 1874.584,469 144,944 729,413 7,796 100,515 837,724 1,901 581 941 PROGRESS IN AMERICAN STEEL-RAIL-MAKING. 1875.501,649 290,863 792.512 1,174 18,274 811,960 1,917 471 681 1876.467,168 412,461 879,629 287 879,916 2,856 411 591 The following table shows the annual production in gross 1877.332,540 432,169 764,709 35 764,744 2,281 351 45} tons of Bessemer steel rails in the United States since the 1878.322,890 559,795 882,685 10 882,695 2,687 331 421 beginning of their manufacture in 1867, together with the 1879.420,160 693,113 1,113,273 19,090 25,057 1,157,420 4,721 41± 481 average annual price at which they have been sold at works in 1880.493,762 968,075 1,461,837 132,459 158,230 1,752,526 7,174 492 671 Pennsylvania and the rates of duty imposed on foreign rails:- Fiscal year to 1867. t Including imports per fiscal year to 1867. Production Price in Years. currency. Duty. TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF MILES OF TRACK LAID WITH STEEL OR in gross tons. 1867 2,277 $166 00 IRON RAILS, BY GEOGRAPHICAL GROUPS, IN THE UNITED STATES, ON 1868 6,451 158 50 45 per cent. JUNE 30, 1880. 1869 8,616 132 25 ad valorem. Miles in Miles in Miles in Miles Miles Miles Aggregate Metal. in in in group L group II. 1870 30 357 group III. group IV. group V. group VI. miles in 106 75 U.S. 1871 34,152 102 50 Steel 2,936.11 17,004.74 3,645.04 9,539.13 132.00 4,070.86 37,328.78 1872 83,991 112 00 Iron 5,166.58 23,470.31 11,926.92 16,775.20 892.40 12,509.72 70,741.13 1873 115,192 120 50 $28 per ton Aggre- 1874 129,414 94 25 to Aug. 1st, gate.8,102.69 40,475.05 15,571.96 26,314.33 1,025.30 16,580.58 108,069.91 1875 259,699 68 75 1872; $25.20 Per ct. 1876 368,269 59 25 to Mar. 3d, steel. 36 42 23 56 25 45 50 35 1877 385,865 1875; $28 Per ct. 1878 491,427 42 25 from that 1879 48 25 iron. 64 58 77 94 75 610,682 65 date to July 1880 852,196 67 50 In regard to the progress of the change from iron to steel 1st, 1883. 1881 1,187,770 61 13 rails in various sections it is stated that steel rails appear to 1882 1,284,067 48 50 have been first laid in this country in 1864, when three compa- 1883 1,148,709 37 75 nies in the Middle states used them to a limited extent, and four 1884 996,983 30 75 $17 per ton companies in the New England states. One company in the 1885 959,471 28 50 from July central Western states commenced using steel rails in 1865, 1886 1,574,703 34 50 1st, 1883. 1887 (March) 39 5C and subsequently one company in the southern and western trans-Mississippi states and territories commenced using them The lowest average annual price at which Bessemer steel in each of the years 1870, 1872, and 1878. rails have been sold in this country was reached in 1885, Of the 1,174 companies owning roads in 1880, 522, or nearly namely, $28.50, but sales were made at still lower figures in 45 per cent., had in that year laid steel rails on either a portion both 1884 and 1885. or the whole length of their roads. Of these companies the The outlays for steel rails, which commenced in the seventh lines of 65 were located in group I, 269 in group II, 60 in group decade, continued to represent a large expenditure on account III, 79 in group IV, 3 in group V, and 46 in group VI. 26 Digitized by Google 202 BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION. BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION. A N unusual amount of bridge construction was necessary roof; and if the exigencies of engineering required side walls, during the war period, mainly on account of the fre- they should be plentifully perforated with open spaces. The quency with which bridges were destroyed by hostile armies, more recent railroad bridges are fortunately open bridges, or but also partly on account of the desire to facilitate travel on 'viaducts,' as it is fashionable to call them, and the traveler, as important routes which had previously used ferries at points in the case of the Starucca viaduct on the Erie road, can both where expensive bridges were finally erected. An intense de- admire the engineering skill and enjoy the scenery." sire to improve the links by which different communities were NEW BRIDGES OF THE DECADE. connected, and to abridge distance, was manifested in many One of the important new railway bridges of the decade was quarters, and one of its outgrowths was a notable increase in the number of new bridges, and improvements in the methods built by the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore across of their erection and construction, intermingled with a disposi- the Susquehanna, between Perryville and Havre de Grace. It was reported at the time that notable improvements in methods tion to substitute iron for wood bridges. The general course of events is indicated by the following statements, although they for establishing a foundation were adopted. The bridge was reported to be 3,300 feet long. necessarily embrace references to only a small proportion of the bridge construction of the decade:- Of the Connecting Railroad bridge, built over the Schuylkill, Of bridges on the Northern Central, it was stated that Con- near Girard avenue, in Philadelphia, it was said in 1864, when federate raids in 1863 and 1864 destroyed thirty-four, all of the work was progressing, that the piers will rest on foundations laid on solid rock. An iron section of 270 feet span will arch which had been substantially rebuilt, in most instances with structures of stone and iron. the channel. To this iron section, which is being built in the The report of the Baltimore and Ohio for 1862, after referring Altoona shops of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, (the to the injuries inflicted upon the line by Confederate raids, says: Pennsylvania Railroad Company build all their own iron "The board having determined to replace the numerous wood- bridges in their own shops), the iron will be carried on and-iron and wooden bridges, which have been destroyed in marine brick arches of 60-feet span." the progress of the war, with iron structures of the most sub- The Baltimore and Ohio report for 1865 says: "Since the de- stantial material and improved description, the material was struction of the wooden and other bridges upon its line during promptly secured, and a considerable portion of the work has the war, twelve first-class iron bridges, aggregating three thou- been successfully accomplished in the shops of the company." sand and seventy-five feet, with twenty-seven spans, varying One of the war bridge feats reported in 1864, credited to the from seventy-cight to two hundred and five feet in length, and construction corps of the United States military railroads, was of a very costly character, have been built at the Mount Clare the rebuilding, in four days and a half, of a railroad bridge over workshops, placed upon superior masonry, and are now in suc- cessful use." the Chattahoochie, 760 feet long and 90 feet high, which had been destroyed by Confederates in their retreat. In connection with the reconstruction of a bridge on the line of the Memphis and Charleston, at Decatur, more than 1,700 OBJECTIONABLE FEATURES OF WOODEN BRIDGES. feet long, which had been destroyed during the war, it was A correspondent of the New York Evening Post, writing on stated that a contract was made in October, 1865, with Albert July 7th, 1864, of the bridges of the old style then usually met Fink, of Louisville, Kentucky, who then had a wide reputation on railway lines, complained that they were nearly all wooden as the inventor of a useful truss bridge, and as an experienced bridges, and said:- and reliable bridge-builder, and that it was completed so that "You are riding along in a railroad car enjoying the scenery. trains passed over it on July 7th, 1866. It was reported to be A river gleams ahead. You approach its banks and prepare to "a first-class bridge, of the Fink V patent, with wrought-iron catch expected glimpses of beauty up or down the stream. bottom chords, and wooden top chords covered with tin, and But suddenly a roaring sound is heard. You plunge into a wooden braces 80 arranged that any one of them can be re- great wooden tunnel; wooden walls on either side hide the moved without interruption to passing trains, combining proba- view; a wooden roof blocks out the light of day. After a bly more strength, durability, and economy than any other minute of deafening noise you emerge, but the river is crossed, bridge, and with less liability to accident than any bridge ex- the stream is passed, and the delicious bit of scenery is lost to cept those built of iron." you. The vast majority of bridges in this country, whether for BRIDGE OVER THE MONONGAHELA. railroads or for ordinary horse travel, have these elemental One of the notable bridges of the decade was constructed points:- over the Monongahela river, at Pittsburgh, to facilitate move- 1. Fragility. 2. Unendurably hideous ugliness. 3. Great ments on western connections of the Pennsylvania Railroad. aptitude for catching fire. The following description of it was published in the Pittsburgh They are all built of wood, and must be constantly patched Chronicle, of September 21st, 1865:- and mended, and will rot away in a very few years. They are "The river is spanned by five trusses of wood, each 187 feet enormous blots on the landscape stretching as they do like long in length, and one iron span 260 feet in length, for double unpainted boxes across the stream; like huge Saurian monsters track, over the channel. The wooden spans have a double with ever open jaws into which you rush, or walk, or drive, and series of braces, supported on Piper's improved bearing blocks. are gobbled up for all sight or sense of beauty. The dry timber The roadway passes over the wooden spans, and through the of which they are built will catch fire from the mere spark of iron bridge, affording at the channel a clear headway of about a locomotive, as in the case of that hideous bridge which had GO feet from low water. This span is 23 feet in clear width, and 80 long insulted the Hudson river at Troy; and which was not 28 feet in heighth, and will sustain safely two tons per foot. only burned itself but spread the destroying flame to the best The bridge was constructed from the same patterns used for part of the town. the structure over the channel at Steubenville. The designs These bridges deface all the valleys of our land. The Housa- appear both novel and original. Each truss is double and tonic, the Mohawk, the Lehigh, the hundreds of small yet beau- combined to give greater lateral stability, so essential in great tiful rivers which 80 delightfully diversify our country, one and spans. The combination posts are trussed, avoiding the neces- all suffer by the vile wooden bridge system which has nothing sity of using heavy columns. The tension chains each consist at all to plead in extenuation of its tasteless, expensive exist- of light wide-eye bars, with 'upset' ends, linked together by ence. connecting pins four and a half inches in diameter. In this Every bridge in this country should be deprived of its heavy system the entire strength of the material is economized with- Digitized by Google BRIDGING THE OHIO, MISSISSIPPI, AND MISSOURI. 203 out carrying any useless weight. This structure presents a light is 160 feet long and 44 feet wide at the bottom. The masonry and graceful appearance, while its immense strength may be is of the most substantial description, and is built of Athens inferred from the fact that 100 tons of bolts, more than 90 tons stone. The draw turns on a pivot in the centre, and when of chord links, and 300 tons of castings, all of approved quality, open leaves two clear passage ways for steamboats, 123 feet have been judiciously employed in its construction. This span each. is constructed according to the patents of Linnville and Piper." In that part of the bridge between Little Rock Island and PROGRESS IN BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION. the Iowa shore, there was used in the two cribs about two million feet of timber, 50,000 cubic feet of dimension stone Many changes were progressing during the seventh decade from the Athens quarries, and about 600,000 cubic feet of in the bridges of the important railways of the Middle states, rubble stone, from quarries near Clinton. All intersections of partly because the old structures needed repairs, replacement, timber in the cribs are secured with oak trenais, of which or strengthening, and partly because improved methods of about ten miles in length were used. The iron draw weighs construction were devised, and experience had suggested the about 325 tons, and is an admirable piece of workmanship. desirability of a substitution of wrought iron for various pur- The ends, when being swung, are supported by iron rods, which poses for which cast iron had previously been used. On the pass over the tops of the centre towers. When it is desired to main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, west of Altoona, iron turn the bridge the ends are lifted from off their piers by means bridges had been erected between 1851 and 1853, when the of a hydraulic press, which lifts the caps of the central tower road had been first constructed, which were deck bridges, hav- through which the main suspension rods pass, and then the ing the track on top. They were based on the Pratt principle, bridge is turned by a steam engine, standing on the upper having cast-iron upper chords, cast-iron vertical posts, and chord. Arrangements are also made whereby the bridge can wrought-iron lower chords, inclined ties and counters. A cast- be turned by hand, if necessary. The work of construction iron arch was also introduced, which was added as an extra was commenced in January, 1864, and the first train crossed precaution. Bridges of a similar type, with various improve- January 6th, 1865." ments in detail, were introduced during the next ten to twelve years to take the place of wooden bridges originally erected on OTHER BRIDGES CROSSING THE MISSISSIPPI. eastern parts of the road. After traffic had greatly increased, After two iron bridges had been thrown across the Missis- and material additions had been made to the weight of loco- sippi, one by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, during the motives, it was considered prudent, about 1868-69, to replace fifth decade, and the other by the Chicago and North-western, some of the oldest iron bridges with new structures. At the during the sixth decade, it was inevitable that a number of same time, solid rolled I beams of various depths were used other companies owning or interested in lines on both sides of for bridges of small spans, from ten to twenty feet. In 1865 that river should erect bridges as speedily as possible. Some the department of bridges and buildings on the Pennsylvania of these new bridges were finished during the seventh decade, Railroad passed into the charge of Joseph M. Wilson, and and the completion of others, like the famous bridge at St. under his direction important modifications of the plans pre- Louis, postponed to a later period. viously in use were soon devised, and subsequently applied to The report of the Toledo, Wabash and Western, which sub- the new bridges erected. sequently became part of the Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific, DRAW BRIDGE OVER THE MISSISSIPPI. for 1866 stated that it was then engaged in the construction of A new bridge (draw bridge) constructed by the Chicago and an iron railroad bridge across the Mississippi river at Quincy, North-western and reported to be the second bridge over the which it expected to have ready for the passage of trains before Mississippi river below St. Paul, was built over the Mississippi the close of 1867, and that it had also contracted for the con- at Clinton, Iowa, early in January, 1865, of which the following struction of another railroad bridge across the Mississippi river description was published about the time of its completion: at Keokuk. "The total length of the bridge as built is 3,650 feet. Of this A correspondent of the New York Express, who was pre- distance 2,800 feet is between the Illinois shore and Little Rock sumably Hon. James Brooks, an editor and proprietor of that Island and 850 feet is between Little Rock Island and the Iowa journal, in describing a journey made westward in 1867, said: shore. The bridge east of Little Rock Island consists of 1,400 "Chicago was left between 10 and 11 A. M., and by 3 or 4 we feet of piling and seven spans of 200 feet each of McCallum's were on the bridge over the Mississippi at Clinton. The great patent truss. The truss bridges rest upon piers and abutments Father of Waters-think of it-now has to consent to be of masonry founded on piles. West of Little Rock Island the shackled by bridges and locomotives and cars. The common bridge consists of three spans of the Howe truss bridge, beside law made him a monarch of waters, but the locomotive now the draw. repeals and reverses such common laws. Water here is no Two spans of the Howe bridge are 175 feet long each, and match for fire. The boatmen growl, the raftsmen swear, but one span 200 feet long. The draw is 300 feet long over all, and on strides the locomotive, from bank to bank, over mast and is built of iron. The abutments and one of the piers are pipe, with an utter recklessness of all the craft below it. The founded on rock, a second pier is founded on piles, and a Missouri is to be everywhere bridged, as well as the Missis- third pier and the draw pier are built upon crib work, resting sippi, for trade runs east and west-and what trade wills the on loose sand. These cribs are sunk in water 40 feet deep. laws obey-while the great waters of the west will soon be left The large crib is 400 feet long and 44 feet wide, and the smaller only to the heavy freights of the common boatmen." BRIDGING THE OHIO, MISSISSIPPI, AND MISSOURI. THE watire subject of erecting railway bridges over navigable navigation which had been created by a highway draw-bridge a new aspect during the seventh decade, over the Ohio at Wheeling, and the railway draw-bridge erected on account of the development of an imperative necessity for over the Mississippi, between Rock Island and Davenport, improving the channels of communication between the states without congressional authority. Under the old system, few east and west of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, and the companies cared to undertake the construction of bridges over states north and south of the Ohio, and congressional action, either of the great western rivers at any point, and no legal which gave a more distinct and emphatic authorization of sanction for such enterprises was deemed necessary except bridge projects than had previously been procured. such as could be procured from state legislatures. The modern usage, when navigable streams form a boundary line bet-- CONFLICT OF RAIL AND RIVER INTERESTS. states, is to require congressional sanction for the , Bitter controversies had grown up between representatives erected over them, which is sometimes supplemented 1 of overland and river interests, on account of obstructions to able action of both the states interested. Digitized by Google 204 BRIDGING THE OHIO, MISSISSIPPI, AND MISSOURI. The first series of mouth of the Big Sandy river: between Cincinnati, Ohio, and CONGRESSIONAL BRIDGE LAWS Covington, Kentucky; at Louisville, Kentucky; Wheeling, West of material significance were passed during the seventh decade. Virginia. Over the Mississippi River.-At Quincy, Illinois; Burlington, They were based on the theory that railway bridges might be Iowa; Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; Keokuk, Iowa; Winona, built at the points named in the various enactments, provided Minnesota; Dubuque, Iowa; St. Louis, Missouri; Clinton, Iowa; a design and style of construction was adopted which would Rock Island, Iowa (as R substitute for the bridge first erected avoid serious obstructions to navigation. This exception left by the Chicago and Rock Island Railroad Company); La Crosse, a large field for controversy, as the navigable interests in- Wisconsin; Muscatine, Iowa; at any point between the counties cluded not only steamboats, some of which formerly had pilot of Whitesides and Carroll, Illinois, and Jackson and Clinton, houses and chimneys at A great height above the water, but Iowa; Hudson, Wisconsin; Warsaw, Illinois; Fort Madison, also tows of barges and large rafts which required for their Iowa; Red Wing, Minnesota; Lexington, Missouri. successful operation a wide distance between piers. The steam- Over the Missouri River.-At any point necessary for con- boat men claimed that high chimneys were of great service, venience by the Union Pacific and Hannibal and St. Joseph for the double purpose of giving draught, and either cooling railway companies; at Kansas City; Fort Leavenworth, Kansas; sparks as they ascended to great heights, or preventing them St. Joseph, Missouri; Omaha, Nebraska; Louisiana, Missouri; from engendering fires as they fell on decks. One steamboat, Glasgow, Missouri; Boonville, Missouri; Nebraska City, No- the James Howard, built for service on the lower Mississippi in braska; Brownville, Nebraska; Sioux City, Iowa. 1874, which had no bridges to encounter, had chimneys 104 feet The authorization of additional bridge structures over the above the water, and it was reported that the chimneys of the navigable waters named above, and other streams, has since Great Republic reached a still higher altitude. The general formed an important portion of the labors of a number of range of the height of chimneys on the large Mississippi river sessions of Congress. boats, which formerly passed St. Louis, was from 65 to a little more than 90 feet; and the top of their pilot houses was from THE SPECIFIC RESTRICTIONS AND REQUIREMENTS IMPOSED BY 46 to 69 feet above water. As the waters of the western rivers CONGRESS, occasionally rise many feet above the normal standard, and it in connection with the grants of authority to construct bridges, was necessary that provision should be made for operations have varied materially, on account of the differences in the during high-water periods, it is obvious that it would be ex- requirements of river interests at various points, or other causes. ceedingly difficult, or practically impossible, to construct The leading provisions of an act passed in 1866 authorizing bridges at a number of points where they were desirable which the construction of eight bridges on the Mississippi and one on would not obstruct the passage of boats having chimneys 100 the Missouri were that if built as high bridges they should be feet high, unless they were draw-bridges. The advocates of 50 feet above extreme high-water mark, with spans not less bridges insisted that excessively high chimneys were not abso- than 250 feet in length, and one main or channel span not less lutely necessary, and important concessions relating to the than 300 feet in length. If built as draw-bridges, they should height of bridges were obtained. have two draw openings of not less than 160 feet in the clear, Other difficulties arose out of the requirements of the barge and next adjoining spans of not less than 250 feet, and should system for a wide space between the piers of any bridge that be 10 feet above high-water mark, and at least 30 feet above might be erected. At the time the bridging of the Ohio at low-water mark. Provisions similar to those enumerated Steubenville was authorized, in 1862, the barge system or com- above were applied to a number of bridges over the Missouri binations of flats and barges used in the transportation of coal river. had come into such extensive use on the Ohio that a con- In reference to the construction of a bridge at St. Louis, gressional enactment required a width of not less than 300 feet which was one of the bridges authorized by this act, the law in the clear between piers, and the coal navigation interests provided that it should not be either a suspension bridge or a endeavored to secure a space of not less than 500 feet. Subse- draw-bridge, but that it should have continuous or unbroken quent laws of Congress require spans of not less than 400 feet spans, with the bottom chord 50 feet above the city directrix in the clear on the Ohio below the mouth of the Big Sandy at its greatest span; that it should have at least one span of 500 river, and bridges across the Ohio giving a clear span of 500 feet in the clear, or two spans of 350 feet in the clear, and that feet were built. A wide space between spans was peculiarly no span over the water at low-water mark should be less than desirable on the Ohio on account of the magnitude of the coal 200 feet in the clear. A later act required that the bridge at tows on that river. St. Louis should have one span of at least 500 feet in the clear. On the Upper Mississippi the rafting interest was formerly In reference to bridges over the Ohio the provisions for the very important, and on that account, as well as on account of Steubenville bridge were that it should leave an unobstructed the demands of steamboat interests, a wide space between piers headway in the channel of the river of not less than 90 feet was considered desirable, but the characteristics of that stream above low-water mark, and an unobstructed width of not less at many points are deemed unusually favorable for bridging, than 300 feet between the piers next to said channel or water- in comparison with other rivers of equal magnitude, and way; and one of the spans next adjoining that should not be especially the Missouri. less than 220 feet in length. The law required that if it was Supervision over the erection of bridges across navigable built as a high bridge it should be not less than 90 feet above waters, in accordance with acts of Congress, was commenced low water over the channel, and if built as a draw-bridge it by the United States engineers in the seventh decade, and has should be constructed with a span over the main channel 300 been continued since, and their views or recommendations feet in length and not less than 70 feet above low-water mark, have exercised an important but not always a controlling, and one of the adjoining spans not less than 220 feet, and also influence over the final decision of the numerous disputes be- that there should be constructed a pivot-draw in every such tween representatives of conflicting rail and river interests bridge in a navigable part, with spans of not less than 100 feet which have arisen. on each side of the pivot. A law passed in 1871 made it un- RAILWAY BRIDGES AUTHORIZED BY CONGRESS IN THE SEVENTH lawful to proceed with the construction of a bridge then being DECADE. built between Cincinnati and Covington unless the channel span of 400 feet, as located, should have a clear headway at The list of bridges over navigable waters authorized by Con- low water of 100 feet below any part of the span. Various gress during the seventh decade, or in early years of the eighth other acts were passed in the early years of the eighth decade decade, the building of which bridges was generally, but not in which insisted upon requirements more favorable to river in- all instances, commenced soon after their construction was terests than those which had been deemed necessary during authorized, and which were usually, but not always, railway the seventh decade. bridges, or combinations of railway and highway bridges, in- cluded bridge structures subject to various restrictions and re- THE BRIDGE WORK COMPLETED quirements at or near each of the points named below:- in accordance with the above enactments, either before 1870 Over the Ohio River.-At Steubenville, or any point above the or a few years later, included railway bridges over the Ohio at Digitized by Google BRIDGING THE OHIO, MISSISSIPPI, AND MISSOURI. 205 Steubenville, Bellaire, Parkersburg, Cincinnati, and Louisville, THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER DRAW-BRIDGES which were important and expensive structures. varied considerably in their superstructure, wood being the prin- The bridge erected over the Ohio at Louisville connected the cipal material in some instances and iron in others, and also in Jefferson, Madison and Indianapolis Railroad, which, as well the arrangement of their draws, piers, and spans. Some of the as the bridge, forms part of the Pennsylvania system, with the bridges were built by private bridge companies, others by railway Louisville and Nashville Railroad. Its total length is 5,294 fect, companies, and one, the new Rock Island bridge, under the consisting of twenty-seven spans, of various lengths, from 50 to direction of the United States engineers, acting on behalf of the 250 feet, on the Fink plan, placed below the grade of the road, United States government. Some of the bridges were crossed and two channel spans, one 370 and the other 400 feet long, only by the trains of one railway company, and others by the placed above the grade of the road. The bridge was com- trains of several companies. On account of the magnitude of menced in the fall of 1867, and completed in the spring of the labors involved, a number of the bridge-contracting com- 1870. The channel spans are of a peculiar design, a modifica- panies of the country, including the American Bridgo Com- tion of the triangular plan of bracing, by introducing auxiliary pany, of Chicago; the Keystone Bridge Company, of Pittsburgh; trusses between the main braces. The feet of the main braces the Detroit Bridge Company; the Phoenixville Bridge Com- are 56 feet 71 inches apart, and by the auxiliary trusses this pany; the Baltimore Bridge Company; the Detroit Bridge and space is divided into four parts, giving a support to the stringers, Iron Works, and the Kellogg Bridge Company, of Buffalo, fur- upon which the track rests, every 14 feet 11 inches. The height nished portions or all of the superstructure of one or more of of the truss is 46 feet. Each side of the bridge consists of two the Mississippi river bridges. separate trusses, which are simply bolted together. The chords The bridge with the longest draw-span, and with what was are of cast iron, the braces having to resist compression of the longest draw-span in the United States at the time of its wrought iron, and the tension members also of wrought iron. construction, was the Louisiana Railway bridge at Louisiana, The following is a statement of the quantity of iron in some of Missouri. The river at that point is about 3,700 feet wide at the principal spans:- low water, and the high-water width is several miles. Com- Cast iron. Wrought iron. Total. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. mencing on the right bank, the abutment is approached by an 400 feet span 570,585 834,880 1,405,465 embankment, 450 feet of which are in the low water. The first 870 " 480,953 640,095 1,121,048 span is 162 feet to the centre of the draw, west pier; then a draw 2451 " 216,119 215,803 431,922 span 444 feet over all, with two clear openings of 200 feet each; 180 " 123,308 91,259 214,667 150 " 101,453 70,224 171.677 then a span 256 feet; then one of 2261 feet, and then six spans 100 " 58,725 29,183 87,908 of about 161 feet each from centre of piers, making a total 50 " 7,557 15,801 23,358 length of bridge of 2,053 feet. From the Illinois end of the bridge there is 2,200 feet of embankment. The piers are of The Newport and Cincinnati bridge, crossing the Ohio river masonry. The superstructure is of wrought iron, except in at Cincinnati, and furnishing connection between north and some minor parts. south railways converging at Cincinnati, as well as a highway or common road connection between the cities named above, THE PONTOON BRIDGE belongs to the Pennsylvania system. It also owns or controls at Prairie Du Chien was designed and constructed by Mr. the Steubenville bridge. The Ohio was bridged by the Balti- John Lawler, to meet the particular wants of that locality. It is more and Ohio at Bellaire and Pittsburgh, by expensive struc- built at a point where the river is divided by an island and is tures. about 11 miles in width from shore to shore. Formerly pas- Bridges over the Missouri at St. Charles, Boonville, Kansas senger and freight cars were transferred by ferry boats which City, Leavenworth, Atchison, St. Joseph, and Nebraska were had to go around the head or foot of the island, making the finished by or before January, 1874. The St. Charles bridge distance from landing to landing nearly four miles; and when was commenced in 1868 and finished in 1871, at a cost of floating ice accumulated the river was frequently impassable. $1,797,186.19. It is regarded as an admirable structure, de- The construction of a bridge of either of the standard descrip- signed by Gen. C. Shaler Smith, and built by Smith & Latrobe, tions would have been peculiarly difficult or expensive. These Baltimore Bridge Company. The bridges at Boonville, Kan- circumstances led to the adoption of a system under which the sas City, Atchison, and St. Joseph were all railway draw-bridges. bridge approaches on either shore, and the fixed portions of the The bridges at Leavenworth and Omaha were elevated railway bridge in low water and on the island, consist of piles, while bridges. in the channels of the river pontoons are placed, which are 80 The list of bridges erected over the Mississippi either before combined and arranged as to form a railway bridge when the or shortly after 1870 includes the following: A railway draw- passage of trains is desirable; while when the use of the channels bridge at St. Paul which was opened for travel in 1869. by steamboats or rafts is necessary the pontoons are temporarily A railway draw-bridge extending from Hastings, Minne- removed. The pontoon in the east channel is made by uniting sota, to Prescott, Wisconsin, which was opened for railway three ordinary transfer SCOWS which have an aggregate length travel in 1871. A railway draw-bridge at Winona, Minne- of 393 feet, and the pontoon in the west channel is a single-deck sota, in 1869-70. A railway draw-bridge at La Crosse, Wis- scow especially constructed for the purpose, 408 feet long, 28 consin. A pontoon railway bridge from Prairie du Chien, feet beam, and 6 feet in depth. Applications for the right to Wisconsin, to North McGregor, Iowa, which was opened for construct bridges of a similar plan at various other points on railway travel in April, 1874. A railway draw-bridge at Du- the Mississippi and elsewhere have been made and granted. buque which was opened for travel in December, 1868. A railway draw-bridge at Clinton which was opened for railway THE ELEVATED RAILWAY AND HIGHWAY BRIDGE AT ST. LOUIS travel in January, 1865. The new bridge at Rock Island, which was, at the time of its completion, the most expensive bridge is a combined highway and railway draw-bridge, and was opened that had then been constructed in the United States. Its cost, for travel in October, 1872. A railway draw-bridge at Burling- including approaches, tunnel and land damages, legal expenses, ton, Iowa, opened for travel in 1868. A railway and highway discounts, commissions on bonds, &c., was $12,680,333.47. The draw-bridge at Keokuk, Iowa, opened for travel in 1870. A width of the river at the point of construction is about 1,200 railway draw-bridge at Quincy, Illinois, opened for travel No- feet at low water and 1,900 feet at high water. Considerable vember, 1868. A railway and highway bridge near Hannibal, difficulty was experienced in procuring a foundation for the Missouri, which was opened for travel in 1871. A railway piers and abutments on the bed rock of the river, but by means bridge at Louisiana, Missouri, which was opened for travel in of inverted caissons and the plenum pneumatic process they 1873. An elevated railway and highway bridge at St. Louis were all surmounted. The abutments are placed on the margin which was opened for travel in July, 1874. of the water at ordinary low stage, with two piers in the channel It will be seen by the above list that nearly all the bridges way. The three spaces thus left are spanned by circular seg- enumerated were draw-bridges, but one was a pontoon bridgo ment arches. The middle one has a chord of 515 feet, and the of novel design, and another the famous elevated bridge of the arch is 55 feet above the city directrix, which is St. Louis. above low water. The superstructure was erected by Digitized by Google 206 IMPROVEMENTS OF LOCOMOTIVES. the Keystone Bridge Company, and an indication of the amount inch thick, and 6 rolled steel staves, varying in thickness from of work performed is furnished by the fact that its cost, ex- 21 inches at the springing to 11b inches at the crown. The cluding approaches, was $2,234,655.42. The masonry, includ- exterior diameter is always 18 inches. Steel or wrought-iron ing abutments, piers, tools, and machinery, was $2,364,452.26. sleeve couplings firmly unite the tubes by means of parallel This was one of the first of American bridges in which steel grooves turned on the ends of the staves. About 2,200 tons of was extensively used. The supporting members of the super- steel and 3,400 tons of iron are used in the whole bridge. The structure consisted of 24 steel arches, 8 in each span. Each upper roadway of the bridge is 54 feet wide. The public test arch is composed of a large number of straight tubes, with of the bridge consisted of placing fourteen locomotives simul- slightly beveled ends, and to the casual observer appears to be taneously upon the tracks of a single span. The construction a continuous curved tube. The whole number of tubes is 1,036. of the bridge was commenced during the seventh decade, and A tube is about 12 feet long, and comprises a steel envelope t it was publicly opened on July 4th, 1874. IMPROVEMENTS OF LOCOMOTIVES. INCREASE OF SIZE AND CAPACITY. engines are 20 inches in diameter, and 26-inch stroke, with 48 said, in 1864, that it was the general or 50-inch drivers. Such an engine is capable of hauling a total previous that nothing exceeding load of 2,740 gross tons on a level track. In regular work they thirty tons was admissable in a locomotive, and nothing over will take trains of 90 loaded cars (box). In one case, on the twenty tons desirable, at least upon the standard gauge. It Philadelphia and Erie road, a consolidation engine hauled 180 proceeded then to give descriptions of engines then in use in cars and a 'dead engine.' Though not intended for speed, they various countries, some of which weighed from 40 to 50 tons easily make 25 miles per hour. Though aggregating an enor- when loaded. A long wheel base, and steel rails were referred mous weight, they do not exceed in the weight per wheel, the to as leading causes of the marked increase in the admissable load the larger sizes of express passenger engines of the Ameri- weight of a locomotive. can pattern put upon the rails. It is a well-proven fact that it In 1864 it was reported that engines weighing 371 tons were is much better to add an extra pair of drivers to increase the running over the Atlantic and Great Western Railway of the adhesion than to attempt to greatly increase the load upon a United States. smaller number. By the use of flanges on the main and rail- Among other notable locomotive improvements in this ing drivers only, leaving the others plain, the rigid wheel base country it was announced in November, 1863, that James is reduced to 9 feet 2 inches, with 50-inch wheels, which is only Millholland, engineer of machinery of the Philadelphia and 6 inches more than that of the heavier American passenger Reading Railroad, had designed a pusher of extraordinary engines with 60-inch drivers. Whether the needs of traffic in weight and power to assist in transporting heavy coal trains the future will require further addition to the tractive force to the city of Philadelphia over ascending grades. Its weight remains to be scen. Possibly, as cars become heavier and was 100,320 pounds, and there was probably, at that time, no stronger, and longer trains can be handled, still heavier weights other locomotive of equal size in the United States. in freight engines will be desirable." Special efforts were then being made to increase the loco- LOCOMOTIVE STEEL TIRES. motive capacity of the Philadelphia and Reading, on ac- count of the extraordinary demand for coal and difficulty of Of Krupp's patent steel tires it was reported in June, 1864, supplying it. In 1863 its loaded coal trains averaged loads of that a set of them had been running under an engine on the Chi- [14 tons, of 2,240 pounds each, and new engines had been in- cago, Burlington and Quincy for thirteen months. This engine troduced which drew 150 cars containing about 41 to 5 tons weighed 34 tons and was used in the heaviest freighting service each, or nearly 750 tons of coal. of the road. It was reported that in backing out of a snow CONSOLIDATION AND MOGUL ENGINES. bank its wheels were found to slip less and to bite stronger than those tired with iron. Also that after thirteen months In 1866 the engine "Consolidation" was built at the Baldwin service the wear had been very slight, and the tire was Locomotive Works for the Lehigh Valley Railroad, intended considered good for another year before it received its first for working on a plane which rises at the rate of 133 feet per turning. mile. It had cylinders 20x24, four pairs of wheels connected, In reference to a change from iron to steel tires which was 48 inches in diameter. A class of engines known as Moguls, progressing during the seventh decade the London Railway with three pairs of wheels connected, and a swinging pony News, of April 5th, 1865, said that "the Maryport and Carlisle truck in front, equalized with driving-wheels, was also built at company had found that with the ordinary iron tires on the the Baldwin Locomotive Works for the Thomas Iron Company engine wheels, the distance run was not more than 90,000 in 1867. Since that period a large number of consolidation and miles-in many cases not more than 60,000 miles-and the mogul engines have been built by various makers of this coun- wheels must be taken from the engine for every 20,000 or try, which possess exceptional power in drawing large loads of 30,000 miles run, for repairs and 'turning up.' In the case of freight over heavy grades. They have done much to cheapen steel tires, the wheels will run 100,000 miles before they requiro freight transportation in a number of sections. Even the 'turning up' or repairing. The result of a very careful exami- earliest locomotives of these patterns, and to a greater extent nation of the effects of wear leads to the opinion that these those of the present day, greatly exceed the locomotive capa- wheels will run from 350,000 to 500,000 miles, or equal to some city that was originally deemed attainable. An interesting twelve or fifteen years' work of a daily average of about 100 article published about 1881 on locomotive development, in miles." discussing the consolidation engines, said:- "Upon standard-gauge roads the freight engine of the imme- LOCOMOTIVE STEEL TIRES. diate future is likely to be the consolidation or eight-coupled One of the mechanical advances of enduring importance was ten-wheeler, the 'E' engine of the works. At least this is the the commencement of the use of steel tires on locomotives. engine which will give the most economical result on all roads The date of this change is indicated by the statement that steel when the capacity is in any way taxed. Of course, it is possible tires were first used in the Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1862, that this centipede type, of which we have just spoken, may on the engines for a railway in Brazil, and that their general some time become necessary even on level lines of standard adoption on American railroads followed somewhat slowly. gauge. The regular consolidation pattern is made up to a No steel tires were then made in this country, and M. W. Bald- weight of 108,000 pounds in working order, of which some win & Co. imported five hundred from which to fill orders. 94,000 are upon the drivers. The cylinders for the heaviest Some of the early tires were imported from England, but im- Digitized by Google IMPROVEMENTS OF CARS. 207 portation of Krupp tires were also made at an early date. In wears away the surface from any article put in contact with 1864 it was reported that the following companies were using the revolving face. The sliding friction, where it comes much the Krupp steel tire for locomotives:- into action, is by far the most disastrous to the life of locomo- Galena and Chicago Union; Chicago and Milwaukee; Chi- tive tires. Inordinate slipping of driving wheels results from cago and North-western; Michigan Southern; Michigan Central; two leading causes-very hard tires and too little weight on the Louisville and Nashville; Bay de Noquet and Marquette; Cen- drivers. The art of making steel tires is 80 highly perfected tral Georgia; Delaware, Lackawanna and Western; Erie; Hud- that tires too hard for economical service are rarely produced. son River; Camden and Amboy; Housatonic; Naugatuck; When an engine is noted for slipping badly the cause is nearly Northern, of New Jersey; New Haven; New Haven and Hart- always that the cylinders transmit too much power for the ad- ford; Beaver Meadow; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Great hesive weight upon the drivers." Western, of Illinois; Great Western, of Canada; Grand Trunk, of Canada; Ohio and Mississippi; European and North Ameri- STEEL FIRE-BOXES, FLUES, AND BOILERS. can, and Lehigh Valley. In addition to the demand for steel rails and steel locomotive The actual wear of steel tires has in many cases proved en- tires other evidences of the growing disposition to substitute tirely satisfactory, and after their advantages had been tested, steel for various railway purposes to which iron had previously and arrangements for manufacturing them in this country had been applied, were furnished during the seventh decade. At been made, so that a competition was created between home the Baldwin Locomotive Works steel fire-boxes were first built and foreign makers for the American market, their use became for some engines for the Pennsylvania Railroad Company in practically universal, and it was one of the important agencies 1861. English steel of a high temper was tried, but it did not in promoting the rapid increase in the size and capacity of prove successful. American homogeneous cast steel was then locomotives which has since occurred. A practice adopted tried on two engines in January, 1862, and found to answer the about 1870 of shrinking the steel tires on wheels in a manner requirements so well that Baldwin's Illustrated Catalogue, of which dispensed with all artificial fastening has added to their 1881, says: "The fire-boxes of nearly all engines thereafter built utility. At the same time, great variations have occurred in for that road were of this material, and in 1866 its use for the the amount of service obtained from tires. The National Car purpose became general. It may be added that while all steel and Locomotive Builder, in an article on this subject, says: sheets for fire-boxes or boilers are required to be thoroughly "The circumstances connected with the wear of tires are often annealed before delivery, those which are flanged or worked of a nature to puzzle the observer. A master mechanic, who in the process of boiler construction are a second time annealed devoted careful attention to the tire question, mentioned a before riveting." The same work says: "Steel flues were first curious performance of a set of tires. The engine was on used in three 10-wheeled freight engines, numbers 211, 338, and heavy passenger service, and was run continually by one en- 368, completed for the Pennsylvania Railroad in August, 1868. gineer. The tires were put on in the beginning of winter, and Flues of the same material have also been used in a number ran close on two years before they needed turning, having of engines for South American railroads. Experience with made about 18,000 miles to each 14 inch of wear. At the end tubes of this metal, however, has not yet been sufficiently ex- of another year the tires had to be turned, with about 8,000 tended to show whether they give any advantages commen- miles to the 10 inch of wear. After that the engine made surate with their increased cost over iron. Steel boilers were about 20,000 miles to the 16 inch of wear for the remainder of first made in 1868 for locomotives for the Pennsylvania Rail- the life of the tires. There was no extra work done during the road Company, and the use of this material for the barrels of period the tires wore fast, and the same man held the throttle. boilers as well as for the fire-boxes has continued to some Of course, this is a striking instance of the 'uncertain in loco- extent. Steel plates somewhat thinner than if of iron have motive engineering,' but there was a cause for the rapid wear, been generally used, but at the same time giving an equal or if it could only have been discovered, and it would be a good greater tensile strength. The thoroughly homogeneous char- work in the cause of knowledge if those who come in contact acter of the steel boiler plate made in this country recommends with 'mysterious' cases of this kind would display energy and it strongly for the purpose." A sketch of the Pennsylvania ingenuity in finding out their origin. Railroad, issued by that company in 1875, in referring to its Complaints that we have heard made about the tires of cer- locomotives, says: "The boilers are made of soft crucible cast tain locomotives wearing badly in comparison to others are steel, great pains being taken to secure the best attainable susceptible of easy explanation. Tires wear in two ways. The quality. From every sheet of steel a test piece is taken, which weight of the engine pressing upon the drivers leads to abrasion is heated to redness and is then dipped in cold water, after of the surface coming in contact with the rail, and as the wheels which (while cold) it is bent double and hammered flat. Any roll round the tire wears away by the minute bruised particle sheet that will not bear this test is rejected. The tires, crank- dropping off. That is the wear of rolling friction. The second pins, and guides of all the engines are of steel; and on the pas- method of wear is that of sliding friction, where the slipping of senger engines the connecting rods, tender, and truck axles are wheels on the rails grinds away the tires, as an emery wheel of steel also." IMPROVEMENTS OF CARS. DROGRESS in connection with the improvement of the de- struction, and various new devices peculiar to freight cars were tails of car construction has been one of the notable introduced. Special advances of the period were the introduc- features of railway development at all periods since the opera- tion of steel axles on the passenger cars of some lines, and a tion of important lines commenced. In the seventh decade great improvement in springs, especially elliptic springs. advances made in connection with passenger cars attracted One of the events of the decade, which has since exercised an much more public attention than those made in freight cars, important influence on all matters connected with car con- as that was the era in which the use of sleeping cars first be- struction and car repairs, was the organization, in 1867, of the came general on through routes, and parlor and dining cars Master Car-Builders' Association, a body which embraces in were placed on a few lines. But the methods of manufactur- its membership many of the master car builders of the country, ing things common to all classes of cars, such as springs, wheels, who meet at least once a year, and by much more frequent and axles, were, like everything else connected with railways, interchanges of views on various subjects promote the forma- undergoing important improvements, which necessarily exerted tion and dissemination of correct views in reference to im- a beneficial influence on some of the details of freight-car con- portant labors in which they are engaged. In the same year Digitized by Google 208 IMPROVEMENTS OF CARS. an organization of the railway master mechanics was effected, Attempts to introduce into general service box cars intended which has since served analogous purposes in reference to the to carry a greater weight than ten tons were reserved for a construction and repair of locomotives. later period. There had, however, been combined post-office One of the greatest improvements made during or towards and baggage cars introduced, some of which had a capacity of the close of the decade was probably in the 12 tons, and others of 15 tons. Timber cars with 16 wheels INCREASE OF THE NUMBER OF CARS. had been constructed, which had a capacity of 40 tons. The war had deranged all ordinary calculations by creating It was considered a notable transportation feat in July, 1864, an extraordinary demand for both freight and passenger move- that mammoth trucks, specially constructed for the purpose at ments between numerous points, and as much uncertainty pre- the Altoona shops, had proved strong enough to bear the strain vailed in regard to the probable continuance of some of these of a cannon manufactured at Pittsburgh, and weighing 116,497 requirements, conservative railway managers were loth to pur- pounds, while it was being moved over the line of the Penn- chase at high war prices equipment for which it might soon be sylvania Railroad from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia. difficult to find employment. This indisposition to incur out- In addition to the passenger and sleeping cars mentioned lays that might become unprofitable was one of the reasons above, there was an improved or enlarged passenger car used for starting some of the fast freight lines of the country, which on some lines which furnished seats for 60 persons, and its assumed the risks involved. weight, empty, was 39,000 pounds. There was also a sleeping Making all due allowance for the great increase which has coach for 64 passengers, which was abundantly supplied with occurred in the business of leading lines since 1865, it has been springs, and its dead weight, without passengers, was 26 tons. exceeded by the relative increase of cars or car capacity since Mention is also made of western palace cars on 16 wheels. that time, and a fair start in this direction was made before SLEEPING-CAR REMINISCENCES. 1870. Low's Railway Directory of 1865 gives the following Of very early sleepers, a newspaper correspondent says: particulars in regard to the number of cars and locomotives of "Within a year I have seen the oldest and the newest sleeping the representative lines named below:- coaches, the remote past and the near future of railroad travel miles. Length of road, class. Lat Passenger cars, class pg Passenger cars, Baggage care. Freight cars. tives. at night. What a contrast the two present! I ran across an No. of locomo- 34 carly sleeper somewhere in the Blue Ridge mountains in south- west Virginia. It was low and narrow, and dark and stuffy. It wobbled and creaked, and moved in all directions like a ship's Boston and Lowell 115 36 19 916 compass. It had little windows that you could look out of Vermont Central 160 34 8 951 48 only by bending double, and a narrow passage walled in by Western (of Massachusetts) 156 51 12 1,099 73 iron rods, one reaching to the roof from the back of every seat. Hudson River 150 122 11 31 671 67 On these poles the upper berths were hitched till they were ready New York Central 654.5 197 58 68 4,006 239 for bedtime. The lower berths were narrow, and so short that Erie 806 109 38 55 3,897 243 you had to lie in one like a half-opened pocket knife, with Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 251.2 15 6 3,360 79 your knees in the air and the bed-clothes pushed up like a Pennsylvania, exclusive of branches 356 t173 49 4,926 290 tent. You did not need to be pious in order to thank heaven Phila. and Reading, including branches 147 67 $8,430 166 Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore 96 66 4 19 828 40 when you got out of that car." Baltimore and Ohio 221 In 1863 public announcements were made of lines of sleepers Northern Central 286 45 19 3,100 85 of the Central Transportation Company, which had commenced Little Miami and Columbus and Xenia 196 34 17 638 40 running on the Pennsylvania, Bellefontaine Line, Northern Cleveland and Pittsburgh 124 27 1 20 1,158 56 Central, Central of New Jersey, and other roads. An adver- Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago 468.3 67 8 24 1,703 146 tisement in which railway companies were invited to use their Chic., Bur. and Quincy, with branches 364 32 4 10 1,220 62 cars, and builders asked to bid for the construction of 20 addi- Ohio and Mississippi 340 45 4 9 843 76 tional cars, was published in September, 1863, the principal Chicago and North-western 891 19 4 8 685 86 Chicago and Rock Island 230 34 61 portion of which is as follows:- Chicago and Milwaukee 285 18 6 6 157 11 Central Transportation Company. Illinois Central 708 68 29 3,275 133 "This company, a corporation organized in pursuance of the St. Louis, Alton and Terre Haute 207 23 5 7 946 44 provisions of a general act of the legislature of the state of Milwaukee and Prairie du Chien 235 26 4 11 561 44 Pennsylvania, having, by purchase, recently become the sole Michigan Central 284 75 4 18 1,289 97 Michigan Southern & Northern Indiana, owner of Woodruff's, Knight's, Myers', and other patents for with branches 521.5 60 28 28 1,120 88 seats and couches in sleeping cars, would respectfully give no- Toledo and Wabash 243 28 20 850 50 tice to all railroad companies in the United States that may Hannibal and St. Joseph 206 22 4 5 400 34 desire sleeping cars on their roads that this company is now Grand Trunk (of Canada) 857 88 45 60 8,039 227 prepared to negotiate for placing, wholly at its own expense, Great Western (of Canada) 346.5 83 44 20 1,375 94 on such railroads as may require them, their sleeping cars, and Including 500 coal cars. t Of 1st and 2d class. $ Including 7,551 coal cars. operate them upon terms at once liberal and satisfactory to It was officially reported by the state engineer of New York railroad companies. in reference to the equipment of all the railroads of that state The cars of this company are constructed of great strength, in 1886 that there was 1 locomotive to the equivalent of 4.37 and contain their late improved and patented plans of seats miles of single track; 1 first-class passenger car to the equiva- and couches, with state rooms and berths, furnished in a style lent of 5.18 miles of single track; 3.57 freight cars per equiva- the most elaborate and tasteful, and are furnished with all the lent of mile of single track. modern conveniences and means of comfort usually found in THE AVERAGE WEIGHT AND CAPACITY OF CARS the sleeping apartments of our first-class hotels. The interior is lighted with gns; they are well ventilated, and at seasons of generally used on the principal lines of the United States of the year requiring it are warmed with pure heated air, regu- 4-feet-8}-inch gauge, at a period shortly before the close of lated in degree at pleasure by registers in each state-room and the seventh decade, was as follows:- section. Weight No. of in pounds. wheels. Capacity. Where known these cars are not only regarded as indis- First-class passenger cars 36,000 8 56 passengers. pensable on all through night trains, but have become desirable Sleeper 38,000 12 48 " above all others, as day cars. Communications from the offi- Emigrant passenger 21,000 8 60 " cers of railway companies, desiring sleeping cars on their roads, Baggage 28,000 8 Box freight 18,000 8 10 tons. addressed to the Central Transportation Company at their office, Grain 12,000 4 7 No. 1347 Brown street, Philadelphia, will receive immediate Cattle 18,000 8 10 attention. Coal cars. 13,440 8 22,400 pounds. Railway companies using, or permitting to be used on their " 6,720 4 13,440 " respective lines, sleeping cars or coaches, that infringe upon Digitized by Google Long's Patent Frame Bridge. William Howe's Bridge, Patented 1840. Squire Whipple's Iron Truss Bridge, Patented 1841. William Howe's Improved Truss Bridge, Patented 1846. August Bollman's Bridge, Patented 1852. EARLY AMERICAN TRUSS BRIDGES. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google ISCELLANEOUS MECHANICAL PECULIARITIES AND ADVANCES. 209 the patents owned by this company, are respectfully notified formerly of Philadelphia, in an account of a western trip that satisfactory for such infringement will be made in 1866, said: "A remarkable subject of interest, which expected. Address as above. our party examined this morning, was the City of Chicago- O. W. CHILDS, President." not the metropolis itself, but its reflection, as regards splendor and enterprise, in a sleeping car of that name, which runs on THE PULLMAN SLEEPING CARS. the Illinois Central. This car cost $20,000, and is said to be Of the operations of George W. Pullman, a sketch recently cheap at the price. Every comfort which can be placed in published in the Chicago Inter Ocean, says:- such a vehicle is to be found within its wooden walls. The "In traveling over the Lake Shore Railroad in 1858, Mr. seats, the sides of the car, and the ceiling are exquisitely Pullman saw one of the sleeping cars then just introduced, adorned in marquetrie or inlaid woods, while the gilded glass and he was impressed with the feasibility of developing this frames, in ormolu, and the general tone of color, are truly germ of comfort into a luxurious vehicle for combined day artistic. It is heated by a separate furnace beneath, and its and night travel. As Fulton, and Watt, and Stevenson, in the lounges and mirrors, with every other luxury, make it in fact a crude steam engine of their time, saw the locomotive and rolling palace. Not less remarkable is the corresponding seat marine engine of to-day, so, in the bungling sleeper of twenty- car for day passengers, which surpasses in splendor, and still seven years ago, Mr. Pullman saw the modern palace car, that more in comfort, any car which I have ever seen on an eastern miracle of luxury which now bears 'name to the uttermost road. There is yet another car, which cost thirty thousand dol- bounds of civilization. lars, which I did not see, but which was described as a miracle During the year 1859 he fitted two ordinary passenger cars of its kind." on the Chicago and Alton Railroad into sleepers, which were a THE WESTINGHOUSE AIR BRAKE. decided improvement over other sleepers of that date, and 80 Of all the improvements made during the seventh decade, created and established the demand for improved traveling applicable to car or train movements, none have had a wider accommodations. Meantime Mr. Pullman had engaged in field of usefulness than the Westinghouse air brake. A sketch merchandising and mining in Colorado. But in 1863 he dis- recently written says that the first train ever equipped with it posed of his interests there and returned to Chicago, deter- "was the Steubenville accommodation train, running on the mined to devote his energies and the means he had acquired Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis road. It consisted of three in perfecting sleeping and parlor cars, and inaugurating a cars and an engine, and its first run with the air-brake equip- system for operating them on through lines of railway. He ment was made in the winter of 1868-9. The first step demon- began building the first Pullman car in 1864, now known as the strated the value of the invention, and satisfied all who wit- Pioneer, in an old repair shed in the yard of the Chicago and nessed it that the days of braking passenger trains with hand Alton Railroad Company. This car cost about $18,000, occu- brakes were numbered. pied more than a year in construction, and was generally re- In a short time the attention of the officials of the Pennsyl- garded as a wonderful triumph in car architecture and decora- vania Railroad was attracted to the invention, and it was first tion; but was the subject of considerable criticism on account put on the Wall's accommodation trains on that road, and sub- of its great weight and size, and also because it involved what sequently on all the passenger trains. was regarded as an extravagant outlay of money. But the In August, 1869, less than a year after the first trial of the traveling public were quick to see its many advantages, and its brake on the regular passenger train, an engine and six coaches adoption by the leading western roads soon followed. belonging to the Pennsylvania Railroad Company were run to The Pullman Palace Car Company was organized in 1867, Chicago for the purpose of exhibiting the air brake at that im- with Mr. Pullman as president, and it now operates more than portant railway centre. Trial runs and stops were made by this 1,300 cars over more than 70,000 miles of railway in America train on the Chicago and North-western Railway in the presence and Europe, and has completely revolutionized the methods of of a large number of railway officers in that city. The quick modern travel. In its manufacturing and repair departments, stops made, so much shorter than anything that could possibly including the operating department, it employs over 8,000 be done with hand brakes, and the perfect control of the train men." which the air brakes gave to the engineer, awakened a high CONTEMPORANEOUS VIEWS OF EARLY PULLMAN CARS. degree of interest and even enthusiasm on the part of those In August, 1865, it was stated that "a new sleeping car had who witnessed the experiments. been patented by George M. Pullman, of Chicago. It is set In the same year (1869) an exhibition of the power of the upon sixteen wheels, with two sets of trucks at each end, with brake was made on the mountain grades of the Pennsylvania the springs so arranged that but little of the unevenness of the Railroad. This was attended by a number of officials of eastern track is felt. It is ventilated by registers in the ceiling, and railways, and the remarkable stops shown on steep grades added warmed from beneath by registers in the sides. By folding greatly to the reputation of the brake. As a result of these doors a smoking department can be provided at each end. public trials, several railway companies sent in orders for brakes There is also a space at each end furnished with sofas, chairs, to equip trial trains. This, in all cases, resulted in the adoption &c., which can be enjoyed by persons traveling in a party. It of the brake for all its passenger equipment by each road which is so arranged that screens between the berths can be 80 closed fitted up an experimental train. The movement soon became that it will have the appearance of a splendid day car. Several general, and by the year 1875 the passenger trains of nearly all of these cars are soon to be placed on the Michigan Central." the principal roads of the country were fully equipped with the Charles G. Leland, a distinguished author and journalist, Westinghouse air brake." MISCELLANEOUS MECHANICAL PECULIARITIES AND ADVANCES. INCREASE OF THE COST OF RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION, SUPPLIES, AND were by no means uniform, the price of some things being OPERATING EXPENSES. greatly enhanced, while the current value of others was only A NOTABLE feature of the seventh decade, especially during affected to a comparatively limited extent. The the first half, while the civil war was raging, was the dis- EFFECT OF THE NEW ORDER OF THINGS ON CONSTRUCTION turbing influences engendered by the war, the suspension of specie payments, the premium on gold, and the extensive issues is, to a limited extent, indicated by the following statements, of greenbacks, on the price of all the outlays of new and old but there were periods when the advances represented a much railway companies for labor and materials, and the rapid in- larger percentage than that shown by the estimates given be- crease in the cost of construction and operation. The advances low, as those for 1865 were made about the time the war was 27 Digitized by Google 210 MISCELLANEOUS MECHANICAL PECULIARITIES AND ADVANCES. ended, and after a marked decline in wages and various kinds currency, is more clearly shown in the present than in any of materials had occurred. previous annual exhibit. The roadway expenses for A detailed estimate of the cost of the construction of a rail- the year have reached $722,176.28, against $374,386.99 in last road between Hagerstown and Cumberland, made by W. W. year, and the cost per ton per mile has been 100 of a cent, Taylor, civil engineer, and published in May, 1865, stated that whilst in 1863 it was 100 of a cent per ton per mile. If we the total probable outlay then would be $4,185,096, while the compare these figures with those of 1860, we shall find them estimated cost of the same work previous to the war, in 1860, very nearly doubled, the cost of sustaining the road in that was $2,802,698. The items are as follows:- year being t of a cent per ton per mile only, a result which Estimates Estimates may be deduced directly from the inflation in prices, when not for 1865. for 1860. relieved by any of the mitigating circumstances which have 2,750,886 cubic yards embankment $962.792 $687,709 (at 35 cts.) (at 25 cts.) heretofore existed to a greater or less extent." 965,000 cubic yards excavated $1,251,000 $803,500 In the report of the Erie Railroad for 1864 a list of liabilities (at $1.40) (at 90 cts.) was published, which embraces the following statements of the 9,400 cubic yards tunnel excavated $172.900 $123,500 (at $3.50) (at $2.50) amounts the company had agreed to pay for new equipment:- 8,483 cubic yards culvert masonry $25,449 $21,207 29 freight cars to receive $31,436 (at $3) t $2.50) 13 engines to receive in March, 1865, 339,356 15 Walling and arching tunnel $57,000 $40,000 16 engines to receive in April 451,464 48 5,893 cubic yards arch culvert masonry $29,965 $20,975 22 engines to receive in May and June 842,000 (at $5) (at $3.50) 23,490 cubic yards bridge masonry $164,430 $117.450 The report of Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain Railroad (at $7) (at $5) and Coal Company for 1864 says: "One new engine was pur- 3,640 lineal feet bridge superstructure $91,000 $72,800 (at $25) (at $20) chased in October at a cost of $23,690, and one 10-wheeled en- 8,100 tons iron, 60 lbs. per yard, 86 miles track. $810.000 $405,000 gine, contracted for in June, has been delivered since the first (at $100) (at $50) of the present year, at a cost of $28,840. Three new 8-wheeled 172,000 cross ties $43,000 $34,400 trucks, or gondola cars, worth $3,000, were built at the com- (at 25 cts.) (at 20 cts.) 151,360 cubic yards ballast $151,360 $105,952 pany repair shops during the summer." (at$1) (at It was reported in New England in 1864 that such a locomo- 86 miles track laying $43,000 $25,800 tive as could have been purchased for $8,000 before the war (at $500) (at $300) then cost $25,000. 86 miles chairs and spikes $60,200 $34,400 (at $700) (at $400) RAILWAY shors FSTABLISHED BY UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT Land damages $25,000 $20,000 FOR MILITARY RAILROADS. Grubbing and clearing 15,000 10,000 Water stations 8,000 5,000 In connection with the mechanical developments and ar- Engineering three years 75,000 60,000 rangements of the seventh decade, interesting indications of Stations, engine houses, and machine shops 200,000 150,000 some of their characteristics are furnished by a description of $4,185,096 $2,802,693 the military railroad system of the United States, published in the latter part of 1864, written by Mr. Benjamin C. Truman, a The entire estimates for the tunnels are for double track. correspondent of the New York Times. After referring to the The Pennsylvania Railroad report for 1864, dated February occupancy of Nashville by Union troops in 1862, and subse- 18th, 1865, in referring to construction of new lines, said: quent control of surrounding regions by Union armies, with From an analysis of these expenditures it appears that it now the accompanying necessity for operating the railways by requires about three dollars to perform the office of one dollar which they were traversed, the writer stated that there had in 1861." This change probably more faithfully reflects the been organized, under the direction of General McCallum, Mr. actual transition than any other condensed statement. A. Anderson, Colonel J. C. Crane, quartermaster of the depart- The average price of iron rails in eastern Pennsylvania, per ment, and the commander-in-clhief of the military division of ton of 2,240 pounds, in January of each of the years named the Mississippi, about fifteen hundred miles of road, composed below, was as follows: 1860, $434; 1801, $11; 1862, $364; 1863, principally of the Nashville and Chattanooga, and Tennessee $721; 1864, $94; 1865, $1251; 1866, $90; 1867, $85; 1868, $811; and Alabama railroads, on which eighteen thousand men were 1869, $764. The average price of Bessemer steel rails at works employed as mechanics, engineers, blacksmiths, conductors, in Pennsylvania, per ton of 2,240 pounds, in the month of brakemen, laborers, &c., at a monthly expense of $2,200,000. January, was $165 in 1868, $145 in 1869, and $110 in 1870. He said that "to Colonel Crane must the highest honors be- INCREASED COST OF EQUIPMENT AND OPERATING EXPENSES. long for the existence of this stupendous transformation. His The report of the superintendent of the Pennsylvania Rail- is the executive eye." The rolling stock consisted of 271 en- road for 1863 announced an increase in regular working ex- gines and 3,000 cars. New shops had been erected, of which penses of $922,903.67, without any notable increase in aggregate the following descriptions were given: "The locomotive and of business. machine department is under the efficient superintendence of The report of the North Pennsylvania for the year 1864, Mr. E. P. Benjamin, and employs 8,000 men. The main build- dated January 5th, 1865, said passenger cars now cost twice ing is 240x80 feet, and is in process of extension, its projected as much as they formerly did." extreme length to be 450 fect. The upper part of this building The report also makes reference to the construction of a is used for rebuilding and repairing locomotives and tenders, number of stations and depots, &c. and is called the erecting floor. The capacious room will Of operations of Philadelphia and Reading for the year accommodate 34 engines at a time. Really, the shop has not ending November 30th, 1864, the report for that period said:- yet built a new locomotive, but every piece of machinery The receipts and expenses for each class of traffic per pas- necessary in the construction of an engine or locomotive, with senger and per ton have been as follows:- the exception of a wheel tire, has been turned out. Captured 1863. and crippled locomotives find their way to this shop, and in a Cost. Receipts. few weeks steam out as good as new. The foreman of the loco- Per passenger $0.91 } $2.67.10 Merchandise per ton .50yg motive shop pointed out to me a magnificent-looking engine, 1.03,2 Coal per ton .47 1.59 A which had been elevated from a worn-out boiler. Everything 1864. about the structure had been manufactured in this shop ex- Cost. Receipts. cept the boiler and driving wheels. While I think of it here, Per passenger $1.13,20 $2 65,4 nothing is manufactured by the Government, the foreman Merchandise per ton .63 1.18 lb informed me, which involves a loss, except a steam whistle. Coal per ton .81 2.35 These can be bought cheaper than they can be manufactured, The report of J. Dutton Steele, chief engineer of the Phila- and the manufacture has been discontinued in consequence. delphia and Reading, for 1864, says: "The continued advance Machine Shop.-Adjoining the huge building is the machine in values of all kinds, as measured by the present standard of shop, which is over 200 feet long, filled with the most improved Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 211 machinery of the age, up stairs and down.- There are some. accidents, and I will state here, that since the commencement very fine machines down stairs, including a lathe for turning of running these improved beautiful carriages, no soldier has heavy shafting; a lathe for truck axles; compound planer, for sustained the slightest injury. There are attached to the car all kinds of light planing; two heavy planers; drill press, for department a blacksmith's shop, brass and iron foundries, and doing all sorts of light and heavy drilling; heavy drill press; paint, glass, and upholstery shops, besides a spacious store- large lathe, for turning locomotive driving wheels; slotting house. The blacksmith shop is upon the same order as the machine, used for horizontal planing; and two boring drills. one in the locomotive and machine department, except that it In the upper machine shop are five bolt-cutting machines, does not employ 80 many hands. This shop, in connection capable of doing the heaviest of work; cotter and key-seating with the iron foundry, manufactures all the iron work and machine, self-feeding; several gear-cutting machines; six drill- castings used about a baggage or passenger car and engines. ing machines; large boring and turning drill; large hydrostatic The brass foundry turns out all the articles of this metal re- press, for putting car wheels on axles; two large driving-wheel quired about cars and engines, all of which are handsome lathes; seven planing machines; two milling machines; and specimens of excellent workmanship. The paint, glass, and twenty lathes, of all sizes and descriptions. The entire ma- upholstery shops employ about one hundred hands, who are chinery is new, and of the most approved pattern, and is kept constantly at work at their various trades." chiefly from the well-known establishments of William Sellers, Philadelphia; Bement & Dougherty, Industrial Works, Phila- NEW STATIONS, DEPOTS, AND SHOPS. delphia; Putnam Machine Company, Fitchburg, Massachusetts Frequent references were made in reports of 1865, and at Lowell Machine Company, Lowell, Massachusetts; John Paisley, later periods of the decade, to new stations, depots, and re- New Haven, Connecticut, and others. The machinery of the pairing and constructing shops. In addition to various others, whole establishment is run by two horizontal engines of 300 new West Philadelphia shops and engine houses for use of horse-power. These engines were formerly in the Memphis Pennsylvania Railroad were in progress of erection, and some navy yard. finished during 1864, including a car shop, 83x280 feet; paint Blacksmith Shop.-One of the most perfect and completely- shop, 51 133 feet, two stories; shop for planing and sawing, arranged blacksmith shops is connected with the locomotive 67 X133 feet; engine and boiler house, 181 feet; machine and machine department. The foreman of the shop, Mr. shop, 83x280 feet; engine house, 181 X65 feet; blacksmith shop, Duncan Livingstone, pronounces it the completest workshop 70X163 feet; boiler shop, 55} X80 feet. of the kind in the country. It is about 200 feet in length, and CONSTRUCTION OF ELEVATORS. 80 in width, and employs nearly 200 of the best blacksmiths During the seventh decade the work of erecting elevators, that could be found, all of whom receive from $3.50 to $10 a intended for rapid unloading, storage, and delivery of grain, day. There are 40 forges, which are blown by steam. By an began to assume increasing importance as an adjunct of rail- invention of one of the employés of this shop the ashes and way labors, although some railway companies had constructed coal dust are carried off by the same blast which blows the elevators ten years earlier. The new elevators were constructed fire, making the forge present a clean appearance at all times. in some instances by railway companies, and in others by in- Every variety of heavy work as well as light is turned out here. dependent or affiliated organizations. Under the auspices of Connected with this department is a foundry, in which all kinds the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, an elevator was erected of work are turned out. There are also carpenter and pattern at a wharf on the Delaware, in Philadelphia, about 1865, which shops, in which the wood work for the locomotive and tenders was probably the first stationary grain elevator constructed on is manufactured. A 'round-house,' which is to be the largest the Atlantic coast. They had previously been extensively used in the country, is in process of erection, which, when completed, at various lake ports, especially Toledo and Chicago. Their will have sixty stalls, and will be 80 constructed that 100 loco- characteristics are indicated by the fact that the report of the motives may be accommodated at a time. Toledo, Wabash and Western for 1866 says: "The elevators The Car Department.-The main building of the car depart- used by our company at Toledo, with a storage capacity of ment is 202 feet long and 80 wide, and is solely used for the one million four hundred and fifty-two thousand bushels, manufacturing and repairing of cars. At present, Mr. Herrick are now in good repair and efficient working condition, and is having a headquarters car built for General Thomas, which, their present management seems to secure the entire confi- for convenience and elegance, is the finest affair I have ever dence and approbation of all doing business with them. Upon seen. With the exception of the ornamental work, this model the completion of the track now in process of building through combination of house and carriage is complete. It is an iron- elevator No. 3, the unloading facilities will be fully equal to plated vehicle, 50 feet in length and of the usual width, con- two hundred and fifty cars daily, which, in emergencies, can taining a kitchen, dining saloon, sleeping apartment, wash be increased to four hundred daily, thus assuring us against room, water closet, and office. Nothing could be more com- delays and detentions in times of a great pressure of business." plete, while the upholstery and ornamental work is recherche. The cars are all ventilated by an invention of the manufac- RECOGNITION OF THE UTILITY OF SIGNAL STATIONS. turer, and when empty present a mass of net work, composed In J. Dutton Steele's report, chief engineer of the Philadelphia of iron and India rubber. Each car will accommodate thirty- and Reading, for 1864, he says: "Fifteen signal stations have six badly wounded. The hospital train always follows the pas- been placed upon the main road and Lebanon Valley branch, senger train, and the utmost care is taken to guard against as a precaution against accidents." RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1878. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. Total United States 5,657.90 6,660.27 7,439.04 5,217.06 2,583.79 1,606.48 2,575.38 2,279.68 2,428.15 5,006.47 41,454.22 I. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massa- chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. 212.12 482.75 294.47 270.26 168.40 150.94 39.99 111.61 39.92 59.45 1,829.91 II. New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Maryland, Delaware, New Jer- sey, and District of Columbia 1,741.85 1,570.93 2,022.84 1,557.65 1,131.14 570.26 743.97 744.07 688.31 720.99 11,492.01 III. Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- nessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, and South Caro- lina 602.88 530.53 828.34 773.00 284.85 44.10 267.18 150.84 159.92 554.98 Digitized by Google 212 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. IV. Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri, and Minnesota 1,915.93 2,937.64 2,434.27 1,555.73 756.60 255.55 541.01 539.65 854.06 1,540.57 13,331.01 V. Louisiana, Arkansas, and Indian Territory. 201.97 67.00 35.00 88.80 45.00 13.50 73.00 524.27 VI. Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utab, Arizona, California, Ne- vada, Oregon, and Washington 1,185.12 936.45 1,792.12 1,025.42 242.80 496.84 938.23 733.51 672.44 2,057.93 10,080.85 The companies reporting new mileage in 1880 were as follows:- 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. GROUP I. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES. Addison 15.60 15.60 Aroostook River 3.00 12.00 15.00 Ashburnham 2.50 2.50 Attleborough Branch 4.00 4.00 Bangor and Piscataquis 8.50 6.30 8.00 22.80 Belfast and Moosehead Lake 33.20 33.20 Bennington and Gastenburg 8.97 8.97 Boston, Barre and Gardner 25.16 10.00 1.37 36.53 Boston, Clinton, Fitchburg and New Bedford 21.25 8.60 1.34 2.44 33.63 Boston, Concord and Montreal 21.81 14.36 4.79 4.58 6.88 52.42 Boston and Lowell 2.27 2.50 3.16 7.93 Boston and Maine 43.00 43.00 Boston and New York Air Line 22.27 28.57 50.84 Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn 8.62 8.62 Boston, Winthrop and Point Shirley 1.75 0.85 2.60 Bucksport and Bangor 18.75 18.75 Burlington and Lamoille 34.43 34.43 Colchester 3.58 3.58 Concord and Claremont 15.73 13.57 29.30 Connecticut Central 20.25 6.80 27.05 Connecticut River 3.50 3.50 Connecticut Valley 44.00 1.18 1.00 46.18 Connecticut Western 67.60 67.60 Danbury and Norwalk 4.00 6.00 10.00 Eastern (of Massachusetts) 1.06 5.48 3.96 1.09 11.59 European and North American 56.00 56.00 Fall River 12.25 12.25 Framingham and Lowell 26.12 26.12 Grafton Centre 3.00 3.00 Holyoke and Westfield 10.32 4.00 14.32 Hopkinton 11.45 11.45 Knox and Lincoln 49.00 49.00 Lancaster 8.50 8.50 Lewiston and Auburn 5.41 5.41 Lowell and Andover 10.10 10.10 Maine Central 0.70 18.30 19.00 Manchester and Keene 8.71 20.84 29.55 Martha's Vineyard 8.78 8.78 Middlesex Central 8.09 8.09 Missisquoi 28.75 28.75 Missisquoi and Clyde Rivers 21.75 21.75 Monadnock 15.80 15.80 Montpelier and Wells River 38.22 32.22 Montpelier and White River 6.50 6.50 Moshassuck 2.00 2.00 Mount Washington 3.33 3.33 Narragansett Pier 8.50 8.50 Nashua, Acton and Boston 10.20 10.01 20.21 Naugatuck 48.39 48.39 Newburyport City 2.08 2.08 New Haven and Derby 13.00 13.00 New Haven and Northampton 6.15 6.15 Newport and Wickford 340 3.40 New York, Housatonic and Northern 5.50 5.50 New York and New England 26 70 2.46 29.16 New York, New Haven and Hartford 4.31 4.31 North Brookfield 4.16 4.16 Norway Branch 1.36 1.36 Old Colony 29.03 19.93 14.26 3.30 7.57 74.09 Pawtuxet Valley 2.68 2 99 5.67 Peterborough 10.77 10.77 Peterborough and Hillsborough 18.23 18.23 Pontiac Branch 4.69 4.69 Portland and Ogdensburg 33.42 25.85 11.18 6.07 14.84 91.36 Portland and Ogdensburg R. R. Line, Vermont division, comprising- Essex County 7.80 14.40 22.20 Lamoille Valley 15.40 17.00 4.80 41.50 78.70 Montpelier and St. Johnsbury 19.10 19.10 Portland and Rochester 20.50 20.50 Portland and Dover 10.88 10.88 Portsmouth, Great Falls and Conway 28.13 17.12 45.25 Profile and Franconia Notch 10.00 10.00 Providence and Springfield 22.80 22.80 Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 213 1870. 1871. 1872. 1878. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. Providence and Worcester 7.00 7.00 Rhode Island Central 8.68 8.68 Rhode Island and Massachusetts (in Mass.) 6.62 6.62 Rhode Island and Massachusetts (in R. I.) 7.02 7.02 Rumford Falls and Buckfield 1.50 1.50 Sandy River 18.00 18.00 Shepaug 32.28 32.28 Somerset 13.00 12.05 25.05 Spencer 2.17 2.17 Springfield and New London 7.27 7.27 Springfield and North-eastern 30.50 18.00 48.50 Suncook Valley 0.15 0.15 Troy and Greenfield R. R. and Hoosac Tunnel 7.41 7.41 Union Freight 2.45 2.45 Vermont and Massachusetts 2.82 2.82 Ware River 16.21 33.20 49.41 Watertown and Waterbury 4.60 4.60 West Amesburg Branch 4.50 4.50 Whitfield and Jefferson 12 28 12.28 Wolfeborough 12.03 12.03 Wood River Branch 5.71 5.71 Woodstock 13.84 13.84 Worcester and Shrewsbury 2.62 2.62 GROUP II. NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA, OHIO, MICHIGAN, INDIANA, MARYLAND, DELAWARE, NEW JERSEY, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Adirondack 11.00 11.00 Albany and Susquehanna 0.40 0.40 Allegan and South-eastern 11.50 11.50 Allegheny Valley 64.00 7.00 10.20 109.70 190.90 Allentown 4.50 4.50 Alliance and Lake Erie 20.30 3.30 1.40 25.00 Anderson, Lebanon and St. Louis 19.00 19.00 Ashtabula and Pittsburgh 62.60 62.60 Bachman Valley (of Maryland) 5.00 5.00 Bachman Valley (of Pennsylvania) 9.00 9.00 Baltimore and Hanover 20.00 20.00 Baltimore and Ohio 3.00 43.00 46.00 Baltimore, Ohio and Chicago 262.60 262.60 Baltimore and Potomac 88.43 3.00 91.43 Raltimore Short Line 30.20 30.20 Bath and Hammondsport 9.40 9.40 Bedford and Bridgeport 38.70 10.50 49.20 Bedford, Springville, Owensburg and Bloomfield 41.29 41.29 Bellaire and South-western 14.00 28.00 42.00 Bell's Gap 8.30 8.30 Belvidere-Delaware 1.10 1.10 Berlin 8.10 8.10 Berlin Branch 7.00 7.00 Black River and Morristown 7.85 6.10 22.50 36.45 Blairstown 11.33 11.33 Boston, Hoosac Tunnel and Western 20.14 18.87 39.01 Bowling Green 5.50 5.50 Breakwater and Frankford 20.15 20.15 Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island 7.50 7.50 Brooklyn and Montauk 10.92 10.92 Brooklyn and Rockaway Beach 2.65 2.65 Buffalo Creek 4.26 4.26 Buffalo and Erie Basin 0.25 0.25 Buffalo, New York and Philadelphia 53.06 50.80 103.86 Buffalo and South-western 68.39 68.39 Camden, Gloucester and Mount Ephraim 4.00 8.00 7.00 Canada Southern 3.00 3.00 Carbon and Otter Creek Valley 1.60 1.60 Carthage, Watertown and Sackett's Harbor 17.39 12.61 30.00 Catasauqua and Fogelsville 1.00 1.00 Catawissa 31.61 2.96 34.57 Cazenovia, Canastota and De Ruyter 74.50 14.09 28.59 Celina, Van Wert and State Line extension of Co- lumbus and North-western 10.38 10.38 Central of New Jersey 5.40 13.29 18.69 Charlotteburgh and Green Lake 4.25 4.25 Chartiers 22.76 22.76 Chateugay 9.00 9.00 Cherry Valley, Sharon and Albany 20.99 20.99 Chester and Delaware River 4.10 4.10 Chicago and Block Coal 14 00 14.00 Chicago and Canada Southern 24.80 42.80 67.60 Chicago and Grand Trunk 20.25 27.48 74.95 45.35 49.26 20.13 237.72 Chicago, Saginaw and Canada 20.00 4.00 14.00 38.00 Chicago and West Michigan 27.50 115.70 51.20 51.20 245 Cincinnati and Baltimore 6.00 Cincinnati and Eastern 16.00 31.50 10.45 8.63 Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley 16.30 Digitized by Google 214 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. Cincinnati and Portsmouth 11.20 9.15 20.35 Cincinnati, Richmond and Fort Wayne 24.50 61.86 86.36 Cincinnati, Rockport and South-western 38.00 38.00 Cincinnati and Springfield 47.80 47.80 Cincinnati, Wabash and Michigan 24.30 19.40 14.60 20.00 10.00 22.40 110.70 Cincinnati and Westwood 5.63 5.63 Clayton and Theresa 15.87 15.87 Cleveland and Mahoning Valley 8.03 8.03 Cleveland and Marietta 35.00 23.00 41.33 99.33 Cleveland, Mount Vernon and Delaware 38.00 44.54 82.54 Cleveland, Painesville and Ashtabula 7.65 7.65 Cleveland, Tuscarawas Valley and Wheeling 100.54 100.54 College Hill (N. G.) 3.00 3.00 6.00 Columbia and Port Deposit 26.60 8.00 35.20 Columbus and Hocking Valley 26.36 10.61 5.45 42.42 Columbus, Kinkora and Springfield 14.18 14.18 Columbus and Maysville 10.00 19.00 Columbus, Springfield and Cincinnati 24.37 24.37 Columbus and Toledo 46.00 71.77 117.77 Columbus, Washington and Cincinnati 20.18 20.18 Connotton Valley 13.70 8.10 21.80 Corning, Cowanesque and Antrim 17.75 19.47 11.10 48.32 Cornwall 1.16 1.16 Crown Point Iron Company 13.00 13 00 Cumberland and Maurice River 21.28 21.28 Dayton and South-eastern 47.70 21.50 32.00 101.50 Delaware Bay and Cape May 3.00 3.00 Delaware and Bound Brook 30.70 30.70 Delaware and Chesapeake 20.00 20.00 Delaware and Hudson Canal Company 34.35 34.35 Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 7.50 7.50 Delaware River 20.00 20.00 Delaware Western 20.00 20.00 Detroit and Bay City 72.00 35.80 5.00 3.75 12.75 16.75 146.05 Detroit, Grand Haven and Milwaukee 2.00 0.65 2.65 Detroit, Hillsdale and South-western 24.60 40 20 64.80 Detroit, Lansing and Northern 18.70 101.10 21.07 9.80 20.31 171.58 Dillsburg and Mechanicsburg 7.70 7.70 Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley and Pittsburgh 54.00 36.60 90.60 East Brandywine and Waynesburg. 12.11 12.11 East Broad Top 10.89 19.50 30.39 Eastern Ohio 775 7.75 Easton and Amboy 60 00 60.00 Edgewood 1.00 1.00 Eel River 93.84 93.84 Elmira State Line 6.25 6.25 Emlenton, Shippenville and Clarion 15.00 14.70 29.70 Emmettsburg 7.00 7.00 Erie and Genesee Valley 12.29 12.29 Erie and International 4.26 4.26 Evanaville and Terre Haute 6.00 6.00 Evansville, Terre Haute and Chicago 48.81 48.81 Evergreen 2.61 2.61 Ferro Monte 1.00 1.00 Flint and Pere Marquette 36.00 67.00 40.41 48.31 191.72 Florence Branch 2.15 2.15 Flushing, North Shore and Central 8 16 3.99 12.15 Funda, Johnstown and Gloversville 10.00 10.00 Fort Wayne and Jackson 22.00 42.00 64.00 Fort Wayne, Muncie and Cincinnati 60.28 60.28 Foxburg, St. Petersburg and Clarion 8.40 4.80 13.20 Frankford and Holmesburg 4.16 4.16 Frankfort and Kokoma 25.40 25.40 Franklin 8.07 8.07 Frederick and Pennsylvania Line 28.00 28 00 Freehold and Jamesburg Agricultural 8.44 8.44 Freehold and New York 12.25 1.39 13.64 Garnerville 0.91 0.01 Geneva, Ithaca and Sayre. 35.88 37.45 39.70 113.03 Geneva and Lyons 14.00 14.00 Glendale and East River 2.70 2.70 Gloversville and Northville 16.17 16.17 Grand Haven 58.40 58.40 Grand Rapids and Indiana 163.50 36.10 39.70 53.00 1.00 293.30 Grand Rapids, Newaygo and Lake Shore 35.40 10.20 45 60 Grand River Valley 33.08 33.08 Greene 8.10 8.10 Green Lick (N. G.) 3.50 3.50 Greenwich and Johnsonville 15.00 15.00 Hackensack 6.25 6.25 Hanover and York 10.00 8.60 18.60 Harlem River and Port Chester 11.55 11.55 Harrisburg and Potomac 6.75 7.30 3.80 5.73 3.55 27.13 Hibernia Underground 1.00 1.00 Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 215 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. High Bridge 17.42 17.42 Hobart and Manistee River 9.24 9.24 Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain 1.25 1.25 Indiana Block Coal 14.00 14.00 Indianapolis, Decatur and Springfield 85.00 15.00 100 00 Indianapolis, Delphi and Chicago 27.00 11.55 38.55 Indianapolis and St. Louis 71.84 71.84 Iron 3.50 3.50 Ithaca, Auburn and Western 26.57 26.57 Jackson, Lansing and Saginaw 39.73 82.80 122 50 Jamestown and Franklin 8.00 8.00 Jefferson 36.69 36.69 Jeffersonville, Madison and Indianapolis 1.48 1.48 Jersey City and Albany 12.10 14.10 26.20 Junction and Breakwater 15.00 5.00 20.00 Kalamasoo and South Haven 40.00 40.00 Karns City and Butler 17.00 17.00 Kendall and Eldred 15.00 15.00 Kent County 5.00 5.00 10.00 Keystone Coal 5.50 5.50 Kingan (unincorporated) 0.42 0.42 King's County Central 3.25 3.25 Lake Erie, Evansville and South-western 17.00 17.00 Lake Erie and Western 116.40 22.10 0.20 84.60 9.20 53.50 295.00 Lake George and Muskegon River 7.00 4.00 7.13 18.13 Lake Ontario and Southern 25.00 8.60 33.60 Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 1.50 38 31 39.81 Lancaster and Reading 15.22 15.22 Lawrence 4.06 4.06 Lehigh Coal and Navigation 2.00 10.50 3.00 15.50 Lehigh and Lackawanna 10.00 10.00 Lehigh Valley 8.80 8.80 Lewisburg and Tyrone 9.20 7.90 24.82 41.92 Ligonier Valley 10.50 10.50 Littles Town 2.40 2.40 Lockport and Buffalo 13.89 13.89 Long Branch and Sea Girt 3.40 340 Long Island 2.02 2.02 Longwood Valley 13 26 13.26 Louisville, New Albany and St. Louis 10.00 18.00 :8.00 McKean and Buffalo 22.15 22.15 Mahoning Coal 43.40 43.40 Marine 2.00 2.00 Marquette, Houghton and Ontonagon 2.08 46.78 48.86 May's Landing and Egg Harbor City 7.00 7.00 Menominee River 24.71 24.71 Metropolitan Elevated 3.17 2.24 11.25 16.66 Michigan Air Line Railroad 69.44 45.28 114.72 Michigan Air Line Railway 12 00 12.00 Michigan City and Indianapolis 12.75 12.75 Michigan, Midland and Canada 15.00 15.00 Middletown and Crawford 10.22 10.22 Midland (of New Jersey) 71.10 71.10 Mineral Range 12.50 12.50 Mont Alto 10.25 7.62 17.87 Montour 11.00 11.00 Montrose 20.26 2.64 3.35 0.93 27.18 Morris and Essex 34.54 34.54 Mount Pleasant and Broad Ford 9.70 9.70 Muncy Creek 6.00 6.00 Muskegon River and Rose Lake 7.50 7.50 Nesquehoning Valley 16.50 1.12 17.62 Newark and Delaware City 20.24 20.24 Newark and Hudson 5.62 5.62 Newark, Somerset and Straitsville 44.00 44.00 New Castle and Franklin 22.60 13.40 1.65 37.65 New Egypt and Farmingdale 7.43 7.43 New Jersey and New York 4.50 25.00 29.50 Newtown and Flushing 3.97 3.97 New York, Bay Ridge and Jamaica 8.16 8.16 New York, Boston and Montreal 3.95 3.95 New York and Canada 9 25 32.74 50.88 14.25 107.12 New York Central and Hudson River 7.83 7.83 New York Central and Niagara River 2.81 2.81 New York and Coney Island 2.41 2.41 New York Elevated 3.50 0.25 1.25 0.26 872 1.35 15.35 New York and Greenwood Lake 2.60 40.00 42.60 New York and Harlem 6.95 6.96 New York and Long Branch 23.35 23.35 New York and Manhattan Beach 5.44 5.44 New York, Ontario and Western 110.00 54 00 43.60 37.00 244.60 New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio 1.58 1.58 New York and Rockaway 8.91 8.90 New York and Sea Beach 3.74 2.26 6.01 Digitized by Google 216 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. North-east Pennsylvania 0.56 9.56 North Pennsylvania 20.00 20.00 Northern Central Michigan 42.00 10.14 61.14 North-western Ohio 70.17 79.17 Nyack and Northern 4.38 4.38 Ogdensburg and Morristown 10.67 10.67 Ohio Central 49.43 49.43 Ohio and Mississippi 53.31 224.80 278.17 Oil City and Ridgway 6.00 6.00 Olean, Bradford and Warren (in New York) 12.53 12.53 Olean, Bradford and Warren (in Pennsylvania) 10.43 10.43 Painesville, Canton and Bridgeport 5.00 5.00 Painesville and Youngstown 11.10 2.00 30.20 9.50 61.80 Parker and Karns City 10.50 10.50 Passaic and Delaware 14.02 14.02 Paulding and Cecil 4.50 4.50 Peach Bottom 15.00 21.00 7.00 7.00 4.50 54.50 Pemberton and Sea Shore 18.08 18.08 Pennsylvania 10.93 3 00 22.42 0.82 1.34 1.89 49.42 Pennsylvania (in Maryland) 6.25 6.25 Pennsylvania and New York 8.44 8.44 Peoples 3.47 3.47 Perkiomen 7.11 4.83 15.59 27.53 Philadelphia and Atlantic City 54.50 54.50 Philadelphia, Newtown and New York 6 00 1.40 13.60 21.60 Philadelphia and Reading 1.70 1.70 Pickering Valley 11.00 11.00 Pincouning 12.10 3.10 15.20 Pittsburgh and Castle Shannon 6 00 6.00 Pittsburgh and Connellsville 80.10 89.10 Pittsburgh and Lake Erie 08.74 68.74 Pittsburgh Southern 12.50 9.02 13.00 35.12 Pittsburgh, Titusville and Buffalo 10.30 16.30 Pittsburgh, Virginia and Charleston 30.00 30.00 Pittsburgh and Western 30.00 4.50 34.50 Pittsburgh and Dannemora 15.92 15.92 Plymouth 6.25 6.25 Pomeroy and State Line 21.26 21.26 Port Huron and North-western 26 00 26.00 Port Jervis and Monticello 12.00 11.75 23.75 Poughkeepsie, Hartford and Boston 23.71 17.99 41.70 Prospect Park and Coney Island 0.26 2.75 5.61 8.62 Queen Anne and Kent 21.00 21.00 Reading and Columbia 0.84 1.33 2.17 Reading and Lehigh 41.20 41.20 Rensselser and Saratoga 0.59 0.59 Rhinebeck and Connecticut 28.00 7.20 35.20 Rochester and Lake Ontario 6.05 6.05 Rochester and State Line 25.15 18.56 10.51 53.47 107.69 Rome and Clinton. 12.88 12.88 Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg 40.00 45.50 12.00 42.00 52.95 192.45 Saginaw and Clare County 8.91 8.91 Saginaw and Grand Rapids 3.60 3.00 Saginaw and Mt. Pleasant 15.02 15.02 Saginaw Valley and St. Louis. 29.00 29.00 St. Clairsville 6.65 6.65 Salisbury 2.57 3.16 2.92 2.03 10.68 Saratoga and Schenectady 2.16 2.16 Schenectady and Duanesburg 3.00 10.79 13.79 Scioto Valley 47.01 50.19 97.20 Sharon 4.00 7.76 11.76 Sharpsville 11.80 11.80 Shenango and Allegheny 10.70 13.80 24 50 Silver Lake 6.50 6.50 Smithtown and Port Jefferson 19.01 19.01 Smyrna and Delaware Bay 22.00 22.00 Somerset and Cambria 8.81 8.81 South Mountain 17.00 17.00 South-west Pennsylvania 24.40 5.20 7.70 4.00 2.96 44.86 Southern Central 66.50 49.40 115.90 Southern Hempstead Branch 5.42 5.42 Southern Pennsylvania 21.40 1.90 23.30 Spring Brook 8.25 8.25 Springfield Southern 61.90 47.00 4.55 113.45 Springville and Sardinia 12.00 12.00 Spuyten Duyvil and Port Norris 6.05 6.05 Stewart Line (unincorporated) 16.34 16.34 Stony Creek 11.15 11.15 Sunbury, Hazleton and Wilkes-Barre 43.44 43.44 Sunbury and Lewistown 43.33 43.33 Suspension Bridge and Erie Junction 23.28 23.28 Sussex 6.20 6.20 Syracuse, Chenango and New York 12.00 14.00 17.49 43.49 Syracuse, Geneva and Corning 57.75 57.75 Digitized by Google Small Steamboat of Southern Atlantic Waters. Ocean Side-Wheel Steamer-of 1850. Screw Propeller. Tug-Boat Propeller. Mianissippi Side-Wheel Steamer. Modern Ocean Steamer. IMPROVEMENTS IN STEAM NAVIGATION. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 217 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. Tawas and Bay County 21.00 21 00 Terre Haute and Indianapolis 28.68 28.68 Terre Haute and Logansport 95.12 95.12 Terre Haute and South-eastern 26.00 14.00 40.00 Tioga 13.80 13.80 Toledo and Ann Arbor 5.00 39.70 44.70 Toledo, Canada Southern and Detroit 55.87 55.87 Toledo, Delphos and Burlington 9.13 42.00 56.10 48.30 155.53 Toledo and Grand Rapids. 5.80 5.80 Toledo and South Haven 9.00 9.00 Tom's River and Watertown 15.00 15.00 Traverse City 26.00 26.00 Tresckow 6.50 6.50 Tuckerton 29.00 2.00 31.00 Tyrone and Clearfield 2.21 3.88 6.54 12.58 Ulster and Delaware 20.62 25.61 15.00 61.23 Union (of Baltimore) 6.05 6.05 Union R. R. Transfer & Stock Yard (of Indianapolis). 12.10 12.10 Utica and Black River 15.50 12.97 28.47 Utica, Shenango and Susquehanna Valley 43.54 7.62 51.16 Utica, Clinton and Binghamton 31.30 31.30 Utica, Ithaca and Elmira 10.00 26.50 13 00 3.50 12.80 65.80 Valley Railroad 11.64 11.64 Valley Railway 10.00 48.70 58.70 Vineland 47.50 47.50 Waikill Valley 5.83 6.77 7.93 20.53 Washington City and Point Lookout 12.50 12.50 Watchung 4.00 4.00 Waynesburg and Washington 27.93 27.93 West End 1.55 155 West Troy and Green Island 1.08 1.08 Western Maryland 14.10 27.20 17.10 58.40 Western Pennsylvania 21.05 21.05 Wheeling and Lake Erie 12.50 12.50 Wicomico and Pocomoke 7.00 7.00 Williamstown 9.50 9.50 Wilmington and Northern 30.50 6.40 36.90 Worcester 14.00 18.00 4.00 36.00 Worcester and Somerset 9.00 9.00 Youghiogheny 1.25 6.75 2.00 10.00 GROUP III. VIRGINIA, WEST VIRGINIA, KEN- TUCKY, TENNESSEE, MISSISSIPPI, ALABAMA, GEORGIA, FLORIDA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA. Alabama Central 14.00 14.00 Alabama Great Southern 89.00 83 00 165.00 Alexandria and Fredericksburg 32.27 32.27 Ashley River 3.50 3.50 Atlanta and Charlotte Air Line 20.00 33.00 109.31 107.32 269 63 Brunswick and Albany 171.00 171.00 Cape Fear and Yadkin Yalley 3.50 3.50 Carolina Central 25.00 29.00 54.00 Cheraw and Chester 12.00 11.00 23.00 Cherokee Iron 23.00 14.00 37.00 Chesapeake and Ohio 197.71 1.75 1.42 200.88 Chester and Lenoir (N. G.) 26.60 26.60 Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans 106 60 18.02 124.62 Cincinnati Southern 135.30 25.92 4.94 165.30 331.46 Clarksburg, Weston and Glenville 26.25 26.25 Columbus and Rome 20.00 8.00 28.00 Cumberland and Ohio 30.50 30.50 Duck River Vailey (N. G) 5.00 15.00 6.00 26.00 East Alabama and Cincinnati 26 00 26.00 Eastern Kentucky 11.00 11.15 22.15 Elberton Air Line 49.86 49.86 Elizabethtown, Lexington and Big Sandy 33.00 33.60 Georgia Railroad and Banking 74.25 74.25 Georgia Southern 38.00 38.00 Glasgow 10.50 10.50 Greenville, Columbus and Birmingham 10.00 10.00 Hartwell 10.00 10.00 Jacksonville, Pensacola and Mobile 20.00 20.00 Jamesville and Washington 22.00 22.00 Licking Valley 5.50 11.50 17.00 Louisville Bridge 1.00 1.25 2.25 Louisville, Harrod's Creek and Westport 11.00 11.00 Louisville and Nashville 46.00 73.00 119.00 Louisville Railway Transfer 4.13 4.13 Louisville and Wadley 10.00 10.00 Marietta and North Georgia 23.85 Martinsburg and Potomac 11.80 Maysville and Lexington (Northern division) 50.00 Memphis, Paducah and Northern 59.37 52.00 Milton and Sutherlin (N. G.) 7.00 Mississippi Valley and Ship Island 10.00 28 Digitized by Google 218 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1675. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. Mobile and Alabama Grand Trunk 20.00 36.25 17.42 56 25 Mobile and Girard 12.00 12.00 Mobile and Montgomery 17.00 17.00 Mobile and North-western 8.00 8.00 13.71 29.71 Mobile and Ohio 9 00 11.10 20.10 Montgomery and Eufaula 40.00 40.00 Mount Sterling Coal Road 20.00 20.00 Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis 29.00 7.50 36.50 Nashville and Tuscaloosa 20.90 20.90 Natchez, Jackson and Columbus 26.00 8.00 9.00 43.00 New Orleans and Selma. 20.00 20.00 Newport and Cincinnati Bridge 0.74 0.74 Norfolk and Ocean View 8 02 8.02 North-eastern (of Georgia) 40.00 40.00 North-western North Carolina 25.57 25.57 Paducah and Elizabethtown 42 80 67.20 7570 185.70 Peninsula 20.00 20.00 Pennsburgh and Harrisville 9.00 9.00 Pensacola and Mobile 5 00 5 00 Pensacola and Selma 40.00 40.00 Pine Hill 3.50 3.50 Pittsburgh, Wheeling and Kentucky 24 26 24.26 Port Royal and Augusta 112 00 112.00 Potomac 1.70 1.70 Potomac, Fredericksburg and Piedmont 17 50 20.00 38.00 Pratt Coal and Coke 5.06 2.00 7.06 Raleigh and Augusta Air Line 54.00 54.00 Richmond and Danville 0.87 4 35 1.45 6.67 Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac 10 00 10.00 Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac and Rich- mond and Petersburg Railroad Connection 1.25 1.25 Roane Iron 5.50 5.50 St. John's (of Florida) 14.50 14.50 St. Louis and South-eastern (Kentucky division) 98.09 98.09 Sandersville and Tennile 3.33 3.33 Savannah, Florida and Western 34.10 4.10 38.20 Savannah, Griffin and North Alabama 35 00 25.00 00.00 Savannah and Memphis 22.00 18.00 1.75 18.25 60.00 Savannab, Skidaway and Seaboard 6 25 4.87 11.12 Selma and Greensborough 21.64 8.00 29.64 Shelby 18.00 18.60 Shenandoah Valley 42.00 42.00 Ship Island, Ripley and Kentucky 25 00 25.00 South and North Alabama 182.58 6.30 188.88 South-western (of Georgia) 47 50 47 50 South-western (of Kentucky) 5 00 5.00 Spartanburg and Asheville 49.50 49.50 Tuskegee 5.33 5.33 Valley (of Virginia) 25.78 25.78 Vicksburg and Brunswick 21.00 21.00 Vicksburg and Meridian 2.00 2.00 Washington City, Virginia Midland and Great South. 114 30 7.50 121.80 Washington and Obio 6 50 6.50 Western (of Alabama) 50 00 50.00 Western North Carolina 33.00 3.00 36.00 Wilmington, Columbia and Augusta 43.00 43.00 Winchester and Strasburg 19.00 19.00 GROUP IV. ILLINOIS, IOWA, WISCONSIN, MISSOURI, MINNESOTA. Albia, Knoxville and Des Moines 32.89 32.89 American Central 50.59 50.59 Belleville and Eldorado 30.90 18 77 49.67 Belleville and Southern Illinois 42.17 42.17 Brunswick and Chillicotbe 38.00 38.00 Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Northorn 196.00 80.00 93.80 32.00 401.80 Burlington and North-western 19 67 18.55 38.22 Burlington and South-western 59.00 39.80 15.00 27 90 142.30 Cairo and St. Louis 90 00 56.50 146.50 Cairo and Vincennes 157.30 157.30 Caledonia, Mississippi and Western 47.71 47.71 Carbondale and Shawneetown 17.50 17.50 Cedar Falls and Minnesota 8.48 8.48 Cedar Rapids and Missouri River 2.60 2.60 Central Iowa 125.50 20.14 1.50 147.14 Central (of Minnesota) 40.00 40.00 Champaign, Havana and Western 131.00 131 00 Charlton, Des Moines and Southern 32.83 32.83 Chatfield 11.46 11.46 Cherry Valley 6.50 6.50 Chicago and Alton 45.00 36.80 23.86 3 98 109.64 Chicago, Bellevue, Cascade and Western 35.70 3570 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 39.12 44 54 36.72 120 38 Chicago, Clinton, Dubuque and Minnesota 53.50 125.70 28.90 208.10 Chicago, Clinton and Western 9.65 9.65 Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 219 1870. 1071. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. Chicago and Dakota 46.39 46.39 Chicago and Eastern Illinois 27.95 46.60 24.00 98.55 Chicago and Iowa 80.00 80.00 Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 366.48 172.86 197.64 1.93 333.42 1,072.33 Chicago and North-western 44.90 69.87 74.73 133.60 0.70 1.20 325.00 Chicago and Pacific 88.00 88.00 Chicago, Pekin and South-western 20.00 37.50 28.00 85.50 Chicago, Rockford and Northern 23.00 23.00 Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific 272.11 105.46 7.51 25.14 25.00 17.00 36.38 9.00 497.60 Chicago and Rock River 46.80 46.80 Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha 45 50 02 70 32.20 23.00 32.00 6.00 201.40 Chicago and Springfield 111.47 111.47 Chicago and Tomah 30 50 13.50 44.00 Chippewa Falls and Western 10.35 10.35 Cincinnati, La Fayette and Chicago 56.30 56.30 Clarinda and St. Louis 11.25 11.25 Clinton, Bloomington and North-eastern 14.12 14.12 Council Bluffs and St. Louis 66 75 66.75 Creston and Northern 27.70 27.70 Crooked Creek 8.50 8.50 Crystal City 4.00 4 00 Danville, Olney and Ohio River 8.00 8.00 Danville and South-western 35.40 35.20 32.50 103.10 Dent and Phelps 3.88 3.88 Des Moines, Adel and Western 7.00 21.80 28.80 Des Moines and Fort Dodge 14.40 14.40 Des Moines and Knoxville 34.92 34.92 Des Moines and Minneapolis 37.00 21.00 58.00 Dixon, Peoria and Hannibal 44.49 41.49 Dixon and Quincy 6.23 6.23 Dubuque and Dakota 40.91 40.91 Dubuque, Platteville and Milwaukee 8.00 8.00 East St. Louis and Carondelet 11.50 11.50 East St. Louis Connecting 1.02 1.02 Fond du Lac, Amboy and Peoria 30.00 30.00 Fort Dodge and Fort Ridgely 10.50 17.90 23.40 Fort Madison and North-western 12.00 12.00 Galena and Wisconsin 31.50 8.50 40.00 Grayville and Mattoon 20.00 32.70 18.00 70.70 Green Bay and Minnesota 39.30 103.80 61.20 3.00 6.50 218.80 Grinnell and Montezuma 13.62 13.62 Hannibal Bridge 2.94 2.94 Hannibal and St. Joseph 19.47 19.47 Havana, Rantoul and Eastern 40.00 12.00 23.50 75.50 Illinois Grand Trunk 62.43 62.43 Illinois Midland 70.80 74.10 144.90 Illinois and St. Louis 8.00 2.36 0.64 11.00 Iowa City and Western 57.50 57.50 Iowa Eastern 19.70 19.70 Iowa Falls and Sioux City 134.80 134.80 Iowa Midland 68.80 68.80 Iowa Railway Coal and Manufacturing 3.50 3.50 Jacksonville South-eastern 18.37 12.31 30.68 Kankakee and South-western 36.76 8.49 45.25 Kankakee and Western 21.99 21.99 Kansas City and Eastern 11.00 32.00 43.00 Kansas City, St. Joseph and Council Bluffs 16.76 1.22 5.20 23.18 Kansas City, St. Louis and Chicago 162.62 162.62 Keokuk and St. Paul 41.86 41.86 Leon, Mount Ayr and South-western 35.25 35.25 Little River Valley and Arkansas 26.60 26.60 Louisiana and Missouri River 51.00 49.80 100.80 Lyndale 4.50 4.50 Maple River 60.15 12.76 72.91 Milwaukee Cement 1.20 1.20 Milwankee, Lake Shore and Western 21.40 68.50 25.20 7.20 21.00 15.70 31.10 190.10 Milwaukee and Northern 13.70 32.50 73.50 119.70 Minneapolis and Duluth 13.10 13.10 Minneapolis and St. Louis 27.20 93.36 13.60 134.16 Minnesota and Iowa Southern 20.10 20.10 Minnesota Midland 59.00 59.00 Minnesota Valley 24.40 24.40 Mississippi River Bridge 1.30 1.30 Missouri, Iowa and Nebraska 51.00 34 00 5.00 28.00 118.00 Missouri, Kansas and Texas 185.00 212.80 247 00 142 00 786.00 Missouri Pacific 11.00 11.00 Moline and South-eastern (N. G.) 8.00 8.00 Nebraska City, Sidney and North-eastern 20.87 20.87 North-western Union 62.63 62.63 Oshkosh and Mississippi River 20.00 20.00 Ottawa, Oswego and Fox River Valley 68.37 68.3 Peoria, Decatur and Evansville 67.90 32.70 100 Peoria and Hannibal 62.67 62 Peoria and Springfield 9.00 Digitized by Google 220 RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. Pine River Valley and Stevens Point 16.00 16.00 Plainview 15.01 15.01 Prairie du Chien and McGregor 2.00 2.00 Quincy, Alton and St. Louis. 46.36 46.36 Quincy, Missouri and Pacific 44.69 23.31 68.00 Rochester and Northern Minnesota 24.48 24.48 Rock Island and Mercer County 21.80 21.80 Rock Island and Peoria 79.50 79.50 St. Charles 2.40 2.40 St. Joseph and Des Moines 25.00 25.00 50.00 St. Joseph and St. Louis 76.25 76.25 St. Louis Bridge 1.22 1.22 St. Louis, Council Bluffs and Omaha 41.75 41.75 St. Louis, Hannibal and Keokuk 31.00 13.50 44.50 St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern 0.75 320.50 144.50 474.75 St. Louis, Keokuk and North-western 35.00 25.00 30.00 90.00 St. Louis and Lexington 55.00 55.00 St. Louis, Ottumwa and Cedar Rapids 43.50 43.50 St. Louis, Rock Island and Chicago 287.53 287.53 St. Louis, Salem and Little Rock 12.75 28.25 41.00 St. Louis and San Francisco 105.53 30.00 44.50 20.00 41.44 12.65 272.22 St. Louis and South-eastern 208.00 208.00 St. Louis, Vandalia and Terre Haute 58.30 58.30 St. Paul and Duluth 75.00 75.00 St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba 30.40 82 90 133.50 11.00 33.60 103.45 91.70 486.55 St. Paul and Sioux City 23.00 56.00 67.51 29.07 8.00 21.00 106.00 311.18 St. Paul, Stillwater and Taylor's Falls 23.80 23.80 Salem and South-eastern 1.25 1.25 Salisbury and Glasgow 15.75 15.75 Sheboygan and Western 35.40 35.40 Southern Minnesota 82.50 82.50 Southern Minnesota Railway Extension 43.00 94.00 137.00 Springfield and North-western 45.20 45.20 Springfield and Western Missouri 20.00 20.00 Stanwood and Tipton 8.50 8.50 State Line and Union 8.70 8.70 Stillwater and St. Paul 12 57 12.57 Toledo and North-western 3.00 3.00 Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw 10.30 10.30 Tunnel (of St. Louis) 0.01 0.91 Union Depot (of Kansas City, Mo.) 0.28 0.28 Union Depot (of St. Louis, Mo.) 0 50 0.50 Union Railway and Transit (of St. Louis) 2.00 2.00 Viroqua 32.20 32.20 Wabash, Chester and Western 40.83 1.43 42.26 Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific 152.78 6.17 153.00 8.47 12.50 8.50 88.25 434.67 Waukon and Mississippi 23.00 23.00 West End (N. G.) 5.00 3.00 8.00 16.00 Western (of Minnesota) 60.54 60.54 Winona, Mankato and New Ulm 3.75 3.75 Winona and St. Peter 11.00 23.00 30.00 158.00 222.00 Wisconsin Central 63.00 74.00 54.00 123.54 10.00 324.54 Wisconsin Valley 48.60 42.10 1.00 18.30 108.00 GROUP V. LOUISIANA, ARKANSAS, INDIAN TERRI- TORY. Arkansas Midland 48.00 48.00 Atlantic and Pacific 33.87 33.87 Brinkley and Cotton Plant 8.00 8.00 Hot Springs 25.00 25.00 Iron Mountain and Helena 19.00 19.00 Little Rock and Fort Smith 50.10 15 00 35.00 20.00 45.00 165.10 Little Rock, Mississippi River and Texas 43.80 44.00 67.80 Memphis and Little Rock 46.00 4.00 50.00 Morgan's Louisiana and Texas 72.00 5.50 77.50 Vidalia and Western 10.00 10.00 GROUP VI. DAKOTA, NEBRASKA, KANSAS, TEXAS, NEW MEXICO, COLORADO, WYOMING, MONTANA, IDAHO, UTAH, VIRGINIA, CALIFORNIA, NEVADA, OREGON, WASHINGTON. Amador Branch 27.20 27.20 Atchison, Colorado and Pacific 192.00 192.00 Atchison, Jewell County and Western 33.64 33.64 Atchison and Nebraska 146.60 146.60 Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe 34.93 73.33 217.96 118.05 444.27 Bay and Coast. 24.10 24.10 Berkeley Branch 3.76 0.08 3.84 Bingham Cafion and Camp Floyd. 16.40 16.40 Burlington and Missouri River (in Nebraska). 190.50 190.50 California Pacific 113.51 113.51 Central Pacific 69.02 39.19 172.38 280.59 Colorado Central 15.55 142.04 11.12 168.71 Colorado Central (of Wyoming) 8.64 8.64 Corpus Christi, San Diego and Rio Grande (N. G.) 12.00 13.00 15.00 40.00 Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION FROM 1870 TO 1879. 221 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. Covington, Columbus and Black Hills 26.00 26.00 Cowley, Sumner and Fort Smith 67.62 67.62 Dakota Central 24.51 24.51 Dallas and Wichita 17.00 17.00 Denver and Boulder Valley 14.50 12.49 26.99 Denver and Rio Grande 75.20 85.40 36.50 71.50 35.60 30.10 334.30 Denver, South Park and Pacific 20.00 9.70 20.00 33.01 47 50 130.21 East Line and Red River 18.00 32.00 41.88 91.88 Elk and Chautauqua 12.16 12.16 Eureka and Palisade 20.00 64.05 84.05 Florence, Eldorado and Walnut Valley 29.18 29.18 Fort Scott, South-eastern and Memphis 6.50 6.30 2.43 15.23 Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri Valley 25.34 15.75 58.90 99.99 Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio 50.00 50.00 55.00 13.00 47.00 215 00 Galveston, Houston and Henderson (of 1871) 48.50 48.50 Georgetown 10.00 10.00 Golden, Boulder and Caribou 5.60 5.60 Golden and South Platte 2.00 2.00 Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe 45.00 18.60 30.70 91.30 Gulf, Western Texas and Pacific 28.00 28.00 Hastings and Grand Island 25.00 25 00 Henderson and Overton 15.00 15.00 Houston, East and West Texas 71.00 71.00 Houston and Texas Central 50.98 125.58 129.23 44.70 11.00 361.49 International and Great Northern 106.30 196.71 84.30 15.00 60.38 462.69 Junction City and Fort Kearney 33.10 22 00 15.35 70.45 Kansas Central 56.00 28.00 84.00 Kansas City, Burlington and Santa Fe 42.20 42.20 Kansas City, Emporia and Southern 64.00 64.00 Kansas City, Fort Scott and Gulf 61.82 61.82 Kansas City, Lawrence and Southern 98.37 44.63 143.00 Kansas City, Topeka and Western 66.25 66.25 Lake Tahoe (N. G.) 9.50 9.50 Lawrence and South-western 32.10 32.10 Leavenworth Bridge 1.20 1.20 Lincoln and North-western 50.00 50.00 Longview and Sabine Valley 11.00 1.00 12.00 Los Angeles and Independence 16.40 16.40 Los Angeles and San Diego 6.70 14.00 7.12 27.82 Marion and McPherson 48.29 48 29 Marysville and Blue Valley 38.00 38.00 Memphis, Kansas and Colorado 31.04 31.04 Mendocino 3.50 3.50 Missouri, Kansas and Texas Extension 4.20 16.19 41.00 61.39 Monterey 15.12 15.12 Nebraska 132.00 4.40 136.40 Nevada County (N. G.) 10.64 12.00 22.64 New Mexico and Southern Pacific 118.27 118.27 North Pacific Coast 51.75 14.50 10.00 76.25 Northern (of California) 40.81 55.00 16.33 112.14 Northern Pacific 114.00 114.23 165.00 136.50 31.00 54.00 614.73 Omaha, Niobrara and Black Hills 47.45 47.45 Omaha and Northern Nebraska 26.00 14.00 7.00 16.00 63.00 Omaha and Republican Valley 19.00 42.00 10.00 19.03 90.03 Omaha and South-western 16.60 30.00 46.60 Oregon and California 60.00 44.00 57.00 16.57 177.57 Oregon Central 46.70 46.70 Pioche and Bulliarville (unincorporated) 21.00 21.00 Pleasant Hill and De Soto 44.90 44.90 Pueblo and Arkansas Valley 10.84 54.62 82.39 80.87 15.50 244.22 Republican Valley 40.00 50.80 90.80 Rio Grande 3.00 16.00 3.50 22.50 Ruby Hill 3.00 3.00 St. Joseph and Western 112 00 113.70 225.70 St. Louis, Kansas and Arizona 57.50 57.50 Salina and South-western 35.42 35.42 Salmon Creek 8.00 8.00 San Francisco and North Pacific 23.00 15.00 18.00 16.00 20.50 92.50 San Luis Obispo and Santa Maria Valley 3.00 7.75 10.75 San Pablo and Tulare 23.71 17.81 46.52 San Rafael and San Quentin 3.50 3.50 Santa Cruz 21.16 21.16 Santa Crus and Felton 7.10 7.10 Seattle and Walla Walia 13.00 7.00 20.00 Short Creek and Joplin 15.46 15.46 Sioux City and Dakota 20.86 40.50 16.50 35.00 112.86 Soloman 22.61 34.34 56.95 Sonoma Valley 7.00 7.00 South Pacific Coast 33.20 6.71 39.91 Southern Kansas and Western 44.90 44 90 Southern Pacific 37.09 39.34 95.62 32.30 89.87 196.40 118.60 609.20 Southern Pacific (of Arisona) 0.51 182.30 182.81 Stockton and Copperopolis 44.65 44.65 Summit County 8.00 8.00 Digitized by Google 222 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW RAILWAY MILEAGE. 1870. 1671. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. Decade. Texas Central 22.00 22.00 Texas and Pacific 23.80 253.50 6.10 120.40 403.80 Texas and St. Louis 22.00 22.00 Texas Transportation 8.90 8.90 Texas Western (N. G.) 41.00 41.00 Thurston County Construction 15.00 15 00 Union Pacific 281.50 2.87 284.37 Utah Central 36.45 36.45 Utah and Northern 50.51 12.00 17.00 68.55 125.00 273.06 Utah and Pleasant Valley 55.00 55.00 Utah Southern 12.65 17.65 17.04 26.16 28.64 102.14 Utah Southern Extension 52.00 52.00 Utah Western 17.55 6.79 12.58 36.92 Vaca Valley and Clear Lake 12.00 13.00 25.00 Virginia and Truckee 30 50 30.50 Visalia 7.33 7.33 Walla Walla and Columbia River 32.00 14.00 46.00 Wasatch and Jordan Valley 8.00 8.00 Waxahachie Tap 12.00 12.00 Western Development 0.13 0.13 Western Oregon 49.76 49.76 Wichita and South-western 26.62 26.62 Willamette Valley 29.00 29.00 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW RAILWAY MILEAGE. THE anly amount of construction during the eighth decade not Pacific roads, did much to promote rapid construction by greatly exceeded that of any preceding decade, but generating a belief in important financial circles that one of formed nearly half of the railway mileage existing at the end the surest methods of securing a rapid increase of wealth was of 1879, the total mileage at that time being 84,964.65, of which to build new railways, especially if a guarantee against such 41,454.22 had been constructed during the years extending from reverses as had frequently occurred were furnished by valuable 1870 to 1879, inclusive, and 43,510.43 had been completed at the grants of land. These hopeful theories carried some rich end of 1869. bankers and many individuals to such lengths that they suf- Powerful influences had greatly increased the average amount fered great losses in enterprises which had been expected to of annual additions to mileage, in comparison with previous yield large profits, and in connection with other events such decades, some of which were the postponement, for about ten reverses superinduced some of the most disastrous develop- years, of various enterprises, caused by the civil war; the adop- ments of the decade, and notably the panic of 1873, precipitated tion of legislative and financial methods which had the effect by the difficulties in which Jay Cooke & Co. had become in- of facilitating or stimulating new construction; the rapid ex- volved by efforts to construct the Northern Pacific. tension of settlements west of the Mississippi; the eager desire of important lines to extend their systems; the large grants of VARIATIONS IN AMOUNT OF CONSTRUCTION IN DIFFERENT YEARS land made to railway companies by the Federal government OF THE DECADE. and some of the state governments; the active speculative feel- It was largely on account of the effect produced by this ing a few years after the close of the war, and especially after panic, and the transitions from overweening confidence in all it was supposed that large profits had been derived from the classes of railway projects to distrust of the most promising construction of the early Pacific railroads. enterprises, that a remarkable variation in the amount of new A notable change had been wrought since the period when construction in different years of the eighth decade occurred. protracted struggles were necessary to secure the construction It may be set down as a fundamental truth that the magnitude of lines leading through populous portions of the country, and of the annual new additions to mileage since 1870 have de- it had become comparatively easy to rapidly extend roads pended much more upon the relative readiness with which the through uninhabited regions. Many circumstances contributed money necessary for construction could be secured than upon to the establishment of the new order of things. The general any other single influence or circumstance. There is always abandonment of the practice of calling upon stockholders to an abundance of projects, and men ready and anxious to ad- contribute a large portion of the cost of new lines was one of vance them, and the period when they are materialized depends the most important. Roads were no longer built with money chiefly upon the state of the money market. Eagerness to furnished by their nominal owners, but chiefly with the pro- invest in stocks or bonds has an effect in increasing mileage ceeds of bonds, or in cases where large advances were made by analogous to that produced by the genial summer suns on wealthy projectors they expected to be speedily reimbursed by vegetation, while panics arising from distrust in old or new the sales of bonds and stocks which were freely issued to rep- railways act like the frost and snows of winter in arresting new resent the value of the new railways. The system of creating developments. The extreme figures in the eighth decade were construction companies which undertook the entire work of 7,439.04 miles constructed in 1872 and 1,606.48 in 1875, the completing a line, receiving as its compensation chiefly new amount of new mileage in the latter year being only a little railway stocks and bonds, which it marketed, also became more than one-fifth of the amount of the mileage reported in more and more extensively adopted. Aside from these devices, the former. The average annual amount of new construction wealthy bankers or men whose influence could direct large was 4,145.42. In each half of the years of the decade this amounts of capital into any promising channel, manifested a amount was considerably exceeded, viz., 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, deeper interest in railway projects, and exhibited a greater and 1879, while in each of the other half the average figures eagerness to encourage, assist, or control them than had pre- were not reached; viz., 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877, and 1878. In the viously been common. The land grants, and the fact that the increase from 5,657.90 miles in 1870 to 7,439.04 in 1873 can be first of the important land-grant roads, the Illinois Central, had traced the increasing confidence of investors in railway securi finally become a highly successful enterprise; and the large ties. In the subsequent decline the fruits of the panic of 18 profits popularly ascribed to the controlling spirits of the early are observable, and the extent to which distrust was intens Digitized by Go CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW RAILWAY MILEAGE. 223 is reflected in the new mileage of succeeding years, including prises, narrow-gauge roads could be rendered profitable; and 2,583.79 in 1874, 1,606.48 in 1875, 2,575.38 in 1876, 2,279.68 in it was claimed that the difference in the cost of the construction 1877, and 2,428.15 in 1878. The first signs of a substantial and operation of the two classes of roads was sufficient to make revival of confidence are furnished by the new mileage of this important distinction in financial results. In 1880 there 1879, amounting to 5,006.47. were 5,190.50 miles of railway built by 144 companies, with a Aside from the panic of 1873, several other influences greatly gauge of three feet, and 77 miles additional, with a gauge ap- retarded the revival that finally occurred in the closing year of proximating three feet, built by four other companies. A con- the decade, one of which was the granger legislation of the siderable portion of this mileage has since been widened to the North-western states; another, the railway riots of 1877, and prevailing standard, as it was generally found in practice that another, the desperate efforts of sundry towns, cities, and coun- the losses and inconveniences arising from lack of ordinary ties to repudiate obligations they had incurred for the purpose facilities for exchanging traffic with connecting lines more than of promoting new construction. counterbalanced the gains anticipated from diminutions in cost THE SECTIONAL DISTRIBUTION of construction and operating expenses. of the new mileage of the eighth decade was as follows: Group In group I, composed of the New England states, a large I, 1,829.91; group II, 11,492.01; group III, 4,196.17; group IV, proportion of the new milcage represented short extensions or 13,331.01; group V, 524.27; group VI, 13,473.72. branches or local roads. The only companies reporting more than one hundred miles are those identified with the Portland The new construction in group I, composed of the New Eng- land states, and in group III, composed of the states south of and Ogdensburg. Maryland and east of the Mississippi, except Louisiana, had Most of the new mileage constructed in group II also con- been slightly exceeded in previous decades, 1,889.10 miles hav- sisted of short local roads or extensions. There were, however. ing been built in group I during the fifth decade, and 5,424.26 a considerable number of additions of a more significant char- miles in group III during the sixth decade. In all other groups acter, viz.: Allegheny Valley, 190.90 miles in length, extending the amount of construction represented a considerable increase, in a northern and north-eastern direction from Pittsburgh, as in comparison with any previous decade, and these gains were a branch of the Pennsylvania system; and various lines which particularly noticcable in groups IV and VI. have been operated as adjuncts or allies of that system, includ- In group II, composed of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, ing the Ashtabula and Pittsburgh, 62.60; Baltimore and Poto- Michigan, Indiana, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, and Dis- mac, 91.43; Bedford and Bridgeport, 49.20; Frederick and Penn- trict of Columbia, the additions to mileage during the eighth sylvania Line, 28; Grand Rapids and Indiana, 293.30; South-west decade were 11,492.01, making the total amount 28,042.09, a Pennsylvania, 44.S6; Sunbury, Hazleton and Wilkes-Barre, 43.44; considerably larger mileage than that existing in any other Sunbury and Lewistown, 43.33; Tyrone and Clearfield, 12.58, and a number of other lines. group, and the excess in cost of roads and amount of business Each of the east and west trunk lines made direct or indirect transacted was much greater than the excess in mileage. The largest amount of new construction in group II in any new extensions of their systems, which have exercised an in- previous decade had been 8,479.57 during the sixth decade. fluence upon some of the competitive struggles of the eighth and ninth decades. The extensions of the Baltimore and Ohio In group IV larger additions were made to new construction than in any other group, and the amount, 13,331.01, greatly are partly represented by 262.60 miles of the Baltimore and exceeded the new construction of any preceding decade, the Ohio and Chicago, completed in 1874, and 89.10 miles of the largest figures that had previously been attained being 4,607.70 Pittsburgh and Connellsville, completed in 1871. Operations in the sixth decade. This group is composed of the states of of the Grand Trunk are partly represented by 237.72 miles of Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri, and Minnesota, and as the new mileage, constructed during the eighth decade by the Chi- legislatures of several of these commonwealths were particu- cago and Grand Trunk. larly active in adopting various forms of granger legislation The new mileage of the decade in group II, representing dis- during the eighth decade, it is probable that these proceedings tinct lines of considerable length, included the following: Buffalo, had considerable influence in causing the notable changes in New York and Philadelphia, 103.86; Chicago and West Michigan, the amount of new construction in each year of the decade in 245.60; Cincinnati, Wabash and Michigan, 110.70; Cleveland, this group. The extreme points were 2,937.64 miles in 1871, Tuscarawas Valley and Wheeling, 100.54; Columbus and To- before the effect of the antagonistic legislation was felt, and ledo, 117.77; Dayton and South-eastern, 101.50; Detroit and Bay 255.55 in 1875, about which time a disposition to modify City, 146.05; Detroit, Lansing and Northern, 171.58; Flint and specially obnoxious statutes was becoming prevalent. The Pere Marquette, 191.72; Geneva, Ithaca and Sayre, 113.03; In- dianapolis, Decatur and Springfield, 100; Jackson, Lansing and new mileage of each year was as follows: 1870, 1,915.93; 1871, Saginaw, 122.53; Lake Erie and Western, 295; Michigan Air 2,937.64; 1872, 2,434.27; 1873, 1,555.73; 1874, 756.60; 1875, 255.55; Line, 114.72; New York and Canada, 107.12; New York, On- 1876, 541.01; 1877, 539.65; 1878, 854.06; 1879, 1,540.57. In group VI, composed of Dakota, New Mexico, Wyoming, tario and Western, 244.60; Ohio and Mississippi, 278.17; Ro- Montana, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, and Washington territories, chester and State Line, 107.69; Rome, Watertown and Ogdens- and Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado, California, Nevada, burg, 192.45; Scioto Valley, 97.20; Southern Central, 115.90; and Oregon, the gain in quantity of new mileage, over any Springfield Southern, 113.45; Toledo, Delphos and Burling- preceding decade, was much greater than in any other group. ton, 155.53. The region embraced within group VI not only contains an The important new mileage in group III, including nearly exceptionally large amount of territory, but many districts all the Southern states, includes the following: Alabama Great Southern, 165; Atlanta and Charlotte Air Line, 209.03; Bruns- which have only been opened up for occupation and develop- ment at a comparatively recent period. Up to 1859 only 114.68 wick and Albany, 171; Chesapcake and Ohio, 200.88; Chicago, miles of railway had been built in this group; from 1860 to 1869 St. Louis and New Orleans, 124.62; Cincinnati Southern, 331.46; the amount of construction was 3,278.19; and from 1870 to 1879 additions to Louisville and Nashville, 119; Memphis, Paducah and Northern, 111.37; Paducah and Elizabethtown, 185.70; Port 10,080.85 miles. Royal and Augusta, 112; South and North Alabama, 188.88; SALIENT FEATURES OF THE NEW CONSTRUCTION. Washington City, Virginia Midland and Great Southern, 121.80. While a considerable portion of the new construction of the A notable feature of the new construction in group IV is the eighth decade was intended to furnish comparatively short extent to which large additions were made to the mileage of local lines, much of it represented extensions of important the systems radiating from Chicago. The lines reporting more sytems, or initial work on new lines of considerable magnitude. than one hundred miles include the following; Burlington, One of the peculiarities of the decade was the amount of in- Cedar Rapids and Northern, 401.80; Burlington and South- terest excited, especially at a period when it had become ex- western, 142.30; Cairo and St. Louis, 146.50; Cairo and Vin- ceedingly difficult to obtain the means necessary to construct cennes, 157.30; Central Iowa, 147.14; Champaign, Havana and standard-gauge railways, in favor of narrow-gauge lines. The Western, 131; Chicago and Alton, 109.64; Chicago, Burlington theory was extensively promulgated that in many regions in and Quincy, 120.38; Chicago, Clinton, Dubuque and Minnesota, which standard-gauge lines could not be made paying enter- 208.10; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 1,072.33; Chicago and Digitized by Google 224 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEW RAILWAY MILEAGE. North-western, 325; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, 497.60; Louisiana 521.90 Oregon 347.33 Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, 201.40; Chicago and Arkansas 821.78 Dakota 698.60 Springfield, 111.47; Danville and South-western, 113.10; Green Indian Territory 277.43 New Mexico 298.57 Bay and Minnesota, 218.80; Illinois Midland, 144.90; Iowa Falls Wyoming 506.94 Total of group V 1,621.11 Montana 18.32 and Sioux City, 134.80; Kansas City, St. Louis and Chicago, Nebraska 1,823 11 Idaho 205.83 162.62; Louisiana and Missouri River, 100.80; Milwaukee, Lake Kansas 3,384.74 Utah 706.34 Shore and Western, 190.10; Milwaukee and Northern, 119.70; Texas 2,696.64 Arizona 293.93 Minneapolis and St. Louis, 134.16; Missouri, Iowa and Ne- Colorado 1,385.16 Washington 212.00 California 2,176.85 braska, 118; Missouri, Kansas and Texas, 786; Peoria, Decatur Nevada 711.82 Total of group 15,466.18 and Evansville, 100.60; St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern, FINANCIAL METHODS. 474.75; St. Louis, Rock Island and Chicago, 287.53; St. Louis and San Francisco, 272.22; St. Louis and South-eastern, 208; St. An outline sketch of some of the leading financial devices Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba, 486.55; St. Paul and Sioux for procuring the means necessary to advance construction City, 311.18; Southern Minnesota Railway extension, 137; Wa- during the eighth decade, and early portions of the ninth de- bash, St. Louis and Pacific, 434.67; Winona and St. Peter, 222; cade, is furnished in the following extract from comments in Wisconsin Central, 324.54; Wisconsin Valley, 108. the money article of the Financial Chronicle, of November In group V the only line reporting more than one hundred 4th, 1882:- miles of new construction is the Little Rock and Fort Smith, "The old, old method of building a railroad was for the sub- 165.10. scribers to take either bonds or stocks and pay for them a full In group VI the additions of considerable length included price-say 90 to 100-and then the outstanding liabilities rep- the following: Atchison, Colorado and Pacific, 192; Atchison resented pretty nearly the capital invested, and the bonds and and Nebraska, 146.60; Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, 444.27; stocks became valuable according to the capacity of the road Burlington and Missouri River (in Nebraska), 190.50; California to earn interest or dividends. But this method is 80 old now Pacific, 113.51; Central Pacific, 280.59; Colorado Central, 168.71; that it savors of the middle ages, and little has been done on Denver and Rio Grande, 334.30; Denver, South Park and Pa- this basis since the war. cific, 130.21; Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio, 215; Then came the plan by which the projectors issued and sold Houston and Texas Central, 361.49; International and Great enough bonds per mile to build the road, and issued a like Northern, 462.69; Kansas City, Lawrence and Southern, 143; amount of stock, distributing the latter among themselves. Nebraska, 136.40; New Mexico and Southern Pacific, 118.27; This was the general plan in vogue prior to the panic of 1873, Northern (of California), 112.14; Northern Pacific, 614.73; Ore- but so heavily were the roads loaded down with interest charges gon and California, 177.57; Pueblo and Arkansas Valley, 244.22; on their bonds, sold at prices which made them pay about 8 St. Joseph and Western, 225.70; Sioux City and Dakota, 112.86; per cent. per annum, that few companies were able to survive Southern Pacific, 609.20; Southern Pacific (of Arizona), 182.81; when the hard times came. Our readers may recall those Texas and Pacific, 403.80; Union Pacific, 284.37; Utah and North- ghastly list of 'railroads in default' which filled columns in the ern, 273.06; Utah Southern, 102.14. newspapers. Before 1873 the 'construction company' had been little used, THE ADDITIONS TO MILEAGE FROM DECEMBER 31, 1879, TO and the famous Credit Mobilier of the Union Pacific, which JUNE 30, 1880, was the first of those companies to become prominent in the amounted to 2,836.77. It was 80 distributed in the various United States, subsequently fell into bad odor. But the con- groups that the mileage in each on June 30th, 1880, was as fol- struction company has of late years been revived, and very lows: Group I, 5,948.30; group II, 28,401.62; group III, 14,315.96; much used as a side corporation, first for the building of the group IV, 22,962.73; group V, 950.38; group VI, 15,222.43; total, road, and secondly for the distribution of the stock and bonds 87,801.42. for the benefit of its subscribers; and whether or not it did the The relation between the population, area, and value of pro- first part well, it has succeeded admirably in the second. ducts to the mile of completed road, in the various groups, on The distribution of stock and income bonds (sometimes in June 30th, 1880, was as follows:- very large amounts) to the subscribers for first mortgage bonds in 'blocks' has been the popular method of late years, and as AVERAGE POPULATION, AREA, AND VALUE OF PRODUCTS TO EACH MILE OF COMPLETED ROAD. between this and the 1870-72 plan of keeping all the stock for Area square Popu- Value of the projectors, we cannot see why the latter is not the best. Total population. miles. lation. products. One of the natural consequences of the issue of these large The United States 50,155,783 33.8 571 $88,347 blocks of bonds and stock to subscribers is sometimes seen in Group I 4,010,529 10.4 674 204,673 the decline of the bonds to very low prices before the railroads Group II 18,569,353 8.7 654 131,499 are completed. The subscribers, wishing to realize on some- Group III 11,569,173 30.5 833 54,083 thing, and not finding a ready market for the stock, are apt to Group IV 8,967,136 13.7 391 62,428 sell their bonds at any price they may bring." Group V 1,742,471 103.7 1,834 123,868 Group- VI 4,943,121 114.5 325 31,491 EVIL EFFECTS OF FREE RAILROAD SYSTEMS. The number of miles of completed railway lying within the Some of the worst evils arising from the prevailing methods boundaries of each state and territory on June 30th, 1880, was are those connected with an abuse of the privileges easily as follows:- obtained under free railroad laws. So long as it is in the power of any small body of individuals to obtain charters conferring Maine 999.35 Virginia 1,697.06 the privilege of using any desired real estate, under prescribed New Hampshire 1,013.11 West Virginia 691.56 Vermont 874.39 Kentucky conditions, for railway purposes, without searching inquiry 1,559.56 Massachusetts 1,868.58 Tennessee 1,816.17 into the necessity and usefulness of the line proposed, or the Rhode Island 209.98 Mississippi 1,118.99 financial ability and integrity of the parties who propose Connecticut 922.68 Alabama 1,780.22 to construct it, it is to be expected that grievous wrongs Georgia 2,432.87 will be inflicted. Schemes will be devised of the class com- Total of group I 5,888.09 Florida 528.60 monly known as blackmail projects, which are intended to New York 5,874.98 North Carolina 1,440.39 5,944.77 benefit the promoters by extortion. They hope to sell their Pennsylvania South Carolina 1,392.91 Ohio 5,415.33 charters, and rights acquired under them, to companies which Michigan 3,712.51 Total of group III.14,458.33 would probably be injured by damaging rivalry, either while Indiana 4,320.61 Illinois 7,562.39 the project is in an incipient stage or after the line is com- Maryland 930.64 Iowa 4,992.64 pleted. The popular belief that such enterprises will increase Delaware 278.59 Wisconsin 2,959.84 accommodations and reduce rates often proves erroneous. New Jersey 1,648.92 Missouri 3,708.52 The actual cost of transporting any given amount of traffic is District of Columbia 28.38 Minnesota 2,989.59 increased instead of being diminished by an unnecessary Total of group II 28,154.73 Total of group IV 22,212.98 duplication of the lines capable of transacting such business. Digitized by Google : Temporary Wooden Trestling. Wooden Trestle Work on Genessee High Bridge. Drawbridge of the Sixth Decade. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google LAND-GRANT RAILWAYS. 225 It is never economical to build two railways to do the work in a completed state, and in the cases where enterprises are so that could be as thoroughly performed by one. Although ill-timed or injudicious that such completion is indefinitely rates may be reduced, or accommodations increased for a time, postponed after the country is disfigured by deep cuts and high on account of the rivalry engendered by competition, it usually embankments, injuries are inflicted against which the present happens that either both companies become so seriously crip- system does not afford sufficient protection. The justification pled that neither can fully provide first-class accommodations, for a grant of the right of eminent domain to a company or that a combination of interests is finally effected which aims hinges on the conviction that the end proposed is an over- at securing a return for all the capital invested, so that the riding public necessity and that it will be achieved. Free rail-, public is, as far as possible, finally made to pay for the un- road laws, as they are commonly administered, do not furnish necessary outlays which were unwisely authorized. sufficient safeguards in reference to either of these points. An Serious wrongs against individuals are also inflicted when increasing disposition manifested in a few states, and notably real estate is appropriated in defiance of the will of its owners, in Massachusetts and New York, to increase the restrictions for railway lines which cannot be promptly finished, or which imposed on applicants for railway charters, and to extend the are in reality unnecessary. Part of the incidental compensa- list and scope of the inquiries made into the standing and tion which every land owner should receive is the opportunity ability of the organizations which propose to construct new of using the line which passes through his property after it is railway lines. LAND-GRANT RAILWAYS. RAILWAY MISFORTUNES. THE RAPID CONSTRUCTION OF LAND-GRANT RAILWAYS, W HILE the early portion of the seventh decade had been the Granger legislation, and the Jay Cooke panic. It is not im- most fortunate period ever known, in a financial sense, probable that there was a considerable amount of logical con- for a number of the northern railways, a considerable portion nection between these events, but just how far the business of of the eighth decade was a peculiarly disastrous era. They constructing land-grant roads was pushed so rapidly as to in- encountered popular antagonism which crystalized into hostile flict temporary injuries on irate farmers, thus inciting Granger legislation; a shock was given to public confidence in matters legislation, and how far Granger legislation led to a loss of relating to their management which, in combination with confidence in north-western railway enterprises, which pre- other adverse influences, led to numerous bankruptcies and cipitated the Jay Cooke panic, cannot be stated with precision. receiverships; fierce rivalries found expression in protracted There is an influence affecting such matters which rarely rc- and damaging rate wars; the charges for many classes of rail- ceives the consideration it merits. It is the effect of unduly way services fell to unprecedentedly low figures; and a long increasing the productive power of any great interest at a time train of disasters finally culminated in the destructive riots of when means for disposing of the additional surplus have not 1877. been devised, and it is possible that the available agricultural It would be impossible to fully describe all the calamities area of the west and north-west had been expanded with so that occurred. Titanic industrial and monetary forces were much more rapidity than corresponding markets for surplus engaged in conflicts scarcely less stupendous, in their way, than products had been created that the most powerful cause of the the clash of armed hosts during the previous decade. Exactly distress and agitation of the period might be traced to this what they meant, how they came about, how far they extended, single source. It certainly was one of the factors of the unfor- and how a better state of things was restored, can scarcely be tunate situation, acting in conjunction with the strain pro- fully comprehended. Many of the proceedings were of a pe- duced by the effort to resume specie payments. culiarly American type, and some were an outgrowth of a com- The practice of using donations or grants of land, to be earned bination of influences predominating a few years after the close on condition that a railway should be constructed on a par- of the war. ticular route as a basis of credit for such construction, had been Underlying everything else was an irredeemable paper cur- well established during the sixth decade, and some of the ope- rency, which made the question how soon specie payments rations of this description, after encountering a certain amount should be restored a leading issue for years,-one large body of financial difficulty, had been attended with remarkable suc- of men, and especially owners of national bonds, striving to cess. It was claimed that through a land grant the entire cost hasten such a restoration, and another large body, especially of construction might be defrayed, the proceeds of the lands those who were deeply in debt represented by obligations con- sold eventually paying the principal of bonds, and the stock- tracted when gold commanded a high premium, endeavoring holders finally owning an unincumbered property for which to retard it, while many active business men believed that they had paid nothing. The civil war temporarily interrupted their fortunes depended upon the decision reached on this activity in this direction, but it was no sooner ended than ope- momentous issue. Enormous public, private, and corporate rations were resumed with redoubled activity. This country, debts had been suddenly created, the burden of which might unlike all others, has so large a body of men trained to the be borne with comparative ease if the country was flooded business of building railways, and more or less familiar with all with greenbacks, while pecuniary ruin was inevitable in many the legal, engineering, mechanical, and financial tasks involved quarters if the touchstone of gold was too quickly applied. in this pursuit, that such labors may "regarded as one of Great transitions had occurred in the prospects of many agri- the greatest of the established American industries, liable, it is cultural districts and manufacturing enterprises, and in con- true, to notable fluctuations, but still being pursued, with vary- nection with numerous avocations producers had become more ing degrees of activity, at nearly all times, by a considerable numerous than consumers. Bright expectations had been dis- number of trained contractors, engineers, projectors, financiers, appointed; it was found that many things which had glittered manufacturers of rolling stock and railway supplies, laborers, were not gold; a scape goat was in demand; and there was a and other parties. Many representatives of these classes, whose strong disposition to press the railway system into that unde- energies had been largely diverted to warlike channels during sirable service, which was strengthened by the fact that some the first half of the seventh decade, eagerly embraced opportu- of the proceedings connected with its development or manage- nities for returning to their favorite pursuits after the war was ment had at sundry times and places furnished legitimate cause over, and the Pacific and land-grant railways, together with a of complaint. variety of new southern and south-western and other schemes, The three most important of the events of the early por- afforded extrordinary facilities for gratifying their predilections. tion of the eighth decade, in exceptional bearing on railway According to the stock exchange standard, railways generally affairs, were had become valuable properties. Leading land-grant road 29 Digitized by Google 226 LAND-GRANT. RAILWAYS. been financially successful, and there seemed to be no good Amount of sales Corporation. U.S. govern- State reason why the methods their managers had pursued could ment grants. grants. not be successfully applied to any remarkably fertile region; Hannibal and St. Joseph $ $5,100,873 13 and whether railways proved to be permanently paying enter- Illinois Central 23,703,035 64 prises or not, methods had been devised in connection with the Iowa Falls and Sioux City 1,991,042 42 construction of the Pacific and other roads which rendered it Missouri, Kansas and Texas 1,952,126 15 312,601 84 St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern 1,042,591 14 reasonably certain that the creation of important new lines St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba 1,209,928 99 would yield a handsome profit to the controlling spirits of such St. Paul and Sioux City 2,070,928 74 undertakings. The press, the public, politicians, state legisla- Stillwater and St. Paul 59,204 89 tures, and Congress, instead of endeavoring to interpose obsta- Western (of Minnesota) 65,463 27 cles to the rapid development of the chemes of the period, Winona and St. Peter 174,587 51 generally went to the opposite extreme, and in many quarters Wisconsin Central 203,489 76 their promotion was habitually advocated as one of the highest Wisconsin Valley 175,826 18 Little Rock and Fort Smith of patriotic duties. A national movement of this description 1,043,885 86 Memphis and Little Rock 150,179 63 is apt to expand into gigantic proportions, especially while it Vicksburg, Shreveport and Pacific 70,620 20 appears to furnish opportunities for profit to many classes, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe 7,342,012 including tens of thousands of settlers, who flock to the new Burlington and Missouri River (in Neb.). 8,148,446 81 regions, where they can obtain farms by a real or pretended Central Branch Union Pacific 800,000 00 compliance with the provisions of the homestead act; to hosts Central and Montgomery 17,280 00 00 of adventurers, who aim at becoming the founders or leading Central Pacific 4,285,410 33 inhabitants of new towns and cities that spring up with magical Corpus Christi, San Diego & Rio Grande. 42,202 90 rapidity, and to politicians, state legislators, and congressmen, East Line and Red River 82,024 04 Henderson and Overton 20,736 00 who receive tangible representations of a share of prospective Houston and Texas Central 54,720 00 00 profits, as well as to railway projectors and constructors, and Northern Pacific 10,481,489 17 their indispensable allies and assistants. Omaha and South-western 27,893 81 It is, therefore, not surprising that several hundred millions Oregon and California 210,142 04 of acres of land were granted by Congress to aid railway con- Southern Pacific 1,017,255 89 struction, and that of this amount a considerable quantity of Texas and Pacific 181,677 64 land was sold, while other large quantities remain unsold, and Union Pacific 6,923,706 09 the title to enormous areas remains in the Government, sub- Waxahachie Tap 7,944 58 ject to actual or threatened revocation. In addition to lands The only companies reporting more than one million acres in the territories granted directly by Congress there was a con- of lands granted by the United States government, and unsold siderable quantity of land granted by Congress to the states, in 18S0, were the following: Mobile and Ohio, 1,038,998.84 acres; which was subsequently granted by those states to railway com- St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern, 1,132,625.86; St. Paul panies, and some of the states, especially Texas, held large bodies and Duluth, 1,276,138.26; St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba, of land in their own right which were granted to railway com- 2,769,584.36; Winona and St. Peter, 1,315,571.50; Central Pa- panies. The magnitude of land-grant railway legislation which cific, 11,045,705.46; Northern Pacific, 5,347,859.40; Oregon and had been effective to the extent of securing an actual transfer California, 2,465,142.93; Southern Pacific, 11,684,536.00; Union of title to railway companies, and the amount of sales of land, Pacific, 10,431,561.38. The only companies which reported in 1880, is stated in the census report on railways for that year. more than one million acres of grants received from states, This table shows that there was then a wide discrepancy be- unsold in 1880, were the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, tween the quantities of land theoretically or conditionally 1,826,835.31; Galveston and Camargo International, 3,604,480; granted to companies, and the amounts for which they had Houston and Texas Central, 5,203,520; Texas and Pacific, actually received a title. For instance, the grant to the North- 4,755,862; Texas Trunk, 3,584,000, and several other Texas ern Pacific was, in round figures, for more than 50,000,000 of railway companies, whose grants had not been located or acres, while the amount reported in 1880 is set down at patented. 7,743,870.03, acres, and although the main line has been sub- The following statements of the amount of railway construc- stantially completed since it has continued to be a debateable tion which had been secured by land grants in each state or question in Congress up to 1887 whether the title of the com- territory and of the amount of land granted and certified, up pany to the chief body of the lands originally granted shall be to 1880, were published in that year:- forfeited, and sundry bills have been introduced which aimed at forfeiting this title on the ground that the road was not Mileage Constructed Through Land-Grant Aid. finished within the time originally prescribed. Several grants to other companies have been finally forfeited for various rea- States and territories. Miles. sons, including the refusal, in some instances, of companies to Alabama 822 accept them on the conditions prescribed, and the failure, in Arkansas 575 California other instances, to make any show of vigorous activity what- 1,223.89 Colorado 298 ever, in the way of promoting construction, within a reason- Dakota 196 able period. The actual amount of sales of land, derived from Florida 247 state or national land grants, up to 1880, as stated in the census Illinois 705.72 report of that year, was as follows:- Indian Territory 155 Amount of sales. Iowa 1,580 Corporation. U.S. govern- State Kansas 1,654 ment grants. grants. Louisiana 152 European and North American $ $63,328 61 Michigan 1,005 Flint and Pere Marquette 3,132,991 43 Minnesota 1,745 Grand Rapids and Indiana 3,144,832 68 Mississippi 406 Mobile and Girard 18,270 90 Missouri 703 Mobile and Ohio 476,611 58 Nebraska 832 Vicksburg and Meridian 85,898 00 Nevada 460 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 3,430,572 05 Oregon 227 Chicago and North-western 283,166 42 Texas (where there are no United States lands) 342.87 " " " 150,901 49 Utah 255 " " " 3,600 69 Washington 106 Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific 2,738,802 93 Wisconsin 533 Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha 412,746 48 Wyoming 400 362,628 90 Des Moines and Fort Dodge 50,602 Total 14,628.48 Digitized by Google RAILWAY PANIC OF SEPTEMBER, 1873. 227 Number of Acres Granted and Certified. EFFECT OF LAND-GRANT RAILWAYS IN HASTENING SETTLEMENTS. States Acres granted. Acres certified. The following extract from an address delivered by Mr. Illinois 2,595,053.00 2,595,053.00 Drake, a president of a land-grant road, in 1876, gives some Mississippi 2,062,240.00 935,158.11 interesting experiences:- Alabama 2,579,120.00 2,829,545.86 "About six years ago," says Mr. Drake, "I went out with my Florida 2,360,114.00 1,760,468.39 engineer to locate a road in the southern part of Minnesota, to Louisiana 1,578,720.00 1,072,405.45 Arkansas 4,878,149.14 2,376,130.63 Sioux City, in the northern part of Iowa. We traveled with Missouri 2,985,160.21 1,828,005.02 our camp equipage, because there were no houses there. We Iowa 6,795,527.31 8,940,270.75 traveled as far as thirty miles at times without seeing the ves- Michigan 4,712,480.29 3,228,987.09 tige of a human habitation, or a person, over, perhaps, as fine Wisconsin 4,808,436.07 2,672,803.56 a body of land as there is under the sun. We camped out at Minnesota 9,992,041.95 6,925,351.19 night, lived on the provisions we carried with us, and often Kansas 9,870,000.00 3,851,536.28 found ourselves in places where there was not a tree for thirty 55,717,041.97 34,015,715.33 miles, or a stick or switch large enough to hitch a horse to. A Corporations: Pacific railroads 159,486,766.00 8,831,687.79 herd of antelopes during the day roamed around us for a dis- Total 215,203,807.97 42,847,403.12 tance of forty miles, in sight of which we drove every hour or two. That was in the south-western part of Minnesota. In Number of Acres of Land Granted by Congress for Railroads Each Year. the north-western part of Iowa, a state with over a million Year. No. of acres. Year. No. of acres. people, I have traveled for thirty miles without seeing a soli- 1850 3,751,711 1865 128,000 tary habitation or human face. I am happy to say, or, rather, 1852 2,280,635 1866 64,902,000 unhappy to say, that one of those counties has been since 1853 1,856,711 1367 100,000 organized, and has made a debt of $250,000 for the land-grant 1856 12,083,295 1869 1,100,000 roads to pay. We all know that railways, particularly 1857 4,126,638 1870 2,741,600 1862 15,345,166 1871 24,152,515 those built during the war, at the expense at which they were 1863 4,430,000 constructed, could scarcely be built with any hope of profit 1864 50,787,579 Total 187,785,850 through the sparsely settled parts of our country. Take the case that I have cited in Minnesota, of the St. Paul and It will be seen by the statements of amount of land sales Pacific road, a road that I was first indirectly connected with. that in a few cases, and notably in that of the Illinois Central, For probably 150 miles upon that road there is now a dense the receipts for land represented large sums; but, generally settlement for a prairie or new country, sending off from a speaking, revenues from this source did but little to pay either single station from one to three hundred thousand bushels of the cost or even the interest on the cost of the land-grant roads. wheat, where four or five years ago there was not a settler, and The financial facts of the entire land-grant construction of the where, to this day and for all time to come, it would have re- country present a notable contrast with some of the theories mained unsettled but for that railway. Scarcely a road ventilated on this subject. Speedy success was the exception in Minnesota would have been built, but for land grants. We rather than the rule; disastrous failures were numerous; and had a prairie soil, stretching off for more than one hundred the grant of large quantities of land to aid construction had miles, and along the road which I represent there is not a cord two effects which helped to precipitate a crisis, viz.: First, a of wood to-day, except what has been planted by the railway wide extension of the practice of attempting to build railways since was located. W passed through township after township, without any substantial basis of cash capital legitimately paid and mile after mile, and not a single acre of land, that had been for capital stock in sums approximating to a considerable surveyed for years-the finest land under the sun-not one percentage of its nominal value; and second, an effective en- single acre had been taken by anybody. We commenced build- couragement of attempts to construct railways over numerous ing the road, and before it was graded almost every acre, except routes at periods when it was practically impossible to attract the railway grant, was taken up on the theory of actual settle- a sufficient amount of traffic to earn interest on cost, or even, ment, but which theory was very much abused, of course. The in some instances, operating expenscs. The waste of capital homestead, and particularly the pre-emption laws, the soldiers' involved in building railways before they were needed, became claim law, and the tree claim law were all very much abused. doubly injurious when the chief effect of efforts to attract A little incident occurred to me which I may relate. I hap- population to their lines was to stimulate the overproduction pened to be riding over our road to Omaha with a late Secre- of the surplus breadstuffs and provisions upon which many tary of the Interior, when he turned to me and said: 'Mr. western and north-western states relied for the payment of Drake, why is it that these lands are not settled up? As far as pressing obligations. Some of these obligations, in turn, had the eye can reach there isn't a single man to be seen here.' been contracted for the purpose of aiding railway construction, Said I: 'Mr. Secretary, the evidence exists in your department, especially those represented by taxes imposed to meet the in- under oath, that every even section of this land is taken up, terest on bonds issued by towns and counties to promote the and has an actual settler upon it.' To his question what I construction of new lines, and there were also some individual meant, I replied: "These are pre-emptions, taken up by actual subscriptions to railway stock by farmers whose ventures in settlers, and sworn to, and you have granted patents in your that direction had been decidedly unprofitable. office to them." RAILWAY PANIC OF SEPTEMBER, 1873. A S there had been panics in 1854 and 1857, which were payments had been suspended for about a dozen years, and attributed mainly to an undue amount of railway con- there was no expectation of speedy resumption, and when the struction, but which, in the judgment of many persons, were national bank system was in successful operation. This is caused largely by the imperfect nature of the banking system frequently called existing in those years, and especially by the effects of an THE JAY COOKE PANIC, actual or threatened suspension of specie payments on all because it commenced on the day the failure of the firm of business affairs, 80 there was in September, 1873, a panic which which he was the head was announced, which was September injuriously affected many persons and interests that was re- 18th, 1873. This failure was of much more consequence than garded chiefly as an outgrowth of excessive or premature rail- the downfall of ordinary banking houses, because Jay Cooke ion; and it occurred at & period when specie had been the leading negotiator of the enormous loans made Digitized by Google 228 RAILWAY PANIC OF SEPTEMBER, 1873. by the United States government during and shortly after the the closing price $491, and on the following day, September war, and because he had subsequently assumed the task of 19th, the closing price was $44}. The opening price for Phila- disposing of the bonds necessary to procure the means for delphia and Reading, on September 18th, was $54, it fell during constructing the Northern Pacific Railroad-this sum being the day to $51, and closed on the following day at $49}. During estimated, in round numbers, at not much less than one hun- the remainder of the year there were unusually violent fluctua- dred millions of dollars-and it was on account of the failure tions in the quotations for Pennsylvania, which fell at times of this firm to sell such bonds as rapidly as means were re- below $41, but generally reacted, to some extent, quickly. The quired for construction at the rate it had been progressing, and last reported sale of the year 1873 was at $471. its advance of firm funds and deposits to meet such expendi- In the New York Stock Exchange the prices of stocks during tures, that the failure occurred. On the line of the Northern September, 1873, include the following fluctuations:- Pacific there had been constructed in 1870 114 miles, in 1871 High. Low. 114.28 miles, in 1872 165 miles, and in 1878 136.50 miles-a Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 981 00 total of 529.78 miles. No now construction whatever is re- Chicago and North-western 642 40 ported in the three succeeding years of 1874, 1875, and 1876. Chicago and Rock Island 108] 86 In 1877 the new mileage reported is 31, and in 1879 54 miles, Columbus, Chicago and Indiana Central 31± 19 Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 100} 86 making the total amount for the decade 614.73 miles. The Erie 591 501 rapidity of the progress made to the end of 1873, and the Harlem 1301 90 extent to which further proceedings were delayed, are indicated Hannibal and St. Joseph 371 19 by these figures. But they furnish an inadequate idea of the Lake Shore 93 73 magnitude of the undertaking or the extent of the financial Michigan Central 901 80 and industrial derangements caused by the panic. Milwaukee and St. Paul 51 30 New Jersey Central 102 911 PREMONITORY SYMPTOMS. New York Central 1051 89 Before September 18th, 1873, there had been a notable de- Ohio and Mississippi 391 261 cline in the price of many stocks, as compared with quotations Union Pacific 271 16 in the early part of that year. Tight-money spasms had Toledo, Wabash and Western 701 381 occurred, and the rates for carrying stocks about the 1st of OF THE GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE PANIC, April had been quoted as high as from 4 to 1 per cent. per the United States Railway and Mining Register, of September diem. This influence, a growing feeling of distrust, and a su- 27th, 1873, says: "The panic of last week has resulted in a perabundance of railway securities, had caused in я great num- standstill of financial houses, giving a rude check to the east- ber of stocks about as large a decline from January 1st to Sep- ward movement of the grain crop and the foreign steamship tember 18th as that which followed the panic. There was also a financial failure announced on September 17th, which did freight business outward, and threatening manufacturers who deal in wares used for transportation. The Paterson locomo- much to precipitate the crisis, as on that day the paper of the Now York and Oswego Midland Railroad was protested. The tive shops, for example, have reduced their force by a thousand men. The suspension of four or five heavy banking following description of the effect of this disaster was published houses has caused a virtual suspension of the national banks, by the New York Tribune in its money-article relating to the who see fit to mark all large checks good, and only pay out events of September 17th: "There was a dreadful sweeping small amounts of currency to enable artisans, &c., to pay their away of stock margins to-day, the depreciation covering the entire list, and showing a decline from the closing quotations employes." In its issue of October 4th, 1873, it said: "The of last night to the lowest points reached to-day of from I to 7 panic has passed, but its effects persist. Currency has been per cent., and averaging about 21 per cent. There will drawn from every bank and savings fund, to be distributed no doubt be a general overhauling of brokers' ledgers to-night, through the country. Certified checks take the place of and the mails will go out freighted with letters calling for more greenbacks for the time being; and are being considered a par currency; bank notes are at a premium of 2 to 3 per cent., and margins. Of course, many may be unable or unwilling to re- spond, in which case their stocks will be forced upon the market, have been sold as high as 5. Gold is flowing in from England, on and sold for what they will fetch, the tendency of which will be account of the paralysis of exchange paper; yet it was quoted to still further depress prices. at 115 a week ago, and had only fallen to 110} on Thursday. The banks are holding their money fast for their own protection, and next for that of This represents about 108 as to certified checks. The scarcity legitimate trade, that the whole business of the country may of currency seriously affects manufactures. Some of the rail- not be demoralized for the sake of a few wildcat railroads and ways in progress have been stopped. The Bergen Hill work of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, for in- wildcat bankers, who lend their name or their cash by the million to companies who have no immediate resources. It stance, is suspended, throwing 400 men out of employment. The Danforth Locomotive Works, at Paterson, New Jersey, will require the utmost caution on the part of our leading capi- talists and heavy security owners to avert a panic, and perhaps work two gangs on alternate days. The Morris and Essex Railroad discharged 150 men on Tuesday. Atkins' Fischbach a crash like that of 1857. The minds of capitalists and ope- rators are surcharged with distrust, and the air of Wall street rail mill at Pottsville suspended work September 80th, setting with rumors, started generally in the bear interest, of failures, 200 men idle. The European bourses are beginning to sympa- defalcations, and of disasters dire." thize with ours. On Thursday trade and speculation in Berlin were at a standstill and a crisis was expected. The Bank of This being the reported condition of affairs on the morning of September 18th, the effect of the announcement of the failure England has advanced its rate of discount." of Jay Cooke & Co. may be more easily imagined than de- In its issue of October 18th, 1873, it says: "It was to be ex- scribed, especially as it was followed, after a very brief interval, pected that the shock to speculation, the failure of bankers, by the announcement that banks and firms in various cities, and the disappearance of currency would embarrass manufac- turers, but few anticipated the re-exportation of millions of with which Jay Cooke was closely identified, had also failed, dollars' worth of silks and wines and articles of luxury back to and that a similar disaster had overtaken several prominent Europe, the general reduction of orders for work, the running New York capitalists, who were actively engaged with two other railway construction schemes. On the 19th of September of many factories and shops on half time, the dismissal of rail- way operatives and employés, and the cutting down of wages a series of other important failures were announced, and by the 20th the panic on the New York Stock Exchange reached such from 10 to 20 per cent. The working population had no inkling of the approach of such events, and are alarmed and indignant alarming proportions that it was considered necessary to close the Exchange, and suspend all formal dealings, a suspension at probable consequences. Rolling-mill wages have continued until the end of the month. been reduced from 10 to 15 per cent. at several of the largest works, and many mills expect to suspend work altogether for FLUCTUATIONS IN RAILWAY STOCKS. lack of orders. Over two hundred men employed at car works At the Philadelphia Stock Exchange, on September 18th, the in Jersey City have quitted work, it is stated, because the com- opening prices for Pennsylvania Railroad stock was $53, and pany has paid them no wages for two months. It was reported Digitized by Google GRANGER LEGISLATION-RAILWAY COMMISSIONS. 229 on Thursday that the Louisville shops were dismissing many trates more fully than any event which has ever occurred in of their workmen, and that the Nashville operatives say they this country the perils that attend extensive land-grant projects. have not been paid off for two months. The rolling mills have What they were, in this instance, was clearly stated in a report resumed operations after a week's suspension. The Ohio Falls made at Berlin, in November, 1871, after an elaborate investi- Car Company has suspended work until all accounts are settled gation of the line of the Northern Pacific and all matters per- with their railroad debtors. The banks have resumed currency taining to it, by Herr Haas, a German engineer, who had been payments." engaged by German capitalists to report on the question whether In addition to the indications given above of the effects of it would be advisable to make investments in the Northern Pa- the panic, one of the most important was the sudden lowering cific bonds. The report states that the company proposed to of the standard of railway credit at home and abroad. It be- issue bonds to the amount of $100,000,000, which sum was in- came almost impossible for several years to borrow consider- tended to provide means for constructing about two thousand able amounts of money to be used in new railway construction. miles of railway. Its estimated cost, including necessary ap- The credit of established companies, which were engaged in purtenances, and interest on capital during construction, exclu- extensive undertakings, was seriously impaired. The securities sive of earnings, was $85,277,000. The amount of the land which had been issued for work actually done on new lines fell grant to be earned was about 50,000,000 acres. All this land to a merely nominal sum, and in some instances they could and the completed road were mortgaged, and held in trust as scarcely be disposed of at any price. The amount of new rail- security for the payment of interest and the redemption of the way construction in 1874, and during several subsequent years, bonds, and two of the questions answered were as follows: fell far below that of 1873, and except in connection with enter- Does the finished line offer the necessary guarantee that the prises 80 far advanced that comparatively small sums were net profit of its income will yield the sums required for the necessary to insure completion, short lines, and narrow-gauge half-yearly payment of the stipulated rate (7.30 per cent.) of projects, which suddenly gained favor on account of their interest on the bonds? Will the sums realized from the sale alleged cheapness, the work of building new lines was sus- of lands suffice to redeem the bonds within thirty years?" pended or abandoned for several years. These important questions were both answered in the nega- tive, and detailed reasons were given for the conclusions, which NATURE OF THE NORTHERN PACIFIC PROJECT. display much good judgment and correct reasoning. The point While it is probable that many causes contributed to the to which most importance was attached was that after the com- panic of 1873, there can be no doubt that the most prominent pletion of the line there would be a period during which the was the large amount of new railway construction progressing company would not be able to earn the interest on the cost of during several years previous, especially that portion of it its line by profits from operation, and chiefly on this account which was in districts where traffic was insufficient to pay in- European capitalists were advised to decline participation in terest on the cost of completed lines or divisions. The Northern the enterprise. Pacific was the most prominent and important representative A similar danger attended various other land-grant projects, of the American land-grant roads and land-grant methods of and experience has demonstrated that the losses incurred by construction, and the disaster which overwhelmed Mr. Cooke, operating a road that does not earn interest on its cost during and greatly reduced the nominal value of the bonds he had a series of years goes far to counterbalance advantages derived sold to the extent of about a score of millions of dollars, illus- from land grants. GRANGER LEGISLATION-RAILWAY COMMISSIONS. O UT of the rapid development of land-grant roads and these benefits had been enjoyed chiefly by residents of regions various other influences grew granger legislation. It was east of the Mississippi, and especially those who lived in states the commencement of a new form of legal antagonism to rail- located, like Ohio, near the western slope of the Appalachian way property, or at least an assertion of the right of state legis- chain. It was obviously more difficult to confer corresponding latures or commissions to definitely prescribe the charges that benefits on farmers in states west of the Mississippi like Iowa, should be imposed for railway services, after the roads had Minnesota, Missouri, and Kansas; but due allowance was not been constructed with the understanding on the part of those made, by disappointed farmers, for this difference, or for the who furnished the means for such construction, that the right extent to which the advantages of the cheap and fertile land of making rates was vested in the railway managers. they possessed were offset by remoteness from the seaboard. This movement was chiefly the outgrowth of an irate and During the war and for some time after its close the demand discontented spirit among the farmers of the states of Illinois, for breadstuffs and provisions was 80 great, and prices were Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, acting in unison as members generally maintained at such a high level, that industrious of an organization called the National Grange, which was first western and north-western farmers had little cause for com- started in 1867, suddenly became popular in 1872, and had in plaint in regard to their pecuniary condition and prospects. 1874 a reported membership of 1,600,000, with subgranges in all Discontent became nearly universal under the general pressure the agricultural states, which were specially numerous in the caused by the additional competition of new farmers, the states named above. sudden return of a large body of men from warlike scenes The central northern portion of the Mississippi valley was to peaceful agricultural avocations, the construction of many the theatre of the most active demonstrations, and this was new railways through fertile districts which furnished addi- the region to which a large population had been attracted, tional farms, and the gradual transition from greenback to during a comparatively short period, by efforts of land-grant gold valuations of all descriptions of property while the burden railways to dispose of their lands, as well as by the general of debts remain unreduced. course of emigration previous to the war and shortly after its close. Transportation charges possessed for its farmers vital THE FAVORITE PANACEA FOR ALL GRIEVANCES WAS A REDUCTION significance, on account of the long distances over which their IN THE CHARGES FOR TRANSPORTATION, surplus products had to be moved to reach an available mar- and it was part of the granger agitation to aim at securing ket, and the paucity, at that time, of the manufacturing de- such reductions; first, by the passage of state laws fixing rail- velopment of the districts they inhabited. way rates, either through commissions or legislative enactments, Attention has already been directed to the wonderful things at figures satisfactory to farming interests; and second, by ob- done by railways previous to 1860 in the way of increasing the taining congressional aid in cheapening through movements, value of western farm lands and the prosperity of farmers, but either by the improvement of waterways, regulation of charges Digitized by Google 230 GRANGER LEGISLATION-RAILWAY COMMISSIONS. of trunk lines, or the construction of a cheap national freight some of the more notable features of the granger agitation are railway. All these methods found earnest advocates. too important to render an omission of all mention of them So far as national relief is concerned the trunk lines have justifiable. One of the peculiarities was the overwhelming for years been carrying to the seaboard, from western centres, pressure they were enabled to bring upon all branches of local large quantities of western and north-western produce at much government. A remarkable instance of this was furnished by lower rates than the grangers hoped to secure over land routes the defeat at the polls of an upright state judge, when he was a in 1873, and something similar has happened with A large pro- candidate for re-election, on the avowed ground that he had portion of their local rates since traffic has increased and made a decision which helped to furnish to railway companies numerous mechanical improvements have been made which n temporary barrier against aggressive legislation. Aspirants helped to cheapen the actual cost of transportation. But the for legislative, congressional, judicial, and executive positions effort to hasten such a cheapening of cost by force of legisla- considered this as a warning that, for the time being, unyield- tion, against vigorous protests of the companies affected, and ing acquiescence in granger demands was the price of the without regard for the rights of investors, inflicted a severe popularity necessary to enable them to gain or retain power, shock on railway credit. and they acted in accordance with this opinion, thus virtually THE NATURE OF THE DEMANDS MADE BY THE GRANGERS, placing the whole powers of the Government at the service of and their methods of enforcing them, are indicated by the fol- the leaders of the agitation, except 80 far as restraining in- lowing resolutions, which form part of the platforms of various fluences were provided either by state or Federal constitutional conventions held in North-western states during 1873:- provisions, or judicial interpretations of chartered rights of rail- "That we receive with satisfaction the decision of the Su- way companies, or reactions of granger sentiment, especially preme Court of this state (Minnesota) in the case of Blake those based on the discovery that by acting too harshly the against the Winona and St. Peter Railroad Company, in which construction of new lines, which many persons desired, would the court holds, in effect, that the railroads are simply im- be prevented. proved highways, public roads, and that as such the right to Unlike many of the older states, in which a considerable prescribe a rate of tolls and charges is an attribute of the sov- number of citizens were interested pecuniarily in local lines, as ereignty of the people of which no legislature can divest them. stockholders and bondholders, the granger states had few of "That we will not aid in elevating any man to any important such investors; and 80 far as ventures had been made by their public position whatever who will either deny or object to the farmers, or residents of rural districts, in railway investments, exercise by the legislature of the power to reverse or annul at they had usually been 80 unfortunate that the results had gen- any time any chartered privilege or so-called vested right, or erally converted the partics concerned into specially earnest any privilege claimed to be involved in any charter to any cor- advocates of legislation hostile to the railways. This last- poration, railroad or otherwise, which experience has shown named phase of the subject probably had more influence in is or may be exercised by such corporation or by other similar generating an ultra hostile sentiment than is commonly sup- corporations to the detriment of the public welfare, and that posed. How it grew up can be best illustrated by the following we will demand from every candidate for a high executive, STORY OF A GRANGER VICTIM OF RAILWAY ENTERPRISE, legislative, or judicial position to whom we accord our support, that he shall pledge himself to recognize the maintenance of which was told to a correspondent of the New York Tribune. this right by the Government as a sacred duty, essential for about the time the agitation was at fever heat, by a Wisconsin the preservation of the liberties of the people and the stability farmer. Speaking of the land-grant roads of that region he and prosperity of the commonwealth. said:- "That we demand a state law that will pay out of the public "Do you know how these roads have, most of them, been funds the costs and charges of all suits brought by individuals built? In the first place, they got land grants that in some to enforce the laws of the state against railroad companies. counties are worth almost as much as the roads cost. Then "That all corporations are subject to legislative control; that they sent agents to the counties through which the road was those created by Congress should be restricted and controlled to be built, who induced them to vote bonds to the companies by Congress, and that those under state laws should be subject and take stock; in some instances they provided them a first to the control respectively of the states creating them; that mortgage on the road when it should be completed. Then such legislative control should be an express abrogation of the they got bonds from cities, and, in some cases, even from theory of the inalienable nature of chartered rights, and that it townships. Of course the interest on these all has to be raised should be at all times so used as to prevent moneyed corpora- by taxing us farmers. But that is not all. Their agents went tions from becoming engines of oppression. through the country, and wherever they found a farmer who "Whereas, The legislature of Illinois, at its late session, passed had a few hundred dollars laid by, they persuaded him to buy a law defining and providing for the punishment of extortion the stock of the road, and pay cash for it. Their argument by any railroad companies within this state, fixing the penal- was a very plausible one; they told us that we were paying ties at from $1,000 to $5,000 for the first conviction of any rail- from twenty-five to fifty cents a bushel to get our wheat hauled road company; from $5,000 to $10,000 for the second; from to Milwaukee, and that when the road was completed they $10,000 to $20,000 for the third, and at $25,000 for every subse- would carry it for from five to ten cents. The difference would quent conviction, which sums, when collected, shall be paid be added to the value of every bushel of wheat that we raised. into the treasury of the county in which conviction shall be Then the road would belong to the farmers, and, of course, we had, for the use of said county; and whereas, upon due informa- were all going to get rich. I took $2,000 of stock in this tion furnished, it is made the duty of the railroad commissioners (Chicago and North-western) road and paid cash for it. But a to cause suits to be commenced and prosecuted for said penal- great many of the farmers had no money to spare, and they ties, at the expense of the state; and whereas, the question as were induced to give the railroads mortgages on their farms. to extortion in any such prosecution is one of fact to be de- They were assured that before the time came to pay their cided by a judge; therefore, mortgages the road would be built and the value of their crops "Resolved, That the people of this state (Illinois) have a would be enough increased to enable them to pay up, and at remedy for the extortions to which they are subjected by the any rate their farms would be enough enhanced in value to railroads within their reach, and we recommend to the various more than make up for the mortgage. In some cases the farmers' associations herein to furnish such information to farmers took stock for these mortgages, and in some the the railroad commissioners, without delay, as will warrant the promise of a first mortgage on the road as soon as it should be prosecution of suits for the collection of penalties to the full built. extent to which the railroad companies may be liable." Well, now, how do you suppose they treated us? They did'nt give the farmers the mortgage on the road that they DOMINATION OF GRANGER INFLUENCES. promised, but when they gave them anything it was a second A full record of the laws for regulating railway charges mortgage on long time. The first was a short one given to actually passed, and the legal battles which followed their capitalists. That was, of course, foreclosed, the road sold out, passage, would require much more space than is available; but and the value of the stock and bonds held by counties, towns, Digitized by Google GRANGER LEGISLATION-RAILWAY COMMISSIONS. 231 and individual farmers destroyed. I could find you stacks of ceeding 100 per cent. Comparisons are also made with foreign certificates and bonds for which our farmers paid cash or railway tariffs. The leading railroads in Great Britain are se- mortgaged their places, and which are now not worth as much lected. On flour per barrel, per 100 miles, the English roads as the blank paper on which they are printed. Thousands of charge: Midland, 36 cents; North-western, 96 cents; London, farmers were absolutely ruined." Brighton and South Coast, 30 cents, and Glasgow and South- There may be exaggeration in this statement but something western, 40 cents. The Potter law allows 28 cents. Upon agri- like the events described probably occurred in connection with cultural implements the English rates are more than double a considerable number of the land-grant or other roads of the the Potter rates. These differences are still more remarkable, granger states, and it is obvious that such occurrences would in view of the relative cost of operating the roads. Last year have the effect of stimulating adverse legislation, without re- the cost per mile run on the Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway gard to its justice or the rights of non-resident owners or was $1.39, while on the Cleveland and Pittsburgh it was 54 creditors of railway property. cents; on the Philadelphia and Reading, 61 cents; on the Penn- sylvania, 94 cents. Upon 28 Massachusetts roads it averaged SPECIFIC GRANGER GRIEVANCES AND REMEDIES. $1.28, and upon all the roads in Great Britain in 1872 it averaged At the root of all that is peculiar in granger legislation, as 66 cents per train mile. This is largely owing to the increased contradistinguished from other attempts to regulate railway cost of fuel, Wisconsin companies having to pay for inferior charges by law, lies the fact that nearly all the original coal three times the price per ton paid by Pennsylvania and charters of the north-western lines omitted such references to Ohio companies." maximum charges as were common elsewhere. Instead of UNJUST DISCRIMINATION-AND THE LONG AND SHORT HAUL. saying that the railway managers should have the power to establish freight and passenger tariffs provided they did not ex- Various other states, in attempting to make detailed regula- ceed certain fixed sums per ton per mile or per passenger per tions of railway rates, committed errors similar to those depicted mile, no check whatever of this kind was imposed. This form above, as part of the requirements of the Potter law, passed in of legislation proved to be a delusion and a snare. Instead of Wisconsin, but a disposition to correctsuch errors was frequently permanently giving to the railways the unlimited powers which manifested by the repeal or material modification of specially were apparently conferred, and for a time exercised, its prac- unjust laws or regulations of commissioners; and in Illinois, tical effect was to transfer the period of a legislative exercise where these agitations first commenced, with the incorporation of a right of regulating charges or fixing maximum rates to a of a radical clause in the new constitution of that state, the specially inauspicious era. This view seems to be substantially leading popular complaint was not that the general range of justified by the fact that the first decision of the Supreme Court railway charges was too high, but that the charges for move- of the United States in cases involving the validity of granger ments to or from competing points was considerably lower than railway legislation says: "It was within the power of the com- movements of equal length to or from non-competing points, pany to call upon the legislature to fix permanently this limit and that one of the outgrowths of this condition of affairs was [of maximum rates] and make it a part of the charter, and if that the charges were frequently higher for movements of a it was refused, to abstain from building the road, and estab- given kind, of a given quantity, on a given day, over a given lishing the contemplated business. If that-had been done the line, over a relatively short distance, than for a freight move- charter might have presented a contract against future legisla- ment exactly similar over a longer distance, if the latter hap- tive interference. But it was not, and the company invested pened to be to or between competing points, while the former its capital, relying upon the good faith of the people and the was not. It was on this issue that the first legal battle of im- wisdom and impartiality of legislators for protection against portance growing out of granger legislation was fought. this form of legislative regulation." The decision was favorable to the railway company con- It is obvious that maximum rates prescribed by a legislature cerned, mainly on the ground that the law passed relating to at a time when the railways to which they are applicable have this subject was unconstitutional on account of its assumption not been constructed, and when the communities concerned that a higher charge for a short haul than a relatively long one earnestly desire to promote their construction, and to en- was necessarily an unjust discrimination. It was well under- courage distant capitalists to provide the means for meeting stood by all concerned that the real cause of the distinction the large necessary outlays, are likely to be considerably higher was that a concession favorable to the long-haul shipper was than the maximum rates fixed by a legislature or commission necessary to meet the competition of rival lines. after railways have been in operation for some years, and after The issue involved was whether railway companies, after a feeling of hostility to their management has been engendered; being obliged to confront the losses arising from excessive and, to a considerable extent, the north-western lines were made competition, which arose principally from the custom of to feel the magnitude of this difference by the marked contrast granting charters to all persons who asked for them, were between the detailed schedules imposed by granger commis- guilty of "unjust discrimination" when they charged more for sions and the character of the limitations that were fixed in a short haul between non-competing points than a longer haul the charters of some of the railways of older states. A good to a competing point, or between competing points. illustration of these differences, as well as of the extreme lengths The intense interest excited at various times and places in to which some of the granger legislation extended, in the way controversies on this issue, and the enduring nature of the of endeavoring to compel railways to render services for inade- agitations which have been maintained in reference to it, not quate compensation, is furnished by the following compendium only in the granger states but in various other commonwealths, of portions of a joint memorial presented by the Chicago and and finally in the nation at large, indicates that it is one of the North-western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Rail- fundamental matters relating to transportation about which ways, in 1875, to the Wisconsin legislature, as an argument in two well-defined sets of opinions have become firmly rooted. favor of a repeal of the Potter law, passed at a previous session:- Nothing seems more natural and proper to many men engaged "On lumber, per car load, the Potter law allows $25 for 200 in moving persons and things than to impose a larger charge miles, while the Boston and Albany charges $40; the Vermont for a short movement than a longer one, provided there are Central, $46; Erie, $37; Great Western (of Canada), Michigan legitimate reasons for such a distinction, such as those arising Central, Illinois Central, each $38; Lake Shore, $35; Indian- from the necessity of meeting competition at the more distant apolis, Cincinnati and Lafayette, $56; the Hannibal and St. point which does not exist at the point to which the short haul Joseph, $65 per car load. On grain, per 100 pounds, the rates are extends. On the other hand, a large portion of the general for 225 miles: Vermont Central, 31 cents; Boston and Albany, public which has manifested an interest in railway regulations, 30 cents; Erie, 25 cents; Pennsylvania, 36 cents; Pittsburgh and grave and able legislators, and shippers living at non-competing Fort Wayne, 32 cents; St. Louis and Kansas City, 34 cents, and points consider that the practice referred to is under all circum- Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, 36 cents. The Potter law allows stances inexcusable, and that it necessarily represents a form 221 cents for the service. On agricultural implements, wagons, of "unjust discrimination" that should be strictly forbidden &c., the difference remarkable, in many cases ex- by law. Digitized by Google 232 GRANGER LEGISLATION-RAILWAY COMMISSIONS. A RAILROAD PRESIDENT'S EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSES OF THE this state are double, I think, those of either Iowa or Wiscon- GRANGER AGITATION. sin. In the state of Minnesota you get only n little over $8,500. In September, 1873, John Newell, then president of the I think Iowa is a little over $4,000, and Wisconsin, $4,000." Illinois Central Railroad Company, was asked by the United NEW SYSTEMS OF RAILWAY REGULATION. States Senate committee on transportation routes to the sea- board, what were the causes of the popular complaints against The incorporation of a radical railway clause in the new railways in Illinois, and in reply made the following state- Illinois constitution in 1870 seems to have been the signal for ment:- the commencement of a new era in the railway legislation or "The great cause of complaint here in Illinois was first governmental supervision of railways in this country. At all created by the low price of corn last year, and that was simply events it was quickly followed by the granger agitation, the in- brought around by causes that I suppose were not under the corporation of similar clauses in the constitutions of other control of anybody here; it was brought around simply by the states and corresponding legislation, together with the appoint- immense overproduction, which put the value of the surplus ment of state railway commissions, which have now become simply at the price at which the European supply could be established institutions in a majority of commonwealths, and delivered in Great Britain; or, in other words, the Liverpool some of the southern states, as well as western and north- price controlled the price here, and the cost of getting it to the western states, substantially adopted the entire granger system seaboard, difficulty with the freight rates across the ocean,- of railway regulation. In 1870, also, the first report of the which were large and have been increasing since-left a margin Massachusetts railway commission was made. That body, un- here of 18 to 20 cents a bushel at the stations around Illinois like the commissions of a number of the north-western and last fall, which was an exceedingly low price. That is, as I view southern states, had very limited powers, its actual duties it, the fundamental cause of complaint. But, beyond that, the being rather to examine and report on alleged railway abuses, farmers and shippers all about the state have discovered that than to endeavor to prescribe rates or to enforce remedies, yet the local charges of all our railways here where competition it has exercised through the series of years it has been in ex- did not exist were a good deal higher than they were where istence, a more decided influence upon the railways subjected there was competition. We (railway managers) have all dis- to its supervision than commissions entrusted with greater covered that when we cannot get the price we want for carry- powers. Of the numerous railway commissions created since ing on business, to pay a fair dividend on the values of the 1870 it may be said, in general terms, that the scope of their property, we take what we can get, and the consequence was authority has represented almost every conceivable variation that we were all hauling property from competing sections at between the limited jurisdiction of the Massachusctts commis- a great deal less rates than from intermediate stations. That, sion and the extensive powers conferred upon some of the of course, attracted attention here, and, perhaps, was the im- north-western and southern commissions. mediate cause of the great complaint about discrimination and A matter of special importance, in the bearing of these extortion. creations of commissions endowed with various powers, on the But, as I view it, the other cause is really the fundamental development of transportation systems, hinges on the fact that cause of the whole complaint. The prices for the transporta- the commencement of their operations marks a new era. Be- tion for one hundred and fifty or one hundred miles out of fore that period the-chief concern of all progressive communi- Chicago, on grain, are perhaps three or four cents per ton per ties was to promote railway construction-to get railways, mile, while rates from here to the seaboard, and from the same honestly if they could, but to get railways-while after that stations in the interior of Illinois to the seaboard by direct period the desire to procure new lines, which had by no means route, were about a cent and an eighth to a cent and a half per become extinct, was strongly intermingled with a popular do- ton per mile. People seeing this difference say 'you are ex- termination to impose upon the lines already in existence tortionate,' where we charge from three to four cents. On the much more stringent checks of one kind or another than had other hand, the prices that we get-taking Mattoon, one hun- previously been attempted. The various forms of regulation dred and seventy-three miles south of Chicago-it has a road proposed, most of which were applied to some extent, con- direct to New York, all rail, it has five cents a hundred above sisted chiefly of plans which had previously been suggested in the rates existing from Chicago at the same time; sometimes England. They included the following:- ten cents, and from five to ten cents is the difference. We have 1. Equal mileage rates. hauled a good deal of grain from Mattoon [to Chicago] for ten 2. Rates to be fixed by relation to cost and profit on capital. cents a hundred pounds. We charge from Kankakee, fifty-six 3. Immediate reduction of rates. miles south of Chicago, I think, eleven cents, if my memory is 4. Periodical revision of rates and fares. correct; and you see eleven cents for fifty-six miles, and ten 5. Absolute limitation of dividends. cents for one hundred and seventy-throe miles, creates at 6. Division of profits beyond a certain limit between compa- once this feeling of extortion and unjust discrimination. Now nies and the public. these two facts are the real cause of the complaint in this state 7. Enforced interchange of traffic, through rates and run- against the railways." ning powers. At this point the committee asked, "What are the causes of 8. Publication of rates. that discrimination?" The response was as follows:- 9. Combinations and consolidations with competing lines to "The principle is simply this: We say the prices we are be prohibited. charging for local business are fair prices, and on them only 10. Railway companies to be required to receipt for quantity, we can maintain a fair income upon the value of the roads; and to account for the same at destination. for when we come to a station where the business either gocs Attempts to enforce some of these regulations had been made away from it or is taken at a small advance over the cost, we in various states previous to 1870, and some of the methods say we will keep that business as a small help added to the were so obviously objectionable that they found few advocates general result, and enable us to make much better dividends. at any time in any country, but other methods included in the That is to say, if we continued our high rate we would lose above list, that were never enforced by law in the United States entirely a traffic which pays us a small profit, and we judge previous to the eighth decade, have since been stringently ap- it better to retain that small profit, as it helps, if you please, to plied at various times and places to railway operations, and it keep down the prices at an intermediate station. We seemed to be considered a prominent part of the duty of legis- any this: The volume of business upon the majority of the lines latures and Congress to devise methods for regulating rail- of Illinois and the states west of Illinois is so small that they ways and modes of conducting railway operations after 1870, cannot afford to take a price which, upon a line worked up to whereas previous to that time the chief concern of the national its capacity, will yield a fair profit. There are none of the and state law-makers was to devise measures for facilitating the lines of Illinois, even single tracks, worked up to their construction of new lines. It is to be regretted that the amount capacity. The average earnings in this state are a of wisdom and justice brought to both of these tasks fell con- little over $8,000 a mile for all the roads, and the earnings in siderably below the desirable quantity. Digitized by Google D Metallic India Rubber Car Springs. Norris Locomotive. Norris Locomotive. Spark Arrester. Lantern. Locomotive Lamps. Patent Compound Rail and Fastening. Wrought-Iron Rail Chair. Wrought-Iron Rail Chair. Improved Frog. Iron Bridge. RAILWAY APPLIANCES USED IN Digitized by Google 1 Digitized by Google RIVER AND HARBOR IMPROVEMENTS. 233 CONGRESSIONAL ACTION-TRANSPORTATION ROUTES TO THE ment of a national bureau of information charged with the SEABOARD. duty of obtaining and publishing annually such facts relating However deficient in wisdom and justice the average success- to interstate commerce as would enable Congress to legislate ful American politician is, when he is acting as a law maker or intelligently on the subject. But the committee announced in an executive capacity, he usually displays astuteness in dis- that it was of the opinion that "the problem of cheap trans- cerning the bent of popular inclinations. This is the one sub- portation" is to be solved through competition, furnished by ject he must understand, under penalty of a loss of place and modes it stated and advocated, "rather than by direct congres- power. While voting away land grants and Pacific railway sional regulation of existing lines." subsidies combined, with the enjoyment of popular favor, These modes consisted, first, of "one or more double-track opportunities for enriching the givers of grants and subsidies, freight railways, honestly and thoroughly constructed, owned no set of men were louder in their praise of such grants than or controlled by the Government, and operated at a low rate of those who quickly changed front under the pressure of the gran- speed;" and second, an improvement or extension at the na- ger agitation, and other manifestations of popular disapproval, tional expense, or by appropriations of Congress, of the follow- to become zealous advocates of sundry stringent methods of ing water routes, for the purpose of increasing their efficiency railway regulation. as competitors of railways, viz: 1st. The Mississippi river. 2d. It has already been stated that the grangers demanded A continuous water line of adequate capacity from the Missis- national as well as state action for their relief, and either in sippi river to the city of New York, via the projected Hennepin response to this demand or for other reasons a committee was Canal, the northern lakes, and the New York canals, enlarged appointed by the United States Senate in December, 1872, of and improved at the national expense. 3d. A route through which Hon. William Windom, of Minnesota, was chairman, to the central tier of states, from the Mississippi river, via the investigate and report upon the subject of transportation be- Ohio and Kanawha rivers, to a point in West Virginia, and tween the interior and the seaboard. It instituted the most thence by canal and slackwater, or by a freight railway, to tide- elaborate inquiries that had ever been made into all matters water in Virginia. 4th. A route from the Mississippi river, via affecting through rail and water movements, and in April, the Ohio and Tennessee rivers, to a point in Alabama or Ten- 1874, made a lengthy report. The summary of its conclusions nessee, and thence by canal or slackwater, or by a freight rail- includes recommendations that laws should be passed providing way, to the ocean. for the publication of rates, the prohibition of combinations These routes were respectively designated as the Mississippi, with competing lines and "stock watering," and the establish- Northern, Central, and Southern routes. RIVER AND HARBOR IMPROVEMENTS. The Windom committee exercised priations to be expended in various classes of harbor improve- the way of procuring speedy ments from many localities. action of Congress upon the subject of new railway regulations, The wide scope of such applications is indicated by the fact or in stimulating the construction of a new cheap through- that the river and harbor bill of 1886, after being subjected to a freight railway by the United States government, or in pro- horizontal reduction of twenty-five per cent., contained appro- curing appropriations for the construction or improvement of priations for the improvement of about one hundred and fifty canals. But indirectly the influence of the proceedings of the harbors, the amounts to be expended at each point varying committee, and of the agitation they typified, may have had from a few thousand dollars to $750,000. Some of these har- some effect in intensifying the vigorous efforts of east and west bors were located on the Altantic coast, some on the Pacific, trunk lines to reduce charges for moving north-western pro- some on the gulf of Mexico, some on the northern lakes, and duce to the seaboard to unprecedentedly low figures; and either some on tidal rivers. In a few instances improvements which on account of their recommendations or for other reasons the are practically equivalent to the construction of large dams or magnitude of appropriations for river and harbor improve- harbors on non-tidal rivers have also been authorized. ments began to increase with notable rapidity. The river, creek, bayou, channel, shoal, and bar improve- Effective harbor improvements are at once very useful and ments for which appropriations were made in the same bill at the same time exceedingly difficult and expensive. Many were more numerous, amounting to several hundred, and the localities naturally sought the aid of the General Government sums appropriated varied from a few thousand dollars to in constructing such works, and to a limited extent it was $1,687,500 for a continuance of the improvement of the Missis- granted at a comparatively early period, but the regular sippi river from the head of the passes to the mouth of the annual expenditures for such purposes rarely represented con- Ohio river. Some of the appropriations provide for the siderable sums before 1870. Appropriations for the improve- ment of some of the most important lake and oceanic harbors REMOVAL OF SNAGS had been made before 1850, however, and in 1828 appropria- by snag boats, an operation which has been conducted on an tions were made for the construction of the Delaware Break- extensive scale on western rivers, and yielded an exceptionally water, which was regarded, during a protracted period, as the large return in the way of direct benefits to owners of water leading claimant of works of that class to national support, on craft, in proportion to expenditure. account of its utility as a refuge for numerous vessels sailing Operations of this kind began on a comparatively small scale along a perilous portion of the Atlantic coast. About forty some years ago, but during later periods they have been con- years elapsed before this work was finished in accordance with ducted systematically with snag boats specially built for the the original plans, and since that time urgent requirements purpose, under the supervision of the United States govern- for its extension or improvement have been developed. The ment. Snags are felt for and caught with an iron chain hang- total expenditures upon it from 1829 to June 30th, 1885, were ing in a loop from the bow of a stern-wheel steamer, and raised 402 195 27. with a powerful derrick and windlass worked by steam. The transition from small sailing vessels to large trunks are often quite large, reaching in some instances to a -ed the original approaches to nearly every length of 60 feet and a diameter of 5 feet. The snag boat H.G. totally inadequate. They have nearly all Wright, during eight months work in 1881, destroyed 1,909 al outlays of varying amounts, some of snage; cut out of river banks 5,005 trees which would probably ms and notable engineering achieve- have finally caved into the rivers; and removed 15 drift piles. stant demand for additional appro- The following is a statement of work done on the Mississippi, Digitized by Google 234 RIVER AND HARBOR IMPROVEMENTS. Missouri, and Arkansas rivers, from March 28th, 1868, to June previous to 1886 the official head. This bureau reports upon 30th, 1881:- all proposed river and harbor improvements, and in a general No. of No. of No. of sense directs all works of the kind under consideration under- Rivers. snags trees drift piles pulled. cut. removed. taken by the Government, including all the harbor works of Mississippi 14,582 54,605 107 the sea coast and the great lakes, the improvement of rivers Missouri 13,309 47,042 335 when undertaken in the interests of navigation, and the canals Arkansas 5,083 8,059 76 built in connection with the river improvements for overcom- Total 32,974 109,706 519 ing rapids, except the Mississippi river improvements, the These labors had an important effect in preventing injuries supervision of which is intrusted to a commission, but the and losses of steamboat property. actual work it approves is also prosecuted under the superin- Other propositions contemplate the purchase or acquisition intendence of the engineer burcau of the War Department. of different classes of river or canal improvements originally The controlling spirits of all these labors are military engineers made by states or incorporated companies, with the under- and army officers, usually graduates of West Point, and in standing that they are hereafter to be maintained at the na- 1884 there were in service under the chief of engineers 8 tional expense, and not to be subjected to tolls or other charges. colonels, 14 lieutenant-colonels, 26 majors, 32 captains, 26 The amount expended previous to 1886 is shown by the fol- first lieutenants, and 4 second lieutonants, an aggregate of 110 lowing table of army officers, nearly all of whom were engaged in the per- formance of labors which bore a relation of one kind or another THE AGGREGATE APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF to river and harbor improvements, including the examination RIVERS AND HARBORS of a number of small streams, in accordance with the directions from the beginning of the Government, March 4th, 1789, to of Congress, for the purpose of ascertaining whether they could June 80th, 1882, as shown by the report of the Secretary of be made navigable. War, transmitted to Congress by the President of the United The whole country is divided into districts, which are made States, January 22d, 1884:- Amount larger or smaller, according to the number of works in process New York $10,237,611 28 of construction within them, each of which has at its head a Michigan 7,984,877 25 colonel, lieutenant-colonel, or major, or in R few cases one of Wisconsin 4,659,541 74 the older captains. These officers conduct the works within Delaware 3,327,164 69 their districts, consulting but rarely with any other public Massachusetts 3,119,499 08 authority, and receive their orders directly from the chief Ohio 3,116,147 29 engineer, in whose bureau there are three higher officers as Illinois 2,672,305 00 Texas division chiefs. The younger captains and lieutenants are 2,566,200 00 North Carolina 2,399,058 92 assistants of the district engineers. Virginia 1,734,880 00 In addition to these military engineers who are permanently Maryland 1,731,817 50 in the national service, as part of the army, a considerable California 1,717,000 00 number of civil engineers are employed in directing works of Connecticut 1,585,926 82 various kinds whenever liberal appropriations are made, but West Virginia 1,531,300 00 they are liable to a sudden dismissal when such financial sup- Maine 1,475,884 48 port is not furnished. Georgia 1,412,596 54 During recent years an animated controversy has sprung up Pennsylvania 1,158,042 23 New Jersey 1,099,063 00 in regard to the intrinsic merits of this system. Antagonism Alabama 1,091,751 82 to it emanates from two sources, viz., first, a number of the South Carolina 963,000 00 civil engineers of the country, who allege that they are unfairly Indiana 786,203 92 treated, and that the Government is frequently deprived of the Florida 760,350 09 services of the best available engineers, and second, friends of Rhode Island 733,700 00 various river and harbor improvements, who question the Oregon 654,000 00 wisdom and efficiency of some of the plans adopted for the Vermont 551,980 20 accomplishment of various purposes. Both classes of com- Kentucky 457,000 00 Minnesota plainants contend that training as a military engineer does not 447,500 00 furnish the best method of instruction for all the difficult and Mississippi 837,900 00 Arkansas 316,500 00 complicated labors involved in the creation of artificial harbors District of Columbia 291,500 00 and the control of majestic rivers. Louisiana 245,400 00 The specific provisions of all New Hampshire 202,500 00 RIVER AND HARBOR BILLS Tennessee 85,500 00 Missouri 22,000 00 habitually receive severe criticisms from members of both Idaho Territory 10,000 00 branches of Congress, including those who finally vote for Washington Territory 5,500 00 them, as well as persistent opponents. The aggregate results Iowa 2,500 00 of the harbor and tide-water appropriations include an import- Miscellaneous 39,667,664 77 ant influence in hastening the commercial development of a Surveys 4,985,713 40 number of ports or cities, and in facilitating the substitution Repairs, &c 3,977,157 12 of relatively large steamers for comparatively small vessels, on Dredging machines, &c 1,135,257 54 the lakes, the gulf, and the oceans, thus cheapening the trans- Grand total $111,299,464 79 portation movements identified with various classes of internal, After this report was made the law of 1882 appropriated coastwise, and foreign commerce. It has frequently been as- $18,988,875, and the law of 1884 appropriated $13,949,200, giving serted, however, that a considerable proportion of the appro- a grand total of expenditures for this purpose previous to 1886 priations have not rendered any substantial service whatever, of $144,237,539. and that a number of them are made for objects of such doubt- The appropriations charged directly to the states refer only ful utility that they may more properly be regarded as traps to to the harbors and rivers that are wholly within the several catch the votes of national legislators, and to enable them to states, and those improvements which are designed to benefit secure the good will of their constituents, than as judicious and two or more of the states are grouped together under one aggre- necessary outlays for improving rivers or harbors. gate, under the head "miscellaneous." The tenor of these criticisms is shown by the following tele- graphic abstract of a speech made in Congress, May, 1886, when THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF RIVER AND HARBOR IMPROVEMENTS the river and harbor bill was under consideration, by Mr. Ever- is intrusted to an engineer bureau belonging to the War De- hart, of Pennsylvania:- partment, of which General John Newton, who had charge of "No place, he said, was 80 grand, and no spot 80 insignifi- the submarine operations at Hell Gate, was for some years cant, that it was not included within the provisions of the bill. Digitized by Google WESTERN RIVER IMPROVEMENTS. 235 It was not restrained by any unpronounceable name, by any have been greatly improved, especially in the matter of re- obscurity of situation, by any difficulty of access, by any mass moving obstructions, and increasing the available depth of of obstruction. The scope and purpose of the bill seemed ex- channels, 80 as to ensure the safe approach and protection of traordinary. Every sort of enterprise which was usual in every- large steamers. Two of the most important of such improve- day business seemed to be invoked in order to extend the scope ments are those made at the south pass of the Mississippi, by of the jurisdiction of the committee on rivers and harbors. which the depth of water in the approach to New Orleans has Channels all obstructed with mud or rock or rapids were reck- been about doubled, and in the bay of New York, by which a lessly to be deepened or widened without regard to the ultimate large similar addition to the practical value of the channel has possibilities of commerce. Canals were to be bought or built been made. Much of the work involved in these undertakings or seized. Dykes and dams were to be constructed, in order to was peculiarly difficult. The outlet of the Mississippi was im- give relief to sovereign states or riparian owners. Numerous proved by the successful application of a jetty system that and costly experiments, which had failed in the past, were to attracted much attention. The improvement of the New York be repeated at an extravagant cost on the Father of Waters, harbor necessitated, among other things, one of the most ex- with no assurance of beneficial results to navigation. Rivers tensive rock-blasting operations that was ever attempted. Of were to be improved where alone the alligator wallowed and the approaches to New Orleans, it is said that on one day in the pelican fed; inlets where King Frost held carnival in 1859, fifty-two vessels were reported to be fast in the mud at palaces of ice, and shores where no keels had moored, and the passes, while the jetty improvements enable vessels of which seemed as remote and fabulous as those of Calypso and larger size to move freely. Another notable and novel achieve- Atlantis. There was nothing that seemed to be too incredible ment was the construction of the Davis Island dam near Pitts- to be embraced in the contents of this bill. Such was the mea- burgh, by which a harbor was created for that city, at the head sure before the House-this unpretentious roll which seemed of the Ohio river. Previously, or simultaneously, improvements to have in it places which no gazetteer had ever mentioned, of various descriptions were progressing in or near the har- and nomenclature which no polyglot lexicon could explain, bors of, or the aquatic approaches to, nearly all the prominent and climatic regions where no signal bureau could correspond. ports of the country, the nature of the operations being varied This volume, this book, this simple scroll, though it were not with their respective requirements. A principal end at all elegant like the volumes that had the imprimatur of Elzever ports on tidal waters was to afford appropriate facilities to or the binding of Baskerville, though it were not as rare as the vessels of a decidedly larger size than those formerly used. Palimpsests of the Vatican, or as interesting as the story of the In view of the peculiar industrial position of this country, 'Splendid Shilling' or the 'Adventures of a Guinea,' was yet viz., that of a nation which very greatly exceeds all others written with colossal figures which no bank ledger could dis- in its quantity of surplus production of raw materials, and play. It was teeming with treasures, with lines and letters that comparatively cheap and bulky articles, such as petroleum, glistened with gold." cotton, tobacco, breadstuffs, and provisions, and a contempo- The Government has made appropriations for 80 many raneous scarcity of national mercantile vessels engaged in for- classes of works that they practically embrace all known eign trade, most of the harbor improvements have probably methods of improving the navigation of waterways. The only rendered a service which greatly exceeds their cost, inasmuch qualification or barrier which has been seriously urged, pro- as they have made American ports much safer and more vided a stream is or can be made navigable, is that it should attractive to foreign steamships of large size, and thus in- be capable of being serviceable to commercial operations of creased the facilities for a cheap outbound foreign movement national importance, but this restriction is of little conse- of the commodities our citizens wished to sell. While this quence, and in a few instances it has been directly disregarded, important purpose is served, various domestic ends have been such as the expenditure of money for improving the navigation promoted, such as the creation of possibilities for employing of small lakes never used in connection with lengthy freight larger vessels in coastwise commerce than could formerly movements. be used, and the consequent cheapening of movements be- NOTABLE HARBOR IMPROVEMENTS. tween lake, gulf, and oceanic home ports to an extraordinary The most direct and important influence exerted by the extent. Generally speaking, the improvements of all tide-water national system probably relates to the construction or en- channels have been intended to promote the main purposes largement of harbors and the removal of approaches to them. briefly described above, and they have resulted in the removal Nearly if not all the important lake, gulf, and oceanic harbors of many serious or dangerous obstructions. WESTERN RIVER IMPROVEMENTS. N ON-TIDAL river improvements form the most important and by some of its opponents at about $150,000,000. Aside from class of questionable undertakings by the Government. differences of opinion in regard to the probable amount of the So far as they relate to the removal of snags and bars appropriations that will be required, acrimonious controversies on rivers of considerable consequence, there is little or no have arisen in relation to the extent to which levee systems doubt of their utility and propriety. National aid was also should be repaired, as part of the river improvements. Before granted at a comparatively early period to the construction the civil war the states lying adjacent to the banks of the lower of a canal round the falls in the Ohio, which, after being Mississippi undertook the task of maintaining levees or arti- originally constructed under the direction of a company, aided ficial embankments, varying in width from four to thirty feet, for by Federal subscriptions to its stock, was purchased outright, the purpose of protecting adjacent lands from overflow. An im- and made free of tolls, and although a precedent was thus estab- mense amount of productive territory was thus made available lished of aid to canal schemes, which may have had a tendency for profitable agricultural operations. The United States gov- to encourage applications for a class of less meritorious objects, ernment indirectly furnished a large portion of the means for the importance which the Ohio then possessed as a leading constructing or improving these levees by conveying the title channel of internal movements justified the outlays made. The to the swamp lands reclaimed to the states. debateable river issues that have arisen relate chiefly either to During the war and for some years after its close these states the actual or proposed outlays for a large number of streams were unable to continue appropriations for the maintenance of of infinitesimal size and capacity, or to the particular plans levees, and many regions which had once been productive were improving the Mississippi. They are of gigantic devastated on account of this neglect. Since the lower Missis- probable expenditive roughly estimated sippi river improvements undertaken by the United States the system $50,000,000, government have been progressing, at a considerable annual Digitized by Google 236 WESTERN RIVER IMPROVEMENTS. expenditure, the question has been repeatedly raised, in various by which these deposits have been secured have been costly. shapes, whether money should or should not be expended in more so than like works would be now, and yet I think it safe repairing the levees. It is conceded on nearly all sides that to say that the cost of the earth filling has been little, if any, the only legitimate object of the national outlays is to im- above a cent a cubic yard. prove the navigation of the river; but on one side it is con- If the river would stay in the improved channel prepared for tended that this end can best be attained by repairing or erect- it, the work of improvement would be completed. But this it ing levces or substitutes for them at numerous points, where will not do until some means are employed to check the vio- they would necessarily afford additional protection to adjacent lent caving of banks in and about the reaches to be improved. lands, while on the other side it is contended that the only ap- Indeed. it will require but a moment's attention to perceive propriate field for national effort is in the bed or channel of the that the caving of the banks is the prime cause of all the ills river itself, and that much of the work hitherto done upon the that afflict the river. As it cuts into the earth on one side, and levees has had a tendency to diminish rather than to increase deepens the curve of its channel in that bend, it necessarily the navigability of the river. alters the direction by which its current swings into the bend As the Mississippi and its tributaries drain a very large pro- next below, and 80 that bend, in its turn, is cut and carved in a portion of the entire country, and as the outflow of water during new outline to fit the new curve of the channel. By the same high-water periods is enormous, the difference between high- process these changes are transmitted to the second bend below, and low-water marks at some points being about fifty feet, and and 80 on, from bend to bend, as the undulations travel down the quantity of water discharged at the outlets being occasion- the back of a snake. And, indeed, you have but to look at the ally increased to about ten times its lowest volume, the prob- map before you, and mark the crescent-shaped lakes-frag- lems involved in the plans for improving and controlling this ments of old river bed-that line its course on either side, to great national artery of the continent are of stupendous mag- see how literally true it is that the Mississippi has writhed like nitude and complexity. Indications of the difficult nature of a serpent in its broad, black nest through all the centuries that the task assumed by have measured its life. THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER COMMISSION As the river washes away its bank on one side it commonly adds to the opposite shore by deposit; so that one bank ad- are furnished by the following extract from a speech delivered vances as the other recedes. But where the caving is violent by one of its members, Hon. Robert S. Taylor, at a waterways it is impossible for the river to build the convex side up to full convention held in New Orleans in 1885:- bank height as rapidly as it cuts away the concave side; 80 that "The Mississippi river has three great faults. It tears down the net result of the process is an increase of width. And its own banks; then with the material taken from them it finally the coarser parts of the earth taken from the caving builds great bars across its own path; then having blocked up bank are carried only a short distance, and go to build up its channel with them, it overflows its banks, and spreads over the bars below, and as the caving is more active their growth the adjacent country. It is a self-willed and head-strong stream, is more rapid. and must be managed as a woman manages her husband- So that we have three distinct consequences-instability of never offering to contradict him, and letting him think all the channel location, increase of channel width, and an accelera- time that he is doing as he pleases. tion, at least, of bar formation, each directly traceable to the A reach of bad navigation presents ordinarily an abnormal caving of the banks. But these are the very things that im- width, numerous dividing channels, and shifting bars. The pair the channel. If we could be rid of them our task would first step in the improvement of such a reach is to lay out a be done. It is necessary, therefore, to employ some means to track for the regulated channel through it-a task requiring fix and hold the banks-not everywhere, but wherever the the greatest skill and good judgment, as upon its wise execu- location and rapidity of the caving are such as to endanger the tion the success of all subsequent work may depend. The next other works of improvement about or below them. The de- step is to induce the river to flow in the path thus prepared vices used for this purpose-mainly brush mattresses, I cannot for it, which is accomplished by the closure of all other chan- take time to describe. They constitute a distinct class of work nels, and the narrowing of the space on the bar where neces- known as 'revetment' or 'bank protection.' sary, by deposits of earth secured by means of permeable dykes, The third kind of work employed is levees. The place which as open as a fence, through which the water flows freely, but these structures hold in the general ground work of improve- which check its velocity below them sufficiently to cause it to ment has been defined repeatedly in the reports of the com- make deposits of sediment. These structures are called "con- mission and elsewhere. In brief it is this: The ordinary flood is traction works." They are in progress at Plum Point and Lake the period of the river's greatest energy; confined within the Providence reaches, and in those places have been entirely suc- banks of uniform grade that energy is made useful in scouring cessful in execution and result. and deepening the channel; allowed to escape through varying I do not believe that any greater obstacles can be found any- and uneven depressions, not only is its energy lost, but there is where in the execution of this kind of work than those which caused an irregularity of flow in the channel which tends to have been met and overcome in Bullerton and Stack Island produce increased deposit of sediment. chutes, and on Baleshed and Elmot bars. In their effects they These are the measures of improvement which have been have answered every expectation of their construction. Three recommended and inaugurated by the commission. Opinions years ago an experienced river pilot said to a member of the differ as to their relative value, but in my humble judgment commission, speaking of the work laid off at lake Providence, each of the three has its own specific usefulness-the levees for 'You've staked her out right where she ought to run; the thing general conservation, the contraction works for local concen- is to make her go there.' Well, 'she' is going there now, and tration, and the revetment to secure the permanence and aug- with a channel depth at low water double that which she had ment the results of the other two. As means to the grand end before. The like is true at Plum Point. The practicability of these three are inseparable." narrowing the channel by contraction works, and the certainty In connection with these improvements, of increased depth from the scour thereby induced, have been AN EXTENSIVE PLANT demonstrated by actual success. And it is a success at which I have never ceased to marvel. was required, much of which had to be designed, and all of which The deposits which fill these chutes and build banks on these had to be contracted for and built. Although a large sum was bars are mere specks of earth. A teaspoon would hold thou- spent for that purpose before the work began, the appliances sands of them. As the water bearing them slackens its speed were inadequate, and have been largely increased since. Nearly after passing the permeable dikes, they quietly drop to the all the channel work is done from boats, and a great part of it bottom like microscopic flakes of snow. And yet, the space with machinery. A description of operations, as they were which has been filled with solid earth by this process in the conducted in 1885, says that "there are floating pile drivers reaches under improvement measures thousands of acres in that drive piles in water 20 feet deep, and into the ground 20 area, and from a few inches to fifty feet and upward in depth, feet, without a stroke of the hammer, by means of a hydraulic and well on to 300,000,000 cubic yards in contents. The works jet. There are snag boats that will jerk a snag out of a bank Digitized by Google WESTERN RIVER IMPROVEMENTS. 237 in less time than a dentist will extract one from a jaw. There pretensions, the Missouri has relatively the greatest slope, with are hydraulic graders that grade caving banks to a flat slope all the evils that this implies in a rapid current, broad and with water jets, at a cost of 31 cents per cubio yard, a work shifting bed, accompanied by sand-bar and reef formation, and which would cost from 12 to 20 cents if done with shovel and heavy and apparently erratic bank erosion. Its phenomena spade. There is a mattress boat, carrying a steam loom, which, are radically developed, and to the novice its course is entirely being fed wire and brush, turns out a continuous woven mat- whimsical. To the land owner it is an unchained terror, with tress 130 feet wide and of unlimited length. There are floating a mortgage on every foot of land between the bluffs, which it machine and repair shops; floating boarding houses, with ap- is sure some day to foreclose. Out at its mouth it throws from pliances for feeding and lodging, all told, nearly 2,000 men, and one-half to a cubic mile of detritus each year, from 10 to 20 stone, brush, and coal barges in great number. The entire per cent. is in suspension, and the balance rolled along or plant, as now organized, not including snag boats belonging to drifted in the vicinity of the bottom. With this passes out the the United States, or chartered tow boats, embraces 189 barges, spoils of the land, drift logs and trees in great quantity, while 62 pile drivers, 25 mattress boats, 39 quarter boats, 5 tow boats, disseminated everywhere through the water, and scarcely no- 4 screen boats, 3 machine-shop boats, 4 graders, 1 pumping ticeable, is an untold quantity of fibre in the shape of grass- boat, and 1 steam tug, making 333 in all, and representing a blades, rootlets, leaves, &c. cost of over a million of dollars." Place at some characteristic point a young engineer, fresh THE TRIBUTARIES OF THE MISSISSIPPI. from alma mater, who probably has never seen this stream The length of the navigable portions of the Mississippi, and before; let him be conscious of knowing nothing about river of rivers flowing into it which are or presumably can be made improvement, and be told by his superior officer that this is navigable by sufficient outlays, was described as follows in one the reason for his selection, and that previous experience would of the reports of the Mississippi river commission:- be a damage to him; let local interests demand a change to an Rivers. Miles. Rivers. Miles. old course which the river has been a generation in leaving; Missouri 3,127 Cumberland 653 let local experts, retired pilots, flatboat and raftsmen, and oldest Mississippi 2,166 White 460 inhabitants, whose lands have been cut away, tell him how to Ohio 1,021 Washita 445 do it, and the town council resolve on the matter; let a railway Red 820 Yellowstone 438 company be vitally interested, and steamboat interests captious; Tennessee 759 Wabash 369 let engineering requirements demand the complete rectifica- Arkansas 668 Allegheny 325 tion of ten to twenty miles of river, costing $15,000 to $20,000 Minnesota 295 Chippewa 90 per mile, and only $10,000 to $15,000 available, with almost a Illinois 269 Iowa 80 Yazoo 240 St. Francis 80 certainty that the best work that can be placed for this amount Osage 237 St. Croix 65 will be turned on both flanks by the untrained stream; "let Sunflower 207 Rock 64 methods be experimental, the results uncertain, and the en- Tallahatchie 200 Kentucky 60 gineer obliged to furnish some assurances of success; let 'men Green 200 Black (Louisiana) 54 of influence' come around, and tell how much they had to do Wisconsin 160 Big Horn 50 with getting the appropriation, and how much they expect to Black (Arkansas) 136 Clinch 50 do in future appropriations, and introduce their chief hench- Monongabela 110 men with bids for material at three prices, while the lesser Kanawha 94 Total 14,086 Muskingum 94 lights urge their fitness for foremen and inspectors; let general opinion assume that if he is not a peculator and thief he is The mileage, as given in the above table, is to the head of misusing opportunities, and finally let him be saddled with a navigation. In most instances that means continuous naviga- system of bureaucracy with which he is not familiar, and some tion, but not always 80. For instance, the navigation of the slight conception may be formed of the position of the engineer Mississippi is broken at St. Anthony's Falls, and then is re- in charge of works on the Missouri river three years ago, at sumed and extends to Sauk Rapids. In the Tennessee river the inception of present improvements. there is an interruption at Muscle Shoals in the state of Notwithstanding all this a substantial progress and develop- Alabama, and another below Chattanooga. In the Red river ment has been made. Popular opinion is less skeptical and is there is also an interruption of continuous navigation. But gradually educating to an appreciation of the purposes which these breaks in continuous navigation exist only in a few of an improvement should serve. In the development of experi- the above tributaries, and can be overcome. mental methods failure has been more conspicuous than success; The navigable portions of this river system either intersect or this failure is necessarily incident to all experiment, but it has border eighteen states and two territories. The mileage of the been most often due to inadequate funds. Failure and success navigable portions of the system which cross or border each have been carefully studied, improvements and new devices state is nearly as follows:- introduced, until at present a well-defined system is clearly in Etates. Miles. States. Miles view which a couple of years will doubtless develop into a stand- Arkansas 1,826 Minnesota 660 Missouri 1,504 Wisconsin 560 ard practice. Even now some reasonable assurance can be given Louisiana 1,314 Ohio 556 of the possibilities of a project and the cost of its execution. Montana 1,311 Nebraska 400 Based on the physical studies of the resident engineers and Illinois 1,277 Pennsylvania 380 the probable outcome of present methods, Major Suter has Tennessee 1,220 Texas 300 estimated the cost of a permanent improvement that shall Mississippi 4,207 Dakota 285 control the stream, lessen flood and ice dangers, and provide Kentucky 1,187 Alabama 250 ten feet navigable depth from the mouth to Sioux City at all Iowa 845 Kansas 190 seasons-781 miles, at $8,000,000." Indiana 840 West Virginia 104 Nearly all the large tributaries of the Mississippi are being GENERAL SYSTEM OF WESTERN RIVER IMPROVEMENTS. improved, in various ways, at the national expense. Special The article from which the above extract is made also con- efforts are made to secure extensive improvements on the tains the following statements:- lower and upper Mississippi, the Missouri, and on the Ten- "The history of western river improvement by the Genera] nessee, particularly with reference to the removal of shoals or Government, if we except the Ohio and tributaries, is quite other obstructions from that river. recent, and its developmen+ otill in its infancy. Previous to IMPROVEMENT OF THE MISSOURI. 1871 appropriations were "ed to snagging An interesting description of the methods adopted on the and the removal of chanr 'se operations Missouri, written for the American Engineer, of Chicago, by have attained such e little to L. E. Cooley, resident engineer at St. Charles, Missouri, com- be desired. mences with the following graphic sketch of some of the diffi- Aside fron nserva- culties encountered at the outset:- tion were el if we "Of all the detrital streams of this country of commercial except $75 from Digitized by Google 238 WESTERN RIVER IMPROVEMENTS. 1884-44. By the city of St. Louis alone up to 1870 about the state of Kentucky to construct a canal around the falls of $900,000 had been expended, and in addition large amounts the Ohio, near Louisville, at a cost of over $1,000,000. In this by ferry and transfer companies for the improvement of its company the United States was an original stockholder to the harbor. These works were the most noticeable of this period. amount of $233,500. The Federal Government gradually pur- In the long run, they were measurably successful in accomplish- chased with its accrued dividends the residue of stock. In the ing in part the objects desired, but only through persistent effort year 1846 it had purchased the greater portion, and at the close and expense during a long series of years. of the year 1855 it owned the whole of the property except five Most of the work on the Missouri previous to 1877 was due shares valued at $500. Subsequently these five shares were to corporate enterprise, and was for the correction and protec- bought, and on the 11th of June, 1874, the Government assumed tion of bridge sites, railway transfers, city fronts, and the pro- and has ever since retained the sole management and control. tection of railway alignment in the valley. So far R8 these The Louisville and Portland Canal is the connecting link in works have been successful in aggressive localities they have the great chain of water communication furnished by the Ohio been maintained at constant expense, but more frequently river. During a recent year over three thousand boats and they have failed entirely or been left inland, and probably the barges passed through its locks. The number of tons carried aggregate damage from them has outweighed the benefits. by these boats was 999,610. Up to the 11th of June, 1874, the Even the best of them, the Mason dykes at St. Joseph are now tollage paid by all vessels propelled by steam was 50 cents per entirely destroyed, and the Kansas City works required rein- ton. From the year 1831, when the canal was first opened for forcement, due to the great rise of this spring. business, to 1872, tolls received amounted to $5,157,247. After The character of all these works was essentially the same, the Government assumed control tolls were reduced to one-fifth consisting generally of loose rip rap sometimes in conjunction of the former amount, but even with this reduction over three with piling and brush, and occasionally on brush foundations hundred thousand dollars was collected, and subsequently all alternated with layers of brush; for shore revetment a facing of tolls were abolished. loose rock sometimes in conjunction with loose brush in the Of channel improvements on the lakes it is stated that the hope that in some mysterious way the seat of disease would be "draught of the larger vessels has always been controlled in a reached. These works call for no special comment. Each great measure by the depth of water on St. Clair Flats. Pre- piece seemed to be placed according to the judgment of the vious to 1858 this was only about 91 feet, and by way of the individual in charge without special reference to the expe- North Pass. Improvements at the South Pass, completed about rience elsewhere, if indeed it was known. It appealed to the that time, afforded a depth of about 12 feet, and shortened the 'common sense' of the locality interested, and the same distance. In 1871 the St. Clair Flats Canal, with a depth of 13 methods are still uppermost in the mind of the average lay- feet, became available. This was increased in 1874 to 16 feet. mah and man of influence. The experience of this period is As these successive improvements were completed, the channel almost entirely negative in value. entrances to the important lake harbors were correspondingly River improvement proper was initiated by the General Gov- deepened, and vessels were constructed to utilize this increased ernment on the Wisconsin and Illinois in 1870-71, the Upper depth of the channels. But the full effect was not felt until Mississippi in 1874, the Middle Mississippi, or between the after the completion of the enlargement of St. Mary's Falls Illinois and Ohio, in 1872-73, the Arkansas and Missouri in Canal in 1881. Previous to that time the depth of water in the 1877, and the Lower Mississippi at Memphis and Vicksburg canal was 12 feet. It was increased to 16 feet. In 1864 the in 1878. average registered tonnage of vessels passing the canal was The works on the Wisconsin, Illinois, and Upper Mississippi 405 tons. In 1882 this had increased to 560 tons." have taken the direction of dyke works, in dams and wings, In 1885 some of the lake vessels carried 8,000 tons, and ad- and incidentally on the latter stream, of revetment. These ditional improvements, intended to deepen channels to 20 feet, works are constructed, for the most part, of brush fascines or were progressing, which were expected to lead to the use of small mats in conjunction with rip rap or loose rock, modified some vessels with a carrying capacity of 4,000 tons. according to resources or exigencies, and the present develop- In addition to these works, a considerable number of canal ment soems to be satisfactory to the officers in charge. The projects have been proposed, and congressional aid on their system is here certainly permissible, but furnishes no precedent behalf has been earnestly solicited. The list includes the Hen- for streams of positive detrital character and mobile strata of nepin Canal, by which a free channel would be furnished for unlimited depth." 280-ton boats or vessels between the Mississippi, at Rock Island, GOVERNMENTAL CANALS. and lake Michigan, at Chicago; the construction of a ship canal between the Chesapeake and Delaware bay, which would fur- Partly incidental to river, harbor, and lake improvements, nish a more convenient outlet for the commerce of Baltimore; and partly as independent propositions, something has been the enlargement and maintenance of the Erie Canal, and di- done and much more has been proposed, in the way of se- vers projects for constructing artificial water channels between curing congressional appropriations for the construction of the Mississippi valley and the Atlantic seaboard in sundry free canals. The most important works of this class in actual states, including Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Alabama. One operation are the Louisville and Portland Canal and canal im- of the features of these propositions is the manifestation of provements on the lakes, by which the tonnage of the vessels great readiness on the part of states which own canals or river that can safely traverse them has been increased from a few improvements to transfer title to the United States, if it will hundred tons to several thousand tons. assume the responsibility of maintaining and improving these The Louisville and Portland Canal was built in 1825, by the works, and making them available for navigation free of tolls Louisville and Portland Canal Company, under a charter from and all other charges for their use. Digitized by Google UTILITY OF WATER-WAY IMPROVEMENTS. 239 UTILITY OF WATER-WAY IMPROVEMENTS. M ANY efforts have been made to cheapen the cost of trans- of fact the relative utility and importance of internal water portation to the persons and interests directly benefited carriers has been steadily declining with the expansion of rail- or to be benefited by artificial channels, through the financial way systems, and it is mainly on the lakes, the ocean, the gulf process of throwing the burden of the principal or interest of and tidal rivers that such declines have not occurred to a large sums upon the main body of national tax-payers. To notable extent. some extent this may be true of all important river and harbor DECLINE OF STEAMBOATING ON THE MISSISSIPPI. improvements, and how far congressional appropriations for such purposes are proper or improper, and just or unjust, A graphic picture of what has occurred on the upper Missis- largely depends upon the extent to which the advantages se- sippi is furnished by the following report of remarks by a rail- cured in each case are of a thoroughly national character, and way official, printed in a journal published at St. Paul, the head how far the general workings of the systems of water improve- of navigation on that river:- ments, practiced and proposed, actually do redound to the wel- "There is not half the benefit derived from the Mississippi fare of all classes and sections. river that the people are led to believe. The railroad compa- It is obvious that there should be a dividing line somewhere, nies carry freight at as low a rate as the boat lines, and besides and that the topography of a very large proportion of the coun- give better service by fast time and prompt delivery. The try is such as to render it impossible to confer upon many sec- boats do very little, if any, through business. It is only local tions, districts, and interests direct and palpable benefits, in the traffic they carry. And what town of any size along the river way of cheapening and increasing their facilities for transporta- is not touched by a railroad? There is a sufficiency of roads to tion, by any known or practical descriptions of water-way im- transport all the produce the country furnishes, and the com- provements of sufficient importance to correspond fully with petition among them keeps the rates on a basis with that the benefits that may possibly be conferred upon other sections charged by the boat lines. If the railways did right they would or interests. It is also evident that the relative significance of compete with the boat lines while navigation is open in such a all interior water channels has been greatly diminished since way as to surprise them, and compel them to tie their boats up the period when they formed the only possible outlet for cheap to the nearest swing bridge on the river, and in the winter and bulky products, and since many extensive rail movements make the shippers who were inclined to favor boat against rail have been conducted at lower rates than could formerly be ob- pay such a rate on every article they ship that it would draw tained from any of the common carriers on rivers or canals. the life-blood from their hearts. The railroads are in a posi- For these and other reasons, sundry tion to do it if they wanted to. But they were built for public benefit, and they did not apply to Congress every year for aid, ARGUMENTS IN SUPPORT OF VARIOUS WATER SCHEMES or a certain sum of money to maintain them and make neces- proposed have been advanced. Their leading feature is based sary improvements. on the assertion that water-route charges form the great regu- No; when boat lines can perform the service of a well-man- lators of the cost of through-freight movements, and that, by aged road extending along the river bank the same distance as cheapening the cost of lake, river, and canal transportation, a the boat lines run, then it is time canals were run all over the permanent check on rail charges will be established. One of country, and the first man to mention railroads should be the advocates of such views snys:- lynched. Of course the Mississippi river is a strip of water "In a newly-settled country the natural water courses are owned by the Government, and the Government does not want the only highways available for heavy transportation. As to see it become clogged with anags, or mountains growing in population increases and the country is developed, railways its centre, or resting places for ducks and geese. No; it must are built, and, for a time, they can do all the business required, be kept in a proper light before the public, especially foreign- thus apparently superseding water transportation altogether; ers, 80 that the historical Mississippi may appear to them all but as the wealth and density of population still further in- that has been said of it. If it is kept in an improved condition, crease the necessity for water transportation again asserts and the boats run regularly between points, the railroad com- itself. So true is this that now on all sides we find a cry raised, panies do not care, for their traffic is not noticeably diminished for the improvement and greater use of water-ways. The by the competition. None of the companies owning a line of necessity for paying increased attention to our inland naviga- boats running between St. Louis and St. Paul find them pay- tion has been forced upon the public in this country by the ing. I'll bet you they are losing money every day, but continue combination which railway companies have managed so skill- to run in the hope of better times. There is no through busi- fully to arrange and work for their exclusive benefit. It is not ness between St. Louis and St. Paul to speak of, and the result in this country alone, however, that a tendency to revert to the is that the boat lines depend almost entirely for the trifling older means of transit is noticeable. Throughout the world of business picked up between points, for which they ask what a commerce the desire for more direct means of conveying goods railroad man would call a very remunerative rate. This is why in bulk prevails. we do not believe in Congress appropriating money for the im- Among the advantages of river improvements may be men- provement of water-ways, because it does not really benefit the tioned: 1. They furnish means for the transportation of heavy country tributary to the point where the improvement is made and bulky commodities, such as coal, iron ore, scrap and pig when there is a railroad in that district, for the railroad can iron, stone, and timber, which often will not pay the cost of carry all the business at as low a rate in the end to the shipper transportation by rail. 2. They keep in check the grasping as the man owning the boat can. This, then, is only beneficial tendencies of railway companies by controlling freight rates to the few individuals who own the boat transportation lines, and facilities." and when Congress makes an appropriation for the opening of On the other hand, the belief is expressed by various persons canals and rivers it is for the benefit of a certain few individuals that the real importance of many of the internal water routes who wish to embark in new enterprises aided by the public." for the improvement of which large appropriations are made In discussing the decline of steamboat movements on the or solicited has been greatly exaggerated; and that in cases where lower Mississippi a New Orleans journal states that "thirty-two these appropriations represent considerable sums the outlays steamboats traded from St. Louis to New Orleans in the year would be more effective, for genuine transportation purposes, if 1859, with a total tonnage of 48,800 tons, all f- the Government would construct and operate railways, free of steamers. This was the grand era of steambo charge, on a number of the contemplated routes. As a matter fifties up to 1861. The war coming on cri Digitized by Google 240 LEADING INFLUENCES OF THE EIGHTH DECADE. After the war came the railroads, and they have almost swept relative magnitude of steamboat movements in comparison it away from this city. We have now five steamers in the with rail movements at St. Louis. trade with a capacity of 10,000 tons, not one-fourth of the ton- nage during the ten years mentioned above. If this does not BARGE MOVEMENTS ON THE MISSISSIPPI. demonstrate the loss of the steamboat trade to this port, then While there has been a marked decline in steamboat move- we are mistaken. In 1859 the steamboats trading between Cin- ments on the lower Mississippi, the improvements in navi- cinnati and New Orleans embraced 36 steamboats, with a total gation or other causes have led to an extensive development of tonnage of 25,000 tons. All these steamers were in the Cincin- barge movements by which large quantities of coal and grain nati and New Orleans trade from 1859 to 1861. This was the are moved down the river, tow boats furnishing the motive great era in the New Orleans trade. Now we have in this trade power. There was a very notable increase in the south-bound say eight boats, whose aggregate tonnage amounts to 10,000 tons; river movement of grain from St. Louis to New Orleans during this shows a decrease of 15,000 in this trade, and every year the ten years ended in 1880, principally on account of the rapid the railroads are making greater inroads upon the trade, 80 growth of barge and barge-line movements. During 1880 the that in a few years steamboats, will disappear entirely from the rates on bulk grain per bushel, St. Louis to New Orleans, ranged Cincinnati and New Orleans trade." from 7 to 91 cents per bushel. River insurance from 60 to 75 There has also been a very extraordinary diminution of the cents per $100. LEADING INFLUENCES OF THE EIGHTH DECADE. THE BEGINNING OF A NEW ERA. was necessary, and yet to avoid doing anything seriously in- THEy railway development of the eighth decade was affected jurious required an amount of administrative talent rarely or many powerful influences, which led to remarkable never displayed in connection with the governmental opera- results in the way of reducing the cost of transportation, in- tions of this or any other country. creasing the efficiency of passenger as well as freight service, The principle of and advancing the entire range of the appliances of the roads STIMULATING AND ENCOURAGING COMPETITION engaged in important competitive service. It may be said that railway arrangements, as they are now understood and applied had been applied to the transportation affairs of the United to the immense labors performed, only fairly commenced in States to an extent unknown elsewhere. It is the only thing or shortly before 1870. There had, of course, been a protracted communities and governments fully believe in as an effective series of preparatory efforts. Little by little, and step by step, agent in securing such service as they desire. This is the each of the innumerable details on which genuine advance- meaning of the wide latitude given to scheming speculators by ment depends had gradually been improved by progressive free railroad laws, legal prohibitions of the consolidation of lines. But the decisive advances, by which immense forward competing lines, of the delight with which announcements of strides were made within a brief period, and the best types of railway wars has frequently been hailed, of the popularity of American railroading rendered far superior to those of any unnecessary new competitive routes. The Windom committee other country in their relation to the most pressing popular of 1873 announced that it was unanimously of the opinion that requirements, occurred after the close of the seventh decade. "the problem of cheap transportation is to be solved through It is not pretended that every railroad and all its appliances competition;" and this declaration was followed by the recom- were suddenly improved, for a considerable portion of the ag- mendation that a number of expensive projects should be sup- gregate mileage of American lines is chronically in a financial ported by the National Government, on the ground that "the condition that forbids sweeping changes, either on account of only means of securing and maintaining reliable and effective lack of money or a determination to adhere to old methods competition between railways is through national or state that have proved profitable. But the important representative ownership, or control, of one or more lines, which, being un- companies that usually lead the van of railway progress found able to enter combinations, will serve as regulators of other themselves confronted with 80 many difficulties, including those lines." The fallacy of the latter assertion has been demon- arising from their own intense rivalries, the popular demand strated, and reckless competition has 80 often engendered for cheap transportation from the granger regions to the sea- serious evils that faith in it has been somewhat weakened, at board, the threat of congressional support of a new rival through- least to the extent of favoring the application of checks to rail line, and certainty of large national appropriations for the extravagant demonstrations; but competition, more than any- improvement of competitive interior water routes, various thing else, has been the mainspring of exceptionally active forms of legislative antagonism, and the money pressure over- efforts to cheapen transportation, and it would be much easier shadowing the entire country which was produced by the war at the present day than it was during the early years of the debt and the struggle to resume specie payments, that they eighth decade to find any considerable number of popular were obliged to devise methods for eking out sufficient profits authorities ready to question the propriety of governmental to pay the interest on an enormous amount of capital from encouragement of all forms of available competition in matters charges that fell far below the absolute cost of movements in relating to freight movements. former periods. There can be little doubt, that in its bearing on the vital Under the stimulus typified by the phrase, "necessity is the interests of a large proportion of the American people, espe- mother of invention," a number of lines were equal to the cially those who reside at or near non-competitive points, this occasion; others were subjected to the penalty of bankruptcy, principle has been carried to damaging lengths; and many but the obstacles overcome were so numerous that the man- efforts have been made, during the last two decades, to devise agers who succeeded best hailed the triumphant results with remedies for injurious excesses; but at the beginning of the even more of a feeling of gratified surprise than of satisfaction. eighth decade this phase of the subject attracted compara- The most powerful single agent in promoting improvements tively little attention, even in railway circles, and competition, was steel rails, but they could not, and did not, in themselves, by land and water, between rival rail routes, between rival water secure more than a fraction of the advances that were required. routes, and between rival combined rail and water routes was It was necessary that the standard of all other essential me- generally regarded as the paramount requirement of the period, chanical and engineering devices, including terminal facilities; for which progressive railway companies were making every should be rapidly raised; and, in addition, that the manner of possible preparation. making up and moving trains, and commercial and rate- These efforts are partly represented on the New York Cen- making systems, should be radically modified. To do all that tral by the stupendous scheme of laying down four parallel Digitized by Google Conical Volute Car Spring. Head Light. Lamp. Sellers' Cast Iron Turn-Table. Coal-Burning Freight Engine. 0 Dimpfel's Boiler. AILWAY APPLIANCES OF 1857. Digitized by Google MAGNITUDE OF RAILWAY OPERATIONS. 241 steel rail tracks at a time when steel rails were selling at an The fact that one locality is a competitive point while enormous price; on the Pennsylvania by the acquisition of the another is not, implies that a relatively large amount of traffic New Jersey lines, by which a controlled entrance to Jersey accumulates at the former and not at the latter, and probably City was obtained; the rapid adoption of many notable im- the most important of all elements of cheapness is quantity, provements relating to all details of organization, permanent 80 that for this reason, if for no other, the carrier can afford to way, and rolling-stock affairs; on the Baltimore and Ohio by reduce mileage rates to shippers residing at competitive points. the construction of bridges over the Ohio river, the extension The force of this consideration is greatly increased by the of lines to Chicago, and sundry expansions of its system in economies arising from terminal facilities which diminish cost. Western states; and on various other roads by improvements of loading and unloading, and from the reductions in the pro- and new construction of great magnitude. portionate value of clerical service at places where a large So far as the action of governments on general transporta- amount of business is transacted. The distinctions between the tion questions since 1870 is concerned, the inner meaning of charges at competitive and non-competitive points, which are the bulk of their proceedings is substantially this: By their based on absolute differences in cost to the carrier would, how- staple policy of encouraging excessive competition, even by ever, scarcely have given rise to all the violent anti-discrimina- questionable methods, they inevitably generated the class of tion agitations in various states, if competition between rival evils known as unjust discrimination against sections and indi- lines for traffic centreing at competitive points had not fre- viduals, and having laid R broad foundation for their creation quently carried down rates to figures far below those which and perpetuation, numerous quack remodies have been devised would fairly represent the actual reduction in cost arising from and applied with about the degree of success that ordinarily concentrations of large amounts of freight, and if large quanti- attends empiricism. ties of freight had not often been carried at rates that fell below Modern transportation history is largely made up of the cost of such movements. CHANGES RUNG ON TWO GREAT KEY-NOTES, THE GREAT DEVELOPMENTS one of which is the marvelous lowering of charges between which have left a permanent impress are, first, the rapid ex- competitive points, or to shippers who forward immense quan- tension of railway lines to all portions of the country, and tities, and the other of complaints that these reductions have improvement of their appliances; second, the continuous cheap- not everywhere progressed with uniform rapidity in their ap- ening of the average rates of important lines; third, the exceed- plication to all localities and classes of shipments. There are ingly and injuriously low figures to which reductions of rates legitimate reasons for many of these distinctions or discrimina- between leading competitive points have frequently been car- tions, while others may be unwarranted, and such a variety of ried during eras of railway wars; fourth, efforts to prevent such considerations bear on the main question that it would often reductions from reaching ruinous proportions; and fifth, the be exceedingly difficult for unprejudiced persons, who gave due real and pretended grievances, and corresponding agitation heed to all pertinent evidence, to decide whether practices com- and legislation, which excessive and unremunerative reduc- plained of were just or unjust. tions in rates have occasioned. MAGNITUDE OF RAILWAY OPERATIONS. THE records of new construction already printed afford a these railways during such of their fiscal years as corresponded of the rapidity with which railway systems were most closely with June 1st or June 30th, 1880, included the car- expanded during the eighth decade, but additional indications riage of 290,897,395 tons of freight over an average distance of their magnitude are furnished by statements in the census of 111 miles, equivalent to the movement of 32,348,846,693 tons statistics of railroads for the year ending June 30th, 1880, which one mile. The average receipts for this service were 1.29 cents show that at that time the mileage operated was 87,801.42, of per ton per mile, and the aggregate revenue, $416,145,758. The which 44,290.99 miles had been completed after January 1st, cost, exclusive of interest on capital, was 0.76 cents per ton per 1870; that the reported cost of the permanent investment of this mile, and the net receipts, 0.53 cents. The number of passen- property was $5,182,445,806.93, including roads, equipment, gers carried was 269,589,340; the average distance carried was lands, stocks, bonds, telegraph lines, and miscellaneous, and 21 miles; the movement was equivalent to the transportation that these outlays were represented by $2,613,606,264.45 of capi- of 5,740,112,502 passengers one mile; the aggregate revenue tal stock, $2,390,915,401.63 of funded debt, and $421,200,893.56 was $144,101,709; the receipts per passenger per mile were 2.51 of unfunded debt. The valuation of the assets of the whole cents; the cost, exclusive of interest on capital, was 1.71 cents, system amounted to $5,536,419,787.74, and the actual liabilities and the profit, 0.80 cents. to $5,425,722,559.54, which left $110,697,228.20 as profit and loss The rapidity of the railway development during the eighth to credit for the combined roads. The labors performed by all decade is shown by the following:- Statement Showing Miles of Railroad, Capital Account, Earnings, Dividends, &c., as Reported in Poor's Manual for the Years Named. Miles Capital and Total earnings. Dividends Year. operated. funded debt. Gross. Net. From freight. From passengers. paid. 1871 44,614 $2,664,627,645 $403,329,208 $141,746,404 $294,430,322 $108,898,886 $56,456,681 1872 57,323 3,150,428,057 465,241,055 165,754,373 340,931,785 132,309,270 64,418,157 1873. 66,237 3,784,543,034 526,419,935 183,810,562 389,035,508 137,384,427 67,120,709 1874 69,273 4,221,763,594 520,466,016 189,570,958 379,466,935 140,999,081 67,042,942 1875 71,759 4,415,631,630 503,005,505 185,506,438 363,960,234 139,105,271 74,294,208 1876 73,508 4,468,591,935 497,257,959 186,452,752 361,137,376 136,120,583 68,039,668 1877 74,112 4,558,597,248 472,909,272 170,976,697 342,859,222 130,050,000 58,556,312 1878 78,960 4,589,948,793 490,103,351 187,575,167 365,466,061 124,637,290 53,629,368 1879 84,233 4,762,506,010 529,012,999 219,916,724 386,676,108 142,336,191 61,681,470 1880 92,146 4,897,401,997 613,733,610 272,430,665 467,748,928 147,653,003 77,115,371 Of all the transportation service rendered for the American and oceanic routes. The figures already given in regard to the people by common carriers, moving over land and water, an railway freight and passenger movements of 1880 show their immense proportion is performed by railways. A number of magnitude. Details relating to the character of the freig' water carriers, however, are active and successful competitors moved and routes selected are also furnished by the cer for business that can be transacted over canal, river, lake, gulf, statistics in the following table:- 81 Digitized by Google FREIGHT TONNAGE-CLASSIFICATION OF ARTICLES CARRIED. Aggregate Article. Group I. Group II. Group III. Group IV. Group V. Group VI. for the United States. Aggregate 24,978,661 192,446,645 15,866,552 45,407,775 750,601 11,447,161 290,897,395 Grain 2,767,334 23,993,678 1,097,200 12,273,096 5,646 1,866,550 42,003,504 Flour 1,223,495 3,864,557 352,462 1,787,172 8,541 213,490 7,449,717 Provisions 1,004,247 4,373,741 638,649 814,758 22,987 245,143 7,099,525 Cotton 502,708 957,453 1,679,715 362,003 96,496 360,020 3,958,395 Live stock 766,271 5,073,225 543,055 3,711,344 16,617 703,707 10,814,219 Stone, lime, cement, clay, and sand 987,709 6,292,027 336,364 1,095,176 6,128 282,918 9,000,322 Lumber and other forest products. 2,395,090 13,019,552 1,757,231 6,447,585 29,265 1,825,626 25,474,349 Coal 2,673,998 76,470,439 2,479,305 6,692,437 4,664 1,302,056 89,622.899 Petroleum 207,431 7,342,843 52,336 72,656 1,165 38,461 7.714,892 Pig, bloom, and railroad iron 545,794 8,133,842 529,044 2,153,325 871 300,496 11,663,372 Manufactures 3,653,515 11,393,882 452,942 1,919,194 41,646 267,387 17,733,566 Merchandise and miscellaneous 8,251,069 31,526,406 5,948,249 8,079,029 516,575 3,974,590 58,295,918 Unspecified 66,717 66,717 DISTRIBUTION OF TRAFFIC BETWEEN THE VARIOUS GROUPS. Ton-miles Companies. (local and through). It is obvious that great differences exist in the amount of Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 1,173,001,695 traffic per mile of existing roads in the various groups, and this Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific 947,369,587 difference is even more perceptible in a table relating to di- Philadelphia and Reading 834,431,965 versity of traffic, and number of tons hauled one mile, than in Chicago and North-western 816,739,941 Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago 766,011,269 the above statement of the number of tons moved. It shows Michigan Central 727,254,789 that of the aggregate movement, in ton-miles, nearly two-thirds Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific 664,861,579 was performed by 28,693 miles of railway located in group II, Lehigh Valley 592,369,479 and that the entire movement wasso distributed that the equiva- Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 580,454,696 lent of the number of tons carried the whole length of the road Central Railroad of New Jersey 518,117,193 in each direction daily was in the entire Union 505 tons, and Chicago and Alton 462,829,875 in the various groups as follows: Group I, 324 tons; group II, New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio* 456,094,920 Central Pacific 975 tons; group III, 159 tons; group IV, 381 tons; group V, 41 449,580,783 tons; group VI, 201 tons. This table shows that the average Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 442,907,736 Union Pacific 436,054,149 amount of freight moved daily on all the roads of any section Columbus, Chicago and Indiana Central 415,456,386 was not as large as the load now frequently drawn in a single Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis 411,741,819 train headed by a consolidation engine, and that the average Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis. 381,195,157 daily freight movement in one group, in each direction, was Boston and Albany 375,452.804 not more than a sufficient load for early locomotives of past Illinois Central 335,470.860 decades. The contrast in the passenger movements of roads Northern Central 272,466,907 of various groups is somewhat less striking, but the difference Atchison, Topeka and Sants Fe 266,174,880 is great, as it ranges from the equivalent of 25 passengers St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern 253,070,858 Ohio and Mississippi 247,323,780 moved in each direction over the entire length of the roads in Chesapeake and Ohio 230,219,851 group V, daily, to the equivalent of 204 passengers carried the Louisville and Nashville 221,928,834 whole length of the road in each direction, daily, in group I. Missouri and Pacific 219,885,868 If this was not a rapidly-growing country, and if many rail- Missouri, Kansas and Texas 185,105,510 ways had not been built through sparsely-settled districts, with Cleveland and Pittsburgh 174,837,293 the expectation that population would be attracted by railway Kansas Pacific 157,143,428 exertions and facilities, it would be one of the greatest of Central Vermont 146,450,884 financial mysteries why they were constructed through regions Marietta and Cincinnati 137,116,600 which do not furnish more business than the equivalent of Albany and Susquehanna 123,044,683 Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans 127,536,878 moving 25 passengers and 41 tons of freight over the entire Hannibal and St. Joseph 111,987,174 length of the roads in each direction daily. Such an amount Fitchburg 109,323,290 of traffic requires, to defray the interest at 6 per cent. on the St. Louis and San Francisco 109,178,009 cost of lines capitalized at $25,000, a profit of about 3 cents Allegheny Valley 103,641,884 per ton and 3 cents per passenger on the cost of the lines Indianapolis and St. Louis 102,630,114 per mile. Including six months' operations by the Atlantic and Great Western. The paucity of the traffic of many sections and of the entire mileage of the country helps to explain the anxious desire of The above table does not fully illustrate the extent to which the managers of all lines to attract such new business as can a large amount of the railway business of the country has been be furnished only by participation in through movements, even concentrated under the direction of a comparatively small when that object can only be attained by enormous concessions number of systems, partly because some of the lines mentioned in average rates per ton or per passenger per mile. above form part of the systems of other lines embraced in the Another striking feature of the census report is its statement above list. A more striking illustration of the extent to which that notwithstanding the multiplicity of railway companies, direct or indirect consolidations have been carried, largely be- 44 corporations conducted, in 1880, 80.4 per cent. of the whole cause they are absolutely necessary to secure the combination freight traffic and nearly 60 per cent. of the railway passenger of extraordinary cheapness in average rates per ton-mile with business of the country, and that their average freight rates an avoidance of financial ruin, is shown in the following state- were considerably below those charged by the other companies. ment, which forms part of an important and interesting paper, The names of the 44 active organizations and their relative prepared a few years ago by William P. Shinn, on the increased amount of freight business are shown in the following table:- efficiency of railways for the transportation of freight:- FORTY-FOUR CORPORATIONS HAVING OVER 100 MILLION TON-MILES EACH. STATEMENT SHOWING LENGTH OF BOADS AND GROSS EARNINGS IN 1881 OF Companies. Ton-miles THIRTEEN SYSTEMS OF RAILROADS. (local and through). Aggregate of 44 companies 26,015,488,025 Miles Gross earnings. N. Y. Central and Hudson River. 993 Pennsylvania 3,165,725,856 $29,322,532 New York Central and Hudson River 2,525,139,145 Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 1,177 17,880,000 Canada Southern Baltimore and Ohio 403 1,725,855,440 3,369,259 New York, Lake Erie and Western Michigan Central 950 1,721,112,095 8,800,456 Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 1,786,183,362 Total N. Y. Central system. 3,523 $59,372,277 REDUCTIONS OF RAILWAY RATES. 243 Miles Gross earnings. Miles. Gross earnings. New York, Lake Erie & Western 1,020 20,715,605 Louisville and Nashville Railroad, Pennsylvania eastern system 3,041 $44.224,716 and lines owned and leased by 1,872 $10,911,650 Pennsylvania western system 2,529 31,058,790 Louisville, Cin. and Lexington 272 1,196,112 Total Pennsylvania system. Nashv., Chattanooga & St. Louis. 521 2,256,186 5,570 75,283,506 Georgia Railroad system 641 2,543,032 Total three trunk lines 10yzo 10,113 21110 $155,371,388 3,034 16,906,960 Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific 3,348 14,467,790 Union Pacific. proper 1,821 $24,258,817 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 3,160 21,176,455 Lines in interest 2,449 7,608,936 Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific. 1,335 11,956,807 4,270 31,867,753 Illinois Central Northern 1,320 $6,733,954 Central Pacific 2,874 $24,094,101 Chicago, St. Louis & New Orleans Southern Pacific 1,281 3,435,945 Southern 571 4,059,151 4,155 27,530,046 1,891 10,793,105 Chicago and North-western 3,276 19,334,072 Total, thirteen systems 44,627 $354,158,396 Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 4,260 17,025,461 Total of United States in 1881, of Missouri Pacific 1,012 $8,640,957 which earnings reported 94,486 $725,325,119 Leased and controlled lines 4,773 19,087,484 Proportion thirteen systems bear 5,785 27,728,441 to whole 47130 REDUCTIONS OF RAILWAY RATES. IN view of the statements heretofore published relating to portation the treasures of the mine, the bounties of the harvest, the cost and charges of freight movements by various the fruit of the loom, the supplies and products of the furnace, methods, during succeeding decades, it is evident that no fea- can be moved over thousands of routes which are hermetically ture of modern progress affords greater cause for genuine sur- sealed to wagon-road and other high freight tariff operations. prise, or has exercised a more stupendous influence upon The dormant resources of innumerable localities can be pro- the entire industrial and commercial development of the fitably developed by the aid of cheap transportation, and never United States, than the wonderful cheapening of average rail without its indispensable assistance. rates since 1870. If the full significance of the statistics bear- It is only during a comparatively late era that average ing on this subject was fully understood, a better appreciation through rail rates have fallen to the low standard that now of the extraordinary and unprecedented achievements of the prevails, but the tendency towards a reduction has been so leading American lines would be secured. Whatever else may general on important lines, except when it was interrupted by be said of their methods, no intelligent man can question the such events as the substitution of greenback for gold valua- completeness of their response to the most imperative of all tions, or by temporary reactions, that irresistible influences popular demands, which was for cheap transportation over have been promoting such reductions, the main agent being long distances. Their daily tasks, as freight carriers, involve competition, not only between rival lines but between the performances which would have been considered miraculous competing regions they serve. in any former age, and the aggregate railway lines actually perform, in productive labor, much more real work, 80 far as IN THE ENTIRE UNITED STATES work can be measured by displays of physical force, than all the conditions governing rates are so diversified, that a notable other agencies combined. All things considered, they are the contrast in the average rates of different lines, and the lines of cheapest workers of the country, and if the theory favored by different groups, is inevitable. The extent and nature of these all influential schools of political economists, that transporta- variations is indicated by the fact that the census report of tion is one of the most important elements of production, is 1880 on railways, shows the average receipts of all the rail lines correct, they are, substantially, leading producers of all classes of each of the groups in that year to have been as follows:- of bulky mining, manufacturing, and agricultural staples. It Receipts Receipts would be folly to pretend that they raise wheat, corn, or cotton. per ton per passenger or make iron or textile fabrics, but it is indisputable that they Groups. per mile per mile moved. moved. furnish indispensable facilities, of great intrinsic value, for the Cents. Cents. performance of all important labors, by their cheap concen- I 1.83 2.23 II 1.02 2.21 tration of raw materials and distribution of the finished fruits III 2.15 3.51 of skilled industry; by forwarding the surplus yield of the IV 1.36 2.86 farmer to market, and carrying back to him the wares of the V 12 57 5.10 manufacturer; by rendering possible any and every desirable VI 2.57 3.43 accumulation of population at mining and commercial or other centres. Many of these labors would not be remunera- The average receipts and cost (exclusive of fixed charges, &c.), tive to shippers if they could not be performed at exceedingly of the combined lines of the country was as follows: Receipts low rates. To attract business, it is not only necessary that per ton per mile moved, 1.29 cents; cost per ton per mile lengthy lines should be built or controlled, but that much moved, 0.76 cents; net receipts per ton mile moved, 0.53 cents; freight should be moved for a small remuneration. Tonnage receipts per passenger per mile carried, 2.51 cents; cost per can only be materially increased by enormous diminutions of passenger per mile carried, 1.71 cents; net receipts per passen- the standards of charges which formerly prevailed. ger per mile carried, 0.80 cents. Since 1880 the average rate of the freight movement of all American lines has been materially IMPORTANCE OF CHEAP TRANSPORTATION. reduced. In 1882 it was reported to be 1.2 cents per ton per An ancient orator said that action, action, action, was the great mile. For subsequent years it was reported to be less than one requisite of success; and a famous warrior declared that money, cent per ton per mile. money, money, was the thing which above all others he needed One of the most striking condensed statements of the ad- to achieve victories; 80 the active business men, and the leading vantageous results of the cheapening of rates is the following industrial spirits of the United States, have been declaring made by Edward Atkinson:- ever since and even before the century began, that cheap trans- "Had the rates charged by the railways in the year 1881 been portation, cheap transportation, cheap transportation, was the the same as the rates charged from 1866-69 inclusive (the latter most vital element of American progress. With cheap trans- being reduced to a gold basis), the sum of the charge of all the Digitized by Google railways of the United States LA moving merchandise in the year 1881 rating). $1,375,000,000 Year. 550,000,000 (all lines ope- Miles of railroad freight. Earnings from 'peAom Tons of freight mile. would have been It was in fact Tons moved one mille, per our, Karnings per ton per mills, "In. Kapeness giar ton mile.ots. Net carnings 1.00 The difference, amounting to $825,000,000 exceeds the entire sum of all the national, state, and municipal 1867 842 11,993,008 2,249.363 435,417,029 2,34 1945 150 1868 842 taxes imposed upon the people of the country in the same year 12,479,950 2,562,862 455,046,715 2742 1.993 6.939 1869 842 14,006,386 3,190,840 589,362,849 2387 1397 0.59 by the sum of $100,000,000. All taxes being about $725,000,000." 1870 842 14,327,418 4,122,000 729,087,777 1.853 1.163 07 In an address delivered to the American Society of Civil 1871 845 14,647,580 4,532,056 $88,327,865 1.689 1044 ( 435 Engineers by 0. Chanute, in May, 1880, he furnished the fol- 1872 857 16,259,650 4,393,965 1,020,908,885 1.502 1.129 LIC lowing table of American railway average freight charges, ex- 1873 858 19,616,018 5,522,724 1,246,650,063 1.573 1.036 05C penses, and profit in the years named:- 20,348,725 6,114,673 1,391,580,707 1.462 0.954 5 Revenue, Expense. Profit, 1875...1,000 17,809,702 6,001,954 1,404,008,029 1.273 0.901 651 Year. cts. per ct. per cts. per 1876...1.000 17,593,265 6,803,680 1,674,447,055 1.051 0.711 0.34 ton-mise. ton-mile. ton-mile. 1876 1.117 0.316 1877...1,000 State of Ohio 16,424,317 6,351,356 2,619,948,685 1014 0.699 are 0.801 1878...1,000 19,045,830 7,695,413 2,042,755,132 0.930 0.536 0.34 State of Michigan 1878 1.053 0 632 0.421 9,015,753 2,295,827,387 0.796 0.551 6.50 Htate of Illinois 1879 1.028 0.617 0411 18,270,240 State of Massachusetts 1,000 22,199,966 10,533,038 1,525,139,145 0.879 0541 055 1879 1 838 1.066 0.772 1881 993 State of New York 20,736,750 11,591,379 2,606,814,098 0 783 0.563 ! 1877 1.059 0.781 0.275 1882 993 State of New York 0 690 0.309 17,672,252 11,330,393 2,391,799,310 0.738 0.601 or 1878 0.990 1883 993 0910 0 680 New York Central 1879 0.796. 0.255- 20,142.433 10,892,440 2,200,193,780 65 0544 1884 993 Erle 1879 0.780 0 561 0 219 16,434,983 10,212,418 1,970,087,115 0.830 0,630 a. Pennsylvania 1870 0.824 0.480- 0.344- Statement showing the length of its lines, earnings from freight, - of Boston and Albany 1879 1.073 0 622 0.451 freight moved, tons moved one mile, earnings per for per mile. expenses Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis. 1879 0.720 0.420- 0.300 per ton per mile, and net earnings per ton per mile of all freight more. Columbus, Chicago and Ind. Central. 1870 0.700 0.500- 0.110 on the New York, Lake Erie and Western Railroad, from 1852 to Its, Vandalia line 1870 0 931 0.715 0.216 inclusive:- Michigan Central 1870 0 002 0 407 0 285 tom mile Lake Shore 1870 0 642 0.399 0.244 Cleveland, Col., Cincinnati and Ind 1870 0 687 0.575 0.122 Chicago and Alton 1879 1 054 0.558 0.496 Year. operated. 1870 1.520 0.640 0.880 Miles of railroad Freight earnings. Tons moved. Ton miles. Illinois Central Earnings, ets. Икрошаю, cia, Pront, via, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 1870 1.720 0.041 0.779 The United States census report on railways for 1880 reports the 1852 465 $1,883,198 436,460 96,697,695 1.948 1.036 0.9m average receipts per ton per mile of fifteen of the largest freight 1853 498 2,537,215 631,039 101,626,522 2.496 1.277 LEi carriers, representing different classes of roads, in the census year 1854 498 3,659,590 743,250 130,808,034 2.576 1.406 LT. to be ILM follows: Pennsylvania, 0.89 cents; New York Central, 0.86 1355 498 3,653,002 843,055 150,673,997 2.424 1.155 1.99 1856 498 4,545,722 983,221 183,458,043 2477 1.169 1.306 cents; Lake Shore, 0.76 cents; New York, Lake Erie and West- 1856 498 4,097,610 978,067 165,100,850 2.457 0.897 LST ern, 0.84 cents; Baltimore and Ohio, 0.89 cents; Central Pacific, 1857 468 3,843,310 816,964 165,895,636 2.316 0.649 I.F 2.49 cents; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, 1.11 cents; Phila- 1859 559 3,195,869 869,072 147,127,039 1.621 1.341 0= delphia and Reading, 1.01 cents; Chicago and North-western, 1860 559 3,884,343 1,139,554 214,084,396 1.814 1.001 0.5.3 1.47 cents; Union Pacific, 1.99 cents; Chicago, Milwaukee and 1861 559 4,351,464 1,253,419 251,350,127 1.771 0.929 0.543 St. Paul, 1.72 cents; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, 1.21 1862 559 6,642,915 1,632,955 351,092,285 1.892 0.956 0.90F cents; Wabash, Ht. Louis and Pacific, 0.80 cents; Michigan Cen- 1868 624 8,432,231 1,815,096 403,670,861 2.088 0.964 L13 tral, 0.80 cents; Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, 2.09 cents. 1864 624 9,855,088 2,170,798 422,013,644 2.335 1.456 0.579 1865 624 These fifteen roads made a freight movement equivalent to 10,726,264 2,234,350 388,557,213 2.761 1.964 a.- 1866. 773 11,611,023 3,242,972 478,485,772 2.427 1.654 0.00 54.86 per cent. of the number of tons of freight moved one 1867 773 11,204,680 3,484,546 549,888,422 2.038 1.472 0,566 milo by all the railway lines of the United States. 1868 773 10,780,976 3,908,243 595,699,225 1.809 1.339 0.47: EAST AND WEST TRUNK LINES. 1809 823 10,583 794 4,312,209 817,829,190 1.539 1.171 0.368 The most important of the reductions in rates were those 1870 846 11,983,547 4,852,505 898,862,718 1.333 0 975 0.358 1871 914 12,861,999 4,844,208 897,446,728 1.442 1.013 0.39 made on the east and went trunk lines and their western con- 1872 959 14,509,745 5,564,274 950,708,902 1.527 0.979 0.548 nections, and on the granger roads. The following tables illus- 1878 959 15,015,807 6,312,792 2,032,986,809 1.115 0.960 0.504 trato some of the most striking facts relating to diminution of 1874 959 13,740,042 6,364,276 1,047,420,238 1.311 0.913 0.398 charges and contemporaneous increase of traffic:- 1875. 942 12,278,399 6,239,943 1,016,618,050 1.260 0.958 0.159 TRUNK LINES. 1876 957 11,420,029 5,972,818 1,040,431,921 1.098 0.885 0.213 Statement showing the length of its lines, carnings from freight, tone of 1877 957 10,647,807 6,182,450 1,114,586,220 0.955 0.752 0.303 firsght mored, tona moved one mile, earnings per ton per mile, expenses 1878 028 11,914,489 6,150,463 1,224,763,718 0.973 0.674 0.299 per for girl mile, and not earnings per for gies mile of all freight moved 1870 028 12,233,481 8,212,641 1,569,222,417 0.780 0.561 0.219 On the New York Central and Hudnon River Railroad from 1534 to 1854, 1880 952 14,391,115 8,715,892 1,721,112,095 0.836 0.534 0.302 inclusive. 1881 080 15,979,577 11,086,823 1,934,394,855 0.805 0.529 0.276 3 : 'a 1,020 14,642,128 11,895,238 1,954,389,710 9.749 0.526 0.293 1883 1,020 15,562,141 11,965 490 1,979,448,428 0.786 0.532 0.254 1MM4 1,020 12,003,157 11,071,938 1,794,946,519 0.719 0.519 0.200 Year. " Statement showing the earnings from freight. expenses of the same, tome carried one mile, average earnings per ton per mile, average expenses per A è for per mile. merage net earnings per ton per mile, and total tons moved 1854 NOS $2,013,000 080,800 90,300,000 2004 300 I "In .... the Pronsylvania Kailroad from 1855 to 1884, inclusive:- 1800 NO4 3,750,320 670,073 114,827,702 8 270 1 111 1 020 Per ton mile.- 1800 NO4 5,052,050 032,841 105,800,708 $ 000 012 I not Freight Earn- Ex- year. Net. Total 1857 NO4 165,010,034 INI eximings, Ton milerge. ings. a penses. 0,270,876 1,070,080 tonnage. THIN I 41411 Cents. Cents. Cents. 1858 804 4,244,031 020,000 101,108.044 2030 374 1 2011 1800 $2,805,300 102,171,312 2.746 1.662 1.084 365,006 1859 NO4 4,049,530 1,003,984 187,201,130 1112 UNI 0 MMI 1800 3,244,202 119,838,501 2.707 1.662 1.045 454,092 1860. NOT 4,043,038 1,300,035 230,418,031 2000 and 11 18.11 3,374,041 139,994,548 2.411 1.536 0.675 826,518 1861 804 5,557,010 1,537,400 280,12,705 uns 310 0 III 1808 3,536,000 162,121,735 2.181 1.289 0.892 1,046,899 1862 804 7,070,304 1,005,173 357,044,135 your the 05,1 1800 3,600,111 180,333,140 2.027 1.176 0.851 1,170,240 1863 804 9,449,554 2,106,571 387,387,000 2.430 1019 0.07 1800 4,101,784 214,162,018 1.957 1.176 0.781 1,346,525 1864 804 10,685,672 2,158,972 386,801,761 2.703 1,000 0.708 1801 8,308,026 280,262,522 1.926 0.912 1.014 1,482,087 1865 804 11.000,058 1,767,059 318 732 070 3.451 0.013 1803 7,008,420 376,195,127 2,038 1.077 0.961 2,058,548 1866 842 12,017,532 2,099,594 388,620,986 3.00g 2,103 0.000 1000 8,002,202 393,746,258 1,147 1.038 2,265,413 Digitize Google Freight Earn- Ex- Year. Net. Total earnings. Ton mileage. ings. penses. tonnage. in seventeen years. Cents. Cents. Cents. 1864 10,361,999 420,627,222 2.463 1.871 0.592 2,585,379 The most potent cause of the rapid industrial advancement 1865 11,193,565 420,060,260 2.665 2.281 0.384 2,555,706 which characterizes the age is, indeed, the extraordinary cheap- 1866 11,709,294 513,102,181 2.282 1.821 0.461 3,186,359 ness of modern rail transportation. Few persons realize the 1867 11,832,300 565,657,813 2.092 1.544 0.548 3,709,224 full force of the contrasts between present and former methods 1868 12,882,165 675,775,560 1.906 1.249 0.657 4,427,884 of moving freight. The average rates on the Pennsylvania 1869 12,932,657 752,711,312 1.718 1.200 0.518 4,991,995 Railroad division represent less than the sums formerly charged 1870 12,793,160 825,979,692 1.549 0.998 0.551 5,427,401 by turnpike companies for the privilege of hauling Conestoga 1871 14,052,305 1,011,892,207 1.389 0.874 0.515 6,575,843 wagons over the improved roads they constructed, while for 1872. 16,856,801 1,190,144,036 1.416 0.886 0.530 7,844,778 1873 many wagon movements the rate of from twenty to thirty cents 19,608,555 1,384,831,970 1.416 0.857 0.559 9,211,234 1874 17,227,505 1,372,566,976 1.255 0.748 0.507 8,626,946 per ton mile, and during unfavorable seasons much higher 1875 15,651,741 1,479,414,466 1.058 0.616 0.442 9,115,368 rates, were often charged. Before the era of canals and rail- 1876 14,539,784 1,629,742,021 0.892 0.582 0.310 9,922,911 ways many forms of production were stifled by the enormous 1877 14,642,109 1,494,798,198 0.930 0.552 0.428 9,738,295 cost of overland transportation. 1878 15,904,501 1,732,003,131 0 918 0.483 0.435 10,946,752 An indication of the contrasts between the railway charges of 1879 17,016,989 2,136,708,887 0.796 0.427 0.369 13,684,041 the present day and such extensive wagon movements as are 18S0 20,234,046 2,298,317,323 0.880 0.474 0.406 15,364,788 still made is furnished by a statement published in the St. Paul 1881 22,400,120 2,655,438,761 0.799 0.437 0.362 18,229,365 Pioneer Press, of March 2d, 1883, of bids for the wagon freight- 1882 23,517,178 2,879,542,701 0.817 0.473 0.344 20,360,399 1883 24,536,789 2.996,892,507 0.819 0.477 0.342 21,674,160 ing of United States government stores on routes in Minnesota 1884 22,823,329 3,082,499,986 0.740 0.441 0.290 22,583,825 and Dakota, which were opened by the United States quarter- master at St. Paul on March 1st, 1883. The lowest rate per 100 REDUCTION OF FREIGHT RATES ON THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD pounds per 100 miles was $1.40, and the highest rate was $3.43. DIVISION. At the first of these rates the movement of a ton of 2,000 The table published below shows rapid growth of traffic, mar- pounds over 100 miles would cost $28, and the average rate be velous reduction of rates, and immense sums saved to shippers 28 cents per ton per mile. At the highest of the bids made and consumers by these reductions. It will be seen that on the cost of moving a ton of 2,000 pounds 100 miles would be the Pennsylvania Railroad division the total number of tons $68.60, or at the average rate of 68₁₀ cents per ton per mile. moved one mile in 1865 was 420,060,260; that the average rate By the reduction from such figures (which formerly prevailed per ton per mile received during that year was 2.665 cents; even in Pennsylvania) to the present rail rates many exist- and that the aggregate saving or reduction on the total quan- ing industries have been created and immensely expanded. tities moved from 1866 to 1882, inclusive, in comparison with REDUCTION OF RATES IN OHIO the charges made in 1865, reached the large aggregate of The following table, of the business reported by all roads $382,947,486.26. The table or statement is as follows:- passing through the state of Ohio, shows clearly the increase in Statement showing, for each year from 1865 to 1882, inclusive, on the Penn- amounts carried and the decreased cost of transportation:- sylvania Railroad division, the number of tons of freight moved one mile, the rate per ton per mile, and the amount of reduction in any given year, Year. Tons freight, Average rate one mile. per ton per computed the difference between the rate in that year and that which mile. cents. was charged in 1865:- 1869 1,332,307,931 2.446 Average Amount of re- 1870 1,673,017,568 1.993 Total tons rate duction each Years. per ton 1871 one mile. year com- 1,773,983,405 2.215 per puted on rate 1872 2,923,292,084 1.560 mile. of 1865. 1873 3,420,889,453 1.566 1865 420,060,260 2 665 $ 1874 3,717,622,979 1.344 1866 513,102,181 2.282 1,965,181 35 1875 3,431,745,707 1.259 1867 565,657,813 2.092 3,241,219 27 1876 3,799,397,649 1.117 1868 675,775,560 1,906 5,129,136 50 1877 4,146,926,306 .933 1869 752,711,312 1.718 7,128,176 12 1878 4.286,378,592 .961 1870 825,979,692 1.549 9,217,933 36 1879 4,914,503,869 .815 1871 1,011,892,207 1 389 12,911,744 56 1880 6,655,562,182 .895 1872 1,190,144,036 1.416 14,864,899 01 1881 7,607,215,616 .915 1873 1,384,831,970 1.416 17,296,551 31 1874 1,372,566,976 1.255 19,353,194 36 The following table shows the tons of freight moved one mile 1875 1,479,414,466 1.058 23,774,190 47 in Ohio alone, from 1869 to 1881, inclusive, also the amount 1876 1,629,742,021 0.892 28,895,326 03 saved to shippers thereby, compared with the amount of taxes 1877 1,494,798,198 0.980 25,187,349 64 of all kinds in the state during that time. From this table it 1878 1,732,003,131 0.918 39,258,094 70 will be seen that by the decline of rates since 1869 there has 1879 2,136,708,887 0.796 39,935,088 91 been saved to those who are charged with the cost of shipping 1880 2,208,317,323 0.880 41,024,964 22 1881 2,655,438,764 0.799 the sum of $337,674,755.99, an amount exceeding the local taxes 49,550,487 34 1882 2,879,542,701 0.817 53,213,949 11 paid during that period by $21,707,759.66. Year. Tons, one mile Rate per Decrease Total reduction for 17 years $382,947,486 26 per ton from 1869, Amount saved. Total taxes in Ohio. in Ohio. per mile. per cent. The table also presents facts worthy of careful consideration 1869. 739,031,209.33 2.446 in its statement of the total number of tons moved one mile 1870. 898,410,433.02 1.993 .453 $4,073,899 26 $23,463,631 82 during each year. The main portion of this movement was of 1871. 938,259,822.90 2.215 .231 2,167,380 19 22,955,388 40 business originating in Pennsylvania, and the growth of traffic, 1872.1,494,094,584.13 1.569 .877 13,103,209 50 23,810,971 97 1873.1,941,012,675.53 1.566 .880 therefore, reflects the rapid advance of various forms of in- 17,080,911 54 26,131,353 2g 1874.2,147,299,032.67 1.334 1.112 23,877,965 24 26,837,196 77 dustrial development. Many mines are opened, many manu- 1875.1,917,659,501.07 1.259 1.187 22,762,618 28 27,952,971 37 factories established and enlarged, many forests cut down and 1876.2,117,024,370.02 1.117 1.329 28,135,253 88 28,521,256 52 converted into furniture or building material, and many other 1877.2,360,015,760.74 .933 1.513 35,707,038 46 27,514,650 79 forms of industry are vitalized, mainly on account of the op- 1878.2,493,815,064.83 .961 1.485 37,033,153 71 26,324,445 30 portunities for reaching profitable markets which are fur- 1879.2,741,310,258.11 .815 1.631 44,710,770 31 25,756,665 61 nished by cheap transportation. The fact that the number of 1880.3,393,814,541.62 .895 1.551 52,638,063 54 29,092,084 27 tons moved one mile increased from 420,060,260 in 1865 to 1881.3,681,892,358.14 .915 1.531 56,384,591 08 27,606,380 29 2,879,542,701 in 1882 is & fair indication that the volume of $337,674,755 99 $315,966,996 83 VINITES TRIVI-LIST Through Lc. Case = Sectement simming the marrier !f nice registed Se - named 1 the main !! ins mored me mix - THE from in SCREENE & # cute and THE you ins you main !! morey - the Pear-pr ILT in 1 5 Fr. Tryre md Raisey I've :-- 28 21. Annes September No w Is-- LI- September 3: :: Gestre is IR Profess Type You Type E-mail From = was you - 00 = Order No. # - ILL the earnings yr:a - you Order Si = December Is 45 I IA L.A. Is: Mr-1 SRZ 5 La Time Ten-miles AM As: 1. Minn 5ux 2: 4:01 E. . M Air E MAT is 5 ID 21 MR EMS 45. 134 12 17 LEI. VII RED WASH 14E MIT bi :: Mry 193 SD 11 15 145. 952 NEWA 750 13574 il is MET New = September 3d 45 15 15:1 #21 DUE :- 17 September : September === 30 14" as - 1910% 134 4 1.2 September ore = September in = 140 952 1.4154 1: :Y 00 September Omoter mi - WEATS Order Its :: December Is 5 In 923 nen 40054 13 LM " #1 KLOS =4 FL-Jung Is: A:C 5 :7 18 148. 1:00 1% 12 Applicable 1:0- = - 14 AT = = 1:-- & 5 : :: 123 421 17. IN 1.35 A:- "*1 MIT = in 100.00 VIII. 123 -10 111 08 M23 =< :: September E 45 :- 75 145 1% 1 ir September A= = September 130 50 in 921 143 ! September Here Nirember Its 55 14 15 were 16 15 : 3: RESOCTING 3 LITE INDIAN AVI 31" COO 147 : € (4) TTY. 13.19 :3 if 02 984 1010 ::: * e medical presenting the schject is Smith 1547 150 112 12 a (3) fillowing EXTRACT inc = article probished = the I-: -72 19.73 are : :: is 0.34 :- Its INTERNOS x reductions 022 1951 CITIZE (.54 15% (2) of frim ruler Ls below than ex: 4.2 10:21 0.00 3 (44 : 22 subject many de ives- 155-- (3 10 -:- the year 183 the rice - gain from Indian 131 3 (4) 13 FL 15.00 MATE i NAT Yet THE = cents per 10 prends co for 4: #i 190 $7.00 CARD 1. barrel me W15 reduced CO grain = 1224 150.00 4.111.216 16 11 pounds at! $12 per harrel is Stor. The rate: Iro; Memorits in is Like Sure and Services DECIS = provisive going and 43 cents per barrel OF - The general manager if a is freight Ene yesterday Texas : Branch is the and reporter tiss in ISD be contracted Inflamapils miller :, forward 1 the Stor be turned 15.3 154 32 572 period days perbarrel The trunk-Ene THE 17355 1321 33 5 afters refused to carry oct the ecetract, tes 172 use :51 29 14 sented :: 85 in: gare said agent to understand 10 130 34, 100 services too needed if be again made a - 154 11 318 359 11% .413 12.00 $ 539.00 1.1v == 11 THE same line is hanling 155 LIMBARS AT M 36 :-: burrel from Indianap 3 to New York, and TELL-: 55338 MA = 2. miss a shipment W cl dictdess stude that rate. ITS 35545 11:34:32 IN 44 50 west-boned business the reduction in tarif rates Easter IT 541 34 11.3a.51 SAP in 244 mire marked In 153 the rate ca first-class 1% 1,851,156,013 55 23 New York to Inflanap is wis $1.98 per 100 permis 121 -- 33 wis reduced to $1.00 in 1580 to $1.11). and the rate 200 AS 25 centaper 100 prunds. In 1568 one of the trunk Fragis Name se the Sre This Parrylonis and Gis. $1.10 per 10 pounds rate ca first-class freight, will Center Yes Frant: MARCH : ca product. a rumpus in railroad circles. and was dropped !?! 343 111 255 14+, peting roads they the promise that such a rate 157, DED 169 230 145 4,006,000 again te offered Formerly 1 car run from New You 1874 145 15:5 360 1:55 dianapolis earned from $40 to se now if a car earns 10., 24 1500 241 0 361 230.54 $150.00 spoken of 25 big earnings." 1000 14: 1743 2554 035 2611 117 --9 5.4 3774 033 EAST-BOTND RATES FEEM SR. LOTIS IS DECEMBER 1674 50.3 25.3 3:7 0.35 2754.751 13.5 254 2 4743 065 In the sheet for east-bound freights. dating from: 19.6 4 359. 3 4.43 0.501 33454 her 1st. 1582 issued in accordance with the resoluti 30 445 095 0.065 4,057,254 just executive committee, the only material changes 1181 575.0 JALI 0621 the eighth. ninth. and tenth classes. with special rates OPERATION OF TEXT LINES 133 THER WINTERS and dressed beef in car-load lots The rate on all class CONSECTION piles from Est St. Louis. and on dressed-beef shipmes Statement of through charges per tom per mile on grain and fourth-class quoted as follows in car lots: Hartford, Portland, Provi freight from Chicago to New York, all rail, 363 miles, ris Michigan Boston, New Haven, Bridgeport, and Worcester, 74 central Central and connecting roads. York and Montreal, 74 cents; Philadelphia, 72 cents; Balt (Prepared for Senate committee on transportation by H. E. Sargent, general 71 cents; Albany, Troy, and Schenectady, 71 cents; B superintendent Michigan Central Railroad.) Through Rate per Toronto, Suspension Bridge, Salamanca, Dunkirk, Pitts Date. rate per 100 ton and Wheeling, 40 cents. The basis of rates is as follow pounds. per mile. 1871-January 1st to March 5th 65 1.35 Chicago to New York: First class, $1; second, 85 cents March 6th to March 8th 00 1.25 70 cents; fourth, 60 cents; fifth, 50 cents; sixth, 45 cents; se March 9th to March 18th 55 1.14 35 cents; eighth, 30 cents; ninth, 40 cents; tenth, 35 cents March 19th to June 13th 45 .935 60 cents, and dressed beef, 64 cents. REDUCTIONS OF RAILWAY RATES. 247 GRANGER ROADS AND WESTERN CONNECTIONS OF THE TRUNK LINES Aggregate gross Aggregate tons Ageregate number Rate in Year. earnings of freight of tons moved cts. per ton Statement of the combined freight operations of the following roads leading from freight. carried. one mile. per mile. in eastern and western directions from Chicago, vis.: Chicago and Alton; 1877 50,292,343 21,708,119 3,781,864,513 1.330 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; 1878 56,861,357 24,560,317 4,601,407,423 1.202 Chicago and North-western; Chicago and Rock Island; Illinois Central; 1879 61,685,868 29,862,069 6,326,175,549 0.975 Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, and Michigan Central:- 1880 77,824,956 36,363,790 7,134,247,668 1.090 1881 81,343,483 40,537,451 7,247,000,493 1.122 Aggregate gross Aggregate tons Aggregate number Rate in 1882 Year. of freight of tons moved cts. per ton 86,241,382 42,961,275 7,637,439,578 1.129 earnings from freight. carried. ono mile. per mile. 1883 97,517,203 45,339,862 8,598,968,708 1.134 1870 $42,290,522 12,303,084 1,899,320,549 2.227 1884 91,332,999 45,080,803 8,529,849,513 1.071 1871 44,363,029 14,282,025 2,183,478,482 2.032 The report on internal commerce of the United States Statis- 1872 47,297,976 16,273,819 2,512,960,724 1 882 1873 55,675,118 19,321,54 3,070,824,967 1.813 tical Bureau for 1879 says:- 1874 57,667,217 20,234,482 3,109,033,910 1.820 "The following table shows the average annual freight charges 1875 51,755,867 20,371,512 3,244,167,960 1.596 per ton per mile on several of the most important trunk lines 1876 51,014,221 22,179,757 3,602,384,890 1.416 of the country from the year 1868 to the year 1878, inclusive:- Statement showing the average annual freight charges per ton per mile on several transportation lines engaged in commerce between the Western states and the Atlantic seaboard from 1868 to 1878, inclusive:- Lines. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Centa. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. New York canals (freight and tolls) .872 .924 .835 1.027 1.016 .887 .743 .668 .679 .564 .420 New York Central Railroad 2743 2.387 1.884 1.649 1.593 1.573 1.462 1.275 1.051 1.014 .914 Erie (N. Y., Lake Erie and Western) Railroad 1.81 1.539 1.333 1.433 1.520 1.454 1.312 1.209 1.099 .955 .973 Pennsylvania Railroad 1.906 1.718 1.549 1.389 1.416 1.416 1.255 1.058 .892 .980 .918 Boston and Albany Railroad 2.811 2.435 2.193 2 09 2.016 1.958 1.818 1.533 1.283 1.208 1.129 Philadelphia and Erie Railroad 1.609 1.433 1 303 1.205 1.192 1.135 .977 .865 .776 .786 .728 Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad 2.336 1.714 1.504 1.391 1.374 1.335 1.18 1.01 .817 .864 .734 Michigan Central Railroad 2.45 2.09 1.982 1.747 1.867 1.891 1.569 1.398 1.115 .878 .848 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad 3.248 3.063 2.392 2.2 2.070 1.921 1.901 1.889 1.603 1.428 1.247 Chicago and North-western Railroad 3.168 3.093 2.869 2.614 2.351 2.226 1.946 1.789 1.702 1.724 N. B.-The fiscal year of the railroads nearest to the several calendar years are given in the above table. The foregoing table indicates that there has been a large of which is indicated by the following extract from a news- falling off in the average annual freight charges on all the paper article published a few years ago, showing the relatively transportation lines mentioned. Without taking in account slight burden which the low freight charge imposes on con- the tonnage transported on the different lines, it appears that sumers:- the average earnings per ton per mile of the several transporta- "A barrel of the best flour, worth in New York $7, will make tion lines fell from about 2.295 cents during the year 1868 to 180 loaves of bread; cost of making the loaves is $3; whole cost .954 cent during the year 1878, or less than half the average $10; retailer's price for the 180 loaves, at 10 cents a loaf, $18; rate of the former year. The effect of the reduction of freight profit, $8. The total freight charge on a barrel of flour from charges on the railroads of the country is illustrated by the Minneapolis to New York is $1, or about 1 cent for the flour of fact stated in Poor's Railroad Manual for 1879 that 'had the one loaf. rates of 1873 on the New York Central and Hudson River Rail- A hindquarter of beef, weighing 200 pounds, costs in New road been maintained, the freight earnings of that road, during York, at 9 cents per pound, $18; retails at 16 cents per pound, the past year, would have equaled $31,000,000 in place of or $32 for the whole quarter; profit, $14. The railroads carry $19,045,830, the amount actually received.' dressed beef from Chicago to New York for 40 cents per 100 Until about the year 1870 it was the opinion generally enter- pounds, or 4 mills per pound. Hams and bacon, on which the tained by the managers of the east and west trunk lines that consumer pays a profit of 4 or 5 cents per pound, are carried they could not profitably engage in the transportation of grain by the railroads from St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Chicago to from Chicago to New York at a lower rate than about 40 cents New York for t of a cent per pound. per hundred pounds, or 24 cents per bushel on wheat. But The consumer in states west of the Mississippi pays an aver- during the year 1878 the average rate for the carriage of wheat age price of, say, 90 cents per pound for tea, an average profit from Chicago to New York was, by lake and canal, somewhat of 40 cents. Tea is first-class freight. The freight charges for under 10 cents per bushel, and by all rail only 161 cents per 100 pounds of tea from New York to Davenport, Des Moines, bushel. During the present season of 1879 grain has been Council Bluffs, Kansas City, and St. Paul-from 1,200 to 1,500 shipped from Chicago to Liverpool for 17 cents a bushel, a rate miles-range at the average from 90 cents to $1.10; an average but little greater than that which prevailed for the transporta- of a cent per pound. Tea may suffice as an example for other tion of grain from Buffalo to New York by canal and Hudson food articles and food products. Whenever the consumer pays river only ten years ago." a high margin of profit over the producer's price, as in coffee, canned goods, fruits, and other groceries, he does not pay it to PRACTICAL RESULTS OF THE LOW RATES FOR MOVEMENTS BETWEEN the transporter, but to the middlemen and dealers. THE ATLANTIC SEABOARD AND THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. A suit of clothes may be bought by the working man or The practical results of the low rates for movements between average citizen for from $20 to $30. The transporter's charge the Atlantic seaboard and the Mississippi valley embrace not from eastern manufactories to points west of the Mississippi only the attainment of an object of great national and inter- does not exceed an average of five cents on a suit of clothes. national importance, viz., the extensive movement of bread- The average profit to dealers on a $20 suit of clothes is $8 stuffs and provisions and large exportations of food products, The profit on a single pair of $4 boots or shoes is three times but an innumerable array of incidental advantages, the nature the total freight charges on a dozen pairs 1,500 miles." Digitized by Google FREIGHT REDUCTIONS ON VARIOUS CLASSES OF ROADS. A VARIETY of statistics, illustrating the tendency towards ANTHRACITE AND BITUMINOUS COAL ROADS. a reduction in average rates already shown, might be The position of a large number of anthracite and bituminous compiled from the annual reports of all classes of roads that coal roads in the matter of freight charges is peculiar, as much participated actively in competitive traffic, or that rapidly in- of the coal they transport is mined by companies in which creased to large proportions the amount of their local freight they are interested, or the principal or sole owners. They traffic. These reductions are such important factors in every- also, however, transport a great deal of coal which is mined by thing relating to internal commerce that they cannot be too individual operators or by corporations in which they have no deeply impressed upon the minds of those who wish to know direct interest. In the aggregate, the coal freight movements what the American railroad systems are and what they do. of all kinds and of all qualities form the largest made in the At the same time, when traffic is light it is impossible to earn country. In the numerous cases where the principal railway interest on the cost of the railways of any locality unless rela- carrier is directly or indirectly the principal miner or mining tively high charges are imposed. operator of the coal carried the amount of remuneration Another great element of cheapness is the length of the actually received depends upon the price obtained for the coal lines over which movements are made. Short roads cannot sold. When coal is selling at low figures there is either small work as cheaply as long ones. An illustration of this principle profit or an absolute loss on the entire transaction of mining, is furnished by the following statement, made by Henry C. carrying to market, and selling coal, and it is a matter of com- Carey in the Pennsylvania constitutional convention of 1873:- paratively little real consequence whether the apparent bur- "From the first mile on a railroad to the last there is a per- den of the loss or lack of profitable results is thrown upon the petual diminution of rate. On the Reading railroad it com- accounts of the collieries owned and operated or upon the mences with 10 cents per mile for 5 miles, falling to 2.60 at railroad by reductions in rates of transportation. In practice, 50, and terminating with a little more than 2 at 90 or 93 however, the nominal railway rates for carrying anthracite miles. On the Pennsylvania Central road the charge have usually been well maintained, on account of the large for a barrel of flour for the first 10 miles is a cent a mile. At amount of coal carried for individual operators, but in years 50 miles it becomes two-fifths of a cent, and at Pittsbugh one_ when the trade was not in a flourishing condition the sums fifth of a cent." actually received by the heavy anthracite coal carriers for coal In some of the statements published to illustrate reductions usually represent either a notable reduction of the nominal of rates methods have been adopted by the compilers which transportation rates or a considerable loss at the collieries in may lead to erroneous conclusions. For instance, if there are which they were interested. Much of the bituminous coal has five railways in a state, and their average rates per ton per frequently, and of late years generally, been carried to market mile are respectively 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 cents, and the average at exceedingly low rates, probably the lowest ever given for freight rate of the state is deduced from a calculation based on movements of equal magnitude, as they often represented only the sum total of these rates divided by the number of lines, a small fraction of a cent per ton per mile. The rates pub- the result will be one-fifth of thirty cents, or six cents per ton lished, officially reported, and paid by individual operators, per mile. It may happen, however, that the traffic of the state should be construed in the light of the statements made above, is so distributed that the bulk of all the railway freight move- and some allowance should also be made for drawbacks of ments made in it are conducted over the line that charges only various kinds and for various reasons, which form a prominent an average rate of two cents per ton per mile, in which case feature of some of the coal freight tariffs. Allowance should the average charges actually imposed would probably be not also be made for the fact that usually the cars that carry coal more than three cents, or one-half the sum reached by the to market are sent back to the mines empty, on account of the other method of calculation. obvious difficulty of obtaining a sufficient amount of back- RATES ON NEW ENGLAND ROADS. loading and the character of the cars used. The average freight charges on all the railways of New Eng- The reported charges in Pennsylvania, in which state nearly land in 1879-80 is stated in the census report on railways to be all the anthracite traffic and a large proportion of the semi- 1.83 cents per ton per mile. bituminous and bituminous traffic of the entire country, origi- The report of the Massachusetts railway commission, dated nates, in 1875 and 1882, were as follows:- January, 1887, contains the following table of the average rates Anthracite Coal Chiefly. of freight, in 1865 and 1886, of the lines named:- 1875. 1882. Per ton Per ton Rate. 1865. Rate, 1886. Per cent. of per mile. per mile. Cents. Cents. 1865 and 1866. Cents. Cents. Boston and Albany 3.90 1.10 28 Philadelphia and Reading, proximate average per ton Boston and Maine 4.58 2.27 40 of 2,240 pounds. 1.85 1.51 Boston and Providence 4.38 2.84 65 Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, through coal 1.78 1.09 " Connecticut River 6.20 2.81 45 local coal 2.00 .89 Fitchburg 4.10 1.07 26 Lehigh Valley, through and local, per ton of 2,000 Old Colony 3.20 2.93 92 pounds 1.46 1.27 The average freight charges per ton per mile, on the lines Delaware and Hudson Canal, through coal 1.50 1 to 11 " named below, for the six years ending with 1886, are shown in local coal 2.00 Lehigh and Susquehanna, through coal 1.60 1.17 the following table:- Freights. local coal 1.60 1.17 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 1886. Northern Central 1.425 Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Cts. Pennsylvania and New York Canal and Railroad Co. 1.68 Boston and Albany 1.04 1 07 1.20 1 09 0.94 1.10 Boston and Maine 2.43 2.35 2.24 2.34 2 27 Erie, local coal 1.26 2.13 Boston and Providence 2.77 2.83 2.83 2.82 2.83 2.84 Atlantic and Great Western, through coal 1 to 11 " " local coal 2.99 3.04 3.16 3.00 2.90 2.93 11 to 3 Old Colony North Pennsylvania, through coal 1.80 Boston and Lowell 3.13 2.60 2.98 2.33 1.77 1.67 " " local coal 2.66 Fitchburg 1.26 1.18 1.19 1.09 1.06 1.07 Eastern 2.06 2.03 1.92 1.81 Bituminous or Semi-Bituminous Coal Chiefly. New York and New England 2.20 1.77 1.38 1.41 1.71 1.67 Bell's Gap, through coal 6.00 2.13 Connecticut River 2.99 3.07 3.04 3.05 2.96 2.81 " local coal 9.5 5.00 New York, New Haven and Hartford 1.79 1.98 1.89 1.96 1.96 2.00 Buffalo, New York and Philadelphia, through coal 1.25 .75 Providence and Worcester 2.80 2.78 2.96 3.09 2.45 2.49 " " local coal 1.75 1.00 Jersey City Works Locomotive Danforth, Cooke & Co. Locomotive. U Boardman Coal-Burning Locomotive. Patent Self-acting Car-C 0 0 Various Styles of Chairs and other Devices for Joining Rails. Improved Reclining Car Seat. Coal-Burning Car RAILWAY APPLIANCES OF 1857, Digitized by Google FREIGHT REDUCTIONS ON VARIOUS CLASSES OF ROADS. 249 1875. 1882. Per ton Per ton The following table was furnished by the Chamber of Com- per mile. per mile. merce of Atlanta in November, 1873, to the Senate committee Cents. Cents. on transportation to the seaboard:- Corning, Cowanesque and Antrim, through coal 1.50 local coal 5.00 4.00 Freight Charges, Green Line Rates, September 15th, 1872. Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley and Pittsb., through coal. 1.00 .75 From St. Louis to Atlanta, Ga:- Per 100 pounds. Per ton. " local coal 1.25 1.00 Coal 63 cents. $12 60 Erie and Pittsburgh, through coal 1.120 Cotton 84 cents. 16 80 local coal 1.60 1.120 Furniture $4 20 84 00 Huntingdon and Broad Top Mountain, through coal. If 1.00 Lime 63 cents. 12 GO " local coal 21 2.00 Lumber 63 cents. 12 GO Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, local coal 1.20 .698 Iron, scrap and pig 11 cents per ton per mile. 10 24 Oil Creek and Allegheny River, through coal 1.10 Iron manufactures and ma- " local coal 3.25 chinery 63 cents to $1 40 12 G0 to 28 Pittsburgh and Connellsville, through coal 1.17 .70 Salt 63 cents. 12 60 " local coal 1.86 1.50 Slate No rates. No rates. Shenango and Allegheny, through coal 11 to 2 Iron, railroad 11 cents per ton per mile. 10 24 Tioga, through coal 2.50 2.00 From St. Louis to Savannah:- " local coal 5.00 3.00 Coal 70 cents. 14 00 Cotton 75 cents. 15 00 SOUTHERN RAILWAY RATES. Furniture $4 20 84 00 General Herman Haupt, in October, 1873, when manager of Lime 70 cents. 14 00 a line from Atlanta to Richmond, including the North Caro- Lumber 70 cents. 14 00 lina Railroad, testified to Senate committee on transportation Iron, pig and scrap 11 cents per ton per mile. 14 40 routes to the seaboard that the company had offered to carry Iron manufactures and ma- iron ore as low as a cent and a half per ton per mile, and that chinery 70 cents to $1 40 14 00 to 28 Salt 70 cents. 14 00 for distribution to local consumers the lowest charge was 31 to Slate No rates. No rates. 4 cents per ton per mile, and that through freights were en- Railroad iron 11 cents per ton per mile. 14 40 tirely governed by competition. Other portions of his testi- An argument made by Mr. E. P. Alexander before the Senate mony were as follows:- railroad committee of Georgia at Atlanta, Ga., on September Q. What is the general price for carrying passengers in the 22d, 1879, contained the following:- south? A. About 4 or 5 cents per passenger per mile for local, and Comparison of Cotton Rates in 1875 and 1879. about 3 cents for through. Per 100 pounds to From- Year. Charleston Q. Why is it 80 much greater in the south than in the north? or Savannah. New York Boston. Atlanta 1875 60 A. In consequence of the very sparse population, and the $1 10 $1 20 " 1879 45 70 75 inability to meet expenses even at those rates, and because the business is not large enough to justify a reduction, and Decrease 15 40 45 could not be materially increased thereby. The population Buckhead 1875 74 $1 24 $1 39 is limited, and not of such a character that there would be " 1879 60 90 95 an increase of travel consequent upon the reduction of rates. Decrease 14 34 44 It is not expedient, or indeed practicable, to reduce them. La Grange 1875 80 Very few of the roads in the south are earning more than $1 30 $1 40 1879 60 85 90 enough to pay operating expenses, and a large proportion of them do not pay the interest on their debts. Decrease 20 45 50 Q. What is the general rate of freight per ton per mile as Comparison of Merchandise Rates in 1875 and 1879. compared with northern roads? New York to Classes per 100 pounds. Year. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A. Very much higher. The average on most of the southern Atlanta 1875 $1 70 $1 40 $1 10 90 80 70 roads will run from 4 to 5 cents per ton per mile for local 1879 1 25 1 10 85 75 60 45 freights, while on the northern roads, the Pennsylvania Rail- Decrease 45 30 25 15 20 25 road particularly, the same class of freight would be carried for less than 2 cents per ton per mile. Buckhead 1875 $1 73 $1 58 $1 43 $1 28 $1 18 $1 08 Q. Is it double then in the south? 1879 1 46 1 26 1 07 91 75 55 A. I should think that would be a fair estimate. Decrease 27 32 36 37 43 53 Q. What reason do you give for that? On nearly all southern roads cotton was formerly much the A. The small amount of business and the necessity for charg- most important single article moved, and it was a leading ing higher rates in consequence. For example, the Richmond source of revenue. To some extent this state of things has and Danville road carries 100,000 tons. The Pennsylvania road been changed by a considerable increase of other traffic. carries 8,000,000 tons. In some of the southern states the granger system of fixing The Louisville and Nashville report for 1878-79 contained rates by law, or by railway commissioners, has been introduced. the following statement:- Efforts to enforce it created antagonism, and led to the organi- Average Average cost revenue zation of influential parties for the purpose of securing a mate- per ton-mile per ton-mile of freight. of freight. rial modification or repeal of the laws giving rate-making Cents. Cents. powers to commissioners. The principal popular following of 1872-73 1.66 2.25 such organizations was secured in districts in which there was 1873-74 1.47 2.15 1.23 an earnest desire to secure the construction of new lines, on 1874-75 1.92 1875-76 1.08 1.85 account of the difficulties they encountered in efforts to secure 1876-77 .96 1.765 the aid of capitalists who were averse to making large new 1877-78 .95 1.714 investments in states in which rates were fixed by law or com- 1878-79 .89 1.564 missioners. 32 Digitized by Google 250 FREIGHT REDUCTIONS ON VARIOUS CLASSES OF ROADS. The character of some of such freight tariffs is partially in- Central Pacific Railroad. dicated by the following statement, published in the report of Passengers Freight the Missouri railroad commissioners for the year ending De- cember 31st, 1882:- Years. Freight rates-special classes, as established by law and by the Missouri Carried one mile. Gross receipts. cents. *enger per mile, Average per ras- mile. Tons carried one Gross receipts. mile, cents. railway commissioners, to take effect July 10th, 1878. See sections 4 and Average per ton per 12 of law of March 29th, 1875. D. E. F. G. I. J. 1870. $3,581,506 18 $3,232,479 25 II. Live stock car 1871. 3,486,239 29 4,653,811 65 Distance. Agricultural 1872.106,120,000 4,065,210 00 3.83 190,510,000 6,967,444 58 3.66 All grain in car loads. rels or more. 1873.120,858,000 4,413,417 42 3.06 248,793,000 7,462,894 92 3.00 or more. Lime bar- Flour in lots of 50 barrels barrels. water-lime, and stucco Salt 60 barrels. Cement, gles car loads. Lumber, lath, and shin- furniture and wagons. cles in car loads. -me havey ties, cord wood, and Coal. brick. sand. stone 1874.134,318,000 4,723,866 94 3.52 280,395,000 7,986,894 92 2.85 1875.168,336,000 5,509,309 32 3.27 316,593,000 9,933,303 58 3.14 1876.172,639,000 5,589,304 43 3.24 363,460,000 10,773,018 34 2.96 1877.181,715,000 5,483.704 35 3.02 363,542,000 10,095 349 87 2.78 1878.178,773,325 5,204,913 07 2.96 302,281,710 10,802,276 40 275 1879.180,779,711 4,919,254 63 2.72 392,950,000 10,934,573 39 2.78 Miles. 100 lbs. Bbl. Bbl. Car. Car. Car. Car. 1880.191,415,400 5,819,794 23 3.04 565,063,708 13,245,857 79 2.34 25 .00 .12 .15 $3 00 $10 00 $11 00 $8 00 1881.218,117,760 6,692,828 27 3 07 733,285,899 15,842,139 01 2.14 50 .10 .20 .21 13 00 14 00 17 00 10 50 1882.255,824,363 7,474,216 12 2.02 902,981,309 16,302,882 72 1.81 63 .11 .22 .221 14 50 16 00 18 50 11 00 1883.291,109,508 7,945,826 07 2.73 775,976,492 14,932,969 94 1.92 75 .12 .24 .241 15 00 18 00 20 00 12 50 88 .13 .26 .26 16 50 20 00 21 50 13 00 Union Pacific Railway. 100 .14 .28 .28 17 00 22 00 23 00 14 00 Passengers Freight 113 .15 .30 .291 18 50 23 50 21 50 15 00 125 .16 .32 .31} 19 00 25 00 20 CO 16 00 138 Years. Carried one mile. Gross receipts. cents. senger per mile, Average per pas- mile. .17 .34 .33 20 50 26 50 27 50 17 00 Tons carried one Gross receipts. Average per 4.26 mile, cents. 150 .18 .36 .35 21 CO 28 00 29 00 18 00 163 .19 .38 .301 22 50 30 00 80 50 19 00 175 .20 .40 .381 23 00 32 00 32 00 20 50 188 .21 .42 .40 24 50 31 00 33 50 21 50 1870. 74,917,335 $3,818,627 55 5.10 71,779,106 $3,058,514 71 200 .22 .44 .42 26 00 36 00 35 00 23 00 1871. 73,994,927 3,123,510 03 4.22 134,205,887 3,629,483 91 2.70 213 .431 26 50 33 00 36 50 24 00 1872. 80,663,871 3,370,312 41 4.18 178,145,755 4,768,419 07 2.07 225 .221 .45 .451 27 00 40 00 38 00 25 50 1873. 95,709,054 3,887,204 48 4.06 223,301,542 5,516,907 53 2.47 238 .47 28 50 42 00 39 50 26 50 1874.105,138,205 3,952,858 55 3.76 262,238,837 5,664,731 33 2.16 250 .23 .46 .49 29 00 41 00 41 CO 28 00 1875.132,591,343 4,346,014 3.28 209,414,989 6,641,512 2.47 263 .50} 30 50 46 00 42 50 29 00 1870.128,032,924 4,307,002 0 3.36 202,002,076 7,304,123 00 2.50 275 .231 .47 .524 31 00 43 00 41 00 30 50 1877.107,883,371 3,599,756 00 3.34 334,644,870 7,597,681 00 2.27 288 : .54 32 50 50 00 45 50 31 50 1878.96,304,250 3,150,409 3.27 366,014,080 8,295,878 00 2.27 300 .24 .48 .56 33 00 52 00 47 00 33 00 1879.100,151,148 3,207,910 3.20 430,034,149 8,692,414 00 1.99 313 .571 34 50 54 00 48 50 34 00 1880.161,890,901 5,405,125 3.33 660,472,084 13,617,024 67 2.06 325 .241 .49 .591 35 00 56 00 50 00 35 50 1881.153,570,005 5,131,571 39 3.34 783,331,084 15,559,528 00 1.99 338 .61 36 50 58 00 51 50 36 50 1882.157,527,336 5,197,769 96 8.30 732,791,004 13,905,489 63 1.89 350 .25 .50 .63 37 00 GO 00 53 00 38 00 1883.148,953,839 4,659,116 16 3 13 705,781,630 14,268,291 31 2.02 When rates are not shown in the above table for the exact distances, the rate The opening of the other transcontinental routes is of com- given for the next greater distance should be used. paratively recent date. An announcement of the rates charged In fixing rates the distance is to be computed from the point where the freight is received in this state, notwithstanding it may pass from one road to for through business shortly after the Northern Pacific had another. completed a rail connection with the Pacific coast, in October, All articles not named in headings above, in classes F, I, and J, will be found 1883, by the agents of that company, stated that the through in the classification of freights established by the railroad commissioners of the state of Missouri, to take effect February 1st, 1880. rates in force by all the rail lines to Portland, Oregon; San Francisco, California; New Tacoma and Seattle, Washington THE PACIFIC RAILROADS. Territory, and all rail points cast of Portland and west of lake On these lines, as on all other American railways engaged in Pend d'Oreille, subject to west-bound through classification, were as follows:- extensive movements, there has been a gradual reduction of average rates, as business and competition increased. Origin- First class. Second class. Third class. Fourth class. Class A. Class B. Class C. ally some of the charges for local traffic and for through pas- From- D. senger movements were relatively high, partly on account of the sparse population of many of the districts traversed, and New York $6 $5 00 $100 $3 00 $250 $200 as $1 75 $1 50 consequent necessity of imposing high rates to earn interest Pittsburgh 5 43 4 53 3 62 271 2 50 2 00 1 75 1 3 on cost of construction, and partly on account of the high rates Cincinnati and Indian- for transportation which prevailed in those districts before the apolis 31 4 25 3 45 2 65 239 2 00 1 75 1 50 railways were constructed. An indication of the state of things Chicago and St. Louis 5 00 00 3 25 250 2 25 2 00 1 75 1 50 during a brief period is furnished by a statement that on the St. Paul, Duluth, Minne- Kansas Pacific, about 1868, the average rate paid for moving apolis and Superior. 4 55 375 3 00 2 35 2 10 1 85 1 GO 1 35 Government freight was 10.53 cents per ton per mile, and the During sharp competitive struggles which occurred after passenger rate was 7.58 cents per mile. Government troops 1883 the through rates between New York and San Francisco were charged 8.05 cents per mile, on account of excess of bag- fell to much lower figures than those given above. It will be gage. Even higher rates were charged on some portions of seen that the charges were for class D $1.50 per hundred other Pacific roads. While the Central and Union Pacific con- pounds, equivalent to $30 per ton, or approximately one cent tinued to furnish the only through-rail passenger route be- per ton per mile. tween the Missouri river and the Pacific coast through pas- The following extracts from a speech delivered by Hon. senger rates were also kept at an unusually high figure, but Leland Stanford, of California, who was for years president of after several transcontinental routes were opened considerable the Central Pacific, in the United States Senate on January 10th, reductions were soon made in all classes of charges, and during 1887, show that after 1883 freight was often carried, on the sharp competitive strifes exceedingly low rates have at times Southern Pacific, between the two oceans, for $10, or at about been established. The general movement on the Central Pa- the rate of one-third of a cent per ton per mile, while $30 per cific and Union Pacific is shown by the following statements, ton was sometimes charged for a movement over half this dis- furnished in a report of the United States commissioner of tance, and that in California 15 cents per ton per mile had at railroads:- one time been charged on a small amount of traffic:- Digitized by Google RELATION BETWEEN THROUGH AND LOCAL RATES. 251 "The Southern Pacific road strikes the Atlantic waters at a suffered for want of movement. The general railroad manage- much less distance than any of its northern competitors. It ment of the country is careful to consider what the cheap un- has a line of easy gradients comparatively, and it competes not manufactured products of the country can afford to pay, and only with its northern rivals, but more particularly with the Cape make their rates with a view that production shall not be Horn and Isthmus of Panama routes, because of its shorter hindered. The rates charged for manufactured goods, almost line and easy gradients. In this competition it often takes without exception, do not affect the producer or consumer. If freight between the two oceans as low as $10, while it takes the rates of freight upon manufactured articles were reduced freight half way for, say, $30 a ton, a most reasonable rate for one-half, the probabilty is that there is nothing that moves by the limited local business of that country. Now, if it makes railroad over the longest line in the country whose price to the only a dollar a ton net on the freight from San Francisco to New consumer would be affected or would be taken into considera- Orleans at $10, it is glad to make that dollar where it can get tion by the manufacturer; but the fractional part of a cent be- no more; but a ton of freight going to El Paso, something over comes a serious consequence in the long haul to most of the half the distance, will pay $30 a ton. Now, if the freight at $10 raw products of the country. The higher the maximums the to New Orleans pays $1 profit, the freight going a less distance, lower the possible minimums. to El Paso, would pay as much profit as twenty-one tons going Thus in my own state the maximum rates were 15 cents per through to New Orleans; and the rates charged to El Paso are ton per mile. With an average cost of 2 cents a mile for move- but fair, as is shown by the gross earnings and the gross ex- ment, which was about the average at one time, 1 ton of freight penses of the road, leaving but a very narrow net profit. moved at 15 cents a ton per mile would enable the railroad to Since the first road was built in the United States up to this move 14 tons at the minimum rate of 1 cent a ton per mile. time the roads have substantially fixed their own rates for ser- There was at that time about 1 per cent. of the business done vice, until to-day the rate is such as was not dreamed of as at the maximum rate, while the other 99 per cent. was done possible twenty years ago, nor was it belioved possible even ten at rates governed by circumstances and influences which the years ago. The whole country is developed. No product has railroad company could not control." RELATION BETWEEN THROUGH AND LOCAL RATES. REDUCTIONS OF RATES DURING RAILWAY WARS. maintain through rates at all times at something like a reason- The in rates do not afford an adequate able standard; and second, a permanent lowering of many and injuriously low figures to classes of local rates on many lines at an earlier period than which rates have frequently been reduced during cras of reck- it would probably have occurred if overwhelming influences less or acrimonious competition. The average rates reported had not frequently reduced through rates to excessively low necessarily represent much higher figures than those paid for standards, and made most of the through rates of this country the cheapest movements made, and there are reasons for sup- at all times much lower, per ton per mile, than the corre- posing that the magnitude of excessively and injuriously cheap sponding railway rates of any other country. movements has frequently, if not generally, been a leading HOW LOW A RAILWAY WAR RATE MAY FALL cause of the extraordinary reductions in average rates which are officially announced. is a matter of conjecture. It bears no relation to cost of The exact state of facts illustrating the extent to which local movement or any other appropriate influence. Immense and non-competitive movements have, on various lines and at quantities of freight have been moved over long distances for various periods, shared in the reductions granted to shippers remuneration that fell far below the inevitable cost of such who moved freight between relatively distant competitive movements, exclusive of any allowance whatever for the capi- points, could only be ascertained by exhaustive inquiries. tal employed in constructing permanent way and maintaining Any general assertion on this subject could apparently be equipment. It has been said of some of these war rates that proved or disproved by minute evidence explaining the con- they scarcely paid for the oil used in lubricating the locomo- flicting records and practices of different corporations at dif- tives and car wheels that made the movements. Passenger ferent times. On the one hand there can be little doubt that fares have sometimes been cut in similar proportions, even to many companies have endeavored, during protracted periods, the extent of carrying persons long distances for about a mill to steadfastly maintain such rates pertaining to all classes of per mile. Of one of the strifes which occurred in the early local traffic, as were deemed necessary to earn interest on their portion of the seventh decade, in regard to live-stock traffic, indebtedness and dividends on their stock, even while they were the report on internal commerce of the United States for 1879 rapidly reducing rates on competitive traffic. On the other says: "It is stated that at one time cattle were hauled from hand, some companies allege that they have nover lost sight of Chicago to Pittsburgh without charge, and that in certain in- the importance of making reductions on the classes of local stances they were hauled from Chicago to the seaboard for $5 freight movements which would be materially affected by war per car load. That this rate was below the actual cost of trans- rates simultaneous with the adoption of the latter. portation may be inferred from the fact that the rate now The most important lesson of the experience of a series of (December 1st, 1879), prevailing is about $110 per car load, and years bearing on this subject is that protracted and extensive is regarded as reasonable. One of the strategic expedients reductions of rates for classes of competitive traffic between adopted on the part of an aggressive company was to force its different points, which compete actively with the local in- antagonist to a rate below the actual cost of transportation, terests tributary to any leading road, operate injuriously to and then to divert as large a portion as possible of the unre- that road as well as to the local interests dependent exclusively munerative traffic to that road, thus compelling it to bear the upon it for transportation facilities, unless there are contem- principal part of the loss incurred." poraneous reductions of the corresponding local ratcs, and that An outgrowth of a severe contest between the Pacific roads for this reason, if for no other, long lines should either avoid was a report that a Boston merchant, who was in the habit of such a lowering of rates as occurs during severe competitive having lemons shipped to his warehouse overland from south- struggles or be prepared to make extensive concessions to local ern California, concluded that excessive low rates would en- shippers. able him to extract a profit from an overland shipment of Out of these conditions have grown two things of great mo- lemons back to southern California. If this statement is true, ment: First, numerous efforts by representatives of companies it shows that one of the longest railway overland freight move- engaged in active competition for all leading classes of through ments in the world could at one time be profitably duplicated competitive traffic to avert or prevent railway wars, and to on account of its excessive cheapness and a fluctuation in the Digitized by Google 252 RELATION BETWEEN THROUGH AND LOCAL RATES. market price of the article to which it related. Similar stories This fact, and the bearing of railway war rates upon many have been told, at various periods, of other products, such as local industries and interests, accounts for much of the discon- the shipment of corn westward from eastern points to Chicago, tent with freight tariffs that has been excited at sundry times an operation equivalent to carrying coals to New Castle, partly and places. on account of a speculative flurry in its price, but more par- LEGITIMATE CAUSES OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE RATES PER ticularly on account of excessively low rail rates. TON PER MILE APPLIED TO LONG AND SHORT MOVEMENTS. In the testimony of Homer E. Sargent, general superintend- In some of the early freight tariffs of this country, especially ent of the Michigan Central, before the Senate committee on such as were devised when public works remained under the transportation to the seaboard, in September, 1873, he said:- control of state governments, there was little or no difference, "There are periods, in the competition and disagreements based on length of movement, in the tolls imposed, per ton per and misunderstandings between the competing lines, that we mile. Chiefly in consequence of this failure to "discriminate" bring freight west now for short times at two-thirds of a cent a number of such works failed to accomplish one of the leading per ton per mile. The lines east and west have been bringing objects of their construction, which was to attract trade from first-class goods between New York and Boston, Philadelphia comparatively distant points. The reasons for such failures and Chicago, for two months past, at about forty cents per were pointed out by Robert Fulton before any important canals hundred. Forty-two and a half cents per hundred by our line or railways were constructed in this country, and he sketched would be a cent a ton a mile. They have been bringing at that time the outlines of a freight tariff, OF toll sheet based groceries and the fourth-class goods at about 25 to 30 cents; on the principle of diminishing average rates per ton per mile that is about two-thirds of a cent per ton per mile." as distance was increased, which would be necessary to stimu- In a speech delivered by Sir Henry W. Tyler at a half yearly late movements of cheap and bulky articles over long distances. meeting of the stockholders of the Grand Trunk Railway of The toll sheet recommended by Fulton for the accomplishment Canada, held in London on October 80th, 1877, he said that the of this purpose has already been published, and if due allow- average freight receipts of that line had fallen to .86 of a cent ance is made for inevitable variations in details, it may be said per ton per mile during the previous half year, "mainly on that its features relating to discriminations between long and account of the mad competition which was carried on for short movements have substantially furnished the basis of all American traffic by railway before the opening of navigation, the modern freight tariffs of this country. It may be accepted and on the lakes and canals after the opening of navigation." as an axiom that all cheap and bulky articles which are moved In a speech delivered on June 30th, 1879, to the stockholders over long distances must have the benefit of lower rates per of that company, he said: "It is quite true while I was out in ton per mile than those established for short distances. Other- America grain was being carried from Chicago to New York at wise the long movements cannot be made, as the market value the rate of 71 cents per 100 pounds, or a good deal less than of the product is consumed by transportation charges to an the cost of conveyance. Since then the rate has been raised to extent that does not leave a remunerative compensation to the 15 cents, and since my arrival in England I have received a producer. cable message informing me a further agreement has been Another reason for the difference between through and local made to raise it to 20 cents." rates per mile is based on the fact that in a considerable pro- In an address delivered to the American Society of Civil portion of the service rendered the expense to the transporta- Engineers, by O. Chanute, Esq., in May, 1880, he said: "The tion company is as great on a short movement as on a long regular rate from Chicago to New York, upon domestic pro- one, or it may even be, and often is, considerably greater. The duce (grain, flour, provisions, lard, &c.), is now 1 of a cent a clerical and terminal service, including loading and unloading, ton a mile, and in times of sharp competition has been i'o of a receipts, delivery, billing, and collection of freight, as a rule, cent a ton a mile." costs quite as much for the short movement as the long one, Similar illustrations of the effect of railway wars on the and often these charges are proportionally much greater on operations of nearly all classes of lines that have participated local movements than on long movements. in extensive freight movements might be furnished. They W. M. Grosvenor formulated reasons for a diminution of the have occurred so often, and in 80 many localities, that they cost of rail movements per mile on account of an increase of have formed a leading feature of a large proportion of the the distance traversed in the following statement:- operations of the American railway system, which has, indeed, "The regularity of decrease in rates charged corresponds been arranged on such principles that they are almost sure to with a general law governing all railway service, namely, cost occur at irregular intervals unless exceptionally judicious and of loading and unloading and fixed expenses being the same, effective preventive methods are adopted. whether the trip is long or short; cost of transportation per ton EFFECT OF RAILWAY WARS IN INCREASING DISPARITY BETWEEN per mile regularly decreases as distance increases, being cost THROUGH AND LOCAL RATES. of haulage plus fixed cost, divided by the number of miles. Thus, if cost of loading and unloading be 33 cents, and other It is obvious that a considerable proportion of the popular items of fixed cost 27 cents per ton, the actual cost of haulage dissatisfaction with local freight charges, which has been mani- (maintenance of track, repairs, &c., included) being for of one fested at various times and places, grew out of excessively low cent per ton per mile, the cost for different distances will be rates charged for through movements during acrimonious con- .83+60 cents divided by the distance, thus:- tests between rival lines. The position of the combatants in Total such struggles is far from enviable, as they must choose be- Fixed charge Miles. Haulage. charges. per ton tween an abandonment of an important class of business, built permile. Cents. Cents up at great expense by years of persistent effort, and a reduc- 10 .83 6.00 6.83 tion of rates to the level fixed by eager competitors, which may 20 .83 3.00 3.83 involve not only a money loss on the actual movements made, 30 .83 2.00 2.83 but also serious indirect losses arising from injuries inflicted on 40 .83 1.50 2.33 local interests served. This is an age of competition, and the 50 .83 1.20 2.03 same impulse, principle, or law of trade that has encouraged 60 .83 1.00 1.83 excessive competition between transportation companies has 80 .83 .75 1.58 100 .83 .00 1.43 exerted a similar influence on the producers, residing in dif- 150 .83 .40 1.23 ferent sections, of all important surplus staples of agriculture, 200 .83 .30 1.13 mining, and manufacturing development. Many of these pro- 300 .83 .20 1.03 ducts possess comparatively small value in proportion to bulk, 400 .83 .15 .93 and require transportation over a considerable distance to 500 .83 .12 .95 reach an available market, and their value to the original pro- 1,000 .83 .06 .89 ducer at any given interior point may be quickly and seriously In a speech delivered by George B. Roberts, president of the affected by any system of freight charges that gives superior Pennsylvania Railroad Company, before a committee of the facilities or materially lower rates to rival producing regions. Pennsylvania legislature, he said:- Digitized by Google RELATION RETWEEN THROUGH AND LOCAL RATES. 253 "I want to go one step further and endeavor to show you riers is that they are liable for the property from the time they that, under certain circumstances, it costs more to haul goods receive it until it has reached its destination. Therefore, the a short distance than a long one. In other words the principle cost of handling that into store and out again into the cars is that seems generally to be accepted by the public, that no rail- just as great to run five miles as it is to run five hundred miles road or transporting company shall be permitted to charge or one thousand. Suppose, for instance, that we receive a car more for a short distance than a long one, while it may seem load of grain to haul fifty miles, and put it at a reasonable rate, to be correct, can easily, upon examination, be shown to be a the cost of handling that property could not be less than 20 fallacy; and best, probably, by giving you some illustrations, cents per ton. There would be $2, if a 10-ton car was used. from the road with which I am most conversant. I have no If that property has to be unloaded to go into another com- doubt the same thing will apply to other roads in the state, but pany's car at the terminus of its road, at the end of 50 miles, as I have been brought up with the Pennsylvania Railroad, the cost of unloading it is $2 more. The cost of an engine to and know more about it, I will refer to that. go into switch and take that is spread over the entire train that If a cargo of coal is delivered to the Pennsylvania Railroad, is waiting. Therefore, a local freight train to run 100 miles a say at Thirty-sixth street, Philadelphia, for Hestonville, a dis- day accomplishes less work than a through-freight train run- tance of only about two miles, it passes through a crowded ning 300 miles in same time. If you apply say the one cent yard, crosses over the passenger tracks, and must be hauled by per ton per mile of the through business to the one cent per a special engine. There are times in which it would pay the ton per mile for the local business, and deduct your terminal Pennsylvania Railroad to give that man enough money to for the receiving and discharging, which is $4, you have $1 left wheel his coal up there rather than to haul the car. If that as the proceeds of transportation for 50 miles. You will see at same cargo of coal had been delivered to the company, at once that could not possibly be done. All local freight some point like Lancaster, to be transported ten, fifteen, or must of necessity bear'a much larger proportion to cost per twenty miles, a moderate rate per ton per mile would have ton per mile than through freight drawn in full trains over paid for the service, and it would have been cheerfully carried. long distances." Say the rate on coal is one cent a mile, which is a large one; if A variety of other considerations enter the questions involved the car is fully loaded the company would get forty cents for in the relations between through and local rates. At many pulling it two miles. If it were ten miles out on the line, and small stations the expenses for establishing and maintaining the rate half a cent a mile, it would make two dollars for the them bear so large a proportion to the entire receipts that it is ten miles, which would be. a good rate under most circum- impossible for railway companies to derive any clear profit stances; but, as I said before, it would be many times better for whatever from all the movements made at them. In some them to pay fifty dollars than pull that car of coal the two other countries, and notably in England, freight bills are miles between Thirty-sixth street and Hestonville. Another usually itemized to an extent rarely followed in the United instance outside the state will furnish an equally good illustra- States, and terminal charges form an important element of the tion. The distance from Newark to New York, is about ten amounts paid. Americans usually prefer paying a round sum, miles. The amount received for carrying a ton that distance, which covers all costs, and deference to this proclivity has led if you take the average through rates, would be eight cents; to the adoption of practices in making out freight bills which while the rent alone of the wharves in New York, over which increase the difficulties of securing adequate compensation for that traffic has to be handled, amounts to twenty-two cents for expensive terminal facilities. cach ton that passes over them. Therefore, there would be a If due allowance be made for the disturbing and demoralizing loss of fourteen cents on every ton moved, in addition to the influence of railway wars, which temporarily derange every- entire cost of hauling and the terminal expense of handling it. thing that vitally affects the normal relations between through The terminal costs and the expenses of the yards from which and local rates, for the necessity for granting relatively low the traffic starts aggregate an enormous sum, and I think it is through rates if any long movements of cheap and bulky safe to say that if the traffic of the Pennsylvania Railroad were articles are to be made, and for the radical difference in ave- to start at Philadelphia, and not go beyond Lancaster, it would rage cost per ton per mile which inevitably exists between long be carried at a loss. It has to be moved as far as Harrisburg and short movements, it will probably be found that many of before the distance makes the traffic profitable. All the money the railway lines of this country have, during lengthy periods, that we receive from short distances from the large points, say zealously endeavored to avoid, as well as possible, unjust dis- for the first hundred miles, is nearly consumed by the terminal criminations against local interests and industries. It is cer- expenses. tainly their interest to adopt such a policy, because any course Another matter which has an important bearing upon that tends to permanently diminish the prosperity of the economy of movement is the back loading of cars. When- regions that are exclusively served by any particular line saps ever a company is moderately sure of obtaining a back load- its vitality, and leads to reductions in its net revenues. There ing, so as to have its cars earning both ways, it can carry traffic is little to be gained, and much may be lost, by increasing the cheaply; but if it has to haul its cars loaded in one direction competitive traffic of distant regions which must be shared and empty in another, it is hardly necessary for me to tell you with half a dozen eager competitors, when such an increase that it must charge higher rates." can only be secured under conditions that inflict serious in- In the testimony of J. D. Hayes, general manager of the juries upon local interests exclusively served, which are not Blue Line, before the United States Senate committee on trans- counterbalanced by corresponding local advantages. The sub- portation routes to the seaboard, submitted on September 13th, stantial welfare of every railway company is closely interwoven 1873, he said:- with the welfare of the regions traversed by its lines. "Much has been said with regard to the extraordinary charge A comprehensive statement of the relation that prevailed on on local business as compared with the through business, and the east and west trunk lines, between charges for movements a very great popular error has grown out of the discussion of of 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, and 350 miles in length, re- that question, much to the injury of railroads, and of no benefit spectively, was furnished by the following table published in to the consumer or producer. If a car load of property has to March, 1875, and pertaining to the rates in force about that be received at a local station, the rule governing common car- time:- Digitized by Google COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF LOCAL FREIGHT RATES CHARGED BY THE FIVE TRUNK LINES FOR THE SAME OR SIMILAR DISTANCES. Miles from Miles from given point to station Kind of freight. given point 4th to station Kind of freight nearest the 1st 2d 3d Flour 1st 2d 3d 4th Flour nearest the distance class. class. class. class. p. bbl class. class. class. class. distance p. bbl. taken. taken. FOR 50 MILES. FOR 200 MILES. Erie.-Regular rate from Jersey City 50 22 17 12 9 18 200 56 42 30 23 46 New York Central.-Winter, from Albany 55 24 21 16 11 199 61 50 40 24 Pennsylvania.-Summer, from and to Phila 50 19 16 14 11 20 200 66 56 46 36 67 Grand Trunk.-Summer, from Portland 55 28 23 19 14 22 203 54 45 36 27 44 Baltimore and Ohio.-Regular rate from and to Baltimore 50 20 20 19 16 32 201 72 59 52 40 80 Average rate 221 19} 16 12} 23 613 503 40% 30 591 FOR 75 MILES. FOR 250 MILES. Erie* 75 27 21 15 11 22 248 07 50 36 28 56 New York Central* 74 26 23 19 13 253 65 53 49 28 Pennsylvania* 75 25 21 18 15 28 250 71 56 46 36 72 Grand Trunk 75 30 25 20 15 24 250 00 50 40 30 45 Baltimore and Ohio* 75 30 30 25 23 46 253 95 73 60 40 80 Average rate 271 24 193 15} 30 71g 563 40f 321 031 FOR 100 MILES. FOR 300 MILES. Erie* 100 34 26 19 14 28 300 78 59 43 33 06 New York Central* 101 33 28 25 15 300 70 55 51 31 : Pennsylvania* 100 30 25 20 15 30 300 71 56 46 36 72 Grand Trunk* 103 36 30 24 18 28 300 60 50 40 30 50 Baltimore and Ohio* 100 40 40 34 30 60 300 95 80 60 40 80 Average rate 34} 201 243 183 36} 74g 60 48 34 67 FOR 150 MILES. FOR 350 MILES. Erie* 153 45 34 24 19 38 351 86 65 47 38 76 New York Central* 156 48 42 36 22 349 76 60 50 34 Pennsylvania* 150 44 37 33 26 48 350 71 56 46 36 72 Grand Trunk* 150 44 37 29 22 36 350 70 58 47 35 60 Baltimore and Ohio* 152 61 50 42 36 72 350 95 80 60 40 80 Average rate 483 40 32% 25 481 79} 633 50 361 72 * Same points and seasons as above It will be seen that while there was some variation in the In a circular issued by Albert Fink, trunk-line commissioner, charges of the different lines, the average rates for 150 miles on July 26th, 1883, percentage tables are published which show were about double the rates for 50 miles, and the average rates the relation existing at that time in the freight charges be- for 350 miles were on most classes slightly more than three tween New York and 239 points on both east-bound and west- times the charges for 50 miles. bound traffic, these points including every city and important town reached by competitive lines in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, METHODS OF REGULATING RATES BETWEEN NUMEROUS COMPETING and Illinois, and prominent cities on the eastern borders of POINTS. Iowa and Missouri, and the northern borders of Kentucky and One of the most important aims of the modern railway pool- West Virginia. The same table, with accompanying explana- ing systems of the United States was the maintenance of an tions, explained methods for computing rates pertaining to all approximately just relation between local and through-freight the points named to and from Philadelphia, Boston, and Balti- charges, and, in a broad sense, this object was substantially more. It is difficult to conceive of any better method for accomplished by the important pooling systems during the establishing substantial safeguards against injuriously unjust periods when they were in successful operation, so far as they discriminations against sections or localities than that pro- could or did affect every competitive point reached by lines vided by the system represented by these percentage tables. connected with each of the respective pools. The general Questions naturally arose as to whether the percentage of a principle adopted was to vary the charges between all com- particular town or city should be raised or lowered, but a defi- petitive points reached by the lines of each pool to an extent nite position was given to each place, in the matter of freight that corresponded, with varying degrees of nicety, to differences charges, which was at least approximately just, and this posi- of distance or other elements in cost of transportation. In the tion was secured to it while the pooling arrangements appli- east and west trunk-line arrangements these differences were cable to the subject were faithfully enforced. In July, 1883, if formulated in percentage tables, 80 arranged that while 100 100 represented the charge from Chicago to New York, 116 represented the charges between New York and Chicago, other represented the charge from the more distant point of St. figures, running above 100 to 122, represented the charges to Louis, 90 the charge from the nearer point of Fort Wayne, more distant or more inaccessible points, while lower figures, Indiana, and 71 the charge from the still nearer point of Cleve- running down to 55, represented the charges between New land, Ohio, and similar gradations were established in the York and points more readily reached than Chicago. These charges for freight movements between all the important north percentage tables were discussed from time to time, and some- Atlantic seaports and all the important towns and cities of the times changed. Western states. PASSENGER RATES AND ACCOMMODATIONS. 233 PASSENGER RATES AND ACCOMMODATIONS O N most railways the reduction in passenger rates has not the traveling public has often been accommodated at the ex- kept pace with the reduction in freight tariffs; and as a pense of stockholders or creditors. general rule there has been a closer adherence to the maximum There are some companies, however, which derive a large fares authorized in charters than to the authorized maximum proportion of their revenues from passenger movements; charges for moving freight. To this rule, however, there are and there are certain classes of passenger traffic, of growing many exceptions, especially in connection with suburban and importance, such as the journeys of persons who daily travel excursion passenger traffic; and on a number of roads there has between country residences and cities, or movements be- been a considerable reduction in all classes of fares, which was tween crowded cities and adjacent seaside or other popular brought about, in some instances, by legislative enactments, resorts, which can be stimulated by reductions in fares, and in in others by competition, and in others by voluntary regula- respect to such movements fares have frequently been reduced tions. By to an extent that corresponds with the average reductions in IMPROVEMENTS IN THE CHARACTER OF THE SERVICE RENDERED freight charges. the public secures a much larger equivalent for a given sum THERE IS A WIDE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE CONDITIONS now than formerly. Station accommodations, the number and speed of trains, the appliances for securing safety and taking that affect the different classes of passenger movements. The care of baggage, the amount of comfort obtainable in cars bulk of them are represented by the arrival and departure of from their arrangement for heating, lighting, seating, and trains at stated intervals, with approximate regularity, whether ventilating, the number of parlor, dining, and sleeping cars, few or many tickets are sold. Train movements of this class have all been increased to an extent that goes far to render are often made at a loss, especially during unfavorable weather or journeys that would at one time have been exceedingly toil- periods when "travel is light," and they can only be continued some a source of continuous pleasure. regularly by comparatively high fares. It is also a recognized A large majority of the patrons of railways contribute to principle that reductions in rates are more likely to stimulate their revenues by paying fares rather than freight bills, and travel over short routes than long ones, although to this rule favorable or unfavorable judgments of particular lines are fre- there may be some exceptions in connection with excursions quently based on opinions relating to stations, speed, and in which large bodies participate, or individual excursions made character of trains and car accommodations. It may be set during summer vacations. The rates for commutation tickets, down as an axiom that no road makes a good impression or the sums usually charged by railway companies to managers which fails to please its passengers, and it is vitally necessary of excursion parties for carrying a large number of passengers that every ambitious line should be popular. For this or other over distances of from sixty to eighty or ninety miles, repre- reasons the managers of many lines have been anxious to sent a great reduction below the average standard of fares, make every possible effort to meet the expectations of travelers, chiefly because they relate to a class of transactions in which and to outstrip rivals in this respect, even when there was little quantity or regularity of service represents an important elo- prospect that the outlays for such a purpose would prove ment of economy, and leads to results similar to those obtained directly remunerative. in freight movements in the way of increasing volume and One of the results of this condition of affairs has been a diminishing average charges. variety of rapid improvements in everything relating to the In discussing this subject, an article published in the National artistic or luxurious, as well as to the indispensable features of Car Builder in 1882, says:- cars, until the ordinary coaches are marvels of convenient and "It is not of course to be expected that passenger business, comfortable construction, and the highest classes are literally as a whole, can under any circumstances be made a source palaces on wheels. of profit to the same extent as freight business; but it is a Innumerable inventions and experiments, a wealth of me- question whether it has been developed as much as it might chanical genius, and enormous outlays of money have con- have been, or will be in future. There is a distinction between tributed to these advancements. As soon as a want or chance the two that cannot be obliterated by any artificial regulations. of improvement is indicated vigorous efforts are speedily made One deals exclusively with persons and the other with things, to supply the new demand. The difference between the cars and the things can be classified and discriminated to an un- of the early lines and the best cars of the present day is scarcely limited extent to meet every varying condition that may arise, less striking than the difference between the best and the worst while, as respects persons, there is a certain rigidity and fixed- of decent dwellings. For serious discomforts, frequently com- ness that cannot be altogether broken up by any practicable bined with considerable danger, there has been substituted system that is likely to be suggested. All sorts of articles in luxurious ease and an average amount of safety which closely the general category of freight can be carried on the same borders on an absolute assurance of freedom from serious trains, the same distances, and even in the same cars, at rates accident. per 100 pounds, ranging say from 30 cents to 100 cents for a On many lines and at many places station accommodations thousand miles, although the actual cost of the transportation have kept pace with improvements in cars, elegant and com- is the same for all. In a word, freight traffic is of such a nature modious edifices taking the place of rude sheds, and some of that, in the matter of charges, it can accommodate itself to the the finest structures of the land being placed at the service of needs of the shipper and to almost every phase of the markets. railway passengers. Passenger traffic cannot be manipulated in this way except to The aggregate outlay for these purposes represents such a a very limited extent. It has to contend with many disad- large sum that many of the companies that have helped to vantages which are not incidental to freight traffic-heavy and swell it have never secured an adequate return. Most com- costly cars; an average load not exceeding 60 persons per train; panies must derive their profits chiefly from freight move- the necessity of making regular trips, and of running two or ments, and three times as fast as freight trains with a correspondingly heavier tax on the motive power; incumbrance of free baggage PASSENGER TRAFFIC IS FREQUENTLY A SOURCE OF LOSS, and free-pass dead-heads; and the tendency of postal, telegraph, rather than of direct gain. A veritable account of the financial and express facilities to diminish its revenues. Of all these, and physical workings of many lines would show that if due the heaviest millstone it has to carry is, perhaps, the drawing- allowance were made for the wear and tear of fast trains, for room and sleeping-car equipment. This it must always carry, the interruption of freight and slow passenger trains, and for because it is the attractive and showy side, the front. as it were the expenditures made for improvements in cars and stations, of the railway system, its showiness and costliness being th Digitized by Google 256 PASSENGER RATES AND ACCOMMODATIONS. popular index for gauging the enterprise and standing of the In the entire country the reported average cost per passenger respective roads in their relations with the traveling public. per mile carried was 1.71 cents, and the net receipts per pas- Under the spur of competition, our railway companies, in their senger per mile carried 0.80 cents. zeal to head off rivals, have a little overdone the thing in the The relation between season (computing 12 passengers per matter of fine cars. The public demand for luxurious accom- week for time of each ticket), local including season, and through modations is not easily satisfied, but grows by what it feeds passengers, including those carried to and from other roads, in upon. Something more and better is wanted, whether attain- the respective groups, in 1880, was as follows:- able or not." NUMBER OF PASSENGERS CARRIED. STEADINESS OF FARES ON MANY LINES. Total number On many lines the fares for ordinary movements have varied Group. Season Local. including ticket. Through. Total. of passengers season. carried comparatively little during lengthy periods. The following state- one mile. ments of the fares on the roads named below are contained in I 12,214,480 43,492,507 8,664,197 52,156,704 875,102,461 II 10,670,810 162,978,409 12,297,775 Appleton's Railway Guide for February, 1865, and in a number 175,276,184 3,051,158,551 III 175,494 5,846,753 1,616,941 7,463,694 329,481,519 of instances they do not differ materially from the sums paid a IV 194,094 20,792,850 2,067,270 22,860,130 966,234,759 score of years later:- V 5 275,945 118,130 394,075 15,707,676 Camden and Amboy Railway-New York to Washington, VI 410,368 10,791,903 640,650 11,432,553 512.427,536 through fare, $8.25; way fares, about 3 cents per mile. New Totals 23,665,251 244,178,377 25,404,963 269,583,340 5,740,112,502 York to Philadelphia, express line, $3; accommodation line, $2.25; second class accommodation, $1.75; emigrant, $1.50. SUBURBAN TRAFFIC OR COMMUTATION TICKETS. Raritan and Delaware Bay Railway-From Brooklyn to Phila- A large amount of suburban traffic, especially to and from delphia, $2; excursion tickets from Brooklyn to Philadelphia New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and and return, good for three days, $3. Chicago, is conducted for exceedingly low fares. In considera- Pennsylvania Central Railroad-Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, tion of the fact that the purchasers of monthly, quarterly, or through fares, $10; way fares, 3 cents a mile when tickets are yearly tickets pay a given sum, and as a rule make journeys purchased at stations. in both directions daily, the railway companies render service Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railway and Conneo- for charges that fall far below average fares, and in many in- tions.-New York to Washington, through fare, $8.25; way stances for considerably lower figures than the average cost of fares, about 81 cents per mile. passenger movements. Well-informed railway managers have New York and New Haven Railway-New York to New Haven, alleged that the usual rates for commutation tickets are too through fare, $1.80; way fares, about 3 cents per mile. low to defray expenses, and that any profits that may be de- Morris and Essex Railway-New York to Hackettstown, rived from this class of business are obtained from the rapid through fare, $1.75; way fares about 4 cents per mile. growth of towns and settlements along the lines which issue Long Island Railway-New York to Greenport, $2.05; way such tickets, and consequent increase of regular passenger and fares, about 21 cents per mile. freight business for which remunerative rates are obtained. Concord, Manchester and Lawrence Railway-Boston to Con- There is a considerable variety in the conditions under which cord, through fare, $2.35; way fares, about 3 cents per mile. suburban, traffic are conducted, such as the existence of com- Rensselaer and Saratoga, and Saratoga and Whitehall Railway, petition with street car, steamboat, or steam railway move- Albany Division-Albany to Rutland, $3.15; Troy to Rutland, ments on some lines, and the absence of competition on other $3; way fares, 4 cents per mile. lines; the desire on the part of some managers to adopt excep- Saratoga and Schenectady Railway-Saratoga to Schenectady, tionally liberal or expensive methods for promoting the rapid through distance, 22 miles, fare, $1. development of particular localities, and the absence of such Montreal and Champlain Railway-Rouse's Point to Mont- an influence in the management of other companies. These real, through fares, $2; way fares, about 3 cents per mile; dis- variations, and variance in the stipulations under which tickets tance, 44 miles. are sold, have occasioned considerable differences in the ave- Northern Ogdensburg Railway-Rouse's Point to Ogdensburg, rage fares per mile charged by different companies. The distance, 118 miles; through fare, $4; way fares, about 4 cents reductions of fares per mile usually bear a close relation to the per mile. amount of service, and the purchasers of the tickets which Great Western (Canada), and Detroit and Milwaukee Railways extend over the longest distance for the longest period ordi- and Connections-Buffalo to Milwaukee, 528 miles, through narily travel at a lower rate per mile than other suburban fare, $16; way fares, about 3 cents per mile. travelers. Changes in rates for suburban traffic are also occa- Louisville and Nashville Railway-Way fares, about 4 cents a sionally made, and fares raised or lowered. The leading fea- mile. tures of the system, and the relation it bears to regular pas- Charleston and Savannah Railway-Charleston to Savannah, senger traffic, as far as it applied to monthly tickets, and 10-trip distance, 104 miles; through fare, $4; way fares, about 5 cents and 25-trip rates, are shown in the following statement of rates a mile. charged a few years ago on representative roads leading out Nashville and Kentucky Railway-Fares, 4 cents per mile. of Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago:- Mississippi and Tennessee Railway-Fares, 4 cents per mile. Eastern (Mass.) Railroad. Southern Mississippi Railway-Vicksburg to Meridian, 140 Single miles, through fare, $4.90; way fares, 41 cents per mile. Distance. Monthly Monthly Between Boston and- ticket, tickets. tickets per cents. mile, cents. Spartanburg and Union Railway-Fare, 5 cents per mile. Maplewood 6 15 $4 40 1.36 Linden 71 20 4 80 1.21 AVERAGE PASSENGER FARES ON ROADS IN THE DIFFERENT GROUPS. Cliftondale 81 20 5 60 1.17 The average fares, number of passengers moved, aggregate Saugus 91 25 6 00 1.15 passenger revenue, and receipts per passenger per mile moved, Phillip's Beach 14 35 8 40 1.11 &c., on the railroads of each of the groups, as reported in the Marblehead 171 45 10 00 1.07 census statistics of 1880, are as follows:- North Beverly 21 60 11 20 .99 Receipts Average per pas- Pennsylvania Railroad. Group. Passengers distance Passengers Revenue. senger Monthly Monthly carried. carried. one mi.e. per mile Between New York city and- Distance. tickets, tickets per Miles. moved. 54 rides. mile, cents. Cents. Newark 8.9 $6 00 1.23 I 52,156,704 16.8 875,102,461 $19,497,998 2.23 II 175,276,181 17.4 3,051,158,551 67,319,822 Waverly 11.5 6 50 1.65 2.21 Elizabeth 14.2 6 50 .90 III 7,463,694 44.1 329,481,519 11,577,384 3.51 956,334,759 2.86 Rahway 19.5 8 00 .76 IV 22,860,130 41.9 27,338,124 39.8 Menlo Park 24.0 9 50 .73 V 894,075 15,707,676 801,364 5.10 Stelton 29.0 10 50 .67 VI 11,432,553 44.8 512,427,536 17,567,107 3.43 New Brunswick 31.3 11 00 .65 Totals 269,583,340 21 5,740,112,502 $144,101,709 2.51 Monmouth Junction 41.1 15 00 .67 Digitized by Google 1111 LIGHTHOUSES AND RIVER STAKE LIGHT. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google PASSENGER RATES AND ACCOMMODATIONS. 257 New York, New Haven and Hartford. The New York Central. Single tickets. Monthly Monthly Between New York city and- Distance. tickts per This road uses the coupon system for its suburban traffic, cents. tickets. mile, cents. selling yearly books with 624 coupons, or quarterly books with Mount Vernon 14 35 $5 00 .66 156 coupons each, as the commuter prefers. If he uses the Pelhamville 16 38 5 25 .60 quarterly book, the fourth quarter, as the tables indicate, costs Larchmont 18 47 5 85 .58 him considerably less than the first. He may also buy monthly Mamaroneck 20 51 6 00 .58 Harrison 22 56 0 25 .53 books, subject to a similarly discounted rate for the latter Rye 24 61 6 50 .50 months of the year. The appended table shows the rates on' Port Chester 26 65 6 70 .48 the Harlem division of the New York Central for the yearly Greenwich 28 71 7 20 .47 and quarterly books only:- Cos Cob 30 75 7 70 .47 Books of 156 coupons, good for Stamford 34 85 8 20 .45 three months. Pennsylvania Railroad. Monthly Monthly Central Depot and- Between Philadelphia and- Miles from New York. year. euo Between Grand Distance. tickets, tickets per 51 rides. mile, cents. Merion 6.0 1.70 coupons, covering Four books with 624 First quarter. Second quarter. Third quarter. $4 53 Fourth quarter. Wynnewood 7.5 4 88 1.20 Haverford College 9.1 5 03 1.19 125th street (Harlem) 4.15 $30 00 $9 00 $3 00 $7 50 $6 50 Villa Nova 120 0 88 1.07 Mott Haven 5 00 30 00 9 00 8 00 7 50 0 50 Berwin 17.5 8 83 .98 Melrose 6 00 35 00 10 60 9 40 8 65 7 35 Green Tree 20.9 9 48 .92 Morrisania 6.50 37 00 12 50 10 90 8 95 6 65 Glen Lock 25.3 10 83 .80 Central Morrisania 7.20 40 00 13 45 11 75 9 65 7 15 West Chester 30.0 12 30 .75 Tremont 7.55 42 00 14 10 12 30 10 10 7 50 Fordham 8.88 45 00 14 70 12 90 10 60 7 80 Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago. Bedford Park 9.00 47 00 15 70 13 70 11 25 8 35 Dis- Ticket Between Chicago and- 10-trip 25-trip 54-trip Monthly ticket per Williams' Bridge 10.51 50 00 16 95 14 85 12 20 9 00 tance. rate. rate. rate. monthly. mile, cts. Woodlawn 11.77 52 00 17 GO 15 40 12 65 0 35 Twelfth street 1.0 5 5.00 Mount Vernon 13.20 55 00 18 55 16 25 13 35 9 85 16th street & Bur'n Jc. 1.4 5 3.04 Bronxville 15.39 53 00 19 50 17 10 14 00 10 40 Eighteenth street 1.8 5 2.07 Tuckahoe 16.07 60 00 20 50 17 90 14 70 10 90 Archer avenue 21 5 2.03 Scarsdale 18.93 65 00 22 10 19 30 15 85 11 75 Twenty-sixth street 2.5 10 $0 00 $1 25 $2 25 1.06 Hartsdale 20.61 68 00 23 05 20 15 16 55 12 25 Thirty-first street 3.0 10 60 1 25 2 25 1 03 White Plains 22 44 72 00 24 30 21 30 17 50 12 90 Thirty-filh street 3.5 10 70 1 45 2 60 1.03 Kenisco 24 45 75 00 25 30 22 10 18 15 13 45 Thirty-seventh street 3.8 10 80 1 GO 3 00 1.04 Unionville 28.52 78 00 26 25 22 95 18 85 13 95 Boomer's 4.2 10 80 1 00 3 00 1.03 Pleasantville 30.99 80 00 26 90 23 50 19 30 14 30 Forty-third street 4.5 15 90 1 80 3 30 1.03 Forty-seventh street 5.0 15 90 1 90 3 70 1.00 EXCURSION TICKETS. Englewood 7.2 20 1 00 2 25 4 75 1.02 Several classes of excursion movements represent consider- Grand Crossing 9.6 25 1 50 3 05 5 60 1.07 able reductions on average fares. They include, first, the tickets South Chicago 12.7 30 1 75 3 90 7 25 1.06 occasionally and systematically issued by lengthy lines, which Cassello 20.2 60 10 50 .96 are only applicable to points separated by a comparatively Liverpool 30.5 90 12 50 .75 short distance; second, cheap tickets issued to incite travel to Comparatively little information is accessible in regard to and from such popular resorts as managements specially de- the relation between the number of commutation tickets and sire to popularize; third, tickets granting the right to travel the regular tickets sold to persons who travel between points over extensive systems of excursion routes, formed either of all to which the former apply. In the natural course of affairs, the lines of one company which controls a large mileage, or of however, it is probable that at many points regular and round- combinations of portions of the mileage of a number of lines; trip or excursion tickets represent much more than half the fourth, cheap excursion rates granted over long distances to travel, and thus help materially to raise the average fares per participants in important popular societary or scientific move- mile. In a discussion before the New York railway commis- ments, such as various classes of national conventions; fifth, sion, a few years ago, vice-president Hayden, of the New York systematic arrangements for excursions of the members of par- Central, said: "The working of the commutation rate was ticular lodges or societies and their friends to and from seaside shown in the case of Poughkeepsie. During the past year or other popular resorts. 600,000 single tickets, 700,000 round-trip tickets, and 400,000 The extent to which concessions in rates are granted in con- commutation rides were sold to this point." nection with these classes varies materially, but they are most In addition to monthly tickets, some lines issue quarterly, likely to reach exceptionally low figures per mile in connec- half-yearly, and yearly tickets, and some of the lines named tion with movements of the second and fifth classes designated above issue quarterly tickets and tickets for longer periods above. It rarely happens that charges for excursion tickets of than three months. The yearly rates represent the lowest any other kind than these two classes fall below half a cent fares, sometimes falling to less than half a cent per mile. A per mile except under the pressure of severe competition, and good illustration of the relation between quarterly, half-yearly, the charges for the first, third, and fourth classes usually and yearly service is furnished in the following statement of represent a reduction of from one-fourth to one-half below charges in force in 1887 on regular fares. 33 Digitized by Google 258 COST OF RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION. COST OF RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION. The The The with the development of was any appropriate application of such an answer to the facts of greater importance, or involved in particular cases. It is not uncommon for the legis- that has been to a greater extent misrepresented and misunder- lators of states traversed by lines which have a very light traffic stood, than the cost of railway movements. On their cheap- to propose, and even to succeed in passing, laws which fix rates ness and efficiency everything else depends. They are gener- for moving passengers and freight at figures that are too low ally the least expensive, but often the most costly, of all over- to permit any line with a small amount of business to earn the land methods of moving persons and property. interest on its actual cost, and a favorite argument in connec- Real cheapness can only be secured by such a variety of tion with the advocacy of such measures is that railways of favorable conditions and circumstances, that the failure to other states or countries which are thickly populated, and fur- attain it is much more common than it is generally supposed nish a large amount of business, conduct movements at the to be, and the amount of railway business conducted at a direct figures proposed, and that it cannot, therefore, be unjust to loss in immediate results greatly exceeds popular estimates. require that a line traversing districts in which the number of INTEREST ON CAPITAL ACCOUNT. inhabitants per square mile falls far below the existing low The established method of making up railway accounts and average in the United States shall work as cheaply as the roads statements helps to encourage delusions. It is based on a sys- which enjoy the benefit of a better location. tem of ascertaining and stating cost which docs not directly It should require little consideration to satisfy any just man take into consideration what is frequently the most im- that such reasoning is fallacious. When all other things are portant of all the items of expenditure-the sums that are or equal the real cost of transportation is diminished more rapidly should be paid for the use of the capital that creates the rail- by an increase of business than by any other single cause, and way. This mode was presumably adopted for convenience of while there are various ways in which this diminution of cost, calculation, and it is 80 universally used that it misleads no through or by the increase of business is secured, the most im- one who is accustomed to seck information in any of the portant, usually, is the reduction in the average payment for each thousands of railway reports that are issued. Those who are particular service which is necessary to defray fixed charges. If pecuniarily interested are sure to discover, and often to their the interest account of a road, for instance, is $1,000,000, and sorrow, the relation which the excess of profit shown by an its business consisted exclusively in moving freight over its avoidance of a primary charge for the use of the capital em- entire line, it would be necessary, if only one hundred thousand ployed bears to interest account and dividends. But, as a tons were moved, to secure an average profit of ten dollars matter of fact, the stated cost of moving passengers and freight for each ton, while if the amount of traffic was increased to per mile, and the aggregate cost of all the movements made in one million tons, an average profit of one dollar per ton any given year on any particular line, falls far below the actual would be sufficient to defray interest charges. This principle, reality, on account of the adoption of the prevalent style of through many ramifications, is applicable to all railway move- book-keeping. ments, and upon the degree of fidelity or success with which Itisonly after thesupplementary comparison between reported its obvious teachings can be adhered to or enforced, perhaps "profits" on the one hand, and interest charges and allowance more than upon any other single cause, depends the solvency for dividends on the other, is made that an approximately cor- or insolvency of any particular corporation or combination of rect idea of the real cost of transportation can be formed. corporations. Such calculations are rarely published. The public indeed ITEMS OF COST, EXCLUSIVE OF CAPITAL ACCOUNT. hears, with unfortunate frequency, of lines that have failed to earn dividends, or that have been unable to promptly provide The question has often been asked what does it cost to trans- for interest payments, but few stop to think that such an- port a ton of freight per mile, or a passenger per mile, exclu- nouncements are tantamount to an acknowledgement that, sive of allowance for interest. The true answer, in particular instead of the sums received from the public during the periods cases, would vary more than the answer to a similar question to which they relate representing the profit which is apparently relating to most any other industrial process. The Massachu- shown, they really represent a loss or under-payment to the setts commission began to grapple with this problem soon after extent of the failure to provide for interest charges and such it was organized, and it soon reached the conclusion that "the dividends as could justly be expected. cost of moving freight varies, under given circumstances, at If a road has much traffic, and its capital account is not un- least as much as the cost of raising crops." Mr. Albert Fink usually large, the actual cost of any particular movement is soon after published an elaborate analysis of the cost of moving enhanced to only an infinitesimal extent by its appropriate freight on the main line and various branches of the Louisville allowance for the use of money expended in creating the rail- and Nashville Railroad, and showed that if allowance was made way and its appliances, but if the amount of traffic is light, for the interest of the capital used, the difference in the cost which is the case with a very large proportion of the existing per ton per mile was as follows:- railway mileage in the United States, and if each of the few Cost per ton Line. per mile. tons of freight and small number of passengers that pass over Cents. such lines daily were charged with their due share of capital- Main stem 1.78 Memphis line 2.10 ized expenditure, that share would often form much the most Nashville and Decatur Railroad 2.54 important and much the largest element in the actual cost of Knoxville branch 4.17 transportation. Bardstown branch 7.72 Out of the efforts of railway managers to secure from a com- Richmond branch 9.00 bination of all practical expedients remuneration for capital, Glasgow branch 19.10 and the resistance or antagonism such labors encounter, on He also showed that if due allowance is made for all the various pretexts, many controversies have grown, and in con- circumstances attending freight movements, including those nection with the discussions they have elicited erroneous ideas that grow out of the difference between a return load in one have been widely disseminated. A large proportion of such instance which cannot be procured in another, the actual cost disputes would be speedily adjusted if an honest answer was had varied in the proportion of 1 to 511. This general state- given to the simple question whether it is not a paramount ment furnishes a remarkably clear indication of the multipli- duty to sedulously endeavor to secure just compensation for the city and magnitude of the considerations involved. It is more use of the money expended in creating railways, and if there fully explained in the following extract from the report on Digitized by Google COST OF RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION. 259 internal commerce issued by the United States Bureau of 20. Insurance and taxes. Statistics for 1876:- 21. Rent account. The cost of moving freight upon railroads, instead of being 22. Salaries of general officers. a simple question susceptible of a single answer, is one of great 23. Insurance, taxes, and general expense. difficulty and perplexity. Mr. Albert Fink ascertained that the Station Expenses per Train-Mile. average cost of transport on the various lines operated by the 24. Labor loading and unloading freight. Louisville and Nashville varied from 1.78 cents per ton per 25. Agents and clerks. mile to 19.1 cents per ton per mile, and the cost varied widely 26. General station expense, light, fuel, &c. with respect to the carriage of different commodities on the 27. Watchmen and switchmen. same road. Mr. Fink also stated that the cost per ton per mile 28. Expenses of switching. in some instances did not exceed one-seventh of one cent, and in 29. Stationery and printing. others was as high as 73 cents per ton per mile, the latter rate 30. Telegraph expenses. being 511 times greater than the former, the lower costs applying 31. Depot repairs. to freight moved in cars that would otherwise have been Movement Expenses per Train-Mile. empty, and the higher cost to freight in small quantities, carried in the direction of the principal movement." 32. Adjustment of track. Mr. Fink also prepared the following statement of the ele- 33. Cost of renewals of rails, value. ments embracing, and formula for ascertaining, the cost of rail- 34. Labor replacing rails. road transportation:- 35. Train expense hauling rails. 36. Joint fastenings. MAINTENANCE OF ROADWAY AND GENERAL SUPERINTENDENCE. 37. Switches. Road Repairs per Mile of Road. 38. Locomotive repairs. 1. Adjustment of track. 39. Oil and waste used on locomotives. 2. Ballast. 40. Watching and cleaning. 3. Ditching. 41. Fuel used in engine house. 4. Culverts and cattle guards. 42. Supervision and general expense in engine house. 5. Extraordinary repairs, slides, &c. 43. Engineers' and firemen's wages. 6. Repairs of hand and dump cars. 44. Conductors and brakemen. 7. Repairs of road tools. 45. Passenger-car repairs. 8. Road watchmen. 46. Freight-car repairs. 9. General expenses of road department. 47. Oil and waste used by cars. 10. Cross-ties replaced, value. 48. Labor oiling and inspecting cars. 11. Cross-ties replaced, labor. 49. Train expenses. 12. Cross-ties, train expense hauling. 50. Fuel used by locomotives. 13. Bridge superstructure repairs. 51. Water supply. 14. Bridge watchmen. 52. Damage to freight and lost baggage. 15. Shop-building repairs. 53. Damage to stock. 16. Water-station repairs. 54. Wrecking account. 17. Section-house repairs. 55. Damage to persons. 18. General superintendence and general expense of operat- 56. Gratuity to employés. ing department. 57. Fencing burned. 19. Advertising and soliciting passengers and freight. 58. Law expenses. FORMULA FOR ASCERTAINING THE COST OF BAILROAD TRANSPORTATION PER TON PER MILE, BY ALBERT FINK. ESQ. Showing, also, with reference to the items of expenditures before stated, the various elements entering into the calculation of cost. Movement expenses ton-mile= movement expenses per train-mile (items 41 to 58) per average number of tons of freight in each train Station expenses per ton-mile= cost of handling freight (items 24 to 3ª) at forwarding station +at delivery station =b. length of haul. cost of maintenance of road per mile per year (items 1 to 23)X total miles run by freight trains per year Maintenance of road per ton-mile= total revenue trains, passenger and freight, per year average number of tons of freight transported over one mile of road per year. cost of road per milex rate of interest per annum number of freight-train miles per year 100 Interest per ton-mile number of revenue-train miles, freight and passenger, per year average number of tons of freight transported over one mile of road per year Total cost per 'on-mile=a+b+c+d. In order to make use of this formula, it is necessary to know the fifty-eight items of expense enumerated before, all of which vary on different roads, and enter into different combinations with each other. Some of the items of movement expenses (11 to 58) change with the weight of trains, and have to be ascer- tained in each individual case. The average cost for the year can be made the basis of the estimate. Besides the items already shown, the following other items enter into the calculation: The average number of tons of freight in train per mile of the round trip of the train; the average length of the haul; the number of miles run over the road, with freight and passenger trains, per annum; the cost of the road; the rate of interest, and the total number of tons of freight carried during a year over one mile of road. Without these data it is impossible to make a correct estimate of the cost of transportation on railroads. The method of calculation described above is not merely differences in the cost of railroad transportation on different theoretical, but it was, substantially, applied, during a series of roads, or on the same road, at different times, may be divided years to the operations of the Louisville and Nashville Railway, under the following general heads:- while Mr. Fink was a leading officer of that road, and the exact I. The character of the road. results are stated with great precision, in some of his publica- II. Cost of labor and material. tions. In a general discussion of this subject he forcibly says III. The speed of trains. that "there might be some variation in the cost of manufac- IV. The amount and nature of the business of the road. turing certain articles, or in raising the products of the soil in V. The cost of the road and equinment " different parts of the country, yet they are inconsiderable as CIRCUMSTANCES AFFECTING COST Y BY RAIL. compared with the difference that exists between the cost of A condensed version of a d ct in an transporting one ton for one mile on one road and the same internal commerce report fo "owing service for another, even if such roads are under the same statements:- management, and the same scale of prices for material and "There are various a labor prevail. The different causes which produce portation on railroc Digitized by Google 260 COST OF RAILWAY TRANSPORTATION. (a) Gradients.-The gradients of the railroads constituting During certain seasons of the year the equipment required to important highways of commerce differ very much, the maxi- transport the traffic on many roads is three or four times as mum being about 125 feet to the mile. Auxiliary motive great as at other seasons. But a road engaged in such an irre- power is frequently required in order to overcome the heavier gular business must keep on hand many cars, and have in its grades. Differences of opinion exist as to the effect of gradi- employ a large number of men not required during the months ents of known declivity upon the cost of transportation. when business is lightest. All these cars, and nearly all the A somewhat generally accepted proposition is that the resist- employés whose efficiency depends upon their general know- ance on a grade of 20 feet to a mile is double that on a level ledge of the particular working of the road, cannot be dis- road. The effect of grades upon cost of transportation varies pensed with every time the business falls off. This feature of very much on different roads, owing to the different weight of transportation greatly affects the east and west trunk roads, the locomotive employed, the cost of coal, and the magnitude especially in regard to their through traffic. The varying and direction of the tonnage moved. movement of the crops and the fluctuations of commercial (b) The cost of transportation on every road is affected greatly by operations cause great irregularity in the movements of the cost of the road itself.Suppose two roads of equal length traffic. and having an equal amount of traffic, one of which has cost (k) The cost of transportation is greatly affected by the nature and $20,000,000 and the other $10,000,000. Evidently the traffic on value of freights.-It is mainly upon considerations of this char- tbe former road must earn more than on the latter in order to acter that the classification of freights and the different rates yield the same rate of interest on the investment. for transporting goods of the various classes are based. These (a) The cost of transportation on railroads is greatly affected by classifications are but expressions in practice of the fact that the wages of labor and the cost of material-The wages of labor the actual cost of transporting no two different commodities, and the cost of material are even 50 per cent. greater in certain including the cost of handling, warehousing, &c., is precisely localities than in others. equal. (d) The cost of fuel is a very important element affecting cost of The cost of transporting goods which are of a perishable or transportation.-A road passing over coal beds will be able to fragile nature, and require great care in handling and moving procure its supplies of fuel at low rates, while the cost of fuel is greater than than that of transporting goods which are not on a road which must pay the expense of transporting coal liable to decay or leakage. The common carrier is required to several hundred miles will be much greater. transport goods of a perishable nature with dispatch, and to (e) The cost of transportation on the more northerly roads of this provide suitable facilities for handling and transporting com- country is greatly affected by frost and snow.-No accurate com- modities liable to be injured. putation can be made of the effect of frost and snow upon the (l) The cost of transporting traffic at high rates of speed is very cost of transportation; but careful estimates, based upon the much greater than the cost at low rates of speed.-In the opinion most reliable data which can be procured, indicate that on of well-informed railroad managers the rate of speed for freight many of our northern roads the cost of operating during the trains yielding the maximum profit is about ten miles an hour. winter months is from 10 to 25 per cent. greater than during When freight trains are run at the rate of twenty or thirty the other months of the year. Great expense is sometimes miles an hour, the increase in the cost of transportation is incurred in removing snow after a severe storm. about in proportion to the increase of speed. (f) Volume of traffic.-This is the circumstance which per- (m) The cost of transportation is less for commodities moved in haps affects the cost of transportation on railroads more than large quantities than in small quantities.-A railroad having a any one which has yet been mentioned. A large amount of traffic of a million tons of a single commodity would, as a freight can be carried at much less cost per ton per mile than matter of economy, be provided with cars and terminal facili- a smaller amount. Upon this condition more than upon any ties especially adapted to the particular traffic. Full trains other, railroad managers base their general estimates of cost of could thus be run regularly, insuring the greatest economy of transportation. car service, motive power, and wages of employés. This is an (g) The length of haul or distance which commodities are trans- economic condition very clearly recognized by every railroad ported is an important element of the cost of transportation.-Freight manager. which is carried a short distance is very much more affected (n) The cost of transportation is largely affected by the amount of by the expenses of handling, warehousing, and billing than dead weight carried.-The economy of car service depends freight carried a long distance. largely upon the exigencies of the traffic of a road and the The terminal expenses may be the same for the transporta- skill exercised in the management of its equipment under the tion of goods one mile as for a thousand miles. complicated arrangements and combinations which have (h) Alignment of road.-A difference of opinion exists among sprung up between railroads in order to meet the requirements railroad managers as to the precise value of this element of of commerce. cost, but the general fact is well established that locomotives (o) The cost of transportation differs greatly on roads on account can haul a greater number of cars on a straight road or on a of the maintenance of the road itself.-The ratio which the cost road having easy curves than on a very crooked road, espe- of maintenance of roadway bears to the total operating ex- cially a road which has heavy grades. penses on several important roads is shown in the following (i) The cost of transporting commodities in bulk is less than the table:- cost of transporting them in separate packages.-The terminal ex- Percentage which penses incurred in the transportation of coal, grain, lumber, cost of mainten- ance of roads is and cattle are very much less than the expenses of handling Roads. of total operat- and warehousing miscellaneous merchandise. Grain is trans- ing expenses. Per cent. ferred from railroad cars and vessels into warehouses, and Pennsylvania Railroad 22 again from warehouses into railroad cars and vessels at a cost Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 25 not exceeding one-fourth to one-half a cent per bushel. Coal Michigan Central 12 is simply dropped from pockets into vessels or is emptied into Louisville and Nashville Railroad, main stem 14.453 vessels or cars by chutes. Cattle are loaded and unloaded with Railroads of Mussachusetts 24.500 very little expense. Valuable merchandise, on the other hand, Chicago and North-western Railroad 14.500 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 25,500 involves expensive handling, care in transportation, and risks of various kinds. Besides, it must be carried in expensive cars The cost of the maintenance of a road having few bridges and be carefully protected in warehouses. and located in a comparatively level country having a sandy (i) Cost of transportation is less for a regular than for an irre- or gravelly soil is very much less than of a road built upon a gular traffic.-This is an economic principle recognized in all yielding soil and having heavy excavations and embankments branches of business. Every railroad company must, under and many bridges. This source of expenditure is of course its obligation as a common carrier, provide cars and other affected very much by the character of the construction of the facilities for the traffic which may be thrown upon it at the road-bed and superstructures. periods when the demand for transportation is greatest. (p) Perhaps the most important of all the considerations Digitized by Google which it is managed, embracing both the direction of matters of tioned may be summarily stated as follows: First, gradients; detail and general administration. second, cost of roads; third, the wages of labor and cost of In the management of the great trunk lines connecting the material; fourth, cost of fuel; fifth, effects of frost and snow, interior with the seaboard this is the consideration of especial sixth, volume of traffic; seventh, distance; eighth, alignment of importance. In the course of the contests between the trunk road; ninth, the distinction as to bulk or package traffic; tenth, lines when competition runs wild, the general administration regularity of movement; eleventh, nature of commodities, as to of the affairs of a road embraces questions of very great mag- their being perishable or fragile; twelfth, speed; thirteenth, nitude and of national interest. The proper management of quantity transported of one kind; fourteenth, dead weight; these great trunk lines requires executive ability of a high fifteenth, maintenance of road; sixteenth, skill in management. order and an extensive knowledge of the details of transpor- There are other conditions affecting the cost of transportation, tation and of commercial affairs. of comparatively trifling importance on certain roads, but of The circumstances and conditions governing the cost of very great importance on other roads." INFLUENCE OF RAILWAYS ON THE GRAIN AND PROVISION TRADE. THAT the exports of provisions and breadstuffs, annually show the rapidity with which the farming interest has been forth from seaboard cities, exceed the wildest ex- progressing:- pectations of old-time Fourth of July orators goes without 1870. 1880. Total land in farms, acres. 407,735,041 536,081,835 saying. It is well known that they were a leading cause of Improved land, acres 188,921,099 284,771,042 the country's recovery from the depression consequent upon Total number farms 2,659,985 4,008,907 the panic of 1873, the prolonged suspension of specie pay- Farms under 100 acres 2,075,338 2,208,374 ments, and the efforts to restore them. Yet, striking as is this One hundred to 500 acres 565,054 1,695,983 branch of our commerce, the leading facts attract compara- Five hundred to 1,000 acres 15,873 75,972 tively little attention. Newspaper orators and magazines are One thousand acres and over 3,720 28,578 more apt to keep the growth of leading cities before the public, Of farms of or exceeding 1,000 acres, Georgia had 902; Ala- and to publish statistics bearing on the progress of large cen- bama, 696; Virginia, 641; South Carolina, 482; Mississippi, 481; tres of population, than to direct attention to the expansion of Louisiana, 371; North Carolina, 311; California, 262, and Illinois, the agricultural interest. Viewed from the true standpoint, 194. Statistics bearing on values might prove misleading, as however, the growth of many of the rural districts is more re- gold was at a premium during 1870. markable than that of the cities. A seaport, with a good har- Comparison of the product of some leading staples shows the bor, can hardly fail to gain in numbers and wealth; but it is following:- matter for pride and wonder that the country is dotted with 1870. 1880. Wheat 287,745,626 459,483,137 thriving villages, and that myriads of acres, wild and tenant- Corn 760,941,549 1,754,591,676 less, at a comparatively recent period, are now under careful Hay, tons 27,316,048 35,205,712 cultivation. A prime agent in this great work of developing Tobacco, pounds 262,735,341 472,061,157 latent resources has been the railway. Much of the fertile soil, Butter, pounds 514,092,683 777,250,287 of the west and north-west, would have been of little use had Cheese, pounds 27,772,489 53,492,153 they not been provided with "easy conveyance for men and Live-stock returns compare as follows:- things from one place to another." 1870. 1880. Up to 1824 the cost of moving freight from Buffalo to New Horses 7,145,370 10,357,488 York was $100 per ton, but the opening of the Erie Canal re- Mules and asses 1,125,415 1,812,808 duced the cost about seven-eighths. Comparatively little influ- Milch cows 8,935,332 12,443,120 ence was exerted by the canal connecting lake Erie with the Other cattle 14.885,276 23,482,391 Ohio river. As late as 1851, 97 per cent. of Cincinnati's beef Sheep 28,477,951 35,192,074 exports, 96 per cent. of corn, and 97 per cent. of flour were Swine 25,134,569 47,681,700 shipped down the Mississippi to New Orleans. The river route It will be of interest to compare with these figures the fol- thus proved fully able to hold its own against canal competi- lowing data from Poor's Railroad Manual:- tion, but what the canal could not effect was an easy task for Statement of miles operated, capital stock and funded debt, the railway. Only a small percentage of western produce, and dividends paid for ten years:- bound for a foreign market, now finds its way into bottoms of Miles Year. Capital and Dividends Mississippi steamers or barges, it being more expedient to for- operated. funded debt. paid. 1881 ward it to the seacoast per railway. It would be idle to ques- 94,486 $5,010,389,579 $93,344,200 1880 84,225 4,897,401.997 77,115,411 tion the great work canals have done for mankind. It would 1879 82,223 4,762,506,010 61,681,470 be scarcely less idle to pretend that they can be seriously re- 1878 78,960 4,589,948,793 53,629,368 garded as dangerous rivals of the railways. No more striking 1877. 74,112 4,563,597,248 58,556,312 proof of this could be furnished than that afforded by the 1876 73,508 4,468,591,935 68,039,668 desperate endeavors of the English canal companies to over- 1675 71,759 4,415,631,630 74,294,208 wh-elm George Stephenson, and the languid objections made 1874 69,273 4,221,763,594 67,042,942 by railway officials to the abolition of tolls on the New York 1873. 66,237 3,784,543,034 67,120,709 state canals. In the former case the endangered capitalists 1872 57,323 3,159,423,057 64,418,157 saw the rising shadow of an all-conquering enemy; in the latter Statement showing the census of the states named therein; simply an inability to perceive why all the citizens the population of the same; the number of miles of railroad in state should be taxed for the benefit of a mere the same; the earnings of such railroads, and the number of nulation. bushels of wheat and Indian corn produced in each, in the ures, taken ited States census, years 1870 and 1880, respectively:- Number of bushels of wheat States. Areas. Population Miles of railroad. Earnings of railroads. and corn produced. 1870. 1880. 1870. 1880. 1870. 1880. 1870. 1880. Ohio 39,964 2,665,260 3,197,794 3,538 5,912 42,331,733 62,314,749 95,383,303 158,695,925 Michigan 56,451 1,185,059 1,634,096 1,638 3,931 7,900,382 19,297,775 30,086,238 72,381,326 Indiana 33,809 1,680,637 1,978,358 3,177 4,454 19,080,240 31,813,948 78,841,760 164,410,909 Illinois 55,410 2,539,891 3,078,636 4,823 8,163 42,095,227 71,289,545 160,048,799 378,933,350 Wisconsin 53,924 1,054,670 1,315,376 1,525 3,130 7,618,985 15,482,630 40,640,342 60,876,144 Minnesota 83,516 439,526 780,807 1,092 3,107 1,941,716 9,353,889 23,609,240 46,605,401 Dakota Territory 150,922 14,181 134,502 56 1,265 240,802 5,096,443 Iowa 55,645 1,194,020 1,624,463 2,683 5,235 5,581,646 6,611,435 98,674,559 312,366,968 Nebraska 75,995 122,993 452,432 705 2,000 8,075,277 24,147,262 6,861,746 79,632,316 Missouri 65,350 1,721,295 2,169,091 2,000 4,011 12,865,734 24,085,330 80,350,007 228,436,347 Kansas 81,318 364,399 995,335 1,501 3,439 5,048,610 10,518,145 19,416,723 91,301,970 Total 752.319 12,931,111 17,360,900 22,738 44,647 153,549,360 274,914,708 634,153,519 1,601,737,099 During the ten years from 1870 to 1880, in eleven western or culminated, through various causes, including the improve- north-western states, including Dakota, the railway mileage ment of the crops of competing foreign countries, and in some increased from 22,738 to 44,647; the production of wheat and years the decrease of the surplus products of the United States. corn rose from 634,153,519 bushels to 1,601,737,099, and the This led to a decline in the aggregate receipts of the leading value of the total exports of breadstuffs, provisions, and live Atlantic ports from the high figures reached that year to animals from $102,003,677 to $431,102,262. Of an increase, 273,042,506 bushels in 1881; 206,162,852 bushels in 1882; therefore, of all exports amounting to $443,000,000, $330,000,000 241,617,503 bushels in 1883; 224,314,599 bushels in 1884; was made up of products of the western or north-western states. 233,162,038 bushels in 1885, and 245,483,815 bushels in 1886. A The movement of this vast volume of traffic was attended considerable export trade in breadstuffs and provisions has by an extraordinary lowering of rates. The New York Central been steadily maintained. and Hudson River in 1855 moved 670,073 tons of freight, at As mileage expanded freight charges were lowered, the lead- 3.270 cents per ton per mile, and in 1881 moved 11,591,379 tons ing railway companies being most active in this work. "It at .780 cents per ton per mile. The cost per ton per mile of may also be remembered," says Mr. Edward Atkinson, writing movement for both periods was 1.341 cents, and .562 cents re- in 1881, "that a considerable part of the reduction in cost has spectively. The Pennsy Railroad moved, in 1855, 365,000 been made possible by the substitution of steel for iron rails, tons of freight, at 2.746 cents per ton per mile, and in 1881, notwithstanding the fact that this substitution began when 18,229,365 tons, at .799 cents per ton per mile. The cost of steel rails cost about three times as much as they now do, and movement for both periods was 1.662 and .437 cents respectively. was continued for a long period at twice the present cost. Statistics presented by Mr. Albert Fink, in his report upon It cannot be too often repeated that the railway and the steam- the adjustment of railroad rates to the seaboard, teach the ship have eliminated distance. The western farm and the east- same lesson, viz., that an efficient transportation system is ern workshop, the southern plantation and the northern factory, vitally necessary to extensive agricultural operations. In the have been brought near each other, and in the process the very year 1878, 272,703,841 bushels of grain, including flour, were lines of railroad that have been most profitable to their owners received at the four ports of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, are the specific lines that have performed the largest service and Baltimore, and of these receipts 190,361,684 bushels were at the least cost to those who use them. One day's wages of a exported. At New York alone the aggregate receipts were mechanic in Massachusetts will pay the cost of moving his 152,862,170 bushels, of which 63,905,872 bushels came by canal, year's substance of bread and meat one thousand miles, from 85,350,079 by rail, and 3,606,219 by coast. In 1879 the total re- Chicago to Boston." Mr. Atkinson further says, in words as ceipts footed up 310,122,100 bushels, of which 228,065,075 were true to-day as when they were written: "May we not dread the exported. New York's share of the receipts was 163,124,890 attempt of state legislatures, and of Congress, to alter these bushels, of which 57,044,406 came by canal, 101,929,243 by rail, conditions by meddlesome statutes, and to prescribe rules for and 4,151,241 by coast. In 1880 the receipts were for the four the conduct of this vast and varied service? If either body ports 315,932,438 bushels, of which 238,506,441 bushels were were to attempt to regulate the production of the farm by exported. New York received 169,092,543 bushels, of which statute, who would be more quick to resent the interference 69,440,901 came by canal, 95,414,822 by rail, and 4,236,820 by than the farmers themselves? But the farmers derive their coast. titles to their lands from the same source that the railway The total receipts of flour and grain at New York, Philadel- owner holds the title to its track. They are no more producers phia, Baltimore, Boston, and Montreal were as follows: 1865, than the common carriers are; they move the soil with their 93,753,650 bushels; 1866, 97,522,166; 1867, 87,112,779; 1868, machines; they move the seed; they move the crop on their 106,769,295; 1869, 118,268,926; 1870, 124,461,841; 1871, 158,805,433; wagons to the mill and to the market. All that the railroad 1872, 170,234,499; 1873, 174,525,321; 1874, 192,452,353; 1875, does is to keep the product moving. One is as much under 179,875,321; 1876, 209,082,401; 1877, 205,420,366; 1878, 293,576,061; the supervision of law as the other, but if the work of either 1879, 332,485,424; 1880, 341,349,702 bushels. could be regulated by statute with success, it would be the As before stated this increase in surplus production and simple work of the farmer and not the complex work of the movement was due, in a large degree, to an increase in rail- railroad." way facilities. The number of miles of railway in operation In speaking of the movement of food supplies Mr. Atkinson was as follows: 1865, 33,908; 1866, 35,085; 1867, 36,801; 1868, says that "if the wheat be traced throughout its course the 39,250; 1869, 42,229; 1870, 46,844; 1871, 52,914; 1872, 60,293; 1873, heaviest single charge upon it will be found to be the cost of 66,171; 1874, 70,278; 1875, 72,383; 1876, 74,096; 1877, 76,808; 1878, distributing the loaves of bread that come from the baker's 79,089; 1879, 81,776; 1880, 86,497; 1881, 94,000. oven; the lightest the charge for moving the barrel of flour a In 1880 the magnitude of the export movement of breadstuffs thousand miles from Chicago to the seaboard." POPULAR COMPLAINTS AGAINST RAILWAYS. 263 POPULAR COMPLAINTS AGAINST RAILWAYS. A COMPREHENSIVE history of popular complaints and sive and unregulated competition. Down with railroad mo- grievances against railroads and anti-railroad agitations nopoly! became the battle cry, and the granger movement would be almost equivalent to a history of railroads themselves. took its place among the political issues of the day. The The first epoch of railroad history in many sections of the battle is still raging as fiercely as ever, and represents the United States was usually marked by an almost universal pop- principal cause of all anti-railroad agitation." ular desire to encourage construction, extension, and develop- Apart from this, the grievances have been as numerous and ment, to afford every inducement and to express in every way varied as can well be imagined. Wherever railroads have the popular desire for and appreciation of the railroad. Sim- attained any degree of financial success, some of their patrons ultaneously with the commencement of operations was the have declared that charges were excessive. The discriminations commencement of popular complaints and declarations of that are inherent in the railroad system, and essential to its grievances. Inherent in the railroad system are the causes practical operation, have everywhere been resisted by those which have led to complaints in every community in which who were not directly favored. Stock watering in all its railroads have been operated. Until the railroad was con- various phases has been the subject of bitter opposition. structed the unanimous voice of the community was usually Railroads have been accused of controlling legislation, cor- in its favor. The moment it is secured, the advantages are rupting the press, and influencing elections. They have more or less lost sight of and the discussion of grievances almost everywhere been charged with extortion. Nearly begins. every detail of their management has been arraigned. The earliest local roads afforded comparatively slight oppor- Perhaps there has been no more comprehensive effort, within tunity for popular grievances, being organized generally under the borders of a state, to ascertain the popular feeling in regard state laws, fixing rates in a manner that prevented the class of to the railroads and the nature of popular complaints against discrimination which has been made a fruitful cause of com- them, than was made in 1879 in the state of New York by a plaint. Even in reference to the earliest roads, however, committee of the legislature, in response to complaints from complaints were made of almost every detail of management. commercial bodies and individuals in various portions of the With the organization and active operation of the trunk state. This committee devoted some months to taking testi- lines commences the history of popular agitations of griev- mony and listening to all who cared to make known their ances growing out of discriminations, local and personal. grievances. William D. Shipman, of counsel for the New Twice of late years committees of the United States Senate York, Lake Erie and Western Railway Company, in an argu- have conducted far-reaching investigations of railroad matters, ment before this committee, summing up the grievances which and been overwhelmed with complaints from every section of had been stated, alleged that efforts had been made to hold the country and from representatives of almost every interest. railroad companies responsible for all the vicissitudes of busi- In each case the protests and appeals have been bitter and ness of whatever nature and whatever might be their true vindictive, and hundreds of individuals have come forward to causes. The complaints were of the most varied character. declare their grievances. In almost every state, at some period, It was charged that the railroads were capitalized on a basis of anti-railroad agitation has played an important part in legisla- two dollars to every one actually paid in providing facilities, tion and in local politics. In many states it has been reflected and that they could be constructed for one-third of their nomi- in state constitutions. The granger movement represents, per- nal value; that combinations and pools, by which the public haps, the most fully organized anti-railroad agitation, but suffered, were necessary to their profitable conduct, even with scarcely less violent have been similar movements in the south honest management; that in too many cases the interests of and in portions of the Middle and New England states. stock and bondholders were subordinated to those of the man- Before the Senate committees on transportation routes to the aging ring, who purposely and dishonestly depleted the reve- seaboard and on interstate commerce, when engaged in in- nues, 80 that a majority of the bona fide owners got nothing. vestigating popular grievances against the railroads, witnesses It was alleged that the railroads of New York were in the habit have stated in general terms that their experience led them to of discriminating in favor of citizens of other states and of believe that, at various periods, throughout the country there foreign countries to the prejudice of the interests of the people was a widespread popular feeling of opposition to the railroads; of New York; that individual citizens were given special privi- that business depression and reverses of all kinds were indis- leges and rates out of proportion to those charged to the public criminately charged to the influence of railroads; that extortion in general; that the rates of transportation were made unneces- and unjust discrimination were regarded as the rule rather than sarily high by the maintenance of subsidiary organizations de- the exception, and that the public considered that in a great signed to deplete the revenues of the roads before profits measure the interests of the railroads were opposed to its own. reached the stockholders; that fast freight lines, bridge compa- These witnesses have added that the feeling described was most nies, live-stock companies, local lines, leased at exorbitant general among those who know least of the operations of rail- rates, stock-yard companies, construction companies, elevator roads. and other terminal facility companies, were maintained im- The experience of any one in the United States would illus- properly at the expense of the great roads, and corruptly used trate in a striking manner how general and earnest have been to promote the financial interests of members of the managing the popular complaints, and to how great an extent they have ring; that the rights of stockholders were in every respect and been unjust or the result of misinformation. So various have in the grossest manner disregarded; that the classifications of been the criticisms of railroads that it is almost impossible to freight abounded with unjust, unfair, and unreasonable features; sum them up. A recent writer on railroad subjects says that that New York city suffered by the differential charges allowed "the discrimination between through and local rates has been on the traffic of Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Boston; that the the subject of the fierce struggle between railroads and their tendency of railroad management had been to divert trade patrons for many years. On the one side were ranged the from the metropolis, and that there was ground for fear that business community, the manufacturers, the agricultural popu- the railroads would be instrumental in carrying a great portion lation of the great western states, and all who believed that of New York's trade to other cities. The great pooling agree- high rates of freights were destroying their business. Opposed ment of 1877 between the four trunk lines was the subject of to them were those whose pecuniary interests were derived innumerable complaints of discrimination and extortion. from investments in railroad property, the value of which was Vigorous protests came from the milling interests of Ro- shrinking from diminished commerce and exposure to exces- chester; from the grain dealers, pork packers, and shipping in- Digitized by Google 264' POPULAR COMPLAINTS AGAINST RAILWAYS. terests of Buffalo; from the shippers of cattle and produce and personal discriminations were almost universal and were far- from the owners of agricultural lands. The railroads were reaching and grievous in their burdensome effects. charged with depreciating the value of farms, and with in- In the south anti-railroad legislation had no lack of early juring by unjust and unreasonable prices almost every interest and earnest exponents. One of the leaders in 1879 declared of the state. One source of complaint was the large salaries that the attitude of the trunk lines to the public was most ex- paid to railroad officials. Another, the rapid accumulation of traordinary. They were pitted against the public whose in- wealth by some railroad magnates. Another, the abuses grow- terests were being sacrificed to their own, and the conflict was ing out of the issue of free passes. Complaints were directed irrepressible. In each of the southern states, early in the his- to almost every conceivable feature of railroad business. tory of through railroad systems, popular grievances had be- The investigation, extending over nearly a year, was scarcely come well defined and loudly expressed. necessary to prove that many of these complaints related to Anti-monopoly organizations, formed in various states, and matters for which the railroads were in no respect responsible, at some periods claiming affinity with a national combination, which were due entirely to other causes, and that many of the have declared in violent terms against alleged impositions in- grievances were entirely imaginary. It was at the same time flicted by railroads upon the people, and demanded that demonstrated that there were some grave causes for complaint, remedies should be applied. The states which did the most and that some of the criticisms made were well founded. The to hasten and induce railroad building, without imposing any committee denounced what was complained of as the oil mo- regulation or any limit to the power of the companies organi- nopoly in unmeasured terms; reported that stock watering had zed, were the first to complain of the power wielded by the been practiced to a criminal extent; laid stress upon the cor- corporations, and in almost every instance the most extreme rupt influences wielded by the railroads, and reported that the efforts to induce railroad construction were followed by the discrimination practiced involved much injustice and many most violent revulsion of anti-railroad agitation. abuses. Governor Glick, of Kansas, voiced the sentiment of the anti- In Pennsylvania the anti-railroad feeling has at times as- monopoly party of his state, and some others, when urging sumed considerable bitterness. The popular expressions, legis- that the first movements of consolidation among railroads had tative enactments, and public declarations have reflected to a done away with wholesome competition and all fair and gene- greater or less extent nearly all the grievances complained of rous treatment of the public, and that an epoch had followed in other states. Gov. Pattison, in his inaugural address, in during which public interests were shamefully sacrificed. From 1883, declared that there was no more important duty await- the time of consolidation an antagonism between the people ing the legislature than the regulation of railroads in the inter- had steadily increased until the spectacle was presented of rich, est and for the protection of the people. He alleged that the strong, influential, and solidified monopolies greedily encroach- railroads had violated provisions of the state constitution con- ing upon the rights of the people, whose creatures they are, stantly, defiantly, and flagrantly; that the people were entitled and to whom they owe not only their existence, but the very to have at least a fair trial made of their ability to bring the patronage which enables them to wield the power whose possi- vast corporations that they had created and fostered, under bilities are simply appalling. He declared that they had taken their just regulation and control. The constitution and the advantage of the necessities of business and commerce. They people demanded that corporations should act justly and treat had, upon the flimsiest pretexts, presumed to do high-handed all the people alike with uniform fairness and impartiality; and outrageous things. They had ignored the real interest of that unjust discrimination against persons or places should be the state. They had simply used the state and its resources to prohibited and extortion forbidden; that powers conferred by the detriment of its agricultral, commercial, and manufacturing the people, and subject to the regulation of law, should not be interests, 80 that by a systematic method of pooling their earn- used to harass and oppress; that much was to be done in the ings, by unjust discriminations against localities and indi- way of legislation to prevent the power of corporations from viduals, by excessive and exorbitant freight and passenger becoming too vast and irresponsible; that the railroads had rates, by drawbacks, corruptly allowed, they had wrought in- outgrown the most sanguine expectation in their development, justice and fraud in all their forms upon all classes of citizens. and had introduced new evils as well as new benefits; that Governor Glick alleged that the result of this had been to make their influence had extended into almost every department of it unprofitable to develop the manufacturing resources of the business and of life, not only affecting the centres of money state of Kansas; that manufactured goods of all kinds made in and of trade, but the minutest affairs of individuals; that thou- far eastern states were brought into that state and sold at less sands of laborers looked to them for employment, and depended cost than those articles could there be manufactured, for the alone upon their determination for the measure of hire; that simple reason that railroads were constantly discriminating the price of the necessaries of life were often regulated by their against home manufacturers, and exacting excessive local rates will, and that all of this was an exhibition of power not con- under the fallacious plea that a long haul was more profitable templated in their creation, the existence of which in any than a short one. He contended that if the wrongs perpetrated combination of men was to be deplored and, if possible, prc- against the agricultural interests of the state, mainly in conse- vented, or at least regulated and controlled. Something had quence of the pooling arrangements, were not speedily obviated to be done to bring into proper regulation the corporations of the farmers would be placed in a condition of helpless submis- the country, and adjust upon a fair and reasonable basis the sion and dependence, and the agricultural interests virtually combinations between those objects of the bounty of the state abandoned. The growth and prosperity of towns, villages, and and the people. cities were checked by railroad abuses; their business, their in- About this time Judge Jeremiah S. Black was voicing the dustries embarrassed; their development rendered expensive anti-railroad sentiment in more violent terms. He alleged the and difficult, and the price of commodities unduly enhanced. existence of a combination between the great trunk lines to On the Pacific coast the anti-railroad feeling has, perhaps, stop all competition, to unite the power of all into one grand at times attained the greatest virulence, and been expressed in monopoly, and to put the whole people at their mercy. This the most unmeasured and ill-considered terms in state legisla- he described as a criminal conspiracy, and declared that where tion and constitutional provisions. No state in the Union has such a combination existed the railroads victimized the people gone further than California in voicing in its state constitution remorselessly. The extravagant and discriminating charges this anti-railroad feeling. The grievances were mainly unjust prevailing he declared to be a fraud upon the charters of the discriminations and extortionate charges. roads themselves as well as a gross wrong to the victims. The In many of the states the anti-railroad feeling has found little finger of monopoly, he said, had become thicker than the such violent expression as to react upon the leaders and to loins of the law; the influence of the railroads over the legis- bring about considerable revulsion of feeling. Many of the lature mysterious and incalculable, and strong enough to make states have inserted in their constitutions, or made a part of the constitution a dead letter, in spite of oaths to obey it and their code of laws, severe restrictions or burdensome require- the popular demand, almost universal, to enforce it. For every ments which there has never been any serious attempt to en- millionaire that the railroads had made, he said, they had force, and the impracticability of which has been conceded. made 10,000 paupers. Judge Black alleged that local and In the west and south a vigorous popular reaction set in to Digitized by Google <<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< OHIO MISSOURI, AND MISSISSIPPI BRIDGF Digitized by Google Digitized by Google RAILWAY REGULATION BY LAW AND COMMISSIONS. 265 curb anti-monopoly warfare and anti-railroad movements, was seized and lifted off the locomotive he was attempting to which, by embarrassing or crippling railroads, imposed new run. By this time the state authorities of Pennsylvania, New burdens upon the people. Jersey, Ohio, Indiana, Maryland, and West Virginia were alive to the menacing dangers. On July 21st a detachment of Phila- THE RAILWAY RIOTS OF 1877. delphia militia arrived in Pittsburgh. During the afternoon One of the outgrowths of protracted ill-feeling in various several conflicts occurred with a mob, and the casualties were communities against railways or railway management, com- as numerous as those of a sharp skirmish in war times. Mad- bined with the discontent of several classes of railway em- dened by the destruction of the lives of friends and associates, ployés on account of changes in methods of making train and emboldened by a mistaken military movement, which was movements or reductions in wages or aggregate compensation, regarded as an evidence of timidity, the crowd commenced on was the railway riots of 1877. Public sentiment then favored the night of July 21st to burn and destroy all the fixed and the idea that any position assumed by the railway companies movable railway property within their reach at a point where in a controversy with men in their service was necessarily a vast amount of it was concentrated. On the following morn- wrong, and that the only true end of a railway strike must be ing, Sunday, July 22d, nothing but a mass of ruins was left the triumph of the strikers. This delusion was only dispelled by where, on the day before, there had been a large number of the deplorable results of one of the most alarming and destructive cars containing valuable freight, together with all the shops demonstrations that ever occurred in this country. The scene and appurtenances necessary to conduct business at one of the of active demonstrations extended over a large part of east most important of railway stations. The rails of thirty miles and west trunk-line territory and adjoining regions. The inci- of adjacent tracks had been 80 much injured and distorted that dents included the total suspension of railway movements and replacements were necessary. Repair shops, round-houses, 125 enthronement of anarchy for a brief period, the destruction of locomotives, car shops, blacksmith shops, machine shop, a a large amount of valuable property and loss of a considerable lumber yard, the transfer depot, and the Union depot and hotel number of lives. A similar demonstration was made in the were all consumed. early portion of 1886, which was specially directed against lines After the tiger was let loose in Pittsburgh vigorous attempts belonging to the Missouri Pacific system; and it also caused, to: inaugurate similar scenes of destruction at various other for a time, a total cessation of train movements over a large places were made. Subsequent developments strongly indicated amount of mileage. that professional anarchists took a leading part in inciting sun- A leading cause of the prolongation of disorders that had a dry mobs to overt acts. ruinous effect on all legitimate interests was the unwillingness By this time the whole country was in a ferment, and event of local authorities to promptly and efficiently perform their followed event like a series of electric shocks. The New York appropriate duties, and this unwillingness was generally due Central, by taking wise precautions, suffered comparatively to a belief that the communities concerned sympathized with little inconvenience, and in Virginia the railway employés ex- the rioters, a belief which was generally correct, until painful pressed a desire to remain on friendly relations with the com- experience showed the necessity of maintaining law and order panies. Towards the end of the month two Kentucky compa- in defence of the rights of railway companies. nies rescinded orders of reductions in wages, and similar mani- In the outbreak of 1877 Pittsburgh was the scene of the most festations in Canada, portions of Pennsylvania and the south- violent and destructive demonstrations. The first active hos- west, lent new courage to the strikers. By the end of July, tilities, however, probably occurred at Martinsburg, West Vir- however, the strike was practically at an end. Millions of ginia, where some blood was shed on July 17th, and as the citi- dollars worth of property had been destroyed, not a little zens and local authorities refused to aid in restoring order, the blood had been spilt, and assuredly no benefit had resulted to Governor of West Virginia and the president of the Baltimore the strikers. The little girl who inquired what good came of and Ohio telegraphed to Washington the following day for the battle of Blenheim, might have asked the same question Federal troops. July 20th witnessed a sharp struggle between with regard to the strike of 1887. A terrible lesson was taught, the rioters and the militia in Baltimore, and at several points but at times there is fair reason for doubting whether it has not in Maryland there was more or less trouble, while at Pittsburgh been forgotten. The establishment of the principle that com- rioters began to threaten the Pennsylvania with as much fury munities must pay damages if they suffer railway property to as their compeers in a more southern latitude were threaten- be destroyed by mobs will probably do much to restrain vio- ing the Baltimore and Ohio. At Newark, Ohio, an engineer lent demonstrations. RAILWAY REGULATION BY LAW AND COMMISSIONS. A RECENT writer on railroad subjects has said that the birth Many people have believed that the recklessness of this of the locomotive has brought into existence four classes early legislation in the north-western states was responsible in of questions with which the engineer, the railroad manager, the great measure for the reaction that followed. political economist and the statesman are called upon to deal, The first efforts to apply legislative regulation and restrictive and, he might have added that, while the engineer and man- force or supervisory power, like most of those which have fol- ager have increased their work to such magnitude, and con- lowed, were comparatively crude, useless, or meaningless. In ducted it with so much skill that all the world wonders, the some cases the efforts at regulation were made in almost total political economist is still groping in the dark, and the states- ignorance of the business and conditions to be dealt with, the man has made little or no progress in solving such railroad laws of trade, and the essential principles of transportation. questions as come legitimately within his sphere. They aimed mainly at the restriction of dividends, the col- The earliest chapters of the legislation affecting railroads in lection of information, publicity in certain matters of manage- this country usually represent the efforts of states and localities ment, or supervision of the physical and mechanical features to open the way for railroad construction and to facilitate it by of the roads with a view to the prevention of accidents. every possible form of encouragement, and the removal of Some of the earlier as well as later commissions were de- every obstacle. These early specimens of railroad legislation signed to aid in the enforcement of legal methods of regulating appear to be prompted only by the fear that railroads could rates by prescribing maximum charges, establishing pro rata not be built with sufficient rapidity and to aim only at the re- or equal mileage rates, or endeavoring to prevent railroads moval of obstacles and the presentation of such inducements from reaping larger profits from one class of traffic than from as legislative bodies could offer. another, or from one set of shippers than from others. These 34 Digitized by Google 266 RAILWAY REGULATION BY LAW AND COMMISSIONS. attempts were usually unsuccessful. Ill-judged interference a railroad commissioner appointed annually. South Carolina, generally made itself disastrously felt, and the people, as well since 1878, has maintained a commission of three members, as the railroads, suffered from the crude provisions to such an appointed for six years and paid by the railroads. Tennessee extent that the laws were ultimately repealed or ignored. instituted a railroad commission, but the powers conferred Later in the history of railroads the demands for railroad upon it were pronounced unconstitutional. Texas leaves the regulation, and for protection against extortion and unjust dis- administration of state authority over railroads to an official crimination, arose in a great measure from commercial con- known as the state engineer. Vermont, since 1855, has had ditions for which the railroads were not responsible. Whenever her railroad commissioners, appointed every alternate year. the popular hostility to railroads assumed formidable propor- Virginia, since 1877, and Wisconsin, since 1874, have had an tions, and led to stringent regulation, the laws of trade ulti- official appointed for a term of two years, entrusted with some mately interfered and nullified these enactments as impractical supervisory power in regard to matters of transportation. and injurious, even where they were sustained by the highest The general tenor of events goes far to justify the statement legal tribunals. The history of railroad restrictive legislation that the advisory commissions have been most successful, comprehensively reviewed has been that of unpretentious be- and the only ones by which important results have been at- ginnings, yielding in many states to unreasonable requirements, tained. dictated by ignorant hostility, and which in turn proved de- All state railroad commissions in the United States have been, structive to the very interests which they sought to benefit, and to a greater or less extent, patterned upon the law of 1846, gradually gave way to more moderate and conservative legisla- establishing the railroad commission of England, and twenty- tion, which may still be said to be in an experimental state, and eight states now have legislation in some respects resembling which has, upon the whole, been the cause of about as much English law, as from time to time amended. The resemblance dissatisfaction as the abuses which it aimed to correct. to the English law is in no case very great, but it is generally As early as 1845 New Hampshire provided for the appoint- recognized that all the American legislation has been based ment of an official charged with the collection of information upon its general principles. respecting the railroads and the study of the general subject of Even in their earliest forms state railroad commissions varied the relations of the railroads to the state. By 1855 New York, widely, and those now in existence are as diverse as possible in Connecticut, and Vermont had taken similar action. In 1858 authority, aims, and functions. Following the example of Maine made the experimental appointment of a railroad com- Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Minne- mission, and in 1869 Massachusetts established a railroad com- sota, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Rhode Island, Ver- mission which proved permanent in form and is regarded as mont, Virginia, Wisconsin, and some other states have estab- the pioneer of successful state commissions, and the pattern of lished commissions of limited authority, and more or less that type of commission which depends for its power upon its advisory in their character, depending mainly for their powers influence with the legislature and upon public opinion. upon public opinion and the state legislatures, acting more or Taking the states in their alphabetical order, Alabama has a less as arbitrators between the people and the railroads, and as commission of three members appointed by the Governor for investigators and advisers aiming to point out desirable changes two-year terms which has been in existence since 1881. of management or methods, improvements or introduction of Arkansas confers part of the duties of a railroad commission new devices, and appealing to public opinion and the state upon her tax assessors. California, in 1880, instituted a board legislatures to sustain their decrees when the railroads did not of three commissioners elected for four-year terms. Colorado, voluntarily accept them. in 1885, provided for one commissioner of railroads appointed The commissions of this character have attained so much for a two-years term. Connecticut, in 1853, instituted what is success in some instances, and failed so completely in others, now a commission of three members, appointed by the Gov- as to demonstrate that the system is not in itself effective, but ernor for three-year terms, and paid by the railroads. Georgia, depends largely upon the men selected as commissioners, the in 1879, organized her commission of three members, appointed manner in which they perform their duties, the state of public by the Governor for six-year terms. Illinois, in 1871, started a feeling, the conditions encountered, &c. California, Georgia, commission of three members, appointed by the Governor for Tennessee, South Carolina, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Mis- a term of two years. Indiana entrusts her railroad matters souri, and other states have experimented with commissions mainly to her tax board. Iowa, in 1878, organized her com- upon which greater power and authority were conferred. In mission of three members, appointed by the Governor for three- California and Georgia the supervision has amounted almost year terms. This, like most of the present commissions in to state control, while in the other states regulation of rates states in which the granger movement achieved great in- and stringent restrictions of various kinds have been attempted. fluence, takes the place of more radical and despotic modes of Much less success has been attained than by the advisory com- railroad regulation which preceded it, and proved unsatisfactory missions, and in some instances complete failure has resulted, and injurious. Kansas, since 1883, has had a commission of and been followed by the abandonment of what was first at- three members, paid by the railroads. Maine has a commis- tempted, and the substitution of more reasonable provisions. sion of three members, appointed for a term of three years The efforts at railroad regulation by law prior to the war and paid by the railroads. Massachusetts, since 1869, has were scattered through several of the states, and were varied maintained her commission of three members, appointed by in character, but little authority was assumed in any case, and the Governor for three years and paid by the railroads. Michi- 80 little accomplished that these early efforts are scarcely en- gan, in 1873, originated the office of railroad commissioner, titled to consideration. The first commissions were entire appointed for a term of two years. Minnesota, in 1873, elected failures, and the Massachusetts commission, instituted in 1869, a board of three commissioners. Mississippi, in 1884, appointed is generally and justly regarded as the pioneer of the present a commission of three members, for a term of two years. Mis- widespread system of state commissions and boards. souri organized a commission of three members with six-year New England was earliest in the field in the effort to secure terms in 1875. Nebraska constitutes the principal state offi- by legislative enactment restrictive influence over railroad ope- cials, with a secretary from each congressional district, as a rations. Most of the New England states tried early experi- railroad commission. New Jersey entrusts such railroad regu- ments, but none except Massachusetts attained any measure lation as she attempts to the state board of assessors. New of success, and the other commissions have been recently Hampshire maintains her commissioner, elected for a term of reorganized, their functions and powers readjusted, and are two years, and compensated by the railroads. New York, after still in experimental stages. The Massachusetts commission an early and ludicrously unsuccessful experiment with a state holds a place in the front rank as in many respects the best commission, organized a new commission in 1883 with three and most successful of the state commissions, although it has members, appointed by the Governor. Ohio, since 1867, has committed grave errors, which have subsequently been frankly had a railroad commission appointed for two-year terms. acknowledged. The commission is by law given little actual In Pennsylvania the department of internal affairs discharges authority and power. Its functions are chiefly advisory. It some of the functions for which many other states have pro- investigates, considers, studies, and reports. It announces its vided special commissions. Rhode Island, since 1872, has had conclusions to the public, and submits its recommendations to Digitized by Google RAILWAY REGULATION BY LAW AND COMMISSIONS. 267 the legislature. Massachusetts had been fortunate, however, authority. The state constitution conferred power to regulate in securing as commissioners men who commanded the confi- railroad freight and passenger tariffs, to prevent unjust dis- dence of the community, and the respect of both the railroads criminations, to require reasonable and just rates, and to and those who make complaints against them. The character punish all violations by severe penalties. This authority was of the men, their sincere purpose to promote the interests of conferred upon the general assembly, and by it upon the com- all concerned, and the well-organized and established condi- mission. The commission appointed consisted, as required by tions existing in Massachusetts have afforded a much greater law, of three members, one experienced in the law and one in measure of success for the Massachusetts law and commission practical railroad business. The despotic power conferred upon than has been attained by similar efforts elsewhere. This this commission extended to every branch of railroad manage- commission has attained considerable success in the discharge ment, and the early reports of the commission express the ap- of its functions under the police power of the state, in com- prehension that the duty and responsibility imposed were so pelling repairs and improvements of bridges, road-bed, and onerous that they were fraught with serious difficulty and rolling stock; the adoption of precautions for the safety and danger: comfort of passengers, and perhaps even more prominently in The authority of this commission, as has been said, was to bringing about the adoption of uniform methods of keeping prevent extortion and unjust discrimination; to make and en- accounts. force reasonable rates, rules, and regulations; to revise all agree- These efforts have been imitated with varying degrees of suc- ments; to examine the condition and operation of the roads, cess by the commissioners of some other states. The Massa- and virtually to enforce all conditions which it deemed to be chusetts commission has, as a rule, been sustained by the legis- in the interest of the public as against improper requirements, lature, and that body has frequently declined to interfere in neglect, or unreasonable demands on the part of railroads. railroad matters otherwise than upon the recommendation of The commission, self-confessedly oppressed by its sense of re- the commission. The long- and short-haul clause, which has sponsibility and great power, began its work amid legal fights been enacted by several of the states, and ignored in nearly to enjoin. It at times attained a fair degree of popular accept- all of them, has been enforced in Massachusests more success- ance, but from the beginning the difficulties encountered were fully than in any other state. In regulating rebates and special so serious and the powers exercised 80 questionable that re- rates, preventing discriminations injurious to local traffic, and action was the natural consequence, and the commission was compelling discriminations based on quantity when they were eventually shorn of its power by the legislature, and there is deemed desirable, this commission has exercised considerable now a popular feeling of dissatisfaction with the consequences influence. of this artificial restriction. It was, however, the granger movement that brought railroad Following the example of Georgia, South Carolina and Ten- regulation prominently to attention as a subject for state legis- nessee have experimented with very stringent provisions, but tion. This movement served to bring the anti-corporation, South Carolina speedily became aware of the inexpediency of anti-monopoly, anti-railroad feeling into full force and promi what had been attempted, and repealed the most unreasonable nence, to voice all grievances, and to promote such hostility as features after one year's trial, while in Tennessee, after a pro- dictated severe and ill-considered restrictive legislation. Al- longed contest, the commission and the law under which it was though associated most directly with a group of states its in- established were declared to be in violation of the national and fluence spread everywhere and its effects were everywhere state constitutions, and were virtually abolished. The effects of more or less felt. The history of this movement is elsewhere the Tennessee experiment had been so clearly prejudicial that traced. It excited in many states a feeling of hostility based little regret was felt at its overthrow. upon conditions for which the railroads were only partially Alabama has pursued a more conservative course, but even responsible, and prompted ill judged efforts at railroad control in that state long and bitter contests have ensued in which by legislative enactment, fostering a disposition to regard all public opinion has been divided, and considerable disturbance organized capital as a public enemy and railroads as public of business has been occasioned. In recent arguments before oppressors. the legislature it has been alleged that the policy pursued by As early as 1870 Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wis- the state in railroad legislation has been equivalent to building consin commenced to respond with stringent legislation, culmi- a Chinese wall around the state and injuriously affecting every nating in the so-called Potter law, and aiming by various pro- interest; that the law aimed mainly at imaginary evils, opened visions to curtail railroad earnings, regulate charges, and the door for every form of black-mailing at the expense of the obviate causes of grievance and complaint. Whenever the railroads, led to unnecessary litigation, interfered with busi- granger movement became potent in power the restrictive and ness and discouraged the operations of trunk lines, which were regulatory legislation became unreasonably and disastrously necessary to the welfare of the state. The commissioners have, severe and stringent, and after a long and bitter contest, con- however, been men of considerable force, and have maintained tinuing for years, these enactments gradually reacted upon the support of the people in some fierce struggles with the their authors, proved their lack of merit or wisdom, and were railroads. undone in obedience to the commercial laws which they had Many of the leading southern journals have protested vigor- defied. The more radical features of the granger laws and ously against the evils and errors of southern state railroad much that was attempted by the commissioners created under regulation, and in some instances the reaction has been strong them proved impracticable. enough to bring about radical modifications. Representative Throughout the south motives and grievances more or less southern men have protested that stringent and unreasonable similar to those underlying the granger movement led to the railroad restriction deprived the south in many ways of sources formation of commissions and enactment of laws which in of prosperity to which it was naturally entitled, and which it many cases confer great power and embrace stringent pro- would have enjoyed under conditions natural and unrestrained. visions. In some instances a measure of success has been at- While it is often claimed that the southern commissions have tained in the south by commissions based upon principles attained the greatest degree of success, the study of their his- which proved unsatisfactory and injurious in the north and tory cannot fail to show that they have done much harm and west. provoked much popular opposition. In Texas the protest The conditions encountered differ in many important re- against injurious railroad legislation has recently been very spects, and the south has profited comparatively little from emphatic, and quite generally throughout the south a similar the experience of other states, and has experimented for her- tendency was developed. self in the matter of railroad regulation by law, at great cost in On the Pacific coast unreasoning anti-monopoly agitation many instances, to the welfare of her people, but with greater exercised perhaps the greatest influence on railroad legislation, success perhaps, in the main, than has been secured by the and in the state of California the highest pitch of railroad legislation of other groups of states. labor, anti-Chinese, anti-corporation, and anti-r The Georgia commission, perhaps, went to a greater extreme citement dictated я state constitution which in i' than any other in regulating rates, controlling the details of features was unique in its extravagance, its railroad management, and exercising far-reaching and despotic property rights and fundamental princir Digitized by Google 268 RAILWAY REGULATION BY LAW AND COMMISSIONS. of common justice, and all the demands of trade. The consti- While not blind to the evils existing in the railroad system, tution conferred the right to appoint a commission clothed the commissioner declared that they are largely incidental, and with the most despotic powers, and by legislative enactment beyond legal remedy, many of them more theoretical than this commission was given complete control of all railroads in practical, and in the future more than in the present. the state, authority to prohibit discriminations of all kinds, to The legislature of Michigan in 1883-84 gave much considera- prevent pooling and the increase of rates which had once been tion to measures for the regulation of the railroads of that state. reduced for purposes of competition, and the specific regula- The legislature, like the Governor and state officials, had been tion of all rates and charges. The provisions of law and the elected on an anti-railroad platform. The railroad commis- decrees of the commission were such as to bankrupt the rail- sioner at that time, after a thorough investigation, not presum- roads if they had been accepted, and as a consequence they ably friendly to the railroads, made a report strongly favoring were defied. The commission soon came to be regarded as a conservative action, declaring that state legislation in railroad failure, and little of the work for which it was appointed was matters frequently aimed at Impossible results; that the pro- carried out. The state constitution provided that the state vision for the regulation of rates, and interference with railroad should not be a stockholder of any corporation; the stock- business generally, was of very questionable value or expedi- holders were made individually responsible for debts and lia- ency. The conditions were such that it was, in his opinion, bilities, and trustees and directors were individually liable for not at all certain that the interests of the public and the cor- all moneys misappropriated or embezzled during their terms porations would not be best promoted by leaving the great of office; corporations were forbidden to engage in any other principle of supply and demand to regulate the price of rail- business than that named in their charters, and stock-watering road transportation, the same as it does the commodities car- was stringently prohibited; the railroad companies were com- ried. If left to regulate itself, as does the question of rates on pelled to keep their books open for inspection; railroad em- the high seas, only restricted to such reasonable limitations as ployés were prohibited from having any interest in furnishing the legislature had obvious authority to impose, and could supplies to the company by which they were employed; rail- safely provide, he had no doubt that the railroad tariffs would roads which lowered their rates were prohibited from raising soon become as nearly uniform, and rates as low throughout them; pro rata equal mileage rates were exacted; free passes or the country, as the cost of bridging and building, coupled with special rates were prohibited, and discriminations of all kinds the amount of tonnage to be carried, would justify, commensu- declared illegal; to the commission was intrusted the power to rate with a fair return upon the capital invested in the roads. establish freight and passenger rates, to examine books, to Under the comparatively unrestricted system existing in that hear and determine complaints, to prescribe a uniform system state, he had found little or no dissatisfaction with the situa- of accounts, and for the violation of the provisions of this regu- tion, not a single complaint of discrimination having reached latory legislation fines of $20,000 for each offence were pro- his office. The Michigan commissioner has accomplished vided, with fines of not less than $5,000 or imprisonment for more than the commissions of many other states in securing officials offending. In addition to all this, provision was made improvements in the physical condition of the railroads, ad- for heavy damage for individual grievance, and the legislature vising and virtually compelling the improvement of road-bed was given general power to increase the stringency of anti-rail- and mechanical appliances in the interest of safety and the road legislation as it might deem necessary. comfort of passengers. The California commission, with its despotic and compre- A report upon the operations of the Kansas law says that hensive powers, was so entirely unsuccessful as to afford a an act for the regulation of railroads in that state, providing striking example and warning for all time to come. that the maximum rate for the transportation of passengers The Colorado commission was established in consequence of should be three cents per mile, and for the regulation of freight complaints of alleged abuses by the Union Pacific Railroad, charges, has led to experiments which have done much to but, as was the case in the western states, the bounds of show how closely allied are the interests of the state with the prudence and wise regulation were overstepped, the great laws interests of her railroads, and how greatly it is to the interest of trade were disregarded, and popular sentiment declared the of the state that her railroads should have freedom in their legislation and the assumed regulation to be detrimental to the commercial operations. widespread public interests dependent upon the prosperity and Illinois, after many experiments, finally attained more than extension of the railroad system. the average degree of success with a commission to which con- In Iowa different conditions have been encountered, and a siderable powers are intrusted. Many alleged abuses have been very fair degree of success attained by the commission ap- corrected, and, after a series of contests, the recent reports of pointed in 1878, to succeed one of the most stringent and most the commission declare that little difficulty is now encountered, signally unsuccessful commissions which grew out of the and that the decisions are quite generally and readily accepted. granger agitation. The commission has comparatively slight Before the Senate investigating committee on interstate com- powers, which have, as a rule, been wisely and beneficially merce in 1885, Henry V. Poor said that in the matter of ac- exercised. quiring and distributing information concerning the operations Governor Geer, in commending the new commission as a of railroads, state boards of railroad commissioners were doing useful and efficient one, took occasion to say that the previous a great deal of excellent work, but their powers are to a great board and the legislation under which it acted checked the extent, or should be, advisory. They are not, nor should they development of the railroad system of the state, and injured be, legal tribunals. Nearly all the states have or are instituting the material interests and welfare of the commonwealth by its commissions. All the states should have such boards working stringent, arbitrary, and oppressive character. Iowa suffered harmoniously and prudently to the same end. Rapid progress severely for her experiment with granger railroad law. in prosperity and judicious railroad regulation would be the Wisconsin paralleled the worst features of the Iowa law, and result, and one state would benefit by the experience of was disturbed for some years by bitter legal contests between another, and all communities and all interests would learn the railroads and the people, and by much obstruction of trade that what was best for one would be best for all. and interference with the industries and interests of the state. Of late the belief that state commissions are of real value Minnesota revived promptly and prosperously after the first and importance appears to have become more general. granger movement had reigned and fallen, and substituted for The Massachusetts commissioners, in response to a call of its unwise code a simpler and more just system of railroad the New York Chamber of Commerce, in or about 1881, vigor- regulation, but subsequently passed a law containing many ously defended the usefulness and importance of state com- obnoxious features. missions, the principles underlying them, and the work which Ex-Governor Marshall, as railroad commissioner of Minne- they could accomplish. The commission maintained that sota, a few years ago declared in defence of his own cause, that there was no doubt that railroads should be compelled to treat the provisions then in force were a total abandonment of all all shippers with equality under like circumstances; that local the principles of the granger movement; that they authorized and personal discriminations should be prevented by state laws no attempt to fix rates, no provision for the institution of suits under heavy penalties, and that such laws were best enforced in the name of the state, and no imposition of heavy fines. when a railroad commission existed in each state to investigate Digitized by Google RAILWAY REGULATION BY LAW AND COMMISSIONS. 269 charges of discrimination, bring public opinion to bear upon sions have been to some extent attained by the organization of offending corporations and institute prosecutions in the courts. the interstate-commerce commission, authorized by an act of It was not consistent with the public welfare or rights of citi- Congress, which represents the first important effort to regu- zens to allow railroad managers to decide what persons should late all railway operations that extend from one state into be favored and what places developed by discriminating rates. another state by the Federal or National government. Legislatures never intended to place such enormous power in the hands of corporations. It might be doubted whether legis- NEW METHOD OF ORGANIZING RAILWAY COMMISSIONS. latures had constitutional authority to delegate such power. A proposed new method of organizing railway commissions The commission did not believe that a fixed limit could be is represented by a bill introduced in the British Parliament in placed in advance in the charges of railroads, the rule which 1887, which contemplates an alliance with the judicial authori- would be right in one case doing injustice in another. ties in such a manner that the commission proper can practi- A review of all state legislation growing out of the granger cally do nothing of importance without the approval of a judge movement shows that in every instance the efforts to regulate of high standing. On the other hand, all the judges of the railroad business were overdone, that the legislatures were in- country can occasionally be pressed into temporary service as competent for the work attempted, and that entire communities adjuncts of the commission, when questions arise in their re- suffered for the evil inflicted upon the railroads. Throughout spective districts. the west and north-west it may be said that more evil than The permanent commission is to consist of two appointed good has been done by the reckless and injudicious attempts commissioners, one of whom is to be experienced in railway at railroad regulation by law, and in almost every state business, and a third ex officio judicial commissioner, who is to this has been so fully acknowledged that the early experi- be, in England, the Lord Chancellor, in Scotland, the Lord ments have been abandoned and more conservative principles President of the Court of Sessions, and in Ireland, the Lord adopted in their place. Wherever, as in California, the au- Chancellor of Ireland. Neither of these ex officio commis- thority conferred upon the commissioners has been in response sioners is to be required to attend proceedings in any part of to an extravagant anti-ruilroad sentiment, and has gone to un- the United Kingdom except that for which he is nominated, reasonable length, it has been nullified either by shrewd as stated above. They are also empowered to transact the evasion or bold defiance on the part of the railroads, or by duties that will devolve upon them, either by personal attend- popular consent. Throughout, the plaintive cry has gone up ance or through such judges as they may deputize, and the that the tendency of much of the railroad legislation was to latter course will presumably be frequently pursued if the bill restrict and discourage where encouragement was needed, and becomes a law. that a vast proportion of what was attempted with the avowed The clause relating to this subject says: "For the purpose of purpose of protecting the rights of shippers against railroads the attendance of the ex officio commissioners, regulations shall was in fact injurious to the interests of shippers and the com- be made from time to time by the Lord Chancellor, the Lord munities in which they lived. President of the Court of Sessions, and the Lord Chancellor of Some idea of the uncertain conditions which railroads have Ireland, respectively, in communication with the ex officio com- been obliged to accept may be obtained from a review of the missioners for England, Scotland, or Ireland, as the case may enactments in various states during any month or week of be, as to the arrangements for securing their attendance, as to recent years when a considerable number of state legislatures the times and place of sitting in each case, and otherwise for were in session. It has not been unusual that during a single the convenient and speedy hearing thereof. Such regulations week a dozen or a score of states adopted some new law, or may provide for the attendance at any case of any other judge, some important modification of existing laws affecting railroad either at the assizes or otherwise, where it may be convenient matters. to the parties that the case should be 80 heard, or where the In 1885, at Springfield, Illinois, an important step was taken ex officio judge is unable to sit and hear the same, or there is no in the history of state railroad commissions in the first efforts ex officio judge for the time being assigned, and such judge shall to organize a national convention of railroad state commis- for the purpose of such case be an ex officio commissioner." sioners. Prompted by a provision of the Alabama statute di- In regard to the relative position of the appointed commis- recting the commission of that state to consult with other sioners and their judicial coadjutors the bill says "not less than states, efforts were made through this means to harmonize three commissioners shall attend at the hearing of any case, state legislation, and to secure a mutual interchange of views and the ex officio commissioner shall preside, and his opinion at annual conventions. It cannot be said that very much was upon any question of law shall prevail." accomplished by these national conferences, as issues of state This form of organization apparently places the commission rights and wide differences of opinion on almost all subjects entirely under the control of the existing judges in matters interfered with harmonious action. It was, however, demon- relating to interpretations of the law or the bearing of enact- strated in several instances that the opinion of a majority of ments upon such cases as are presented. the delegates was that stringent, arbitrary, and specific pro- In view of the frequency with which legal questions of great visions of law governing rates and railroad management were importance arise in connection with the controversies in which inexpedient and inefficient. This national organization made railways are involved, and the probability of appeals from a considerable effort to harmonize the methods of railroad regu- commission to the courts when commissioners make rulings lation in the various states, but conceded that such efforts as which are considered illegal, the plan posseses advantages that were being made often led to confusion, and were not infre- are worthy of consideration in connection with any attempt quently accompanied by injurious effects. During 1887 the that may be made to reorganize any of the numerous railway objects aimed at by this national organization of state commis- commissions of the United States. Digitized by Google 270 FALSE PRINCIPLES OF RAILWAY LEGISLATION. FALSE PRINCIPLES OF RAILWAY LEGISLATION. A NUMBER of the failures of legislative efforts to regulate taxation. But it is scarely correct to say that the sum charged railway operations are due to the fact that they were by boatmen for their services and the use of their boats, in based on false principles. One of the most mischievous is the conveying grain from Buffalo to New York is a tax, and it is assumption that all charges for transportation are in the na- scarcely to be expected that any national or state legislators ture of a tax, which it is the duty of legislators or railway com- would base interference with, or regulation of, the charges missioners to reduce to the lowest attainable limit, for the made by farmers for hauling freight over common roads from purpose of promoting the prosperity of all classes not closely one point to another, on the ground that their bills for such identified with railway companies as employés or as investors labors were substantially taxation. In brief, some portions or in their securities. This theory practically places transporta- items of some transportation charges may, with a certain tion agencies in an attitude of actual or relative antagonism to degree of propriety, be called taxes, but such a phrase is not the main body of the people. One of the clearest statements justly applicable to any of the railway movements, except, in of it ever made is embraced in the following extract from the a small degree, to those made upon the comparatively few second annual report (1871) of the board of railway commis- existing lines that have been materially aided, financially, by sioners of Massachusetts: "The commissioners base their in- state appropriations or by Federal land grants and money vestigations and all their economical conclusions on this prin- subsidies. In a broad sense, and speaking of the principal ciple: All sums exacted from the community for transportation, portions of the railway system now existing, it differs radically whether of persons or of property, constitute an exaction in the from preceding methods of transportation in the fact that no nature of a tax, just as much a tax as water rates, or the assess- important part of the charges imposed by it partake of the ments on property, or the tariff duties on imports. That it is nature of taxation. It is an essential element of a tax that it wholly, or in fact, a necessary tax, one which can at most only should be a rate or sum of money assessed on the person or be reduced to a certain point, but never abolished, this, in no property of the citizen by a government for public use. If the degree, affects the principle. It is still a tax, adding in itself word is used in any other sense it can be applied to any expend- nothing to the intrinsic character of property, nor affecting the iture with quite as much propriety as to freight charges, and condition of persons, but simply moving the one or the other when such a latitudinarian meaning is adopted the phrase from point to point. The reduction of this tax to the lowest ceases to have an offensive application, or to possess. any possible amount paid for the greatest possible service rendered, special pertinency whatever in connection with the discussion always observing, of course, the precepts of good faith and the of railroad questions. conditions of a sound railroad system, this must be the great RAILWAYS AS PRODUCERS. object the commissioners always retain in view." This frank and forcible avowal of one of the most intelligent In view of some of the theories advocated, and the attempts of the state commissions, after the commencement of their made from time to time to produce the impression that labors, presumably explains the leading motive or principle of railways necessarily occupy a position antagonistic, in its in- action which animated sundry other railway commissioners or herent characteristics, to that of the general public, it is de- legislative bodies in their attempts to discharge duties analo- sirable that their position as producers should be fully under- gous to those assumed by the Massachusetts commission. The stood. Little or none of the debateable legislation proposed real nature of transportation labors, therefore, appears to pos- or perfected aimed at affecting them simply in their position sess sufficient importance, in connection with the controversies as owners of lines over which freight is forwarded. The ob- that have arisen, to justify a brief reference to this subject. No jective point was usually railways in their joint or double func- fact in modern industrial history is more evident or better tion, as the owners or controllers of such lines, who were en- established than that American railways have effected enor- gaged in the business of common carriers. To prove that the mous reductions in freight charges since 1871, and most of standard railway labors are essentially productive, and not these reductions have arisen from other causes than legislative mere tax-gathering, it is only necessary to present the views of regulations, but if it is true that such charges are of the nature some of the leading authors on political economy on that of a tax, there would be reasons for governmental efforts to subject:- enforce restrictions, which do not exist if the views stated John Stuart Mill, the greatest of modern English political below are correct. economists, in defining production, states that its requisites are "labor and appropriate natural objects;" that labor in the phy- RAILWAYS NOT TAX GATHERERS. sical world "js always and solely employed in putting objects It is a common thing for advocates of repressive laws to in motion; the properties of matter, the laws of nature do the denounce railways as tax gatherers, and to speak of all charges rest. This one operation of putting things into fit for transportation as taxes. It is generally popular and often places, and being acted upon by their own internal forces and just and wise to reduce taxation. Governments tax but they by those residing in other natural objects is all that man can do do not produce. The working forces of a country produce but with matter. He only moves one thing to or from another. they do not tax. A confusion of ideas and expressions has He moves a seed into the ground and the natural forces of sprung up in regard to the proper classification of transporta- vegetation produce in succession a root, a stem, leaves, flowers, tion charges, which has partly arisen from the fact that under and fruit." Mr. Mill shows, by a number of illustrations, that old systems a considerable portion of the cost of freight move- transportation, of one kind or another, lies at the root of all produc- ments was defrayed by taxation, and might, therefore, with tion; and if you take away from men's labors that portion which propriety be termed a tax. When township, county, or state consists in the movement of various inanimate objects from one authorities open a road, and provide the cost of construction point to another, there would be absolutely nothing productive left. and maintenance by levying a tax upon the inhabitants of the In a specific enumeration of the various classes of agents district benefited, the part of the transportation charges over engaged in production, Mr. Mill distinctly enumerates trans- such a road which is represented by the benefits derived from porters in the following extract:- its use, may be considered a tax. The part of the actual cost "There is a very great amount of labor employed, not in of transportation over the New York canals, which is repre- bringing the product into existence, but in rendering it, when sented by the interest on the sum required to construct them in existence, accessible to those for whose use it is intended. and the charges for keeping them in repair, being defrayed by Many important classes of laborers find their sole employment the main body of the people of that state, may be considered in some function of this kind. There is, first, the whole class Digitized by Google FALSE PRINCIPLES OF RAILWAY LEGISLATION. 271 of carriers, by land or water, muleteers, wagoners, bargemen, after the preliminary movements in the mine, f.eld, or factory sailors, wharfmen, coal heavers, porters, railway establishmenta, are completed, it is just as much a part of the process of pro- and the like. Next, there are the constructors of all the im- duction to convey the finished fabric to the point of consump- plements of transport, ships, barges, carts, locomotives, &c., to tion as it was to move ore to the furnace, or pig iron to which must be added roads, canals, and railways." the mill, or grain from the harvest field to the barn. Few American authors on political economy, although differing or none will deny that all the freight movements which widely on many topics from the English writers, substantially precede the completion of a finished article are part of the agree with Mr. Mill in reference to the point under discussion. cost of its production, but it is not 80 generally understood that Dr. William Elder, in Questions of the Day, Economic and the cost of conveyance to the point of consumption is also Social, published in 1871, says: "Change of form, including a part of the cost of production, 80 far as the trade at that par- change of properties and change of place, are both included in ticular point is concerned. the word production. Ore or coal or lime delivered at the pit's The manufacturer of New England who wishes to compete mouth are produced. The ore and coal and lime being put with a rival establishment located at Chicago or St. Louis must through the furnace, iron, by change of form, is produced. see that his western customer does not suffer by a continuance The iron transported to a distant market is there, by change of of his old trade connections. The farmer living west of the place, produced. By the change of form utility is subserved. Mississippi who wishes to sell his corn, wheat, pork, or live By the change of place use is effected." stock in England must make it the interest of the English Henry C. Carey, in his work on the principles of political consumer to buy his products. If his business consists mainly economy, published in 1837, also enunciates doctrines which in raising produce for a foreign market, and one of the greatest distinctly rank transporters as producers. After saying that obstacles to be surmounted is the transportation overland for a "to produce may, therefore, be defined to be to occasion an distance of a thousand miles, the railway lines that perform alteration in the condition of existing particles of matter, by this portion of the requisite labor, are practically and theoreti- which that matter may be rendered more useful or agreeable cally fellow-producers. The idea is fallacious that the farmer than in its present state," he proceeds to illustrate this doctrine and the railway company stand on a radically different footing by showing who can be classed as producers of tea grown in in reference to the nature of their avocations, and that this the interior of China, and subsequently consumed in New York difference is 80 vital that governments should arbitrarily pre- or Liverpool, and he classes among these producers "the per- scribe the share of compensation which each of the parties sons employed in its transportation," and "the master and concerned in the enterprise of raising and delivering produce sailors of the vessel by which it is transported" from the place in a distant market should receive. The laws of trade are where it is grown to the place where it is consumed. better regulators of such affairs than legislative bodies or gov- The direct influence exercised by railways in stimulating pro- ernment officials. Railway companies are not only manufac- duction, and in rendering available natural resources of im- turers of transportation who are compelled to employ very mense magnitude, is particularly noticeable in the United expensive and complicated aids and agencies, but they are also States. A large proportion of the agricultural and min- joint producers with all the farmers, planters, miners, lumber- ing districts of this country owe their existence as im- men, and manufacturers who need their services in reaching portant centres of production to the extension of railways. distant markets. The land-grant railways have hastened the occupation and cultivation of new lands, and there are to-day millions of citi- FREEDOM OF CONTRACT AND LAWS OF TRADE. zens living on homesteads in young territories and states who Other principles sometimes violated in attempts at railway would never have sought their present locations, and never regulation, to an extent scarcely warranted, relate to the range developed the latent resources of the soil they are now tilling, which should be left for all citizens who risk their money in if railways had not established the convenient existing systems useful but perilous enterprises for the freedom to make such of transportation. This process is continually progressing in business arrangements as may from time to time be found ad- conjunction with the analogous movement of steadily reducing vantageous or absolutely necessary for the successful manage- the average rates for moving freight per ton per mile, as traffic ment of their affairs. The restrictions placed upon all com- accumulates and terminal facitities are improved, and each of mon carriers by common-law requirements constantly exercise these advancing strides has an immense influence in enlarging a restraining power of varying significance. The pivotal points the effectiveness of the railways as one of the greatest of the co- of many disputes hinge on the extent to which the efficiency workers in production. of the common-law requirements shall be increased by new The vast movement of agricultural produce from interior enactments, and sometimes measures are proposed which would portions of this country to the seaboard, and thence to foreign abolish all remaining vestiges of freedom of contract, and doom countries, could never have assumed its present proportions companies to hopeless bankruptcy, in view of the exigencies to without railway assistance, and in the absence of the opportu- which they are subjected by inexorable laws of trade. A con- nities for obtaining foreign markets which railway extensions siderable degree of freedom is necessary to secure the best re- have furnished, the most powerful of the incentives to a large sults. If the national and local statesmen of this country had proportion of the productive agricultural energy of the United undertaken, at all stages of transportation development, to States would not now exist. apply such rigid regulations as are frequently proposed, to the In connection with the bulky metals and minerals, trans- schemes that have materialized, or if they had used the powers portation forms as indispensable an agent of production as in of the nation and the respective states to create all the exten- the movement of agricultural staples over the long distances sive systems that were to be tolerated, it can scarcely be con- which usually intervene between the point of growth and the tended that the net results would have been as satisfactory as point of consumption. those which were actually attained. The probabilities point Throughout the whole range of its labors as a freight carrier strongly in the opposite direction, and if the outcome of govern- the true position of the railway is that of a prominent factor in mental efforts to plan and execute afford a fair indication of what the great work of production. Whatever theories may prevail would have occurred if they had monopolized all such under- on the subject, this fact is always recognized when a railway is takings, the existing state of things would be deplorable. The projected, and it is only forgotten or ignored when disputes manacled man may not become a thief or a murderer, but it spring up between various classes of producers relating to their will be impossible for him to attain the highest possible degree respective shares of the sum derived from the consumer. of usefulness as a citizen. The plea for a reasonable degree Some acrimonious controversies would be wholly avoided if of freedom was forcibly expressed in the following extract from the fundamental truth was recognized that all producers views announced by Judge Cooley, head of interstate-commerce are transporters and all transporters are producers. There is commission in 1887, a few years before he received that ap- no act or form of production effected or superintended by pointment:- human agencies which does not consist in placing elementary "The railroad ought to be considered, and ought to be made, bodies in new relations by moving them from one point to the convenient and accommodating servant of the public, ex- another, and subjecting them to diverse manipulations; and isting to do its will; but the public will that is to be served Digitized by Google 272 RAILWAY CONFEDERATIONS OR POOLING ARRANGEMENTS. ought to be a just and reasonable will, and should demand able governmental advances have been made for the purpose nothing which the owners of railroad lines had no reason to antici- of either constructing to the point of completion some classes pate when they invested their money in this species of property, and of useful works or of affording useful aid to works undertaken which they cannot, therefore, be said to have bargained for. To by private companies. Many intricate questions relating to deny the railroads reasonable compensation, to cripple and the best methods of attaining desirable results in transporta- hamper them by needless and veratious legislation, to load them tion matters have been practically solved by an approximate down with unreasonable burdens, will appear as impolitic from degree of uniformity in the outcome of extensive tests in the the standpoint of public interest as it would be for an employer stern school of experience. Much has been learned of the to put his servant on short allowance, or to compel him to carry general drift of affairs when governments undertake to con- weight at his labor." struct canals, or to build and operate railways on their own LOGIC OF TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT. account, or when the United States, any of the common- It is obvious that the extensive experience furnished by the wealths, or cities, counties, or towns, became supporters of rapid advance of many sections of the country from the lowest company projects. to the highest stages of transportation development should A variety of conflicting policies or systems of regulation have furnished instructive indications of the nature of the have been applied to the operations of transporting com- legislative methods that have either advanced or retarded the panies. Any one who aspires to the honor of becoming a improvements which are indispensable and vital elements of leader in directing legislation on such subjects might pre- progression. One of the lessons is that the main portion of sumably learn useful lessons from familiarity with the diverse the country has obtained its principal improvements chiefly results hitherto attained; and such information ought to through corporate efforts, or in other words, that it is by the furnish one of the most important general guides to those labors of turnpike, bridge, canal, railway, and steamboat or who are in doubt about the best course to be pursued in steamship companies, rather than by labors of governments or such new emergencies or exigencies as may arise. It would single individuals, that the bulk of the forward movements certainly be better and more creditable to all concerned if the have been made. At the same time legislation of one kind or people could be assured of decisions based on such knowledge, another has been a necessary preliminary or adjunct of all than if the legislative enactments relating to such subjects corporate movements, and in a number of instances consider- were the offspring of chance or articles of merchandise. RAILWAY CONFEDERATIONS OR POOLING ARRANGEMENTS. IT was obviously impossible for state legislatures to establish mous consent of the members was necessary to secure a bind- regulations of considerable significance applicable to ing decision. railway movements extending from one commonwealth to In other countries difficulties similar in character, but infi- another, on account of a lack of legal authority to interfere nitely less intricate than those prevailing here, have been materially with interstate commerce. Yet it has always been practically solved by the simple process of making such com- extensive movements, such as those which represent the for- pacts of competing lines or confederations of rival railway warding of freight from the Mississippi valley to the Atlantic companies as are fully approved by competent authority en- seaboard, which stood in special need of restraints upon reck- forcible in the courts. Corresponding action here would proba- less competition. As Congress never acted on this subject bly furnish a remedy for a large proportion of the troubles before it passed the interstate law of 1887, providing for the developed in the United States, and perhaps for all that are appointment of a commission, and prescribing sundry rules, preventible by laws or other means now known. Yet this is some of which are of a kind "more honored in the breach precisely the one thing which is never seriously advocated in than in the observance," it was formerly impossible to do any- Congress, and the clause of the interstate-commerce act of 1887 thing of considerable significance unless it was done by the which forbids money pools took strong ground in the opposite voluntary action of companies engaged in competitive traffic. direction by materially increasing the obstacles to effective They commenced this gigantic undertaking on a compre- voluntary action on the part of the companies that have en- hensive scale at an early stage of the eighth decade, and con- deavored to form confederations. tinued their efforts, under numerous disadvantages and dis- In general terms it may be said that nearly all classes of couragements, one of the most serious of which was the lack traffic for which a considerable number of railway companies of legal methods for enforcing agreements made from time to have actively competed, have been pooled, and are now (1887) time, to an extent that renders their associated labors one of pooled, under various systems, which have been attended with the most important features of modern American railway varying degrees of success, and subjected, from time to time history. to interruptions or interregnums of short or long duration and It is universally conceded that something should be done to to violations of compacts which meant much or little. The regulate interstate commerce. The states cannot act effect- only law of American railroading continuously applicable to ually. Congress before 1887 did not act at all, and then passed competitive traffic is a law which was not entirely satisfactory to advocates of any THE LAW OF COMPETITION. system or representatives of any interest, and the efforts to do for themselves and the communities they serve what should It is always in force, always actively influencing the action presumably be done represent a strange intermingling of fail- of numerous companies, whether pooling arrangements are ures and successes, chiefly because the unanimous and con- ostensibly adhered to or openly disregarded. It is a great mis- tinuous consent of all companies participating in a given class take to suppose that effective pooling destroys or prevents of competitive traffic is necessary to secure the complete effi- competition. In sundry ways competition may be exception- ciency of any confederation that may be formed or any pool- ally active during periods when compacts are apparently ad- ing arrangements that may be devised. All voluntary railway hered to with an unusual degree of fidelity. No company associations, which are not legally authorized and sustained by knows how long an agreement may be effective, and all rival explicit lawful methods for enforcing such agreements as they lines endeavor to establish the best practical safeguards against make from time to time, necessarily labor under disadvantages a renewal of energetic strifes, and to create a favorable record similar to those which rendered the Polish diet one of the most in the matter of amount of business transacted, which can be unfortunate of parliamentary tribunals, inasmuch as the unani- advantageously used in controversies relating to the apportion- Digitized by Google i 1. Digitized Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONFEDERATIONS OR POOLING ARRANGEMENTS. 273 ment of traffic which are of comparatively frequent occur- Per cent rence. It may be considered a demonstrated fact that con- Philadelphia and Reading 28.625 federations cannot prevent or destroy competition, and that Lehigh Valley 19.750 Central of New Jersey 12.905 their principal effect is to subject it to some sort of restraint or Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 12.750 regulation. Delaware and Hudson 12.480 This will be apparent to all who give due heed to the prin- Pennsylvania 7.625 ciple or theory on which all important pooling arrangements Pennsylvania Coal Company 5,865 relating to the division of traffic have been based. A number of 100.000 lines use every possible effort to secure the largest attainable share of the competitive traffic originating at or between given This arrangement continued in force until December 31st, points. After a succession of struggles, extending over a series 1878, when a disruption occurred, mainly in consequence of a of years, the percentage obtainable by each line is approxi- refusal of one of the companies to accept terms agreed upon mately ascertained. The most vital feature of the pool is an by the other companies. agreement that prescribed rates shall be maintained by all the During most of the years from 1878 to 1887 similar compacts companics, that each shall be allowed to obtain or transact an were in force, to a certain extent, but they were scarcely ever amount of business corresponding as closely as possible with fully effective, although they did much to check excessive pro- the allotted percentage, and that if any company obtains more duction, partly on account of a refusal of one of the companies than its allotted percentage the profits derived from such ex- concerned, the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, to enter into cess shall be paid over to the company or companies that have a combination which had for its object the restriction of the failed to obtain an amount of business corresponding with their production of coal, and partly on account of various dissen- allotment. The end constantly kept in view was to take from sions and legal hostilities. all the companies concerned, as far as possible, all incentives THE EVENER SYSTEM, APPLIED TO LIVE STOCK AND PETROLEUM. to rate cutting, by putting in force a system under which no As was to be expected, one of the first experiments made in company could increase its profits during a given period by in- connection with the pooling of freight which railway compa- creasing, beyond its allotment, the amount of its competitive nies did not produce, was decidedly unsatisfactory in some of business originating at the point or points to which the pool its workings to sundry interests, encountered severe criticisms, related, and no company could lose net revenue by failure to and perhaps elicited the bitterest attacks that have ever been obtain a percentage of the total business equivalent to its made upon American railways. This method was popularly allotment. known as the evener system, and it was applied principally to The pivotal point of such arrangements necessarily was the live stock and petroleum traffic. The "cattle eveners pool" allotment of percentages, and as they were avowedly subject to was organized in 1875, for the purpose of terminating a pro- change from time to time, whenever any company could fur- tracted contest between trunk lines and connections extending nish satisfactory evidence of its ability to obtain, in a desperate from Chicago to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Balti- and mutually injurious conflict, a larger amount of business more, which had frequently led to the transportation of live than had been awarded to it, an incentive to active competi- stock at rates far below the actual cost of such movements. tive exertions was always furnished by this fact, even during The plan adopted consisted first, in an agreement between the eras of the closest adherence to the letter and spirit of pooling rival companies in regard to a division of the traffic, or the arrangements. When there was nothing to compete for, rank percentage of the total amount of business which each com- in the matter of claim to a share of business awarded at the pany should transact. The next step, according to one ac- next allotment invariably supplied an incentive to earnest count, was entering into "an arrangement with an association struggles. The idea has been widely disseminated that pooling of certain of the principal shippers, who agreed to direct their necessarily annihilated competition, but it is too deeply inter- shipments in such manner as to insure to each company its woven with the entire framework of the American railroad allotted share of the traffic, or, in other words, to keep the system to be extinguished either by confederations or anything number of cattle shipped over each particular road embraced short of such absolute identity of interests as is produced by in the pool even with, or equal to, the percentage agreed upon permanent or protracted consolidations. as the share of that road. These shippers were, therefore, Various methods have been tried for the purpose of accom- known as 'eveners.' In consideration of the services per- plishing the leading object of pools, which are to enable the formed by the eveners, they were allowed a rebate not only companies transacting the business leading to or from given upon shipments made by themselves, but also upon all cattle points under conditions that will enable them to extract a shipped by other parties to other places east of Chicago. This profit from such business, instead of continuing to conduct it arrangement gave them a great advantage over all other at rates which entail a loss. shippers, and thus tended to create a monopoly of the busi- THE ANTHRACITE COAL COMBINATION. ness. The scheme met with strenuous and determined opposi- tion, and it was abandoned by the railroad companies in the The first important combination was formed by the lines spring of 1879," since which period live stock has been trans- engaged in the transportation of anthracite coal. It differed ported under regulations similar to those pertaining to other materially from all others in the fact that a leading object in classes of traffic. view was to maintain a remunerative price for that important The evener system was also adopted in connection with the product, mainly by an agreement intended to restrict the out- transportation of petroleum from the producing regions in put, and to divide between the carriers, which were at the Pennsylvania to seaboard and other points at which consider- same time deeply interested in mining operations, the total able quantities of petroleum were refined, for several years amount of competitive traffic in accordance with agreed per- before the extensive pipe lines were constructed through which centages. the bulk of the crude petroleum is now forwarded to distant The first compact was formed as a protection against ruinous refining points. The Standard Oil Company acted as evener competition. It continued in force from December 1st, 1872, to under conditions similar to those already described relating to August, 1876. During its continuance the prices of coal were live-stock traffic, and it received as a compensation for its not excessive, but after its disruption the rates of transporta- division of business between the competing lines, in accord- tion from the mines, as well as the price of coal, again fell to a ance with agreed percentages, special advantages, in the matter ruinously low standard. Several of the companies were unable of rates, corresponding to those granted to the cattle eveners. to declare dividends, one went into the hands of a receiver, and It is scarcely necessary to add that the method thus briefly another was obliged to obtain from its creditors an extension described forms no part whatever of the main portion of the of time for the payment of debts. On January 1st, 1878, a railway pooling systems of the country. It is only applicable second combination went into effect, and continued until the to special descriptions of products of which large quantities are close of that year. The allotment of percentages was as fol- moved, and has been practically and, probably, permanently lows:- abandoned even in relation to them. It represents a device of 35 Digitized by Google 274 RAILWAY CONFEDERATIONS OR POOLING ARRANGEMENTS. a transition period, when desperate remedies were applied to of extensive rate-cutting, one of the most important of which desperato diseases. Some of the antagonisms it provoked were was terminated by an important new contract of the trunk peculiarly virulent, protracted, and influential. The initiatory lines, made in November, 1885. Despite many difficulties, its steps, which finally resulted in the passage of the interstate- operations gradually expanded, until, at the time of the passage commerce law of 1887, or more particularly those features of of the interstate-commerce act, in 1887, its officers, actively it which originated in the House of Representatives at Wash- participating lines, and sub-divisions had attained the magni- ington, were based on efforts to prevent by law the application tude indicated by the following official list:- of the evener system to the transportation of petroleum. Trunk-Line Commission. The first vigorous effort to establish a confederation or pool- ing combination, applicable to all classes of business, and re- Albert Fink, commissioner, 346 Broadway, New York; N quiring for its successful operation the support of a consider- Guilford, commissioner (freight department), 346 Broadway, able number of lines, was commenced in December, 1873, by New York; S. F. Pierson, commissioner (passenger depart- four roads connecting Atlanta, Georgia, with the seaboard, ment), 346 Broadway, New York; C. W. Bullen, secretary which soon secured the co-operation of numerous lines subse- (freight department), 346 Broadway, New York; William Flem- quently combined under the title of ing, secretary (passenger department), 346 Broadway, New York; H. C. Blye, general agent, 346 Broadway, New York. THE SOUTHERN RAILWAY AND STEAMSHIP ASSOCIATION. Joint Executive Committee. In the fall of 1875 a definite revised agreement was signed Albert Fink, chairman; S. F. Pierson, vice-chairman (passen- by representatives of the following railroad lines, viz.: Western ger department); C. W. Bullen, secretary (freight department); and Atlantic; Central of Georgia; South-western; Savannah, H. Blye, general agent, 346 Broadway, New York; Allegheny Griffin and North Alabama; Mobile and Girard; Augusta and Valley; Baltimore and Ohio; Boston and Albany; Boston, Hoosac Savannah; Eatonton branch, Georgia; South Carolina, Rich- Tunnel and Western; Buffalo, New York and Philadelphia; mond and Danville; Piedmont; North Carolina; Atlanta and Chicago and Alton; Chicago and Atlantic; Chicago and Grand Richmond Air Line; Memphis and Charleston; East Tennessee, Trunk; Chicago, St. Louis and Pittsburgh; Cincinnati, Hamil- Virginia and Georgia; Western, of Alabama; Montgomery and ton and Dayton; Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Chi- Eufaula; Wilmington, Columbia and Augusta; Charlotte, Co- cago; Cincinnati, Washington and Baltimore; Cleveland, Colum- lumbia and Augusta; Wilmington and Weldon; South and bus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis; Detroit, Grand Haven and North Alabama; Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis; and the Milwaukee; Detroit, Lansing and Northern; Evansville and following steamship companies, viz.: Occan Steamship Com- Terre Haute; Fitchburg; Grand Rapids and Indiana; Grand pany, of Savannah; Philadelphia and Southern Mail Steamship Trunk; Indianapolis and St. Louis; Indiana, Bloomington and Company; New York and Charleston steamship lines. In 1879 Western; Lake Erie and Western; Lake Shore and Michigan it was reported that this organization had been joined by forty Southern; Louisville, New Albany and Chicago; Michigan Cen- railroad companics and a number of coastwise steamer lines. tral; New York and New England; New York Central and Hud- In the early portion of 1887 the companies participating and son River; New York, Chicago and St. Louis; New York, Lake officers were reported as follows: Virgil Powers, general commis- Erie and Western; New York, New Haven and Hartford; New sioner, Atlanta, Georgia; Charles A. Sindall, secretary, Atlanta, York, Pennsylvania and Ohio; Ohio and Mississippi; Pennsyl- Georgia; Milo S. Freeman, auditor, Atlanta, Georgia; E. T. vania Company; Pennsylvania; Peoria, Decatur and Evansville; Hughes, general agent, 291 Broadway, New York; arbitrators, Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore; Pittsburgh, Cincin- John Screven, of Georgia; Theo. H. Carter, of Virginia; E. B. nati and St. Louis; Vandalia Line; Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific. Sibley, of Missouri; Atlanta and West Point; Baltimore and East-Bound Classification Committee. Richmond Steamship Company; Boston and Savannah Steam- ship Company; Central Railroad and Banking Comrany, of R. M. Frazer, chairman, Cincinnati, Ohio; William Orr, secre- Georgia; Charleston and Savannah; Charlotte, Columbia and tary, Toledo, Ohio; G. G. Cochran, C.L. Cole, R. M. Fraser, R. Augusta; Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific; Columbia W. Geiger, C. E. Gill, II. W. Hibbard, Edgar Hill, M. Knight, and Greenville; Clyde New York steamship lines; East Ten- A. Mackay, D. T. McCabe, J. T. R. McKay, John Porteous, G. nessee, Virginia and Georgia; Georgia Railroad and Banking B. Spriggs, W. S. Ward. List of the parties to the various divi- Company; Louisville and Nashville; Memphis and Charleston; sions of traffic from the respective points named: West bound Merchants' and Miners' Transportation Company; Mobile and -From New York-Baltimore and Ohio; Delaware, Lacka- Girard; Mobile and Montgomery; Montgomery and Eufaula; wanna and Western; New York Central and Hudson River; Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis; New York and Charles- New York, Lake Erie and Western; Pennsylvania; West Shore. ton Steamship Company; Norfolk and Western; Ocean Steam- From Philadelphia-Baltimore and Ohio; New York Central ship Company; Old Dominion Steamship Company; Port Royal and Hudson River; New York, Lake Erie and Western; Penn- and Augusta; Richmond and Danville; Rome; Savannah, sylvania. From Boston-Boston and Albany; Central Vermont; Florida and Western; Savannah, Griffin and North Alabama; Fitchburg; New York and New England. From Baltimore- Seaboard and Roanoke; South Carolina; South and North Ala- Baltimore and Ohio; Pennsylvania. East bound-From trunk bama; Vicksburg and Meridian; Western and Atlantic; Western, line western termini-Baltimore and Ohio; Delaware, Lacka- of Alabama; Wilmington and Weldon; Wilmington, Columbia wanna and Western (live stock only); Grand Trunk; New York Central and Hudson River; New York, Lake Erie and Western; and Augusta. In a comparatively short time after the Southern Railway Pennsylvania. and Steamship Association was in successful operation, several Central Traffic Association.-Passenger Department. other organizations of a similar character were formed for the George H. Daniels, Assistant Commissioner, Chicago, Ill. purpose of attempting to regulate the competitive transporta- Baltimore and Ohio-Lines west of Wheeling and Parkers- tion movements of other sections, until finally they practically burg; Chicago and Atlantic; Chicago and Grand Trunk; Chi- embraced within their membership all the important compe- cago, St. Louis and Pittsburgh; Chicago and West Michigan; titive roads of the country. Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Chicago; Cincinnati, Washington and Baltimore; Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati TRUNK-LINE COMMISSION AND CENTRAL TRAFFIC ASSOCIATION. and Indianapolis; Cleveland, Akron and Columbus; Detroit, An arrangement was perfected in July, 1877, under the guid- Grand Haven and Milwaukee; Detroit, Lansing and Northern; ance of Albert Fink, by which a damaging contest between the Grand Rapids and Indiana; Grand Trunk-Lines west of Sus- east and west trunk lines was terminated, and the initial steps pension Bridge and Toronto; Indianapolis and St. Louis; In- taken for the establishment of the association controlling com- diana, Bloomington and Western; Jeffersonville, Madison and petitive traffic between western and north-western states and Indianapolis; Lake Erie and Western; Lake Shore and Michi- the Atlantic seaboard. In the amount of business subject to gan Southern; Louisville and Nashville; Michigan Central; New supervision and magnitude of the railway interests involved York, Chicago and St. Louis; New York, Pennsylvania and this was the most important association formed in the United Ohio; Ohio and Mississippi; Pennsylvania Company; Pittsburgh States. It was subjected to numerous vicissitudes and periods and Lake Erie; Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis; Saginaw Digitized by Google 11 276 RAILWAY CONFEDERATIONS OR POOLING ARRANGEMENTS. New England General Ticket and Passenger Agents' Association. Western; Lake Shore and Michigan Southern; Louisville and F. H. Kingsbury, President, Keene, N. H. Nashville (St. Louis and Louisville, Cincinnati and Lexington C. A. Waite, Secretary, Worcester, Mass. division); Louisville, Evansville and St. Louis; Louisville, New All passenger transportation lines in New England repre- Albany and Chicago; Michigan Central; Michigan and Ohio; sented. New York, Chicago and St. Louis; New York, Lake Erie and MIDDLE AND WESTERN STATES. Western (lessee, New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio); Ohio and New York State Passenger Association. Mississippi; Ohio River; Ohio Southern; Pennsylvania Com- pany; Pittsburgh and Lake Erie; Pittsburgh and Western; Pitts- Isaiah S. Emery, Chairman, Rochester, N. Y. burgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis; Peoria, Decatur and Evans- S. F. Pierson, Vice-Chairman, New York City. ville; Toledo and Ohio Central; Toledo, Ann Arbor and North Edson J. Weeks, Secretary, Buffalo, N. Y. Michigan; Toledo, Cincinnati and St. Louis; Toledo, Peoria and Buffalo, New York and Philadelphia; Buffalo, Rochester and Western; Valley; Vandalia Line (Terre Haute and Indianapolis); Pittsburgh; Delaware and Hudson Canal Company; Delaware, Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific; Wheeling and Lake Erie. Lackawanna and Western; Elmira, Cortland and Northern; Middle States Lumber Association. Grand Trunk; Lehigh Valley; Northern Central; New York; Lake Erie and Western; New York Central and Hudson River, J. C. Guthrie, Commissioner, Columbus, Ohio. New York, Ontario and Western; Rome, Watertown and Baltimore and Ohio; Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton and Ogdensburg; Syracuse, Geneva and Corning; West Shore. Dayton and Michigan; Cincinnati, Washington and Baltimore; Buffalo Railway Passenger Committee. Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis; Cleveland, P. C. Doyle, Chairman. Mt. Vernon and Delaware; Columbus and Cincinnati Midland; Edson J. Weeks, Secretary. Columbus, Hocking Valley and Toledo; Indiana, Bloomington and Western; New York, Chicago and St. Louis; Toledo and Office, Room 14, Exchange Building, 202 Main St., Buffalo, N. Y. Ohio Central; Toledo, Columbus and Southern; Wheeling and Buffalo, New York and Philadelphia; Delaware, Lackawanna Lake Erie. and Western; Grand Trunk; Lake Shore and Michigan South- Iron Ore Pool. ern; Lehigh Valley; Michigan Central; New York, Chicago and J. A. Kingsbury, Ore Pool Agent, Cleveland, Ohio. St. Louis; New York Central and Hudson River; New York, Baltimore and Ohio; Lake Shore and Michigan Southern; Lake Erie and Western and New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio; New York, Lake Erie and Western; Pennsylvania Company; Northern Central; West Shore (New York Central and Hudson Pittsburgh and Lake Erie; Pittsburgh and Western. River, lessee). Middle States Freight Traffic Association. SOUTHERN AND SOUTH-WESTERN STATES. John Whittaker, Pres., 243 South Fourth St., Philadelphia, Pa. Southern Passenger Association. Newton R. Turner, Sec., 1415 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. Mercer Slaughter, Commissioner, Atlanta, Ga. Samuel Goodman, Vice-Pres., Grand Central Depot, New York. Atlantic Coast Line; Atlanta and West Point; Alabama Great Allegheny Valley; Baltimore and Ohio; Baltimore and Phila- Southern; Brunswick and Western; Charleston and Savannah; delphia; Boston, Hoosac Tunnel and Western; Bradford, Bordell Central (of Georgia); Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific; and Kinzua; Bradford, Eldred and Cuba; Buffalo, New York Cincinnati, Selma and Mobile; East Tennessee, Virginia and and Philadelphia; Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh; Camden Georgia; Georgia; Georgia Pacific; Illinois Central; Jacksonville, and Atlantic; Catasauqua and Fogelsville; Central Railroad of Tampa and Key West; Louisville and Nashville; Louisville, New New Jersey; Cornwall and Lebanon; Cumberland Valley; Dela- Orleans and Texas; Memphis and Charleston; Mississippi and ware and Hudson Canal; Delaware, Lackawanna and Western; Tennessee; Mobile and Ohio; Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Elmira, Cortland and Northern; Fall Brook Coal Company; Louis; New Orleans and North-eastern; Norfolk and Western; Geneva, Ithaca and Sayre; Gettysburg and Harrisburg; Lacka- Pennsylvania; Port Royal and Augusta; Richmond and Alle- wanna and Pittsburgh; Lehigh and Hudson River; Lehigh gheny; Richmond and Danville; Richmond, Fredericksburg and Valley; Montrose; New York Central and Hudson River; New Potomac; Rome; Savannah, Florida and Western; Seaboard and York, Lake Erie and Western; New York, Ontario and West- Roanoke; Shenandoah Valley; South Carolina; Vicksburg and ern; New York, Susquehanna and Western; Northern Central; Meridian; Western and Atlantic; Western (of Alabama). Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain; Pennsylvania; Philadelphia, Associate Roads of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. Wilmington and Baltimore; Philadelphia and Reading; Phila- M. H. Smith, Chairman of Board of Control, Louisville, Ky. delphia and Atlantic City; Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg; James R. Ogden, Commissioner, Louisville, Ky. Shenandoah Valley; Southern Central; Troy and Boston; Utica and Black River; Western Maryland; West Jersey; West Shore; Alabama Great Southern; Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Williamsport and North Branch; Williamstown and Delaware Pacific; Knoxville and Ohio; Louisville and Nashville; Memphis River; Wilmington and Northern. and Charleston; Mobile and Ohio; Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis; New Orleans and North-eastern; South and North The Middle and Western States Freight Association. Alabama; Vicksburg and Meridian. J. M. Osborn, Chairman, Toledo, Ohio. William Orr, Secretary, Toledo, Ohio. Associated Railways of Virginia and the Carolinas. Allegheny Valley; Baltimore and Ohio; Buffalo, New York Sol. Haas, Traffic Manager, Richmond, Va. and Philadelphia; Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh; Chicago Advisory Board.-H. Walters, general manager of Atlantic and Atlantic; Chicago and Eastern Illinois; Chicago and Grand Coast Line; E. B. Thomas, general manager of Piedmont Air Trunk; Chicago and West Michigan; Cincinnati, Hamilton and Line; John M. Robinson, president of Seaboard Air Line. Dayton; Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Chicago; Cin- Atlantic Coast Line.-Richmond and Petersburg; Petersburg; cinnati and Muskingum Valley; Cincinnati, Van Wert and Wilmington and Weldon; Wilmington, Columbia and Augusta; Michigan; Cincinnati, Wabash and Michigan; Cincinnati, Wash- North-eastern; Cheraw and Darlington; Cheraw and Salisbury; ington and Baltimore; Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Midland North Carolina; Albemarle and Raleigh. Indianapolis; Cleveland, Lorain and Wheeling; Cleveland, Ak- Richmond and Danville Railroad System (Piedmont Air ron and Columbus; Cleveland and Marietta; Columbus, Hock- Line), composed of Atlanta and Charlotte Air line; Charlotte, ing Valley and Toledo; Dayton and Union; Detroit, Grand Columbia and Augusta; Columbia and Greenville; Cheraw and Haven and Milwaukee; Detroit, Lansing and Northern; De- Chester; Chester and Lenoir; Elberton; North-eastern of Georgia; troit, Mackinac and Marquette; Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley North Carolina and branches; Richmond and Danville and and Pittsburgh; Evansville and Terre Haute; Flint and Pere branches; Richmond, York River and Chesapeake; Spartan- Marquette; Fort Wayne, Cincinnati and Louisville; Grand burg, Union and Columbia; Virginia Midland; Western North Rapids and Indiana; Grand Trunk (Great Western division); Carolina; Washington and Ohio. Indianapolis and St. Louis; Indiana, Bloomington and West- Seaboard Air Line.-Carolina Central; Raleigh and Gaston; ern; Jeffersonville, Madison and Indianapolis; Lake Erie and Raleigh and Augusta Air Line; Seaboard and Roanoke. Digitized by Google RAILWAY CONFEDERATIONS OR POOLING ARRANGEMENTS. 277 Texas Traffic Association. Chicago Railroad Association.-Passenger Department. J. Waldo, Commissioner, Houston, Texas. W. E. Davis, President, Chicago, Ill, George Maclaine, Secretary, Houston, Texas. Charles H. Grant, Secretary, Chicago, III. J. C. Zimmer, Auditor, Houston, Texas. Baltimore and Ohio; Chicago and Alton; Chicago and At- Executive Committee.-J. Waldo, chairman; W. Snyder, C. lantic; Chicago and Eastern Illinois; Chicago and North-west- Dillingham, S. H. H. Clark, A. C. Hutchinson, John C. Brown, ern; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, Milwaukee and L. A. Sheldon, S. W. Fordyce, M. G. Howe. St. Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; Chicago, St. Louis Companies.-Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe; Houston and and Pittsburgh; Illinois Central; Lake Shore and Michigan Texas Central; Houston, East and West Texas and Shreveport Southern; Louisville, New Albany and Chicago; Michigan Cen- and Houston; Missouri Pacific (in Texas); Southern Pacific (in tral; New York, Chicago and St. Louis; Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne Texas); St. Louis, Arkansas and Texas (in Texas); Texas Cen- and Chicago; Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific. tral; Texas and Pacific (in Texas). The Burlington-Wabash Traffic Association, TRANSCONTINENTAL TRAFFIC. J. T. Ripley, Commissioner, Chicago, Ill. Transcontinental Association. B. T. S. Lowell, Auditor, Chicago, Ill. L. G. Cannon, General Agent and Auditor, San Francisco, Cal. Burlington and North-western; Chicago, Burlington and Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe; Atlantic and Pacific; Bur- Kansas City; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, Rock lington and Missouri River; Central Pacific; Denver and Rio Island and Pacific; Central Iowa; Hannibal and St. Joseph; Grande; Denver and Rio Grande Western; Galveston, Harris- Kansas City, St. Joseph and Council Bluffs; Quincy, Missouri burg and San Antonio; Northern Pacific; Oregon Railway and and Pacific; Toledo, Peoria and Western; Wabash, St. Louis Navigation; Oregon Short Line; Southern Pacific; Texas and and Pacific. Pacific; Union Pacific. Eau Claire and Chippewa Falls Association. NORTH-WESTERN AND WESTERN ASSOCIATIONS. G. L. Carman, Commissioner, 15 Lakeside Building, Chicago, III. Western States Passenger Association. Chicago and North-western; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. John N. Abbott, Chairman, Chicago, III. Paul; Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha; Wisconsin Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Northern; Central Iowa; Chi- Central lines. Central Iowa Traffic Association. cago and Alton; Chicago and North-western; Chicago, Burling- ton and Northern; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, G. L. Carman, Commissioner, 15 Lakeside Building, Chicago, III. Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; Chicago and North-western; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha; Green Bay, Winona Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and and St. Paul; Hannibal and St. Joseph; Illinois Central; Kansas Pacific; Chicago, St. Paul and Kansas City; Wabash, St. Louis City, St. Joseph and Council Bluffs; Milwaukee and Northern; and Pacific. Milwaukee, Lake Shore and Western; Minneapolis and St. Sioux City Association. Louis; Minnesota and North-western; Missouri Pacific; Rock G. L. Carman, Commissioner, 15 Lakeside Building, Chicago, Ill. Island and Peoria; Sioux City and Pacific; Wabash Western; Chicago and North-western; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Wisconsin Central lines. Paul; Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha; Illinois Cen- Western Trunk Line Association. tral; Sioux City and Pacific. E. P. Vining, Commissioner, Chicago, III. Marshaltiown Association. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and G. L. Carman, Commissioner, 15 Lakeside Building, Chicago, JII. Pacific; Union Pacific; Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific. Chicago and North-western; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; North-western Freight Association. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and J. N. Faithorn, Commissioner, Chicago, III. Pacific; Central Iowa; Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific; Wiscon- Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and sin, Iowa and Nebraska. Pacific; Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Northern; Wabash, St. Chicago and Ohio River Pool. Louis and Pacific; Chicago, Burlington and Northern; Chicago L. D. Richardson, Commissioner, 185 Dearborn St., Chicago, III. and North-western; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Central B. E. Hand, Secretary, 185 Dearborn, St., Chicago, Ill. Iowa; Wisconsin Central; Minnesota and North-western; Chi- Chicago and Eastern Illinois; Chicago, St. Louis and Pitts- cago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha; Minneapolis and St. burgh; Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton; Cincinnati, Indian- Louis; Illinois Central; Rock Island and Peoria; St. Louis, apolis, St. Louis and Chicago; Illinois Central; Indiana, Bloom- Keokuk and North-western. ington and Western; Jeffersonville, Madison and Indianapolis; Western Traffic Association. Louisville, New Albany and Chicago. J. N. Faithorn, Commissioner, Chicago, III. Iowa Railway Passenger Association. Burlington and Missouri River; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago and North- J. P. Nourse, President, Marshallown, Iowa. western; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; Chicago, St. Paul, W. T. Block, Vice-President, Des Moines, Iowa. Minneapolis and Omaha; Kansas City, St. Joseph and Council J. E. Hannegan, Secretary, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Bluffs; Missouri Pacific; Sioux City and Pacific and Fremont, Burlington and North-western; Burlington and Western; Bur- Elkhorn and Missouri Valley; Union Pacific; Wabash, St. Louis lington, Cedar Rapids and Northern; Central Iowa; Chicago and Pacific. and North-western; Chicago, Burlington and Kansas City; Chi- Cedar Rapids Association. cago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, Iowa and Dakota; Chi- J. N. Faithorn, Commissioner, Chicago, Ill. cago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Northern; Chicago and North- Chicago, St. Paul and Kansas City; Chicago, St. Paul, Minne- western; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, Milwaukee apolis and Omaha; Des Moines and Fort Dodge; Kansas City, and St. Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific. St. Joseph and Council Bluffs; Minneapolis and St. Louis; St. Louis, Keokuk and North-western; Sioux City and Pacific; Clinton, Fulton and Lyons Association. Southern Kansas; Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific. J. N. Faithorn, Commissioner, Chicago, Ill. Kansas General Passenger and Ticket Agents' Association. Chicago and North-western; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul. O. P. McCarty, Chairman, Omaha, Neb. G. W. Duback, Secretary, Lawrence, Kan. Davenport, Rock Island and Moline Association. Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe; Burlington and Missouri J. N. Faithorn, Commissioner, Chicago, III. River; Kansas City, Fort Scott and Gulf; Missouri Pacific; St. Chicago, Burlington and Quincy; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Joseph and Grand Island; St. Louis, Fort Scott and Wichita; Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; Rock Island and Pacific. Union Pacific; Wichita and Western. Digitized by Google 278 PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF CONFEDERATIONS. Western Association of General Passenger and Ticket Agents. and Kansas City; Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha; Officers of the Association.-H. M. Bronson, president, In- Des Moines and Fort Dodge; Des Moines, Osceola and Southern; dianapolis, Ind.; J.S. Lazarus, vice-president; Indianapolis, Ind.; Illinois Central; Minneapolis and St. Louis; Minnesota and J. E. Hannegan, secretary, Cedar Rapids, Ia. North-western; Missouri, Iowa and Nebraska; Rock Island and Executive Committee.-J. P. Nourse, Marshalltown, Ia.; B. Peoria; St. Louis, Des Moines and Northern; Sioux City and F. Horner, Cleveland, O.; W. T. Block, Des Moines, Ia.; C. P. Pacific; Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific. Atmore, Louisville, Ky.; H. C. Townsend, St. Louis, Mo. St. Paul and Minneapolis Passenger Association. Board of Arbitration.-F. Chandler, St. Louis, Mo.; C. H. Charles S. Fee, President, St. Paul, Minn. Rockwell, Cincinnati, O.; A. F. Merrill, Milwaukee, Wis. S. F. Boyd, Vice-President, Minneapolis, Minn. Iowa, Minnesota, and Dakota Association. P. A. Rockwell, Secretary. G. L. Carman, Commissioner, 15 Lakeside Building, Chicago, III. General ticket office, St. Paul and Duluth R. R., St. Paul, Minn. Burlington and North-western; Burlington and Western; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago, St. Paul, Minne- Burlington, Cedar Rapidsand Northern; Central Iowa; Chicago apolis and Oniaha; Chicago, Burlington and Northern; Dia- and North-western; Chicago, Burlington and Kansas City; Chi- mond Jo Line Steamers; Minneapolis and St. Louis; Minne- cago, Burlington and Northern; Chicago, Burlington and apolis and Pacific; Minnesota and North-western; Union Pacific; Quincy; Chicago, Iowa and Dakota; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Louis and St. Paul Packet Company; St. Paul and Duluth; St. Paul; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific; Chicago, St. Paul Wisconsin Central line. PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF CONFEDERATIONS. DIVERSITY OF POWERS AND SYSTEMS. HOW COMPETITIVE TRANSPORTATION BUSINESS WAS TRANSACTED HERE was a considerable variation in the scope of the BEFORE POOLING ARRANGEMENTS WERE ESTABLISHED. operations of the associations named above and their In an address made to the Southern Railway and Steamship method of operations. Some related to passenger business ex- Association, in April, 1876, by Mr. Fink, on the occasion of clusively and others only to freight. Some grappled with all severing his connection with that organization, he said:- the problems raised by competitive traffic, and others with only "The mode in which competitive business between trans- the less intricate and perplexing issues raised. A full recital of portation companies is generally transacted is well known, but all their proceedings would fill many pages, and it is useless to must be referred to here to show how little reason and intelli- attempt here more than a brief discussion of some of the most gence, honesty and fairness is brought to bear upon the man- important of their aims, methods of promoting them, and re- agement of 80 important a property as that owned by the sults achieved. transportation companies. A number of competing lines agree At an early stage of the development of the Southern Rail- upon certain rates to be charged by each, and pledge them- way and Steamship Association its affairs were placed under selves to strictly maintain the same. There may be some of the general direction of the managers of these lines who honestly mean to carry out ALBERT FINK, the agreement, but generally there are others who make agree- who had previously been a leading official of the Louisville and ments with the intention to break them, and merely for the Nashville Railroad. He conducted them successfully for a purpose of taking advantage of the more honest. The comparatively brief period, when he resigned, and soon after- fact that these agreements are hardly ever carried out has been wards became general commissioner of the Trunk-Line Com- fully established by past experience. The managers have no mission. longer confidence that they can ever be carried out, and there In view of the important part Mr. Fink has taken in practi- seems to be a tacit understanding that agreements to restore cally putting in operation the first of the important confedera- and maintain rates, after a period during which low rates pre- tions, and in subsequently acting during a protracted period as vailed, are, in most cases, merely made for the purpose of the official head of the most important of such bodies, he holds practicing deception upon each other, starting for a higher a front rank among those who have labored to establish and scale of rates in order to secure, for a short period at least, render successful schemes for the avoidance of excessive rail- some remuneration for the work performed, until low rates are way competition. reached again in the natural course of events. This mode of He has frequently given expression to his leading ideas on transacting business, based upon deception and dishonesty, has this subject, and freely outlined them in connection with the been elevated into a business principle in the management of railroad deliberations of the Southern Railway and Steamship Associa- property, and is pronounced by many experienced railroad tion, his description of its workings, and subsequent addresses managers and general freight agents as the only possible or prao- to the participants of the Trunk-Line Commission. He may ticable mode upon which the competitive business can be conducted. or may not, during his extensive experience, have discovered It is hardly necessary here to remark that, if this be true, the reasons for qualifying some of his utterances. They present, proprietors of the railroads need not expect to derive much in the aggregate, a notable defence of pooling systems, when benefit from their property, especially during times when the they are properly conducted and organized for the purpose of transportation facilities of the country are 80 far beyond its promoting proper objects, and a series of frank utterances, wants, as is at present the case. I believe, however, that it is which lay bare the evils that should be averted. These evils possible to conduct this business upon correct principles, and are of a two-fold nature, consisting, first, of wrongs inflicted on thereby save a large portion of the railroad property of the owners and creditors of railway property through the conduct- country from ruin, which seems inevitable under the present ing of transportation at sums below cost; and, second, wrongs system of management." inflicted upon various classes of shippers and communities The state of things forcibly described in this extract has ex- through bargains which lead to or represent unjust discrimi- tended through thousands of ramifications, and to transactions nations against individuals or sections. Nothing is easier than involving many millions of dollars, not only before confedera- to declaim against such things, but it is only by a searching tions were formed, but after they were organized, especially analysis of their cause, nature, and extent, and a faithful appli- during the frequent periods of their partial disruption, and it cation of the best remedies suggested by elaborate study and is only in a moderate degree, by continued and persistent experience that they can be prevented. efforts, that durable improvements have been perfected. The Digitized by Google PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF CONFEDERATIONS. 279 natural effect of all serious difficulties or disagreements be- rates that fall far below cost. How the public is injured by tween the lines temporarily combined in a given confederation ruinous temporary reductions of rates is forcibly explained in is R reversion, more or less complete, towards a revival of all a portion of the report of Messrs. Allen G. Thurman, E. B. the evils of unregulated competition. In describing Washburne, and Thomas M. Cooley, dated New York, July THE LOGICAL RESULT OF VIOLATIONS OF AGREEMENTS 20th, 1882, in which they summed up the conclusions they had reached while acting as an advisory commision on differential which are not fortified by elaborate pooling provisions, Mr. rates by railroads between the west and the seaboard. After Fink, in one of his reports to the Bureau of Statistics, said:- making elaborate inquiriesin the commercial circles most deeply "Supposing, however, that an agreement relative to the estab- affected by the questions they had considered, they said:- lishment of competitive rates is made and understood by all "We have found, however, in the course of our investiga- parties, should it then appear to one or the other party, after a tions, that a species of competition has prevailed from time to short experience, that it does not receive as much business as time which has brought satisfaction to few persons, if any. and it expected or wanted, and such conclusions are generally which has resulted in inequalities and disorders greatly detrimental arrived at, it either openly repudiates the agreement or more to trade. Such competition exists when the railroad companies, frequently violates it secretly by paying commissions or re- or those who are permitted to solicit business and to make con- bates, or by the use of other means of deception. The other tracts on their behalf, set out with the determination to with- parties may soon suspect that they are not fairly dealt with. draw freights from their rivals, and secure them for themselves, This mere suspicion is often considered sufficient for adopting at all hazards, and regardless of gain or loss; and when acting means of self-protection, generally corresponding in character upon this determination they throw to the winds all settled with those the other party employed or is supposed to have rates, and in the desperate strife for business offer any induce- employed. The result is that, either openly, more often ment in their power which will secure it. The country not secretly, by means which are considered dishonorable in the long, since had experience of such a season, and everywhere ordinary transactions of life, one competitor is underbidding listened to complaints of the injury which legitimate business suffered the other. The rates of transportation fluctuate. They be- from it. It was said by parties interested in transportation that come lower and lower. Influential shippers are frequently the inauguration of such a strife put an end for the time to all favored by low rates, enabling them to secure advantages over possibility of calculating from day to day what would be the their competitors, and to monopolize certain branches of busi- cost of carriage, and what could be safely paid or wisely ness altogether. All this is done in direct violation of the laws accepted for grain, provisions, or other articles, destined to that should govern common carriers. The shippers cunningly another market by rail. The control of railroad rates, and, to encourage dissensions among the agents of competing lines, a large extent, of all railroad business, then passed out of the ingeniously working upon their credulity and suspicion by hands of the legitimate and regular corporate managers into bints or direct misrepresentation, and hardly ever fail to ob- the hands of solicitors for fast freight lines and other agents, tain a reduction in the established rates of transportation who made from day to day, and from hour to hour, such terms which had been agreed upon, and were considered reason- with those having business as would secure it, but generally able and proper by all of the competing transportation lines. made secret terms, that the bargain with one man might not pre- After a period of low rates, caused by this process of under- vent their driving a better bargain with another, as they might bidding, during which the railroad companies usually work for find opportunity. Under such circumstances, persons were less than cost, it is found necessary by them to make another favored and localities were favored, when the object to be imme- effort to secure remunerative rates, and, if possible, by higher diately accomplished seemed to require it, regardless of the rates to make up for past losses. New conventions are called just maxims of legitimate business and of the rules of the com- and held, new agreements formed, and they are violated again, mon law, which enjoin upon common carriers that they shall as before, and 80 on. This history of the management of the deal with all customers upon principles of equity and relative transportation business is constantly repeating itself, to the great fairness. Legitimate business, it was said, necessarily passes injury of the people and the proprietors of the roads. The general into an unsettled and speculative state while this condition of managers or heads of the departments attend generally to the things exists. Safe and close calculations are impossible. establishment of rates, and make agreements with each other, Transportation becomes cheap, but neither producer nor consumer and to this extent, but no further, this important business may be said to be under their control; but no sooner is it believed is certain to reap the profit, for the middleman cannot calculate upon steadiness in low rates, and as he takes the risk of their that one or the other competing lines has violated the agree- ment, and tries to deceive, whether this be a fact or not, the being raised upon him, 80 he is in the best position to appro- priate the benefit while they continue. Meantime, railroad management is of necessity surrendered into the hands of subordi- profits disappear, and dividends cease to be paid, to the great nates, the soliciting commission agents, to whom the general in- structions are given to do as others are doing, or supposed to distress of thousands who rely upon them for their living, and be doing, or to make any rate they please, no matter how low. every interest, in any degree dependent on railroad prosperity, must participate in the depression and disaster which accom- From that time on the general managers and the owners of panies the ownership of railroad shares. property have lost all control of it. The result is, fluctuations The mere statement of these results is sufficient to show that in rates, unjust discrimination between shippers in the same locality, this is not what in other business is known and designated as or between shippers in different localities. Rebates are generally paid and special contracts are secretly made, all in direct competition. Competition is the life of trade, but this is its destruo- violation of the law that should govern common carriers. tion. Competition brings health and vigor, and secures equality There are other causes which lead to the same result. If a and fairness, but this paralyzes strength, and makes contracts a controversy arises between any two or more railroad compa- matter of secrecy and double dealing. In competition, the sound nies upon any subject whatsoever, and they cannot arrive at a dealer, operating upon his own capital and upon well-estab- satisfactory adjustment, one or the other party commences a lished credit, has the best chance of success; but in the sort of system of warfare upon its opponent by establishing unusually competition we have mentioned it is found that the bankrupt low rates of transportation over\its own line, and thus compels corporation has the advantage, for its managers, having no- thing to lose, may offer rates which solvent roads cannot meet the other to conform to the same in the hope of inflicting losses upon it to a greater extent, perhaps, than the amount of without being dragged into bankruptcy with them. Railroad money involved in the controversy. That this mode managers do not concede that this state of things is properly of settling controversies between intelligent people is yet per- designated competition, but they speak of it as an unnatural mitted in this civilized age can only be accounted for by the condition of railroad hostility; as unreasoning railroad warfare; as competitive strife, rather than competition. It is a state of fact that property which is thus being unnecessarily sacrificed, is not the property of the people who manage it." things that, like a war between nations, from its destructive- ness, cannot be a normal condition, but must speedily termi- HOW THE PUBLIC IS INJURED BY RAILWAY WARS. nate in peace or in disaster. It has usually been terminated It is obvious that railway companies are injured when they by some common understanding between railroad transact a large amount of difficult and expensive business at upon a tariff of rates. Digitized by Google 280 PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF CONFEDERATIONS. But this common understanding, it is urged in some quarters, reached were necessarily adjusted with at least approximate eliminates competition from the sphere of railroad business, justice, or the nearest approach to it that was attainable in and we escape the evils of competitive strife by embracing view of the variety of conflicting interests. In a broad national those of monopoly. This is denied by railroad managers, who sense there has never been any other serious effort to prevent insist that understandings respecting the reasonable manage- unjust discriminations against numerous competitive localities ment of their business are not only entirely consistent with than that represented by the labors of the confederations in competition, but that they are the only means whereby the excessive this direction. They have, in the aggregate, formed the only competition at some points can be prevented from operating oppres- tribunals ever established in this country which were at once sively at others." capable of discussing this subject intelligently, of securing the HOW CONFEDERATIONS ENDEAVORED TO CURE THE EVILS OF prompt attention of representatives of the diverse interests, and UNREGULATED COMPETITION. of giving practical effect to such conclusions as were reached after due deliberations. Nobody knows so well as the repre- One of the first and most important steps taken by the sentatives of the railway lines that traverse diverse competitive Southern Railway and Steamship Association, and all other sections and reach numerous competitive points what unjust important combinations of a similar character, was to ascer- discriminations against localities are; attempts to practice them tain the amount and character of the competitive traffic which are sure to encounter resistance, perhaps even to the extent of was to be the subject of regulation. It is astonishing how precipitating damaging railway wars; and it is questionable many of the troubles of the world have their root in ignorance; whether any other rational mode of permanently adjusting the and vague or exaggerated ideas of the importance of certain rates to and from numerous cities in the United States on an classes of traffic, or of the advantages that one company was approximately just basis has ever been even suggested, except gaining over another, have been important causes of some of that represented by the labors of some of the confedera- the destructive railway wars waged at sundry times. In such tions, and kept in force when they were in harmonious opera- matters nothing is more important than exact information, and tion. the confederations furnished the first agencies for procuring Some of the most injurious and protracted of the railway reliable knowledge of the kind needed at the times when its wars that have occurred in this country have been waged for acquisition was most desirable and necessary. It is on such data that the allotments of percentages to each of the com- the purpose of settling by damaging conflicts the relation that should exist between the rates to and from rival cities. The peting lines were frequently based; and it is only through ac- struggles in reference to the relative rates between Boston, New cessible, reliable, and continuous reports of the amount of business transacted by each of the parties to an agreement York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, respectively, on the one hand, and western or north-western traffic centres on the other, that the practical workings of a compact can be ascertained. In Mr. Fink's farewell address to the southern association he were exceptionally severe, it being the object of the northern trunk lines or New York Central and Erie to diminish or forcibly said: "When we consider that the simple question at annihilate the differentials or right to make lower rates to issue is to bring about a reasonable and fair distribution of the Philadelphia and Baltimore than to New York, and the object competitive business at remunerative rates, the only rational of the Pennsylvania and Baltimore and Ohio trunk lines which mode of solving this question that can be suggested, is for the traversed a more southern latitude to prevent the annihilation interested parties to agree first definitely upon a division; to of the practical right to move through western freight to and ascertain definitely, by a proper account keeping, whether this from Philadelphia and Baltimore, at slightly lower rates than division takes place under the adjustment of rates agreed upon, those accorded to the city of New York. Similar controversies and if not, to readjust the rates from time to time, 80 as to in- have occurred in regard to the relative rates affecting other sure the desired result. When this is done, all motive for strife cities, and there are always influences at work which have a and ruinous competition is removed." tendency to incite such conflicts between or about sundry rival Even after all desirable information was possessed, it was cities. One of the great tasks of the important confederations, often exceedingly difficult to secure the assent of the parties interested to any of the divisions of traffic proposed, and a re- at various periods, was to avert such struggles. The means adopted was to elaborately consider the intricate questions in- sort to arbitration was frequently necessary. These adjust- volved, and finally agree upon a percentage of rates or basis of ments were indeed a frequent source of great difficulty. Pre- percentages between all competitive points in the territory over suming this matter to be adjusted, the division of the traffic which jurisdiction was exercised. These percentage tables were originating at various points, or at all important competitive slightly altered from time to time when special reasons for traffic centres, renewed old contests and furnished a fruitful changing them in any particular were shown. In regard to source of bickerings, most of which were finally quieted the rates between the north Atlantic seaports and territory east by definite agreements reached through appeals to arbi- of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio river, a brief account trators or otherwise. Another cause of strife was the settle- of the method pursued is furnished in the following extracts ment of accounts in the numerous cases where the amount of from statements made by Mr. Fink to select committee on traffic carried by each line did not correspond with the agreed interstate commerce of the United States senate on May 21st, division, being either above or below the exact percentage. 1885:- Various remedial methods were adopted by different associa- tions; sums corresponding to the profits earned being paid in RULE FOR ADJUSTING RATES BETWEEN ALL THE COMPETITIVE some cases by the lines which had transacted more than their POINTS IN A GIVEN TERRITORY. allotted share of business to the lines which had not secured "The main rule that prevails in this section of country for their allotted percentage; attempts to divert traffic from one making tariffs is a very simple one, and it has been a satisfac- line to another being made in other cases; and alterations in tory one. The rates between Chicago and New York, which the amount of differentials or authorized rate cutting allowed are generally determined by the competing water routes, are to inferior lines being made from time to time by some of the taken as the basis of the tariff. When that is established, a confederations. Interwoven to an important extent with such table which has been prepared, based upon the relative die- labors were the adjustments of rates between given points, and tances of other points to points of destination of the freight, of the relation which the rates to or from one point should gives the corresponding rates from other cities east of the Mis- bear to the rates between other points; and also the gradual sissippi river and north of the Ohio river. improvement of the systems of classification, which regulated The Chairman. You mean all the stations along the road? the relation of different articles to each other with respect to Mr. Fink. I mean all the important competitive points. the amount of freight charges to be paid. The Chairman. Can you furnish that table to us? So far as Mr. Fink. Yes, sir. Here is the percentage table agreed to. UNJUST DISCRIMINATIONS AGAINST LOCALITIES This is the result of the efforts of these competing roads during are concerned, the confederations provided the only effective the last ten years to establish a proper tariff, to avoid unjust dio method that has ever been devised for preventing gross in- crimination between the various localities in the enest. The rates equalities; as the rates to and from each important point from the competing points to common points in the east, say Digitized by Google 40 BULUTH NORTHERN Meine D A K 0 T I N N E S T A W I S C o N S I N TEM nom WORTH WEBTENN MICHIGAN H - M ILLINGIS 0.3W NEBRASKA R. WARREN A UNION OMANGE N MACIFIC NOIS A UNIVER 2 KANSAS CITY D 0 nangas R. MERIC $ U R KANSAS PACIFIC RAILWAY #: SANTA = RIVER ATCHISON TOPEKA - MAIN KENTUCKY SAM 183 TENNESSEE INDIAN MEMPHIS TERRITORY ARKANSA LITLE A A B MISSISSIPPI C a A PALESTINE T E X S LOUISIANA EARNE grande % BAN ANTONIO GULF o o M E X I € PRINCIPAL TRANSPORTATION LINES WEST OF CHICAGO, ST LOUIS, NEW ORLEANS IN 1878, Digitized by Google Digitized by Google PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF CONFEDERATIONS. 281 New York, are in proportion to the distance from Chicago to To New York. Per ct. To New York. Per ct. New York. For example, Cairo, Illinois, is 120 per cent. of Deshler, 0 80 Fox, Ind 90 Chicago. It is 1,200 miles from New York, while Chicago is Detroit, Mich 78 Frankfort, Ind 96 Dunreith, Ind 90 Fremont, o 78 about 1,000 in round numbers. Whenever the rate from Chi- East St. Louis 116 Galion, o 76 cago to New York has been established, the rate from Cairo East Burlington, Ill 116 Gallipolis, 0 87 to New York is 20 per cent. higher. Take Indianapolis for East Hannibal. Ill 116 Goshen, Ind 97 another example. Its distance from New York is 93 per cent. East Keokuk, Ill 116 Grand Rapide, Mich 100 of the distance from Chicago to New York. Whenever the East Louisiana, Ill 116 Granger, Ind 100 rate is reduced from Chicago to New York from 25 cents to 20 Elkhart, Ind 100 Green Castle, Ind 100 cents per 100 pounds, the rate from Indianapolis is at once Elwood, Ind 95 Greenfield, o 83 Enterprise, 0 85 Greenville, o 85 reduced to 23 per cent. of the twenty-cent rate, or 18} Erie, Pa 60 Greensburg, Ind 93 cents. Evansville, Ind 108 Green Springs, o 78 The Chairman. Recognizing the distance as that much Findlay, 0 79 Hagerstown, Ind 90 less? Forest, 0 79 Hartford City, Ind 90 Mr. Fink. The relative distance between points between Fort Wayne, Ind 90 Harvard, III 114 which freight is to be carried is made the basis of the tariff- Fostoria, 0 78 Hillsboro, o 87 substantially SO. There are sometimes a great many routes of different lengths between common points, and rates may some- While the difference in the percentage of rates to and from times be based upon the long, sometimes on the short, and western points to New York is shown in the above table, rules were also laid down to govern movements to Philadelphia, sometimes on the average length of the several routes. Baltimore, and Boston. The rule relating to this subject, which The Chairman. While you are regulating freights on a road was adopted in 1879, and applied to a percentage table similar from here to Chicago, for instance, you begin at Chicago to to that described above, was as follows:- charge 80 much from there to New York, or from New York "Adjust rates to Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., as fol- to Chicago, and you do the same thing as to every other point where there is another road that comes this way? You let lows, viz.:- To Boston, and to points taking Boston rates, add five cents per each one of the roads cut and carve at every station where hundred to the rates to New York; to Philadelphia, and points there are not two roads, do you? taking Philadelphia rates, deduct two cents per hundred from Mr. Fink. No, there are certain rules upon which tariffs are made from local points. After a rate has been established for the rates to New York, and to Baltimore, and points taking Baltimore rates, deduct three cents per hundred from the rates a competing point, say for Indianapolis, it being 93 per cent. of to New York." Chicago, then the rate from a point beyond Indianapolis (if it is not a competing point, but a local point on any one of the Corresponding arrangements were made for establishing a basis of rates on west-bound traffic which originated in all the various roads that run to Indianapolis), is added to the through north Atlantic seaboard cities and adjacent points. rate. The local rate, which is generally for short distances, can In the numerous cases where confederations of lines travers- only be charged to the point where the freight reaches the first ing other regions made analogous arrangements, it became a competing point. The roads can never do more than that. comparatively simple matter to regulate rates with approxi- And here I would call your attention to this fact: That high mate precision, and to avoid discriminations against localities local rates can only be made for short distances. For example, I suppose in Illinois there is no place more than 10 or 20 miles to an analogous extent. The net result was the power to from some competing railway station. In such a case the local promptly quote approximately just rates between nearly all rates could only be made high for 20 miles. As soon as the the competitive points in all portions of the country, which freight strikes a competing point, and it is intended to go were substantially adhered to at all times when the pooling beyond that point, it gets the advantage of whatever low rates systems applicable to the points named were in successful ope- may exist from that point. The local shipper has the full ad- ration. A comparatively close approach was thus made, during vantage of competing rates." eras when railway wars and undercutting were avoided, to the ideal system of transportation which E. Porter Alexander de- THE PERCENTAGE TABLE scribes as "one in which any shipper might sit quietly in his referred to above, which indicated the relation between rates office, and contract to deliver freight at any town in the United pertaining to all competitive points in a given territory, named States by referring to a printed tariff, which would show rates several hundred places, alphabetically, including a number of as uniform to all as the rates of postage, and not exorbitant in towns containing a comparatively small population, as well as amount." important cities. The following extract from the first portion DISCRIMINATIONS AGAINST INDIVIDUALS. of a revised table of east-bound percentages adopted to take effect June 1st, 1883, sufficiently indicates their character:- Effective confederations necessarily led to a notable diminu- tion in the number and injurious characteristics of discrimina- To New York. Per ct. To New York. Per ct. Adrian, Mich: 92 Cassopolis, Mich 100 tions against shippers, or in favor of large shippers. While Akron, o 71 Cecil, o 85 railway wars were of frequent occurrence and competition Alida, Ind 100 Celina, o 85 active, agents of every competing company naturally and in- Alexandria, Ind 92 Charlotte, Mich 95 evitably made earnest endeavors to secure the business of Allegan, Mich 100 Chicago, Ill 100 firms which habitually desired facilities for the movement of Alton. Ill 116 Chillicothe, o 80 large quantities of freight. It was manifestly the interest of Anderson, Ind 92 Cincinnati, o 80 prominent shippers to secure the greatest attainable conces- Arcadia, o 79 Circleville, 0 80 sions from agents of the rival companies, and either by direct Argos, Ind 100 Claypool, Ind 97 concessions, a promise of rebates or drawbacks, delusive Athens, o 78 Cleveland, o 71 Auburn, Ind 92 Clyde, 0 78 methods of classification, or false weights, they usually suc- Auburn Junction, Ind 92 Columbia City, Ind 93 ceeded in having movements made for sums considerably be- Avilla, Ind 92 Columbus, O. 77 low the prevailing nominal rates. There are 80 many methods Battle Creek, Mich 100 Connersville, Ind 90 by which strict adherence to rates can be avoided by the joint Bellefontaine, 0 83 Continental, o 83 connivance of transporting companies and the parties they Bloomington, Ill 109 Crawfordsville, Ind 100 serve that it is practically impossible to prevent such evasions by Bunker Hill, Ind 97 Crestline, 0 76 law, or any other known method than the removal of all induce- Burgoon, o 78 Creston, 0 71 ments or incentives to participation in such evasions by trans- Butler, Ind 92 Crown Point, Ind 100 Cairo, Ill 120 Dayton, o 84 porting companies. On this account it was found difficult to break Cambridge, o 74 Decatur, Ind 90 up all the disguised forms of rate-cutting which had become Cambridge City, Ind 90 Defiance, 0 85 deeply rooted at all points where active and unscrupulous com- Canton, o 71 Delaware, 0 77 petitive efforts had been continued during a protracted period. Casey, o 79 Delphos, 0 83 But many vigorous struggles in a reformatory direction were 36 Digitized by Google 282 PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF CONFEDERATIONS. made. In regard to their results, E. Porter Alexander, writing considerations still possess much significance, but the extent to in 1887, says: "We can now at least judge of the tendency of which minuteness of distinction has been carried has been the pool, and by comparing the present situation with that at greatly magnified, and much has been done in the way of its beginning, can decide whether or not there is any palliation establishing uniformity of freight classifications on the part of of the personal discriminations from which deliverance was the lines traversing a given territory. sought, and whether or not there are indications of the ap- In reference to uniformity it is stated that the new trunk- proaching extortion apprehended by the public. line freight classification which went into effect on April 1st, As to the decrease of personal discriminations, or the preva- 1887, a few days before the interstate-commerce act of 1887 lence of rebates, there are, of course, no statistics or exact became enforcible, and was made applicable to competing figures to be appealed to, but there are certain indications from points north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi, par- which the general situation may be inferred. First, there is tially superseded more than a score of classifications previously little recent public complaint of this evil by shippers. Ten in force in the same territory. It specifically superseded the years ago the papers were filled with it, and public meetings official classification of east-bound freight, the official classi- were frequently held to denounce it. The indignation would fication of west-bound freight, the Middle and Western States not be less now did it exist to an equal degree. The theorists classification of freight, and the joint merchandise freight classi- who from time to time write and declaim against the railroads fication. It applied to and directly named almost every article draw all their examples from dates prior to the establishment of commerce. of the nool, or from periods when its operations were sus- Before it was promulgated elaborate rules and special in- pended. The oldest, and, in some respects, the most success- structions were forwarded to agents, some of the most im- ful, pool in the United States is that of the Southern Railway portant of which related to precautions against fraudulent and Steamship Association, which covers most of the south action on the part of shippers in the matter of furnishing a Atlantic and gulf states. Before it was established the rates false description of merchandise for the purpose of securing an were honeycombed with rebates at every competitive point in unauthorized lowering of rates, or intentional mistakes or the territory. To-day, from some personal knowledge of the misstatements relating to weight for the purpose of having a situation, and from the best information I can obtain, I do not greater quantity of freight carried than the amount for which believe that there exists a single rebate or personal discrimination n charge was made. These two forms of deception, practiced in all the pooled business in that territory. As to the trunk-line with the connivance of clerks or other officials connected with pool in New York, it is believed by those most likely to know, freight departments, when a railway company or some of its or to suspect such things, that none exist on the part of any trunk representatives desire to engage in secret rate-cutting, and fre- lines, though it is probable that some of the weaker connections quently attempted by shippers, without such connivance, when still purchase a part of their business in some way. It they believed that detection could be evaded, have formed dis- is certainly clear, then, that the pooling system at least greatly turbing influences of considerable magnitude in connection palliates the evils of discrimination and rebates." with all attempts to strictly maintain legitimate freight rates, and they bear to the aggregate freight movements of the coun- CLASSIFICATION OF FREIGHT. try a relation somewhat similar to that held by smuggling A considerable portion of the proceedings of some of the systems, at various times and periods, to import duties or gov- deliberative bodies organized by the confederations consisted of ernmental methods of collecting revenue on merchandise im- the discussion of proposed changes in the classification of ported from foreign nations. freight, a number of which were made from time to time. As This is doubtless the most elaborate classification of freight material differences in rates in force at any period between any ever made. Some idea of its comprehensiveness may be formed points depend upon the class in which articles are ranked, the from the fact that the classification and directions interwoven regulation of such classifications forms one of the most im- with it which relate to particular descriptions of traffic, such portant and complicated portions of the duties of modern rail- as live-stock movements, for instance, are contained in sixty- way managers. Its effect on the cost of movements of various eight pages of a closely-printed pamphlet, each of which con- kinds of merchandise is analogous to that of a governmental tains sixty lines, when all their space is occupied with printed tariff embracing numerous rates of duty on imported articles. matter, but short blanks are left between each of the alpha- The subject abounds with intricacies, which steadily and rapidly betical headings. increased with the growth of traffic, numerous additions to the An illustration of its characteristics is furnished by the fol- list of articles moved extensively, and reductions of average lowing extract, which represents the contents of a little less rates to exceptionally low standards. In many instances it than the first page:- would probably be difficult to give satisfactory reasons for CLASSIFICATION. putting one article in a class that required the payment of n Explanation of Characters.-The class is given opposite each article, higher rate than another similar article, but in many other 1, 2. 3, 4, 5, and 6, stand for first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth instances there were good reasons for such differences, as they classes respectively. Sp'l for special. 11 for once and a half first class. included great variations in value and consequent risk in case D 1 for double first class. 21 for twice and a half first class. 3t1 for of loss or damage and the cost of handling. three times first class. 4t1 for four times first class. O. R. for owner's Competition of one kind or another forms an invariable risk. O. R. B. for owner's risk of breakage. O. R. C. for owner's risk feature of all extensive transportation systems, and received of chafing. O. R. L. for owner's risk of leakage. C. R. for carrier's much consideration even in the adjustment of the toll sheets risk. S. U. for set up. K. D. for knocked down. C. L. for car load. of canal lines constructed and owned by states; but as civiliza- L. C. L. for less than car load. P. P. for prepaid. N. O. S. for not otherwise specified. tion progresses and various complications arise, either through important additions to the list of articles carried, or the effect Articles not Enumerated will be Classified with Analogous Articles. which the extensive sale of some new product has upon trade L.C.L. C.L. Acetate of lime 4 5 conditions existing at the time it was first introduced, such as Acids, in carboys, O. R., released 1 was produced by extensive internal dressed-meat shipments on Acids, in iron drums, O. R 4 live-stock interests, or other causes, the complexity of classifi- Acids, in carboys or iron drums, C. R D1 cations grows rapidly, and the necessity of frequent authorita- Acids, in carboys or iron drums, O. R 5 tive action in reference to sundry products is intensified. Acids, in tank cars, to be furnished by shippers, O. R., Originally in the internal railway and steamboat freight minimum weight, 24,000 pounds; empty tanks to be re- movements of the country the most important distinctions turned free, no mileage allowed 4 were based either on the intrinsic value of the articles moved, Acids, dry. in boxes or kegs 2 on the relative ease with which they could be loaded and un- Acids, dry, in barrels or casks. 3 Actinolite 4 loaded, on the relation between their weight and the space they Advertising boards, in bundles 8 occupied, or on the question whether they were dry goods or Advertising matter, boxed or in bundles, O. R., P. P 1 3 groceries moved from cities to the interior, or domestic pro- Agate ware 1 4 ducts moved from the interior to commercial centres. Such Agolite 4 5 Digitized by Google PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF CONFEDERATIONS. 283 Agricultural implements and agricultural implement parts, or stock tive committee, representing most of the important through or stuff, as follows, vis.:- lines east of Chicago and St. Louis, and north of the Ohio river, In car loads at owner's risk of breakage or chafing, as follows, vis.:- entered upon an agreement for the division of certain passenger When loaded in box cars, N. O. S 5 earnings and traffic, which took effect September 1st, 1882, and When loaded on flat cars, shippers to assume risk of loss of small continued in force until July 31st, 1884. The general notion of parts, and to so state on bills of lading or shipping bills 5 this movement was to divide all the important competitive When loaded on flat cars, carrier to assume risk of loss of small business in the territory described between competing lines in parts 4 fixed proportions. The object was to secure, by a general part- When returned to manufacturers, for repairs via same road by which nership in the total traffic to be transported, stable rates of they were orginally forwarded 6 fare between competitive points, and better net results by re- Binders' trucks, for moving and self-binding harvesters 5 ducing to a minimum the expense of soliciting, advertising, Cutter bars and cutting apparatus 5 Cradle bodies, fingers, and snaths commissions, and other fancy expenditure for securing busi- 4 Cutters, ensilage 5 ness. It was agreed to submit differences which might arise, Cutters, sod .5 and which could not be settled by negotiation, to the adjust- Fanning mill material 5 ment of arbitration. This experiment was at first applied to Harrow teeth 5 business passing between the cities of Chicago, St. Louis, and Hay rickers, K. D. flat, in bundles 5 Cincinnati on the west, and Boston and New York on the east. Manure spreaders 5 It did not include business passing through either of those Plows 5 points, nor any business to or through a number of important Plow beams and handles, iron or wood 5 Rake teeth, iron or steel gateways in intermediate territory; nor, until a late period, did 5 Rollers, field, garden, or lawn 5 it include any of the interior cities. Notwithstanding this, sta- Scythes and scythe snaths 4 bility in the business actually divided under this arrangement Steel plow points and wings 5 was substantially secured. The balances drawn from month One thresher or separator, with steam power 5 to month were promptly paid, and, with one or two unim- Two threshers or separators, with or without horse-power 5 portant exceptions, it was found that roads earning their Wheels, wrought iron, for agricultural implements 5 allotted proportion sought neither to reduce fares nor to pay Wheels, iron and wood combined, for agricultural implements. 5 commissions on business which was secured to them without The committee which prepared this classification consisted such expense, and that the roads which were obliged to buy their of F. H. Kingsbury, of the Pennsylvania Railroad; George G. business under any condition of affairs, secured it at less cost Cockran, of the New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio; William S. under the protection of the contract. The healthful effects of Sloan, of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western; C.S. Wight, maintenance of rates between these points was felt in other of the Baltimore and Ohio; R. L. Crawford, of the New York branches of the business. Nevertheless, a few companies de- Central and Hudson River; J. T. R. McKay, of the Lake Shore clined from the outset to become parties to the arrangement, and Michigan Southern; and N. Guilford (freight commissioner and their position with reference to it menaced the success of of the trunk-line confederation), chairman. the effort. This, together with the introduction of new roads, It was adopted at a meeting of the joint committee (freight which did not become parties to this arrangement, not only department), held in New York on March 2d, at which time made it impracticable to extend it to a greater number of points, the following report of a committee on rates of which Mr. but also threatened the roads who were parties to the agree- Hayden, of the New York Central, was chairman, was also ment with the loss of traffic if it should be continued. It was adopted:- decided impracticable, therefore, to continue the experiment The committee do not consider it advisable or practicable to estab- after the month of July until such time as all important roads lish as a principle that east-bound and west-bound rates shall neces- interested would become parties to it, and until it could be sarily be the same, but recommend that, under the conditions now extended to a sufficient number of competitive points to give existing, taking effect April 1st, 1887, and until thereafter changed, it a reasonable chance of success. The result is simply a repe- the rates be:- tition of what has happened many times before. A very large New York to Chicago:- portion of the proper revenues of the roads from competitive 1st. 2d. 3d. 4th. 5th. 6th. passenger business is being wasted, and the end is not yet." - - - - - - 75 65 50 35 30 25 Efforts to prevent the demoralization of passenger traffic, by Chicago to New York:- various means were continued. In a circular furnished to all 1st. 2d. 3d. 4th. 5th. 6th. the roads interested, dated April 13th, 1885, Mr. Pierson said: - - - - - - "Since the division of passenger business was discontinued in 75 65 50 85 30 25 July last, the condition relating to the maintenance of rates of On the following day the joint committee approved a report fare throughout the territory east of Chicago and St. Louis has which authorized some changes in the percentage table relat- been growing constantly worse, until the necessity for prompt ing to east-bound traffic. On the three vital matters thus and united effort in the interest of revenue is, perhaps, greater arranged or rearranged, for the time being, viz., freight classi- than ever before in the history of these railways." fication, rates, and the percentage table, hinges an immense In response to this and numerous other appeals a number of proportion of the vital essence of modern railway operations expedients were adopted, in some instances with good effect, and their effect on investors or stock markets on the one hand, and in other cases the results could scarcely be considered and the general public, in their various capacities as consum- satisfactory. The effective regulation of competitive passenger ers, producers, shippers, consignees, and merchants. traffic is, if possible, a more difficult task than the regulation PASSENGER POOLS. of competitive freight movements. In connection with some of the confederations, and especially CAUSES OF FREQUENT FAILURES OR TEMPORARY DISRUPTIONS OF of the Trunk Line and Central Traffic associations, passenger CONFEDERATIONS. pools were formed, in which the general passenger agents of Notwithstanding the beneficial results attained, from the rail- the companies interested, or their representatives, met from way standpoint, from the successful operation of confedera- time to time, under the direction of commissioners or their tions, the periods during which they were partially or wholly assistants, to devise means for preventing excessive compe- ineffective were numerous. The most important reasons for tition in regard to fares or the charges for moving persons. Of frequent failures are probably stated in the following extract the inception of one of the most important of these move- from Mr. Albert Fink's statements to the Senate committee on ments, Mr. S. F. Pierson, commissioner of the passenger de- interstate commerce, made in New York on May 21st, 1885:- partment of the Trunk-Line Commission, writing in 1884, in "The great difficulty that we experience in establishing and an article on the Passenger Pool and a Clearing House, con- maintaining tariffs is to compel all the competing railroads to tributed to the Chicago Railway Review, said:- act together. There are always one or more that labor und~ "Recognizing the difficulties of the problem, the joint execu- the mistaken idea that they could stand outside and take Digitized by Google 284 STEAMSHIP DEVELOPMENT. vantage of the roads in the association that bind themselves to extension of new lines, establishment of new settlements, and publish and maintain tariffs. It is a most short-sighted policy, creation of new commercial interests in many portions of the as it always results in a war of rates and unremunerative rates country, frequently develop disturbing elements. for all. Unfortunately, there are short-sighted railroad man- Of the adverse influences, the two which were probably the agers that will repeat and repeat the same short-sighted policy, most difficult to surmount were the absence of legal methods and they are mostly responsible for all the mischief that follows. for enforcing compacts and the extraordinary ease with which They cause losses to railroad companies of millions and millions lengthy new competitive lines can be constructed during eras of dollars, and prevent proper adjustment of tariffs. I of apparent prosperity. A third of great importance was added sometimes despair that we can accomplish anything by volun- by the clause of the interstate-commerce law of 1887 which for- tary agreement, although this would be the proper way to do. bids pooling arrangements that involve the payment of money If we cannot, and the Government cannot step in and make by one company to another in settlement of balances arising these necessary tariff agreements binding in the same way as from a failure of any of the participants to secure their allotted it enforces all other legitimate contracts, then I do not know percentage of traffic. The last-named obstacle is 80 serious what is to become of the railroads of this country. I am just that if confederations had not proved useful for the classifica- as anxious to formulate a law that would meet this evil as tion of freight, the intelligent discussion and adjustment of you are, but at the same time I cannot see my way clear to any rates between numerous points, and various other purposes, it law that would be effective and operate justly to all interests. would probably have led to their abrogation. It necessarily I can see my way clear this far: That when railroad compa- required that leading features of the most important confede- nies do come together and publish a tariff, they ought to be rations should be essentially modified. made to adhere to it; but the question is how to get them If the payment of balances arising from the different degrees together if one or the other wishes to stay out. I do not exactly of success which attend the efforts of competing companies is know how that can be done, but I would recommend that if to be strictly forbidden permanently, the pooling systems will any legislation is to be had at all this experiment should be probably fail to accomplish the leading purpose of their exist- tried of forcing roads to publish and maintain tariffs." ence, unless they can devise differential charges sufficiently Various causes that have diminished the efficiency of the flexible and diverse to accomplish the desired results. This important railway confederations to a great extent include the would be an exceedingly difficult task, as it would involve the following: First, absence of legislation making the agreements adjustment of a scale of authorized variations from standard reached from time to time enforcible in the courts; second, the tariffs and rate sheets that would approximately meet the re- development, at various times and places, of forms of popular, quirements of all lines. commercial, or judicial antagonism; third, the prolonged ante- A new stage of development commenced with the passage of cedent training of a large proportion of the men actively the interstate-commerce law of 1887, and the appointment of engaged in soliciting or superintending freight movements in five commissioners, consisting of Messrs. Thomas M. Cooley, of adroit, zealous, and reckless competitive practices; fourth, in- Michigan; William R. Morrison, of Illinois; Augustus Schoon- tense rivalries prevailing between some of the lines partici- maker, of New York; Aldace F. Walker, of Vermont, and pating in each combination; fifth, the dire financial straits in Walter A. Bragg, of Alabama. It will probably require a con. which companies are sometimes placed when the traffic to be siderable amount of time to determine the effect of the powers moved falls below the normal standard; sixth, the frequent con- they are authorized to exercise and of the provisions of the struction of new lines or formation of new routes between law upon the complications arising from excessive and un- important competitive centres, after a confederation is in suc- regulated competition; and to show how far the plans and cessful operation, partly because, on account of the compara- labors of confederations or pooling systems will be modified. tive steadiness with which rates are maintained through its It happened repeatedly before the passage of the new law labors, it is supposed that satisfactory profits can be reached that insurmountable obstacles temporarily prevented the attain- from participation in the business that has been placed on a ment of a semblance of success on the part of some of the im- paying basis; seventh, because lengthy new lines commonly portant confederations, yet they were not wholly abandoned have little local traffic either to protect or furnish revenue, and during the darkest hours of their existence, and usually, after they are, therefore, usually disposed to display unusual eager- interregnums of varying length, their operations were actively ness in their competitive efforts, and eighth, because the rapid recommenced, and this experience may be repeated. STEAMSHIP DEVELOPMENT. THAT proverbially interesting but not always veracious provisions, munitions of war, and guns, to contend with even person, the oldest inhabitant, can remember when steam- a heavy frigate, allowing the last to bring her broadside to bear. ships had to fight their way against criticism, doubt, and It may be questioned if the heaviest steam vessel of war that avowed hostility. One with a taste for unfulfilled prophecies exists could engage a modern two-decked ship even in a calm, could find amusement in reading the objections urged against since the latter, in addition to possessing much greater powers steam navigation, not by owners of sailing vessels, but by naval of endurance, could probably bring the most guns to bear, in officers of skill and experience, to whom no one ever attributed all possible positions. Shot-proof batteries might indeed be interested motives. Commodore Stockton was, by many a built that, propelled by steam, would be exceedingly formida. weather-beaten seaman, looked upon as men now look on in- ble for harbor defence, but it is illusory to suppose that vessels ventors of impracticable machines. J. Fenimore Cooper, in of that description can ever be made to cruise." These are the the introduction to his "History of the Navy of the United words of one of the greatest of American writers, of a man States of America," says: "There is an opinion becoming who had shared the life of the forecastle and the quarter-deck, prevalent that the use of steam will supersede the old mode of yet now they sound like utter nonsense. Ships like those in conducting naval warfare. Like most novel and bold proposi- which Porter wandered over the Pacific, or Brooke captured tions, this new doctrine has obtained advocates, who have the Chesapeake, could no more engage an efficient war steamer yielded their convictions to the influence of their imaginations, of to-day than a stage coach could race with a lightning ex- rather than the influence of reflection. That the use of steam press. will materially modify naval warfare is probably true, but it For ages man has ventured on the sea, and it is only within cannot change its general character. No vessel can be built a brief period that the old saying, "Land separates and water of sufficient force and size to transport a sufficiency of fuel, connects," has begun to lose its force. Even the rudest savages Digitized by Google STEAMSHIP DEVELOPMENT. 285 generally have some light craft, and ancient history is full of 72 feet; tonnage by measurement, 1,340; displacement at load allusions to galleys and triremes. The record of how the ad- draught, 2,300; dimensions of engines-diameter of cylinders, 731 venturous Phoenicians crept along the Mediterranean shores; inches; length of stroke, 7 feet; weight of engines, wheels, &c., how Scandinavian pirates ravaged the British coasts; how the 310 tons; number of boilers, 4; weight of boilers, 90 tons; weight Spaniards triumphed at Lepanto; how the early explorers tra- of water in boilers, 80 tons; diameter of wheel, 28 feet 9 inches; versed our western seas, and how Spain, England, Holland and width of floats, 10 feet. Her indicated horse-power was 750. France wrestled for commercial and naval supremacy, is a The Great Western was launched at Bristol on July 19th, 1837. grand theme, whether treated as a historical poem or poetic On April 4th, 1838, the Sirius left Cork for New York, and four history. But the periods from Jason to Drake, and from Drake days later the Great Western left Bristol in chase. Both vessels' to Paul Jones, are, for our purposes, less important than that reached New York on 23d day of the month, the Sirius several from Fulton to the present time. hours ahead. The Great Western made her return trip in 14 THE FIRST WAR STEAMER. days, and with a coal consumption of 392 tons, against 655 tons on the outbound voyage. Between 1838 and 1843 she made During the war of 1812 Fulton offered to build the Govern- sixty-four voyages across the Atlantic. In 1847 she was sold to ment a war steamer for $320,000, about the cost of a first-class the West India Steam Packet Company, and ten years later frigate. The Government accepted his offer, and in 1814 he she was broken up at Vauxhall. constructed the first steam man-of-war in the world, a vessel Mr. Cunard's efforts in establishing regular trans-Atlantic which very properly received his own name. Her tonnage communication will ever be memorable. His company has exceeded 2,400; her sides were nearly five feet thick, and her become a household word. The Great Britain, built by the draught ten feet. Credulous Britons formed most exaggerated Great Western company, was the first large iron-hulled ship, ideas of her force, but she was in reality no mean foe, her although the use of this material had long been debated. designed armanent being 30 32-pounders and 4 100-pounders. Trevithick and Robert Stevenson had taken ground in favor of She was launched in 1815, and proved amply able to move at iron vessels and iron spars. Dickenson patented an iron boat the rate of five miles an hour, slightly more than was required in 1815, and a few years later enterprising builders launched by the contract. In 1829 her magazine exploded, and she a couple of iron craft. John Laird, of Birkenhead, built a perished, with no martial renown, it is true, yet with the dual number of iron vessels, the paddle steamer John Randolph distinction of having been the first steam man-of-war in the finding a purchaser in G. B. Lamar, of Savannah. The Rain- world, and the largest steamer built before 1838. Commander bow, of 600 tons, was much the largest iron steamer in exist- Chadwick deems her "a fitting monument to the genius of the ence prior to the advent of the Great Britain. Brunel firmly man who unfortunately did not live to see her completion and believed in the principle of screw propulsion, which, although successful trial." Ericsson had shown its feasibleness, was generally regarded as The idea of building ocean steamers, while dear to the hearts impracticable. Ericsson's departure for America, under the of men like Fulton and Stevens, did not recommend itself patronage of Commodore Stockton, enlarged the scope of favorably to the average shipowner. Steam vessels then Thomas Pettit Smith, whose company put the screw-propeller moved at a very moderate rate of speed, frequently less than to a practical test in 1839, the Archimedes being the fitting half that sometimes made by ships under sail, and he could name of the craft on which the experiment was tried. Although see no advantage to be gained, except in calms or against head it was intended to use paddle wheels on the Great Britain, winds. Cooper says: "It is certain that no steamer, in the Brunel prevailed on the directors to substitute the screw-pro- present state of science, can remain at sea thirty days, with peller. The Great Britain is described as follows: Total length, efficiency as a steamer," and it is probable that many expe- 322 feet; length of keel, 289 feet, beam, 51 feet; depth, 32 feet 6 rienced judges shared this conviction. To navigate inland inches; draught of water, 16 feet; tonnage measurement, 3,443; rivers, it might be said, was easy enough, but for a large sea displacement, 2,984 tons; number of cylinders, 4; diameter of voyage it was safer to put reliance on craft that had proved cylinders, 88 inches; length of stroke, 6 feet; weight of engines, their fitness for such work. 340 tons; weight of boilers, 200 tons; weight of water in boilers, THE FIRST COMMERCIAL STEAMSHIP. 200 tons; weight of screw shaft, 38 tons; diameter of screw, 15 In 1819 Crockett & Fickett, of New York, launched the feet 6 inches; pitch of screw, 25 feet; weight of screw, 4 tons; Savannah, 380 tons. She was equipped as a full-rigged ship, diameter of main drum, 18 feet; diameter of screw-shaft drum, and provided with a horizontal 90-horse-power engine, with 6 feet; weight of coal, 1,200 tons. "The main shaft of the engine," side paddle-wheels and boilers in the hold. The Savannah says the Life of Brunel, "had a crank at either end of it, and made a trip to the southern city of that name, and shortly was made hollow, a stream of water being kept running through after crossed to Liverpool, making the trip in twenty-five days, it, 80 as to prevent heating in the bearings. An important during seven of which she was only propelled by the wind. part of the design was the method by which motion was trans- In the summer she visited Cronstadt, and in October returned mitted from the engine shaft to the screw shaft, for the screw to the United States. Her machinery was subsequently taken was arranged to go three revolutions to each revolution of the out, and she served as a New York and Savannah packet until engines. Where the engines do not drive the screw directly, lost on the coast of Long Island. On the whole, she was an this is now universally effected by means of toothed gearing; unsatisfactory ship, but she proved that steam could be utilized but when the engines of the Great Britain were made it was in trans-Atlantic voyages. thought that this arrangement would be too jarring and noisy. After much consideration, chains were used working around STEAMSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND. different-sized drums, with notches in them, into which fitted A number of English companies were formed for the pur- projections on the chains." After plying a short time between pose of establishing steam packet communication with all parts Liverpool and New York, the Great Britain was sold for use in of the globe, but most of these projects proved as illusory as the Australian trade. Still later she was changed into a sailing the South Sea bubble or the tulip mania. In 1825 the steamer vessel, and in 1886 received serious injuries from stranding at Enterprise, after a voyage of 113 days, reached Calcutta, and the Falkland Islands. The Great Western company had been was soon followed by others. This led in turn to the establish- ruined mainly by the competition of the steadily rising Cunard ment of regular steamship lines to France, Spain, the Mediter- Line, which in 1840 had launched the mail steamers Acadia, ranean, the East and West Indies, and America. No one now Britannia, Columbia, and Caledonia. All these ships were of ventured to question the possibility of using steam at sea, yet wood, and employed the old-fashioned paddle wheels. Origin- it still remained a point whether steam alone would be an ade- ally entered into for seven years, the mail contract with the quate motive force. Fuel was a very costly item. British government lasted for forty-six years. The Britannia Brunel's determination to build a large steamship was fittingly left Liverpool, Friday, July 4th, 1840, and made Boston 14 days carried out in the Great Western, her dimensions being: Length and 8 hours later. Her dimensions, substantially the same as over all, 236 feet; length between perpendiculars, 212 feet; length her sisters, were as follows: Length of keel and fore rake, 207 of keel, 205 feet; breadth, 35 feet 4 inches; depth of hold, 23 feet 2 feet; breadth of beam, 34 feet 2 inches; depth of hold, 52 feet 4 inches; draught of water, 16 feet 8 inches; length of engine room, inches; mean draught, 16 feet 10 inches; displacement, 2,050 Digitized by Google 286 STEAMSHIP DEVELOPMENT. tons; diameter of cylinder, 721 inches; length of stroke, 82 pay $885,000 per annum to Edward K. Collins, conditional on inches; number of boilers, 4; pressure carried, 9 pounds per his building and operating, for twenty trips per year between square inch; number of furnaces, 12; fire-grate area, 222 feet; New York and Liverpool, four steamers of two thousand tons, indicated horse-power, 740; coal consumption per indicated that might be used as men-of-war in case of hostilities with a horse-power per hour, 5.1 pounds; coal consumption per day, foreign power. Mr. Collins did more than was required of 38 tons; bunker capacity, 640 tons; cargo capacity, 225 tons; him. William H. Brown, of New York, under George Steers' cabin passengers carried, 90; average speed, 8.5. In 1843 the direction, built the Arctic, of 2,856 tons, and the Atlantic, of Hibernia and in 1845 the Cambria joined the four vessels above 2,845 tons. Brown & Bell, of New York, built the Baltic, of named. Only first-class passengers were carried in those days, 2,723 tons, and the Pacific, of 2,707 tons. These gigantic four- the steamship emigrant business dating from 1850, while no deckers won and merited general admiration. Their average Cunarder was prepared for emigrants until 1853. Since that time from New York to Liverpool was 10 days, 21 hours, and time the magnitude of the emigrant traffic has become one of from Liverpool to New York 11 days, 3 hours. The average the wonders of the world. time of the Cunarders was from New York to Liverpool 11 days, 12 hours, and from Liverpool to New York 12 days, 9 AMERICAN PROGRESS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF STEAMSHIPS. hours. From January to November, 1852, the Collins Line car- On the western side of the Atlantic the steamship had a ried 4,306 passengers, against the Cunard's 2,969. Freight rates steady growth. By 1832 our shipwrights were building side- were soon cut down to one-half. Recognizing at once a power- wheelers for coasting service. The New York coasters were 80 ful rival the Cunard Line began to build new and superior ships. strong and rapid as to secure the yards of that city a number Our Government increased Collins' subsidy to $858,000 per an- of orders for steam frigates from foreign nations. The New num, on condition that he should increase his speed. The Orleans packet, United States tonnage 1,857, was an excellent Collins company handsomely sustained its head. In 1854 a vessel, carrying heavy burdens on light draught. collision with the Vesta destroyed the Arctic, but the next year In 1847 the United States government determined to use saw her replaced by the Adriatic, of 4,144 tons. This giantess steam for carrying the mails. This year saw the rise of the showed, in 1861, how well she deserved the $1,100,000 spent on United States Mail and Pacific Mail companies. During 1847- her, by running from St. John's to Galway in 5 days, 191 hours. 48 the Pacific Mail set afloat the California, 1,058 tons; the New British lines were springing up meanwhile, and side by Panama, 1,087 tons; and the Oregon, 1,099 tons. The United side with their growth grew and spread a feeling of hostility to States Mail built the Georgia, 2,727 tons; the Illinois, 2,123 tons the Collins Line subsidies. In 1856 they were cut down to and the Ohio, 2,432 tons. Wood and paddle-wheels were still $385,000, and the loss of the Pacific, with her crew and cargo, deemed sufficient. in the same year, verified the homely adage that misfortunes Almost magical results followed when gold was discovered in never come singly. In 1857 both the Collins and Mills con- California. Within ten years twenty-nine steamers were added tracts expired, and the Government refused to renew them. As to the two lines named above. It is reckoned that during that receipts were not equal to expenses, both lines were obliged to eventful decade they carried 175,000 persons to California, sell their ships, and much of our commerce fell into foreign bringing back gold to the amount of $200,000,000. Tonnage hands. During and since the civil war the steamships of Great had to be increased, and in 1864 the Golden City, of 3,873 tons, Britain have been steadily gaining prominence as oceanic car- was built. From 1880 to 1861 the four leading seaboard cities riers of American commerce. A Boston company in 1866 made constructed, on home and foreign orders, about eighty sea-going a spirited but fruitless attempt to struggle with the British, and steamers, with an aggregate tonnage of 120,000, and a total a Baltimore venture met with no better fate. Southern coasters cost of about $29,000,000. have, however, to a greater or less extent, participated in the The Clarion, of 250 tons, built in 1841 to run between New Mexican and West Indian trade, and Garrison, Roach, and York and Havana, was fitted up with a screw-propeller. The others have sought to build up commerce with Brazil. next year six screw-steamers were built at Philadelphia. As THE AMERICAN LINE. years passed the screw more than doubled its diameter, and the once universal paddle-wheel fell into decay and disuse for A promising and vigorous effort to establish an American vessels intended to navigate the ocean. Woodcroft, Loper, and line was made in Philadelphia during the eighth decade. It others made alterations and improvements on the screw sys- was backed principally by an endorsement of its bonds by the tem. Hall believes the Massachusetts, of 751 tons, to have Pennsylvania Railroad Company. Hall, in census report on been the first large ocean steamer sent out from an American American ship-building industries in 1880, printed in 1884, says port. that "in 1872 Mr. Cramp, of Philadelphia, obtained the contract In 1845 the post office contracted with Edward Mills for to build four steamers, respectively named Pennsylvania, Ohio, twenty trips a year to Europe, it being deemed advisable to Indiana, and Illinois, for the new American Line to Liverpool, follow the example of the British government in assisting of 3,016 tons each, at a total cost of $2,400,000. These boats steamship lines. The original grant to the Cunard company made the reputation of the yard, and there being then no of £80,000, was subsequently increased to £145,000, and still American steamers in the trade from the United States to later to £173,000 per annum. Our trans-Atlantic business was Europe (and indeed there have been none since), it was suffering severely from British competition. Four hundred deemed important to construct them in good style as speci- thousand dollars per year was granted to Mr. Mills, who se- mens of American workmanship. cured the construction of two steamers, the Washington and They were modeled long and narrow, with fine bows and the Hermann, at New York, Westervelt & Mackay being the runs and slightly hollow water lines. The dimensions of each builders. The steamers were to sail for Bremen monthly in were: Length over all, 355 feet; breadth of beam, 43 feet; depth winter and semi-monthly in summer. In appearance Mills' of hold, 35 feet. Decks, 3 in number; 2 masts. Each ship was ships resembled long sailing packets, painted black and white, supplied with two compound 1,800-horse-power engines, with and fitted up with paddle-wheels. In seaworthiness and gen- 57- and 90-inch cylinders, having 4-feet stroke, a 16-foot wheel. eral utility these steamships acquitted themselves well, but in The ships were completed in 1873, and proved fast, smart, and speed they were decidedly inferior to the Cunarders. In 1850 strong vessels; their speed was 13 miles an hour. They have the Franklin and Humboldt were built for the Bremen line, now been running nine years, and are insured by English com- but their destination proved to be the Havre trade. panies at the most favorable rates given to any iron vessels William Wheelright, an American, finding his own country afloat. As passenger boats they fully answered all expecta- slow to respond to his project, went to England and took an tions; their average time from Cape Henlopen to Queenstown active part in early operations of the Pacific Steam Navigation is 91 days, and on the return 10 days, 2 hours. Each carries Company, a corporation which ultimately expanded to large 100 cabin and 800 steerage passengers, 1,740 tons of cargo, and proportions. 720 tons of coal on 201 feet draught of water. The export trade In 1843 the frigate Missouri, while lying at Gibraltar, was to Europe now requires steamers which can carry 3,000 tons of destroyed by fire; but this ill-wind blew good to the cause of cargo, but in the day when they were built the American boats steamship building. Congress subsequently pledged itself to did all that was demanded of them." Digitized by Google STEAMSHIP DEVELOPMENT. 287 Notwithstanding the excellence of the vessels and the strong RELATIVE GROWTH OF STEAM TONNAGE IN THE UNITED STATES support they received, they were generally run at a loss for AND GREAT BRITAIN. some years, chiefly for reasons similar to those which led to A report presented by the Secretary of the Treasury to the the failure of other American steamships to compete with Senate in 1864 gives the tonnage of the United States employed European lines, one of the most important of which is that in steam navigation from 1823 to 1863, inclusive. Contrary to the latter receive governmental subsidies while the former what might have been expected, the list shows marked fluctua- do not. This line was subsequently practically absorbed in the tions instead of an unbroken advance. In 1815 the tonnage extensive system controlled by the International Navigation was 28,879, the next two years showing 21,609 and 23,061, re- Company, to which more particular reference is made else- spectively, followed by two decided gains of 34,058 and 40,197. where, and early in 18S7 it was stated that "of the four vessels In 1828 it fell to 39,418, bounding up to 54,036 in 1820, and of the American Line, the Ohio is now undergoing important 64,471 in 1830. In 1831 it fell to 34,435, but in 1839 it had changes. New engines that will secure a speed of fourteen reached 204,938, falling off slightly in 1840, and heavily in 1841, knots an hour are being placed in her, and she will have first- but footing up 229,661 in 1842. An unbroken and rapid rise class saloon passenger accommodations on deck, after the plan of the Westernland and Noordland. The same changes will now began, culminating in 1852, when tonnage aggregated 643,240. Despite two or three heavy declines in unfavorable be made in the Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Illinois, and this years, the tendency remained upward for nearly a decade, the fleet of American-built vessels will afford the very best facilities for the use of trans-Atlantic travelers." tonnage of 1861 being 877,203. In 1862 it fell to 710,462, and in 1863 to 575,518. The period since the war has witnessed many changes. Up to 1864 the steamship exerted comparatively little in- Cramp, Roach, Harlan & Hollingsworth, and Pusey & Jones fluence on our foreign trade, but about that time it was pressed have done excellent work. In various parts of the country into service in our commerce with France, England, Ger- new vessels of all sizes have been constructed. Hall says: "On many, the West Indies, and the Pacific. In the Treasury the whole, it can be reported that the building of iron and steel report before mentioned steamers in the isthmus and Cali- vessels has made sufficient progress in the United States to fornia trade are not classified with those engaged in foreign have created the plant and trained the labor for producing commerce. The aggregate of steam tonnage entering our sailing and steam craft for the merchant service of every de- ocean ports during the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1848, was scription and of any size. The merchant service is 54,891, of which 13,534 was American. Marked fluctuations well provided for, and the industry is growing, in spite of the high cost of American labor and materials. New yards are occurred, but the general tendency was toward an advance, and in the fiscal year ending June 30th, 1860, the tonnage amounted continually coming into existence. The general development of American industry is reducing the cost of materials, and the to 775,915, of which 384,899 was American. The figures for use of machinery is reducing the expenditures for labor upon the three following fiscal years were: 1861, total, 753,848; Ameri- vessels. The competition in rival yards is fessening the margin can, 313,903; 1862, total, 637,259; American, 212,675; 1863, total, of profit for which their proprietors are willing to build, and 724,932; American, 247,009. The actual steam tonnage arriving the tendency is all in the direction of favoring the substitution in foreign trade was much less than statistics would indicate, of iron or steel tonnage in place of wooden. There are other the returns for four fiscal years being: 1860, total, 456,449; American, 68,564; 1861, total, 508,346; American, 68,880; 1862, industries which effect changes for the benefit of this genera- tion for which future generations will have to pay. Iron ship- total, 440,463; American, 15,884; 1863, 473,114, all of which was building appears to inflict no injury as far as consumption of foreign. materials is concerned, and it is a department of activity which The following comparative table shows the steam tonnage of employs a greater proportion of human labor to the value of the United States and of the British Empire, beginning with material used than almost any other which can be named." the year in which ocean steam navigation may be said to have been put fairly on its feet. American tonnage is divided into STEAMSHIP SERVICE IN 1865. "oversea," or that which can trade beyond United States Of the foreign steam-carrying trade, shortly after the close waters, and "enrolled," which includes all in home waters:- of the civil war, the New York Tribune, of August 1st, 1865, British United States. said: "The total carrying trade performed by steam vessels Total. Empire Oversea. Enrolled. (inclding between this country and Europe is now in the hands of eight colonies.) 1838 2,791 190,632 193,423 82,716 regular lines, running about fifty vessels, not one of which car- 1840 4,155 198,184 202,339 95,807 ries the American flag. The old Cunard Line, most prudently 1842 4,701 224,960 229,681 118,930 and hence successfully managed from the start, has seen the 1844 6,909 265,270 272,179 125,675 wreck of its rival, the Collins, and has steadily increased in 1846 6 287 341,606 347,893 144,784 business until it runs regularly six vessels, though owning eight 1848 16,068 411,823 427,891 168,078 or ten. The Inman, a young line, started with the main interest 1850 44,942 481,005 525,947 187,631 of furnishing to the better class of emigrants accommodations 1852 79,704 563,536 643,240 227,306 superior to those of sailing vessels, has built boat after boat, 1854 95,036 581,571 676,607 326,484 1855 until it now has thirteen completed, and dispatches two per 115,045 1856 89,715 583,362 673,077 417,717 week from this port to Queenstown and Liverpool. The 1858 78,027 651,363 729,390 488,415 National-another British' company-has eight vessels, and 1860 97,296 770,641 867,937 500,144 from an irregular line is now dispatching a regular vessel weekly. Then there is the French line to Havre, at present a Since 1860 the relative position has greatly changed, the monthly line, but pushing new vessels to completion with all steam tonnage of Great Britain being increased with extraordi- dispatch; the Glasgow Line, devoted largely to the carrying of nary rapidity, until it represents a very large proportion of the immigrants; the Quebec and Portland Line; and the two Ger- oceanic steam tonnage of the world. man lines, one to Hamburg and one to Bremen, both running The amount of steam tonnage built in the United States semi-monthly vessels. While of the seven splendid American and in Great Britain at intervals of five years from 1855 is as ships which formerly crossed the ocean, the Arctic and Pacific follows:- are beneath it; the Adriatic passed into foreign hands; the UNITED STATES. Baltic, Atlantic, Arago, and Fulton have been in transportation service during the war. Number. Tonnage. Average tonnage. A notable fact, suggested by looking over the lines now in 1855 246 72,760 296 operation, is the remarkable increase in screw vessels. Except- 1860 265 69,370 259 ing the French line to Havre, and the older of the Cunard vessels, 1865 411 146,433 356 1870 290 not more than three of the whole fifty steamers now crossing 70,621 244 1875 323 the Atlantic are driven by side-wheels, and nearly every one 62,460 193 1880 348 78,853 229 now constructed for trans-Atlantic service adopts the screw." 1885 338 84,333 249 Digitized by Google ? . 4 William slow to rexpond to his project, active part in early operations of the Pacific Company 2 corporation which ultimately expanded to proportions. In 1842 the frigate Missouri, while lying at Gibraltar, was destroyed by fire: but this ill-wind blew good to the cause of steamship building, Congress subsequently pledged itself to de ORTREAL DEDENSBURG TRUNK Digitized by Google R CENTRAL PAILWAY TRUNK pswees MAVEN DETROIT & new / SARATOSA POST RIVER ERIE ALBANY sale CENTRAL this "MAILWAY CHICAGO PATIENT sale RIVER SHE STATE CLEVELAND NEW great NEW LINE PENNSYLVANIA MARRISBURG RIDIANAPOLIS PERMITE MMM LINE PENNSYLVANIA COLUMBUS WREELING PHILADE PHIA LINE OHIO CIRCINNATI PRINERSBURG and SALTINORE OHIO MATIMORE MISSISSIPPI WASHINGTON LOUISVILLE CHARLESTON RIVER ONIO The Principal TRANSPORTATION LINES EXTENDING WEST FROM RICHMON BOSTON, NEW YORK, PHILADELPINA, AND BALTIMORE, 1878. HASHVILLE Digitized by Google MECHANICAL ADVANCES AND INCREASE OF EFFICIENCY. 289 Name. Built. Gross Length. Beam. tonnage. Depth. The Inman Line steamers now running from New York, City of Richmond 1873 4,607 452.6 48 36 Queenstown, and Liverpool are as follows: City of New York, Erin 1864 4,500 415 41 35 10,500 tons; City of Paris, 10,500 tons; City of Chicago, 5,202 City of Chester 1873 4,565 475 44.3 35 tons; City of Berlin, 5,491 tons; City of Richmond, 4,780 tons; Spain 1871 4,512 425.4 43.2 36.2 City of Chester, 4,770 tons; City of Montreal, 4,500 tons. The Queen 1865 4,457 380 1 42.4 37.3 Grecian Monarch 1882 4,364 381 43 83 EFFECT OF STEAMSHIP PROGRESS IN INCREASING FOREIGN Greece 1863 4,310 390.7 41.3 35.3 COMMERCE. Devonia 1877 4,269 400 42 32 Figures from Government reports adduce their unanswerable Hammonia 1882 4,247 375 45 34 Italy 1870 4,169 389 42.3 38.7 logic to show how steam developed foreign commerce. The Anchoria 1874 4,168 480 40.1 33.8 total imports of the United States in 1821 reached $62,585,724, State of Nebraska 1880 4,000 385 43 34 the exports for the same period being valued at only $43,671,894. Ethiopia 1873 4,005 402 40.2 33 Not until 1831 did the imports and not until 1835 did the ex- Lydian Monarch 1881 3,916 360 43 32.4 ports pass the one hundred million mark. In 1848 our im- Adriatic 1871 3,888 437.2 40.9 31 ports were valued at $154,998,928, and our domestic exports at Celtic 1872 3,867 437.2 40.9 31 $132,904,121. In 1857 the imports were $360,890,141, and the Denmark 1865 8,724 342.9 42.2 36 domestic exports, $338,985,065. From 1857 to 1886, inclusive, Republic 1871 3,707 420 40.9 31 the course of foreign trade, exclusive of the movement of Baltic 1871 3,707 420 40.9 31 Suabia 1874 3,704 360 41 34 specie, is shown by the following table:- Wisconsin 1870 3,700 378 43.2 32 Value of merchandise imported into, and exported from, the United States, from 1858 to 1886, inclusive. Year ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW LINES-THE INTERNATIONAL NAVIGATION Exports Total Total ex- ending Imports. Sept. 30 Domestic. Foreign, exports. ports and COMPANY. imports. 1858 $251,351,033 $20,660,241 $272,011,274 $263,338,654 $535,349,928 The Inman Line was established in 1850; the North German 1859 278,392,080 14,509,971 292,902,051 331,333,341 624,235,392 Lloyd and the Compagnie Transatlantique in 1858; in 1863 the 1860 316,242,423 17,333,634 333,576,057 353,616,119 687,192,176 National; in 1866 the Williams & Guion (now the Guion), and 1861 204,899,616 14,654,217 219,553,833 289,310,542 508,864,375 1862 in 1870 the White Star. 179,644,024 11,025,477 190,670,501 189,356,667 380,027,178 1863 186,003,912 17,960,535 203,964,447 243,335,815 447,300,262 The International Navigation Company claims mention in 1864 143,504,027 15,333,961 158,837,988 316,447,283 475,285,271 any, even the briefest, allusion to the work that has been done 1865. 136,940,248 29,089,055 166,029,303 238,745,580 404,774,833 in providing swift and convenient trans-oceanic passage. It 1866 337,518,102 11,341,420 348,859,522 434,812,066 783,671,588 now controls the Red Star and Inman lines, and the four Amer- 1867 279,786,809 14,719,332 294,506,141 395,761,096 690,267,237 ican Line steamers, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana. 1868 269,389,900 12,562,999 281,952,899 357,436,440 639,389,339 It has introduced into the Inman Line, since it purchased 1809. 275,166,697 10,951,000 186,117,697 417,500,379 703,624,076 1870 this company's property, the steamships "City of New York' 376,616,473 16,155,295 392,772,768 435,958,408 828,730,176 1871 428,398,908 14,421,270 442,820,178 520,223,684 963,043,862 and "City of Paris," which are the largest and swiftest pas- 1872. 428,487,131 15,690,455 444,177,586 626,595,077 1,070,772.663 senger steamships afloat. They are specially constructed, and 1873 505,033,439 17,446,483 522,479,922 642,136,210 1,164,616,132 so subdivided by bulkheads as to be unsinkable, and are fitted 1874 569,433,421 16,849,619 586,283,040 567,406,342 1,153,689,382 with twin engines and twin screws, thus rendering a disable- 1875. 499,284,100 14,158,611 513,442,711 533,005,436 1,046,448,147 ment at sea practically impossible. These steamers were fully 1876. 525,582,247 14,802,424 540,384,671 460,741,190 1,001,125,861 described in the London Times, of December 21st, 1887. That 1877 589,670,224 12,804,996 602,475,220 451,323,126 1,053,798,316 description, in referring to their unique provisions for safety, 1878. 680,709,268 14,156,498 604,865,766 437,051,532 1,131,917,298 says: Many ships have been divided by bulkheads in such a 1879. 698,340,790 12,098,651 710,439,441 445,777,775 1,156,217,216 1880. 823,946,353 11,692,305 835,638,658 667,954,746 1,503,593,404 way that if one compartment were flooded the ship would be 1881. 883,925,947 18,451,399 902,377,346 642,664,628 1,545,041,974 perfectly seaworthy, but in the case of an accident where the 1882. 783,239,732 17,302,525 750,542,257 724,939,574 1,475,181,831 ship was struck on the bulkhead and the two compartments 1883. 804,223,632 19,615,770 823,839,402 723,180,914 1,547,020,310 adjacent flooded, she would inevitably sink. In the case of 1884. 724,964,852 15,548,757 740,513,609 667,697,693 1,408,211,302 these new Inman boats, however, the subdivision is such that 1885. 726,682,946 15,506,809 742,189,755 577,527,329 1,319,717,084 the ship would remain perfectly seaworthy, with any two, or 1886. 665,964,529 13,560,301 679,524,839 635,436,136 1,314,969,986 even three, compartments flooded." The article proceeds to RELATION BETWEEN STEAMSHIP LINES AND RAILWAY LINES. point out additional novel elements of safety arising from spe- The principal basis of the great increase of the foreign com- cial precautions against fire, complete boat accommodations merce of the United States is furnished by the exports of for every soul on board, and devices for quickly lowering every comparatively crude domestic articles, consisting chiefly of boat if a necessity for removing passengers should arise. To agricultural products. A leading business of the railway com- guard against delays and dangers caused by derangements of panies, in turn, is to convey such products from districts in machinery, two sets of engines, each set driving a separate which they are produced to seaboard cities, where they can screw, were provided. Of this important and novel provision either be consumed, distributed to domestic centres of con- the Times says: "The engines are in two separate compart- sumption, or exported. The percentage of the leading articles ments, subdivided by a water-tight bulkhead, and the boilers forwarded to seaboard cities that is exported varies consider- are in three separate compartments, completely cut off from ably with fluctuations in foreign demand, state of the crops, each other, so that these vessels might be in collision by being and other causes, but it not unfrequently happens that the per- struck on any bulkhead, and could have a breakdown in their centage of exports is very large, and it is always increased ma- machinery, such as may occur in any ordinary ship, and still terially by the facilities furnished by steamships for cheap and be quite navigable and thoroughly safe and seaworthy. While, rapid oceanic transportation. Out of this condition of affairs therefore, the vessels are well provided against the effects of has grown at various times and places alliances, more or less collision, they are also very much better able to avoid collision complete, which sometimes consist of direct business connec- by having two sets of machinery, one of which could be readily tions and at other times of traffic contracts, between railway reversed while the other was going ahead, thus turning the and steamship lines, and also the custom of frequently issuing vessel." through bills of lading, which represent contracts for the entire In addition to the four American Line steamers the follow- movement between Chicago or other interior traffic centres and ing Red Star steamers are now (1888) running from New York Liverpool or other foreign ports. There are also close alliances and Philadelphia to Antwerp: Friesland, 6,700 tons; Western- between some of the coastwise steamship lines and railway land, 6,000 tons; Noordland, 5,500 tons; Waesland, 5,000 tons; companies. Belgenland, 4,000 tons; Rhynland, 4,000 tons; Pennland, 4,000 Some of the most serious of the modern strifes between rival tons; Switzerland, 3,000 tons; Nederland, 8,000 tons; Vader- seaboard cities and rival trunk lines have arisen out of disputes land, 8,000 tons; Zeeland, 3,000 tons. which hinged on the relative advantages of Boston, New York, 37 Digitized by Google 290 STEAMSHIPS IN COASTING TRADE, &C., AND STEAMBOATS. Philadelphia, and Baltimore as ports through which the joint ment of the inland rates to the seaboard must be made more rail and steamship movement between interior agricultural or with the view to the export trade than to domestic traffic." traffic centres and Liverpool or other foreign centres of con- Controversies of a later date indicate that methods which sub- sumption could be made. The complexity of the problems stantially conform to this recommendation have frequently involved was increased by the respective variations in over- been adopted. land distance between the ports and the most important in- OCEAN STEAMSHIP RATES. terior traffic centres on the one hand and an analogous oceanic In the years named below the average annual steamship difference between such ports and leading foreign ports on the charges per 100 pounds for movements to Liverpool were as other. New York, for instance, is further from Chicago than follows:- Philadelphia or Baltimore, but nearer to Liverpool. As a large From From From From Year New York. Philadelphia. Baltimore. Boston. proportion of the breadstuffs, provisions, tobacco, and other Cents. Cents. Cents. Centa. articles shipped from the interior to the North Atlantic sea- 1877 22.9 26.9 27.5 board cities is usually exported, the question became one of 1878 25.1 28.2 28.8 28.8 great commercial interest through which of these cities the 1879 20.6 24.2 23.0 20.0 foreign export movement could be most cheaply and conveni- 1880 19.7 21.4 223 19.0 ently made, strong influences in each city being actively In each of the years there was a considerable fluctuation in exerted against any adjustment of rail rates that would give the oceanic rates, 80 that the charges were higher in some an advantage to either of its rival cities. Railway managers months than in others. There have also been occasional com- endeavored to adjust the controversy on the principle of petitivo strifes between rival steamship lines analogous to those equality or impartiality, 80 that the export movements could which have occurred between rival railway lines, and some of be made through either city on substantially the same terms these struggles presumably represent combinations of one set of that could be obtained in any other city. There is always an railway and steamship lines, against corresponding antagonistic approximation to an enforcement of this theory, intermingled combinations. Through these strifes excessively cheap oceanic with deviations of varying magnitude, which arise chiefly and land service has been obtained, such as a reduction of the through fluctuations in oceanic steamship rates. In an elabo- joint rates for a through movement between Chicago and Liver- rate report on this subject, made by Albert Fink in 1882, he pool to a lower point than that represented by the figures given stated that the only practical plan for enforcing the principle above for an oceanic movement between north Atlantic sea- of equality, 80 far as it related to grain exports, was "to agree board cities and Liverpool; and even when oceanic and rail upon fixed inland rates upon the whole grain traffic, domestic rates are fully maintained the entire cost of moving domestic and export, and to determine the through rates by adding the merchandise between interior ports and European seaboard ocean rates, whatever they may be, from time to time, from cities represents only a small fraction of the charges which the different cities to points of destination, and that the adjust- were formerly imposed for such service. STEAMSHIPS IN COASTING TRADE, &C., AND STEAMBOATS. A NUMBER of steamships built in the United States are Name of Gross When vessel. built. Where built. tonnage. Home port. used in the coasting trade either on the waters of the Mariposa 3,158.23 1858 Philadelphia. San Francisco. Atlantic and gulf of Mexico or on the Pacific coast or in Morgan City 2,270.97 1876 Wilmington, Del. New Orleans. foreign trade with the West Indies or South American or Nacoochee 2,680.00 1882 Chester, Pa. Savannah. Ga. Asiatic ports. The official list of merchant vessels for the year New York 2,846.56 1875 Wilmington, Del. New Orleans. ended June 80th, 1884, embraced an enumeration of 6,111 Niagara 2,265.28 1877 Chester, Pa. New York. steam vessels of all kinds, of which the following were classed Ohio 8,101.04 1873 Philadelphia. Philadelphia. assteamships, having a gross tonnage of more than 2,000 tons:- Pennsylvania 3,104.28 1873 Philadelphia. Philadelphia. Queen of Pacific 2,727.80 1882 Philadelphia. San Francisco. Name of Gross When vessel. built. Where built. tonnage. Home port. Roanoke 2,354.38 1882 Chester, Pa. New York. Acapulco 2,572.38 1873 Wilmington, Del. New York. Tallahassee 2,677.41 1882 Chester, Pa. Savannah, Ga. Advance 2,604.57 1883 Chester, Pa. New York. COASTWISE STEAMSHIP AND STEAMBOAT LINES. Alamedo 3,158.23 1883 Philadelphia. San Francisco. A number of the steamships named above, various other Alamo 2,942.85 1883 Chester, Pa. New York. Algiers 2,287.34 1876 Wilmington, Del. New Orleans. steamships and a number of steamboats are employed in coast- Allegheny 2,014.42 1881 Philadelphia. Bultimore. wise, lake, or river transportation. The list of companies or Chalmette 2,982.96 1879 Philadelphia. New Orleans. lines engaged in such operations in 1887 included the following: Chattahoochee 2,676.35 1882 Chester, Pa. Savannah, Ga. Androscoggin Lake Transportation Company; Arkansas River City of Macon 2,092.80 1877 Philadelphia. Savannah, Ga. Packet Company; Baltimore and Savannah Line; Baltimore, City of New York 3,019.56 1875 Chester, Pa New York. Chesapeake and Richmond Steamboat Company; Bay Line City of Pava 8,532.26 1678 Philadelphia. New York. (running on the Chesapeake); Benton Transportation Com- City of Peking 5,079 62 1874 Chester, Pa. New York. pany (running on the Missouri river); Boston and Bangor City of Savannah 2,029.40 1876 Philadelphia. Savannah, Ga. City of Sidney 3,016.76 1875 Chester, Pa. Steamship Company; Boston, Norfolk, Washington and Balti- New York. City of Tokio 5,079.62 1874 Chester, Pa. New York. more Line (Merchants' and Miners' Transportation Company); City of Wash'gt' 2,618.27 1877 Philadelphia. New York. Brunswick and Inland Steamboat Company; Central Line of Clyde 2,016 71 1870 Philadelphia. New York. boats (plying the Chattahoochie, Apalachicola, and Flint Colina 2,905.64 1873 Chester, Pa. New York. rivers); Colgrove's Transportation Line; Cross River route (from Colon 2,685.75 1873 Chester, Pa. New York. Rome, Ga., to Greenpoint, Ala.); Crooked Lake Navigation Colorado 2,764.84 1879 Chester, Pa. New York. Company (New York); De Bary-Baya Merchant's Line (St. Columbia 2.712.89 1880 Chester, Pa. Portland, Or. John's river, Florida) Deseronto Navigation Company; Detroit Granada 2 573 38 1873 Wilmington, Del. New York. and Cleveland Steam Navigation Company; Diamond Jo Line Guyandotte 2,350.57 1882 Chester, Pa. New York. H. F. Dimock 2,625.03 1884 Philadelphia. New York. steamers (between St. Louis and St. Paul); East Coast Steam- Illinois 3,101 77 1873 Philadelphia. Philadelphia. boat Company (of Florida); Fall River Line (Old Colony Steam. Indiana 3,101.77 1873 Philadelphia. Philadelphia. boat Company); Georgia and Florida Steamboat Company; Lone Star 2 255.39 1875 Wilmington, Del. New Orleans Independent Line steamers (St. John's river, Florida); Interna- Louisiana 2,840.33 1880 Chester, Pa. New York. tional Steamship Company (line between Boston, Portland, Digitized by Google STEAMSHIPS IN COASTING TRADE, &C., AND STEAMBOATS. 291 Eastport, and St. John, N. B.); Keuka (Lake) Navigation Com- sot Line (Mississippi and Yazeo River Packet Company, plying pany; Kissimmee City and Fort Bassinger steamers (Florida); from the Mississippi and Ohio rivers to the Yazoo, Tallahatchie, Lake Hopatcong Steamboat Company; Lake Superior Transit Sunflower, and Tehula rivers); People's Line steamers (St. John's Company; Mallory's Steamship lines (New York and Texas river, Florida); Pittsburgh and Cincinnati Packet Line; Plant Steamship Company); Maryland Steamboat Company; Mem- Steamship Line (plying between Tampa, Key West, and Ha- phis and Vicksburg Packet Company; Memphis and White vana); Portland Steam Packet Company (plying between Bos- River Packet Company; Merchants' and Planters' Line of ton and Portland); Potomac Steamboat Company (plying be- steamers (plying the Chattahoochie, Flint, and Apalachicola tween Washington, Old Point Comfort, and Norfolk); Providence, rivers); Missouri River Packet Company (operating between Norfolk, West Point and Baltimore Line; Red River and Coast Sioux City, Iowa, and Bismarck, Dakota); Missouri River Line (plying between New Orleans and Jefferson, Texas, Shreve- Transportation Line; Nashville, Paducah and Cairo, and Nash- port, and all points on Rod river to the head of navigation); St. ville and Evansville Packet companies (operating on Cumber- Louis and Mississippi Valley Transportation Company (St. Louis land, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers); Natchez and Vicksburg and New Orleans Freight Line); St. Louis and St. Paul Packet Packet Company; New Bedford, Martha's Vineyard and Nan- Company; St. Louis, Ohio and Tennessee River Packet Com- tucket steamers; New York and Charleston Steamship Com- pany; Savannah and Baltimore Line; Seneca Lake Steam Navi- pany; Norfolk and Washington Line of steamers; Norwich and gation Company; Star Line steamers (plying between Detroit New York Transportation Company (Norwich and Worcester and Port Huron); Stonington Line steamers; West India Fast Steamship Line); Ocean Steamship Company, of Savannah Mail route (plying between Tampa, Florida, and Havana). (Philadelphia and Savannah Line); Old Dominion Steamship MERCHANT STEAM TONNAGE AND TRAFFIC. Company; Ontario and St. Lawrence Navigation Company; The geographical distribution, tonnage, and earnings of the Owego Steam Navigation Company; Pacific Coast Steamship steam craft of the United States, exclusive of 143 vessels used (steamers sailing from San Francisco for ports in California, on state waters with no navigable outlet, and not subject to Oregon, Washington and Idaho Territories, British Columbia customs and inspection laws of the United States, in 1880, and Alaska); Paducah and Cairo Daily Packet Company; Pari- was as follows:- Number From Freight of Tonnage. Gross earnings. passenger traffic. traffic. in Steamers. Number. tons. Total 4,778 1,194,888.98 $83,903,537 167,683,106 24,819,523 New England group 463 118,533.74 7,849,828 15,474,710 2,610,416 Northern lakes 947 222,290.45 12,136,228 1,356,010 4,368,171 Upper Mississippi river 366 83,918.09 7,668,864 1,299,553 3,500,035 Ohio river 473 107,472.48 7,628,924 3,961,798 2,446,353 Middle states. 1,450 432,803.26 31,856,519 136,653,282 7,217,415 Lower Mississippi river 315 48,303.06 4,168,989 1,385,357 1,276,972 Gulf of Mexico 126 41,610.67 2,806,310 79,260 694,343 South Atlantic coast 266 30,833.13 2,598,709 1,787,065 553,222 Pacific coast 319 97,004.88 6,362,770 6,604,712 2,087,293 Upper Missouri river 44 12,099.22 826,396 81,359 65,303 A large proportion of all the steam craft of the United States was very rapid. Three years later the tonnage had reached consists of ferry and towing boats. 387,740, and the valuation $15,000,000. The number of steamers IMPROVEMENTS IN COASTWISE STEAMERS. had increased to 312, and sail vessels to 1,130. In 1862 the classification was as follows: Steamers, 396; Comparing the speed, equipment, and cost of running our schooners, 1,066; barques, 74; brigs, 85; sloops, 16; total ton- coastwise steamers now and a few years ago, a marine engineer nage, 412,127. The value then was estimated to be fully says: "Coastwise steamships of the 1873 type of 1,200 tons, had $23,000,000. The lake marine reached the height of its pros- a carrying capacity of 1,900 bales of cotton, an average speed perity in 1872, when there were 868 steamers, with a tonnage of ten miles an hour, or a consumption of 28 tons of coal per of 172,483; 3,208 sail vessels, with a tonnage of 310,368, and 1,553 twenty-four hours. The engineer's crew consisted of a chief barges, with a tonnage of 254,453, making a total of 737,304 and three assistant engineers, three oilers, six firemen, and six tons. The panic of 1873, and the subsequent business depres- coal passers. There were only three steam pistons to pack, sion, have told heavily upon the lake trade, but this is believed two of the main and one of the donkey-pump engine. In the to be only temporary, like the effect upon other departments modern-built steamship of 1885 there are thirty steam pistons of commerce. The number and tonnage of all the craft on to pack. The average gross tonnage of the propeller steam- the chain of lakes at the close of the year 1876 was as follows: ship of the present time is 2,500 with a carrying capacity of Steam vessels, 885; tonnage, 190,367. Schooners, 1,282; ton- 5,000 bales of cotton, and a speed of 13 miles per hour on a nage, 273,682. Barques, 66; tonnage, 24,526. Brigs, 16; ton- consumption of about thirty tons of coal per day. The engi- nage, 2,945. Sloops, 68; tonnage, 4,699. Scows, 179; tonnage, neer's crew on these large ships are the same as they were on 8,541; making a total tonnage of 504,760, a falling off of over the old small ones with the exception of one assistant engineer 200,000 tons. The number of steamers has remained about less." From the foregoing it appears that the speed increased the same, and the number of sail vessels has been reduced nearly one-third and the carrying capacity more than doubled nearly one-half. The depreciation and decrease in value have without any corresponding increase in the crews employed, been even more." owing to improved machinery and its more general substitu- In 1880 the number of steam craft plying on the northern tion for hand labor, which facts must go a long ways toward lakes, exclusive of vessels identified with canal interests, was solving the problem "how to navigate ships profitably." 947, of which 897 belonged to Michigan, 114 to Wisconsin, 89 LAKE TRANSPORTATION SERVICE. to Illinois, 117 to Ohio, 26 to Pennsylvania, and 204 to New A review of lake transportation service up to 1877 embraced York. the following statements:- TRANSPORTATION IN BARGES ON THE LAKES. "In 1845 there were upon the lakes above Niagara Falls 60 Much attention was given at various periods to barges in steamers, 8 of which were propellers; 270 schooners, and 50 connection with economical internal transportation. An ad- brigs, with an aggregate of 76,000 tons. There were on lake dress delivered by Mr. Richmond, president of the Buffalo Ontario 13 steamers, 6 of which were propellers, and 100 sail Board of Trade, embraces the following statements:- vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 18,000. The estimated "No longer ago than 1850 the most spacious propeller on value at that time was $5,500,000. Ten years later the number the great lakes could carry only 600 tons. Gradually the size of craft on the lakes increased to the following: Steamboats, has been enlarged, until some of the propellers carry from 110; propellers, 97; schooners, 639; brigs, 101; barques, 33; sloops 2,000 to 2,500 tons. In 1861 the modern and economical system and scows, 216; tonnage, 237,830. The value was estimated to of transportation in barges on the great lakes is said to have have reached $10,000,000. From that time onward the growth been first introduced. Its result has been a wonderful reduc- Digitized by Google 292 STEAMSHIPS IN COASTING TRADE, &C., AND STEAMBOATS. tion in the cost of freightage. It was first used in the lumber floated out into the stream, and the steamer picks it up as she trade, where it was highly successful, and now nearly all the goes along, and after relieving the barge of its load, casts it lumber brought to Buffalo and Tonawanda is carried in barges, adrift on the tide. The empty barge then floats to some point in lines of four, five, or six, towed by propellers or steam tugs. where it is picked up by a tugboat and conveyed to the fleet Thus a million and a half or two millions of feet are brought of empties that awaits transportation up the river. A tow in each tow. Lumber is brought from Bay City, in Michigan, from here destined for the lower river usually employs from to Buffalo, a distance of about 500 miles, at the low charge of thirty to thirty-five hands, who principally reside in this $1.25 per thousand feet." vicinity. The strongest, largest, and costliest towboats in the In this and in all his other statements regarding rates of world are used, and the only other marine structures that can freight Mr. Richmond adduces actual facts. be compared with them at all, are some of the North river "It was not until 1871 that the use of a propeller with one towboats used for convoying canal fleets from Albany to New barge attached for the carriage of grain on the great lakes was York, such as the Niagara and others. But there is no more first introduced. It may be said to have revolutionized the similarity between the manner of towing on the Hudson and business. Large numbers of 'tows,' each consisting of a pro- on the Ohio than there is between the boats employed. The peller and its consort, and carrying from 100,000 to 120,000 Hudson river boats are long structures, tapering from amidship bushels, were subsequently employed." to stern and bow, with paddle-wheels at the sides, of deep Mr. Richmond gives instances showing that on large vessels draught, and with boilers under the water line. They really having a return cargo of coal at the low rate of 60 cents a ton, 'tow,' pulling their convoy with long ropes attached to the free in and out, from Buffalo to Chicago, a distance of about stern. Our Ohio boats are 'wheelbarrows,' with wheels behind, 1,000 miles, corn could be brought on large sailing vessels from boilers on deck, of light draught, and 'butt' their tows ahead of Chicago to Buffalo for two cents a bushel at a profit, and that them. Eastern boatmen cannot understand how we do it, but where a propeller and an accompanying barge are used the the most powerful towboat on the Hudson (and they are the profit was much greater. In 1866 the average lake freight most powerful in the salt water world) could not budge a lower on corn from Chicago to Buffalo was 11} cents, and in October river coal fleet with its rope arrangements." of that year the average was over 15 cents. BARGE MOVEMENT OF GRAIN. BARGE MOVEMENT OF COAL DOWN THE OHIO FROM PITTSBURGH. There is also a considerable movement of grain in barges on An article published in the Pittsburgh Commercial in 1883 western rivers. Some idea of its characteristics may be formed says:- from the following statement, made a few years ago, in the St. "There are about 1,500 barges and 600 coal boats engaged in Louis Republican:- the transportation of coal. The barges are usually 130 feet "If any one imagines that a towboat and barges cannot carry long by 24 feet wide, and will carry from ten to fourteen thou- a good paying load they can find a cure for their unbelief by sand bushels of coal. They cost from $12,000 to $15,000 each. noting the following cargo of the tow-boat Bee, which arrived The coal boats are about 170 feet long and 26 feet wide, and in New Orleans last Saturday: 4,371 barrels flour, 1,296 barrels hold from twenty to twenty-five thousand bushels. The boats meal, 1,090 barrels grits, 5,258 sacks corn, 802 sacks oats, 651 cost from $600 to $750 each. Their bottoms are made up along sacks bran, 1,296 packages lard, 204 packages meat, 150 bales the Allegheny river and floated down here, where their sides of hay, and 24,992 bushels of bulk corn. One hundred barrels of 11 inch planking are added. The barges are always brought of flour is a car load; consequently, this tow-boat had 44 cars back, but the boats, which go to New Orleans, are usually there of flour on board. That would make two good freight trains. sold and broken up. A boat sold at the New Orleans levee Add 13 cars of meal, 11 cars of grits, 6 cars sacked corn, 4 cars brings from $100 to $250. Its planks are resold and its timbers of oats, 2 cars of bran, 6 cars of lard, 1 car of meat, 8 cars of often cut up into firewood. On an average stage of water it hay, and 75 cars of bulk corn, the grand total of the car loads takes from four to five weeks to run a tow from here to New of this one cargo would be 155." Orleans, and about three weeks to come back with empties. A Kansas City journal, in discussing barges, says:- Two hundred thousand bushels are considered a good tow from "We have never seen one, but, as we read about them, here to Louisville, but from there down the lower river, and $15,000 to $25,000 is the cost, and they carry from 15,000 to frequently to the New Orleans district, which comprises the en- 35,000 bushels of grain each. The hulls are strong, and built tire 'sugar coast,' the tows run from five hundred to six hundred with bulkheads of light draft. The expense of operating is said thousand bushels. The Joe Williams went down this spring to be $75 to $100 per day. The speed is not given, but ten miles with 700,000 bushels. About 40 per cent. of the coal shipped an hour down stream ought to be made without difficulty as an goes to Cincinnati for local consumption. Louisville stands average, and half that up river. This would give three days to next in order as a consumer, and after it New Orleans. Mem- St. Louis down, and four days back. We count sixteen hours phis and Vicksburg are about the same in size of demand. running time per day down the river, and all hours up, in all From Paducah the Tennessee and Cumberland district are seven days, or, at outside figures for expense, $700; at inside supplied, and from Memphis and Vicksburg the Arkansas, St. figures, $505. Now, a load of grain of 15,000 bushels at 5 cents Francis, and White river districts. New Orleans shipments would aggregate $750; at 10 cents, $1,500. A load of 85,000 comprise the supply for the 'sugar coast,' embracing the Teche, bushels would be $1,500 and $3,000. In this no account is Tchafalayah, and the country in the vicinity of Brashear city. taken of back loads." Some forty millions of bushels are annually sent from here to WESTERN RIVER STEAMBOAT MOVEMENTS. Cincinnati, which city is Pittsburgh's largest customer. Next The relative magnitude of steamboat movements on the in order comes New Orleans, which takes from eighteen to western rivers has been greatly diminished by the success of twenty million bushels; Louisville some fifteen million, and barges as freight carriers and the numerous opportunities Memphis and Vicksburg about ten million. In speaking of afforded of utilizing competitive railway lines in passenger the 'take' of these different points, the names of the cities and freight service. A considerable field for steamboat opera- mentioned are used to designate the entire districts they sup- tions still exists, however, and many fine steamers were built ply. The average cost of sending coal from here to Cincinnati at comparatively late periods. is about two cents per bushel, and from here to New Orleans Col. John W. Forney, in describing a steamboat on which he from three and a half to four cents. was journeying down the Mississippi in June, 1872, said:- Of course these figures are not definite, but they express a "Pittsburgh and Cincinnati have been the chief manufac- carefully calculated average. The boat trade of the lower turing cities of the western steamboats, including their mag- Mississippi consumes a large amount of coal. There are nificent engines, while Madison, Jefferson City, and New various coaling stations, the most prominent being that of the Albany, Indiana, have also become famous therefor. The Browns, at Arkansas City. 'Wooding up' on the Mississippi builder after whom this splendid palace is named, James is a thing of the past. The boats all carry a small supply of Howard, has turned out from his slips at Madison, Indiana, wood to start or hasten fires, but coal is the fuel used. There 400 steamboats. The length of the hull of the Howard is 330 is rarely a stop made to receive it. The ladened coal barge is feet, breadth of beam 55 feet, depth of hold 10 feet, extreme Digitized by Google containing large every convenience of bed chamber is a gorgeous saloon, and is upho style equal to poor Fisk's gaudy 801 He also stated that a round trip Orleans could then be made in 1 first commenced running between quired was 45 days. A notable occurred in June, 1870, in a race and Natchez. The Lee was victc from New Orleans to St. Louis, 1,2% and 14 minutes. HOW THE RAILWAYS AND BARGES E The Pittsburgh Telegraph publis few years ago on the failure of a lii organized in the fall of 1880 to ( burgh, St. Louis, and other river to had continued in service. What has done this?' was ask the well-known steamboat agent ( promptly replied:- 'It is not a long story, but an i Big Seven boats began their trips Railroads were charging 26 cents ] St. Louis, and the boats could do i a 11-cent margin in their favor. June 13th, 1881, the railroads dr water kept the boats idle for near started up again in November, 188 (per 100 pounds) for St. Louis freigl 71 cents in their favor. Then the expected would be done. They ga towns, such as McKeesport, Johnst Louis, and abolished charges from instance, the old rate from the Caml to St. Louis was 43 cents per 100. This cost the boats 3,000 tons a y' McKeesport, where the tube works They got a through rate to St. Lot Average freight 1: Wheat per bushel Flour per barrel Barley per bushel Average fre 1866. Articles. High Low water. wate Flour per barrel $0 45 $0 5. Corn per bushel 0 124 0 1/ Rye per bushel 0 124 0 1. Oats per bushel 0 07f 0 0 Bacon per 100 pounds 0 22} 0 2' Ham per 100 pounds. 0 221 0 2' Pork per barrel 0 671 0 8: Beef per barrel 0 671 08: Lard per 100 pounds 0 221 0 2 Hay per 100 pounds 0 324 0 3 NOTE-High water rates include months and March the rate for flour averaged 82 cel Statement prepared by George H. Wagn Exchange of St. Louis, showing averag from St. Louis to New Orleans, during clusive:- 1866. 1 Cts. ( Wheat per bushel 241 2 Flour per barrel 75 9 Corn per bushel 2317 Rye per bushel 231½ Oats per bushel 13} Bacon per 100 pounds 41g Hams per 100 pounds 41g Pork per barrel 114 1 Beef per barrel 114 1 Lard per 100 Hay per 100 Digitized by Go 294 STEAMSHIPS IN COASTING TRADE, &C., AND STEAMBOATS. Average freight charges, highest and lowest prices, from St. Louis to New LAKE FREIGHTS. Orleans by steamer in 1866 and 1872. Statement showing the average rates of take freights on wheat and corn be 1886 1872. tween Chicago and Buffalo during each month in eighteen years; the high- Average. Lowest. Highest. Average. Lowest. Highest. est rate on wheat in each year, and the average rate on wheat in each Wheat per bushel {0 242 $C 15 $0 45 $ $ year:- Flour per barrel 0 0 40 1 50 0 711 C 30 1 25 May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 0 14 c 1861, wheat 7.2 6.8 5.7 10.0 14.0 18.6 Corn per bushel 0 23,20 41yy 0 20 C 094 0 16.0 364 1861, corn 6.3 6.3 5.2 8.8 12.0 17.2 Rye per bushel 0 23,20 0 14 0 411A 0 20 0 091 0 36% 14.7 Oats per bushel 0 13f 0 08 0 24 0 114 0 051 Highest rate on wheat during 1861, 26 cents. 0 201 Bacon per 100 lbs 0 411 0 25 0 75 0 361 0 174 0 65 Average on wheat for season 1861, 11 cents. Hams per 100 lbs 0411 0 25 75 0 363 0 174 0 65 1862, wheat 6.8 85 12.0 7.4 10.5 12.8 15.3 Pork per barrel 1 14 0 60 2 00 1 08 0 45 1 90 1862, corn 7.1 7.6 11.0 6.6 9.5 11.8 14.2 Beet per barrel 1 14 0 60 2 00 1 08 045 1 90 Highest rate on wheat during 1862, 17 cents. Lard per 100 lbs 0 413 0 25 0 75 0 361 0 171 0 65 Average on wheat for season 1862, 10.5 cents. Hay per 100 lbs 0 41g 0 25 75 0 46 0.30 0 75 1863, wheat 8.7 10.0 5.7 4.7 5.7 8.4 9.0 1863, corn 7.8 9.0 4.9 4.2 4.7 7.2 7.7 STEAMBOAT CHARGES BETWEEN PITTSBURGH AND NEW ORLEANS Highest rate on wheat during 1863, 124 cents. IN FALL OF 1874. Average on wheat for season 1863, 7.5 cents. 1864, wheat 8.5 13.4 6.8 8.2 8.0 8.2 13.7 Thomas Sherloch, interested in steamboats, testified at Cin- 1864, corn 8.0 12.5 6.3 7.7 7.5 7.6 127 cincinnati before Senate committee on transportation to sea- Highest rate on wheat during 1864, 18 cents. board, in October, 1874, as follows: "The general charge (for Average on wheat for season 1864, 9.5 cents. moving heavy freight) from Pittsburgh to Louisville and Cin- 1865, wheat 78 6.6 8.3 7.1 11.6 149 12.3 cinnati is from $3 to $4 per ton on fourth-class freight, or say 1865, corn 67 60 7.9 6.6 10.7 13.8 11.5 from $2.50 to $4." Distance about 650 miles from Pittsburgh Highest rate on wheat during 1865, 19 cents. to Louisville, and about 500 miles from Cincinnati to Pitts- Average on wheat for season 1865, 9.7 cents. burgh. Rates named cover almost everything carried on the 1866, wheat 12.5 15.6 11.6 10.3 12.7 17.4 13.5 river, "light freight, heavy freight, rolling freight, and sack 1866, corn 11.1 13.6 9.6 84 10.3 15.2 11.7 freight, everything. We do not discriminate on the river, as Highest rate on wheat during 1866, 23 cents. railroads do, between first, second to third and fourth class, Average on wheatfor season 1866, 13.4 cents. except when we connect with railroad lines, and are governed 1867, wheat 5.5 5.5 4.7 5.5 8.1 9.3 2.0 by their rules." Freight charges from Louisville to New Or- 1867, corn 4.2 3.7 3.8 4.1 7.0 7.9 7.0 leans are about the same as from Cincinnati to New Orleans. Highest rate on wheat during 1857, 15 cents. Average on wheat for season 1867, 6.8 cents. "We have what we call a very good river here now. There is 1868, wheat 5.2 5.3 4.2 7.8 9.1 8.8 9.8 probably 16 feet of water between here and Louisville; probably 1868, corn 4.0 4.2 3.6 6.6 7.7 8.7 8.3 12 feet all the way out of the Obio river. Freights are now from Highest rate on wheat during 1868, 134 cents. $7 to $9 per ton to New Orleans from Cincinnati, Distance, Average on wheat for season 1868, 7.1 cents. 1,550 miles." Freight from Pittsburgh to New Orleans would 1869, wheat 5.8 6.5 4.8 5.0 6.5 7.4 10.2 probably be $2 a ton more than that, making from $9 to $11, 1869, corn 5.8 5.6 4.5 4.8 6.0 6.9 9.3 and the distance about 2,000 miles. "These prices are now the Highest rate on wheat during 1869, 10 cents. asking prices. Prices will be still lower, probably in a few days, Average on wheat for season 1869, 6.6 cents. as soon as the yellow fever gets out, 80 that boats are willing 1870, wheat 5.0 6.2 5.3 5.0 5.6 7.7 8.5 to leave here and go down the river. It will reduce the rates prob- 1870, corn 4.4 55 4.5 4.7 4.2 7.3 7.6 ably from $1 to $2 a ton from these prices. Railroads Highest rate on wheat during 1870, 10 cents. compete very seriously in steamboat business between Louis- Average on wheat for season 1870, 6.2 cents. ville and New Orleans. They divide the business between 1871, wheat 45 5.7 5.2 6.2 9.6 13.2 10.1 us. Q. Do they divide the freightage equally? A. No, I 1871, corn 4.1 53 4.8 5.7 9.0 12.3 9.7 think not. I think we carry more freight than either of the Highest rate on wheat during 1871, 18 cents. Average on wheat for season 1871, 7.8 cents. railroads, and probably more together. Q. How about pas- 1872, wheat. 8.1 8.3 8.2 9.6 14.8 16.5 12.4 senger traffic? A. I think we carry as many passengers on 1872, corn 7.4 7.8 7.7 8.8 13.8 15.5 11.4 the boats, as we are running them now, as either of the roads Highest rate on wheat during 1872, 19 cents. do; not as both, but as either. We charge between Cincinnati Average on wheat for season 1872, 11.1 cents. and Louisville $8.50, which includes the state-room and the 1873, wheat 7.4 6.5 6.1 6.5 12.6 78 7.4 dinner, supper, and whatever meal they take on the boat. 1873, corn 6.5 5.8 5.5 5.7 11.6 6.9 6.9 Railroads charge the same sum, but give no meals." Highest rate on wheat during 1873, 14 cents. Average on wheat for season 1873, 7.8 cents. COST OF EARLY STEAMBOAT MOVEMENTS ON THE MISSOURI. 1874, wheat 4.5 4.2 33 3.1 3.5 4.1 4.6 1874, corn 4.0 3.9 3.6 2.1 3.2 3.8 4.2 In documents presented by A. Whitney to Congress, in con- Highest rate on wheat during 1874, 6 cents. nection with a memorial praying for a land grant for a Pacific Average on wheat for season 1874. 3.9 cents. railroad, in 1848, is a statement made by Capt. Joseph A. Sire, 1875, wheat 3.9 3.0 2.8 2.5 2.4 3.7 5.9 who said he had been in the employment of Messrs. Chouteau 1875, corn 3.6 2.6 2.6 2.2 2.2 3.4 5.5 & Co., and navigated boats on the Missouri for twenty-five Highest rate on wheat during 1875. 61 cents. years, in the course of which he said: "During the five months Average on wheat for season 1875. 3 5 cents. of low water it requires fifteen days from St. Louis to Council 1876, wheat 3.0 2.5 19 2.2 2.6 4.4 3.7 Bluffs, and the cost of transportation $2.50 per hundred 1876, corn 2.7 2.3 1.7 1.8 2.3 4.0 3.3 pounds. During the high water the current is Highest rate on wheat during 1876, 5 cents. very rapid, and would require from St. Louis to the Yellow- Average on wheat for season 1876, 2.9 cents. stone from forty-five to fifty days, and would cost for trans- 1877, wheat 3.5 2.4 2.6 4.0 4.0 4.9 4.5 portation 88 for one hundred pounds. At low water the river 1877, corn 2.9 1.9 2.2 3.6 3.4 4.4 3.9 (Upper Missouri) cannot be navigated, as there is not over two Highest rate on wheat during 1877, 6 cents. feet. Between the high and low water the passage may be Average on wheat for season 1877, 3.7 cents. made in thirty-five to forty days, because the current is not RO 1878, wheat 2.5 2.1 1.7 3.3 4.4 3.6 4.5 1878, corn 2.2 1.8 1.5 8.0 4.1 3.3 4.1 rapid, and about fifty tons of freight might be taken up at a Highest rate on wheat during 1878, 7 cents. cost of from $5 to $6 per hundred pounds." Average on wheat for season 1878, 3.1 cents. Digitized by Google IMPROVEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION OF RAILWAYS. 295 IMPROVEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION OF RAILWAYS. rails for iron rails, which com- evident then that a gigantic struggle was impending. In the the eighth decade on an ex- series of preparations for it the New York Central relied tensive scale, was frequently accompanied with other notable largely upon the advantages it would derive from the adoption improvements of the physical condition of railways and rolling of the expensive expedient of laying down four steel-rail tracks stock. In the aggregate these changes were of immense im- over its main line at a time when steel rails were still selling at portance, as they cheapened the cost of freight movements on an enormous price; the Pennsylvania acquired control, by lease, leading thoroughfares to an unparalleled extent, and greatly of the United Railroads of New Jersey, thus extending its lines increased the speed, safety, and comfort of passenger move- to Jersey City directly opposite the city of New York; it ex- ments. While a number of the advances were rapidly adopted, panded its system southward to Washington city, and com- there were so many variations in the financial condition, char- menced making very extensive improvements in all matters acteristics of traffic, and proclivities of the managements of relating to its tracks and rolling stock; the Baltimore and Ohio different lines, that uniformity of action at a given time, on built expensive bridges over the Ohio river and made arrange- any subject, was unusual, and no general remarks can be ap- ments for extending its system to Chicago; the Erie, on account plicable to all lines at any particular period. of various financial difficulties and contests for supremacy in These improvements effected a radical transformation of its management, postponed important physical changes to a prominent American railroads, from a relatively low type to later date than its rivals, but also made vigorous strides in that the highest type, in nearly all matters relating to the economic direction during the decade. movement of large quantities of freight. Instead of the cost Sundry other similar changes were simultaneously progress- of such movements, per ton per mile, being about twice as ing in various portions of the country, but the east and west great in the United States as in the United Kingdom, as was trunk-line contests presumably exerted a leading influence in the case before 1860, many American movements are now hastening the great engineering and mechanical advances (1887) made at about half the cost of corresponding English which occurred. railway labors. The greatest contrast in the practice of the Steel rails were of vital consequence, as the basis of other two countries is probably presented by differences in rolling improvements, because the continued use of such iron rails as stock and methods of making up trains. After American were then procurable, on important roads, necessarily involved road-beds were advanced to a standard approximating present constant repairs and incessant watchfulness, on account of the excellence improvements in rolling stock and operating frequency with which they were broken, and there was little or methods were promoted rapidly in the United States, while no prospect of the success and utility of thorough reforms progress was slow in Great Britain, so that economic condi- while this difficulty remained unsurmounted. The assurance tions were reversed, and one of the greatest of all modern of an avoidance of this terrible source of trouble and em- mechanical triumphs was achieved in this country. barrassment afforded time and encouragement for other de- It was a common remark among practical railway managers sirable or necessary labors. towards the close of the eighth decade and subsequently that The bulk of the original outlays of railway companies, or the reductions in the cost of freight movements which they main proportion of their capital account, is represented by the had witnessed were regarded as impossibilities when the spur permanent way and fixed appurtenances, rather than by the of necessity first compelled the efforts by which those reduc- rolling stock. Of the total permanent investments of all the tions were finally achieved. railroads of the United States, reported in the census returns It would be impossible to fully explain how these feats were of 1880, amounting to $5,182,445,806.93, about four-fifths, or accomplished, and how progress is steadily being maintained, $4,112,367,175.83, were for construction of road, and only a but as they form the most important of all features of Ameri- little more than one-tenth of this sum, or $418,045,458.48, can transportation development, in their bearing upon indus- for equipment. In the current outlays of the census year trial welfare, an attempt will be made to give an outline sketch $102,588,048.26 were devoted to the maintenance of the road of their leading characteristics. and real estate; $54,985,340.51 to repairs of machinery and cars, The improvements in the physical condition of the railroads and $195,231,736.98 to operating and general expenses. The embraced net earnings were $227,650,473.51, or 39.22 per cent. of the total NOTABLE ADVANCES IN ALL VITAL MATTERS receipts. These figures indicate the relative financial signifi- cance of the grand divisions of railway affairs, and illustrate affecting the condition of the permanent way, including every the importance of the road and real estate, not only as primary detail relating to tracks, ballast, rails, joints, switches, frogs, objects of expenditure, but as claimants for incessant new cur- bridges; the construction of additional sidings and second, third, rent outlays. and fourth tracks; the erection of numerous depots, stations, To construct a railway, keep it in proper order, and, if it is a and a great enlargement of terminal facilities; the adoption of progressive line, to provide expensive new improvements as methods of signaling which rendered it possible to materially rapidly as they are required, immense sums must be expended; increase the number of trains that could be safely sent over a and in view of the habit of constructing lines in an imperfect line during a given period; notable additions to the number manner at the outset, which has always prevailed in this coun- and marked improvements in the equipment of railway shops. try, it is scarcely surprising that the capital accounts of many These improvements rendered possible great additions to the lines have been swelled to the extent shown by their reports. weight and capacity of locomotives and freight cars, and facili- It may be said of American railways, as of many other things in tated the adoption of better methods of making up and run- this country, that they rarely or never were or are constructed ning freight trains. Transshipments of the freight forwarded in an approximately complete manner, and in the nature of over long distances were avoided to an extent that was for- things they cannot be, except in rare instances, because it is merly impossible by the consolidation of connecting roads, necessary that they should develop earning power before the operation of fast-freight-line systems, and the interchange of many millions necessary to render them as complete as is cars between different roads. On a number of lines the speed desirable are engulfed. What happens is that they grow or of freight trains was materially increased, and means were de- improve in their characteristics as a pressing need for such vised for increasing the amount of service obtained from loco- improvements arises from growth of traffic, pressure of com- motives during a given period, and the average train load. petition, new inventions, or other causes. The directions in About the beginning of the eighth decade a sharp contest which such growth should be made, and initial efforts towards between the east and west trunk lines temporarily reduced creating a number of important improvements, received special through rates to unprecedentedly low figures, and it became attention during the eighth decade. Digitized by Google 296 CONDITION OF ROAD-BED. CONDITION OF ROAD-BED. of a railway is the road-bed, ap- the long chapter of accidents that inevitably occur, it is scarcely level, as compared with ordinary possible to avoid some that are due to defects in the track. It roads, yet usually diverging widely from an ideal standard in is always exceedingly desirable to reduce their percentage to these respects, on account of numerous curves and ascending the smallest possible limits, however, and roads that have or descending grades. These divergencies were unnecessarily secured a large amount of business must also advance their frequent on many lines for the purpose of saving the expense tracks to a condition that renders it possible to daily forward of deep excavations, bridges, and tunnels, on account of the many trains, some of which move at high rates of speed, with- pressure of influential local interests or other causes; and one out subjecting passengers, freight, and employés to dangers of the directions in which many improvements were gradually inherent in the permanent way, and unavoidable by any pre- made was in straightening old lines and avoiding, as far as pos- cautions that trainmen may adopt. The extent to which these sible, heavy grades. As traffic increased the desirability of such objects are accomplished on many lines is remarkable and changes was constantly intensified, as the extra cost of move- highly creditable in view of the numerous grade crossings ments over a sharp curve or a steep grade multiplied as rapidly existing in this country, as the accidents due to defects in track as the number of trains dispatched. usually form only a comparatively small percentage of the But it was, perhaps, total number that occur; but even in this matter there is often considerable room for improvement, and it is only by gigantic IN THE MATTER OF DRAINAGE, and continuous labors and incessant watchfulness that many that one of the most radical advances was made by a number tracks are prevented from being the source of numerous terrible of important lines. With all roads intended for constant use disasters. adequate provision for the prompt removal of falling water It is scarcely too much to say that before the eighth decade and the avoidance of the disturbing and disintegrating effects the road-bed and track of no railway line of considerable length of alternate periods of freezing and thawing, is one of the first in the United States had been advanced to a condition that requisites; and with a railroad careful attention to this subject would now be deemed creditable, and on progressive lines im- is absolutely necessary, as failure brings with it the penalties portant improvements have been made in every essential involved in the attempts to operate a line unsafe and unfit for feature. the rapid movement of numerous trains. A newly constructed One of the most thorough and significant changes was com- road-bed, which depends solely upon the material found at menced on the main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad in each point along the line for ballast, and which is not more 1872, with attempts to establish what soon became a standard carefully drained than was formerly common, frequently de- track, which has received much attention and commendation. generates into the condition depicted by the expressive phrase Printed forms or directions were furnished, and each super- "mud road," and this is practically what a number of Ameri- visor was instructed to construct a mile of standard track can railroads formerly were, the mud sometimes flying in all according to specifications, which mile was to be completed by directions before the march of the locomotive as freely as it the middle of August, in time for the annual inspection of flies on a common dirt road after a heavy rain when a vehicle 1872. The whole amount of this preliminary work was only is driven over it at a rapid pace. about ten miles, or one mile in about thirty-five or thirty-six One of the first stages of improvement is the application of a of the main line, but the results were so satisfactory that the portion of the adjacent soil to the top of the road-bed, under system adopted was, after a comparatively brief period, ex- conditions which make it do duty as ballast, and. it is styled tended along the whole line, some of the details being im- mud ballast. When mud ballast is applied in the best possible proved. This standard in 1882 was as follows:- manner it frequently proves highly serviceable, but roads that aim at considerable advances use other materials, including PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD COMPANY-SPECIFICATIONS FOR A sand, gravel, locomotive cinders, furnace slag, and broken PERFECT SUBDIVISION. stone. As one of the objects in applying either of these ma- 1. Line.-The track must be in true line. terials is to raise the track above the main road-bed, they all 2. Surface.-The track must be in good surface; on straight presumably help to improve drainage, and their relative utility lines the rails must be on the same level, and on curves the largely depends upon the extent to which that object is ac- proper elevation must be given to the outer rail and carried complished. uniformly around the curvo. This elevation should be com- One method of classifying roads is as mud roads, mud-bal- menced from 50 to 200 feet back of the point of curvature, lasted roads, gravel-ballasted roads, furnace-slag or locomotive- depending on the degree of the curve, and increased uniformly cinder-ballasted roads, and broken-stone-ballasted roads, and to the latter point, where the full elevation is attained. The their respective merits are approximately indicated by the same method should be adopted in leaving the curve. order in which they are named above. Much was to be 3. Joints.-The joints of the rails must be exactly midway learned, and much practical knowledge has been acquired and between the joint ties, and the joint on one line of rail must be disseminated without exhausting possibilities of improvement, opposite the centre of the rail on the other line of the same of ballast and drainage; the arrangements of the foundation on track. In winter a distance of five-sixteenths of an inch, and which tracks are laid, including the selection and adjustment in summer one-sixteenth of an inch, must be left between the of ties, the fastening of rails to ties, and establishment of con- ends of the rails, to allow for expansion. The splices must be nections between rails, so as to avoid as far as possible the properly put on with the full number of bolts, nuts, and nut- damaging effects of the apertures left at rail ends, necessitated locks, and the nuts screwed up tight. The rails must be spiked by expansion and contraction; the proper laying of rails on both on the inside and outside on each tie, on straight lines as curves, and straight and level stretches of road, and the con- well as on curves, and the spikes driven in such position as to struction of frogs and switches. keep the ties at right angles to the rails. In spite of all that has been done, incessant labors are neces- 4. Ballast.-There must be a uniform depth of at least twelve sary to keep the best of tracks in unimpeachable condition, inches clean, broken stone or gravel under the ties. The ballast and on many lines imperfect drainage, deficient ballasting, an- must be filled up evenly between but not above the top of the tiquated switches, poor ties, and defective splices, or appliances ties, and also between the main tracks and sidings where stone for joining rails are constant sources of delays and dangers. ballast is used. In filling up between the tracks, coarse, large A prime requisite in all railway operations is safety, and in stones must be placed in the bottom in order to provide for Digitized by Google 11111 S. SNAG BOAT United States Snag-Boat. SIL.& MI V.T.C. Western River Model Barge. Buller 13 0/ Furner Sheet Plan Western River Towing Boat. AVERAGE COAL TOW FROM PITTSBURG TO LOUISVILLE 180 ... BURNELD - 4.800 - 1000 W-A Tew Diagrams of Coal Tows. - THE TUW.BOAT ABAX. FROM LOUISVILLE TO NEW ORLEANS $62.199 QUANELL. 22.500 Digitized by Google Digitized by Google CONDITION OF ROAD-BED. 297 drainage; but care should be taken to keep the coarse stone and fail, in varying degrees, to secure the highest standard of away from the ends of the ties. At the outer ends of the ties desired excellence on all parts of their lines. the ballast must be sloped off evenly to the sub-grade. When An indication of what was progressing on various leading stone is used it must be broken evenly, and not larger than a lines, in the matters under discussion during the latter part of cube that will pass through a two and one-half inch ring. the eighth decade is furnished by letters written by two road 5. Oross-lies.-The cross-ties must be properly and evenly masters of the Atlantic and Great Western in March, 1879, to spaced, with ten inches between the edges of bearing surface Charles Latimer, Esq., then chief engineer of that company, at joints, with intermediate ties evenly spaced, and the ends on after they had journeyed over the lines to which they referred the outside on double track, and on the right-hand side going to attend a meeting of the road masters of the United States, north or west on single track, lined up parallel with the rails. held in Boston on March 25th, 1879, and published in Proceed- The ties must not be notched under any circumstances, but ings of the Road Masters of the Atlantic and Great Western. should they be twisted must be made true with the adze, that Their remarks show that at that time the ballast used on the the rails may have an even bearing over the whole breadth of Lake Shore was principally coarse sand, but locomotive cinder the tie. For main running tracks sixteen ties, for branch roads was used on portions of it; on the New York Central the ballast and third tracks on main lines used exclusively for freight was principally locomotive cinder, sand, and gravel, and in trains fourteen ties, and for sidings and tracks used for stand- some places coal slack mixed; on the Boston and Albany and ing cars only, not exceeding twelve ties are to be used for each Old Colony the ballast was generally sand; on the Erie the thirty-foot rail. Supervisors and track foremen will be held ballast was generally locomotive cinder. At a later date the strictly accountable for any deviation from these specifications. Erie adopted a standard similar to that of the Pennsylvania, 6. Switches.-The switches and frogs must be kept well lined requiring the extensive use of stone ballast. up and in good order. Switches must work easily, and safety As an aid to effective drainage ditching is the principal ad- blocks attached to every switch head where "stub" switches are junct of ballasting, the latter raising the road-bed to a high used. Switch signals must be kept bright and in good order, elevation and the former indirectly accomplishing a like end and the high signal used for all switches where train runs by deepening the surroundings, in avenues convenient for the against the points. Particular attention must be given to avoid passage of water. The old style of railroading often failed to low joints at the head blocks of switches. The standard dis- make adequate provision for either ballasting or ditching, and tance between guard rail and main rail will be two inches. at the present day, on many roads, one or both these labors 7. Sidings.-All company sidings should be kept in as good are often neglected to a damaging extent. As an adjunct of order as practicable, using for this purpose second-class rails drainage culverts are of great significance. In some sections and ties, or partly worn material taken from main tracks. of the country there are about two to each mile of railway. Owners of private sidings must be required to keep their sid- If deficient either in number, capacity, or condition, serious ings in safe condition for use at all times. damage is likly to occur. 8. Ditches.-The cross-section of ditches at the highest point Another feature of a road-bed which requires constant atten- must be of the width and depth as shown on the standard tion is the cross-ties, which should be, and frequently are not, drawing, and graded parallel with the track, so as to pass water in proper condition and position. A number of varieties of freely during heavy rains, and thoroughly drain the road-bed. wood is used, and different methods of preparing it are adopted, The line of the bottom of the ditch must be made parallel with some being sawed instead of hewn, which is considered the best the rails, and well and neatly defined, at a distance of not less method. It has also been found advantageous to have the bark than seven feet from the outside rail. All necessary cross- removed before ties are put in the track. drains must be put in at proper intervals. Earth taken from As a railroad is expected to be prepared for the movement ditches or elsewhere must be dumped over the banks, and not of trains at all times, despite adverse action of elemental forces, left at or near the ends of the ties, but distributed over the slope. much preparatory and cautionary work must be done, and it Earth taken out of the ditches in cuts must not be thrown on is not only desirable that the normal position of the road-bed the slope. The channels or streams for a considerable distance should be as well fortified as possible against any probable above the road should be examined, and brush, drift, and other damage from fierce storms, freshets, and sudden climatic obstructions removed. Ditches, culverts, and box drains should changes, but it is necessary that all portions of the track ex- be cleared of all obstructions, and the outlets and inlets of the posed to injury should be frequently examined during the same kept open to allow a free flow of water at all times. night as well as the day, so that timely notice can be given to 9. Road Crossings.-The road crossing planks must be se- advancing trains of all obstructions or dangerous imperfections- curely spiked. The planking should be three-quarters of an Such duties come within the province of those who are en- inch below the top of rail, and two and one-half inches from trusted with the supervision of tracks, and the extent to which the gauge line. The ends and inside edges should be beveled off. safety is assured largely depends upon their fidelity. 10. Station Grounds.Station platforms, fences, and grounds In no class of roads is it so essential that there should be a at stations must be kept clean and in good order. thoroughly good road-bed as in railroads. In the absence of a 11. Policing.-The telegraph poles must be kept in proper proper foundation, it is impossible to extract from a super- position, and trees near the telegraph line must be kept trimmed structure, no matter how high its characteristics may be, all or to prevent the branches touching the wires during high winds. even a considerable proportion of the desirable qualities. A All old material, such as old ties, old rails, chairs, car material, rail, whether of steel or iron, cannot be expected to meet &c., must be gathered up at least once a week, and neatly piled modern requirements if it does not rest upon effective sup- at proper points. Briers and undergrowth on right of way ports. This statement is so commonplace that an apology must be kept cut close to the ground. should be made for presenting it, if experience did not indi- 12. Use of Materials.-Proper judgment and caution must be cate that its significance had sometimes been ignored. Rail- exercised by engineers, supervisors, and foremen against ex- ways, like long IOWS of city houses, however, have been built travagant use of materials, as they will be held strictly responsi- for sale rather than for use, and they are frequently constructed ble for the same. in a manner known to be imperfect, on account of paucity of By order of general manager. funds, in the hope and expectation that they will gradually be WILLIAM H. BROWN, Chief Engineer. improved after earning power is attained. Such wide differ- Office of Chief Engineer Pennsylvania Railroad Company, ences exist between the most defective and the most advanced Philadelphia, June 1st, 1882. lines of this country that the United States now has a large per- centage of the best and worst railways of the world. Nowhere GENERAL DIRECTION OF ROAD-BED IMPROVEMENTS. else have inventive genius and experimental effort done so The terse directions given above represent positive conclu- much to improve a great variety of details, ranging through sions on a number of details about which differences of opinion every ramification of permanent way and rolling stock, and formerly prevailed. They also illustrate, to a considerable ex- nowhere else has an equally large mileage of defective roads tent, the important requirements relating to road-bed and track been constructed. about which railway companies feel more or less solicitude, The relative importance of labors, so far as it can be shown 38 Digitized by Google 298 RAIL-JOINTS AND RAILS. by the number of employés engaged in repairs of tracks, is power excavator; frog; crossing; fish or angle plate; track jack; indicated by the fact that out of 418,957 persons in railway jack screw; track bolt and nut; track level; spike maul; nut service reported in the census of 1880, 122,489 are classed as lock; scraper; post hole auger; track gauge; outfit for track track men, which was considerably more than the number en- gang; cold saw machine for cutting steel or iron bars cold; gaged in any other specified railway pursuit. shovel; spade; spikes (one keg); switch (upright, complete); switch (ground, complete); switch lock; switch stand; track TRACK GOODS AND TOOLS. broom; barrow; cart; pinch bar; wrecking frog; complete track The list of articles for which premiums were offered by the joint; system of interlocking yard switches. Chicago Exposition of Railway Appliances, in 1883, under the Under the head of miscellaneous, premiums were offered for head of Track Goods, embraced the following: Display of steel the following articles: Iron bridge (working model or other- and iron rails and track goods; track-laying device; steel rail in wise); wooden bridge (working model or otherwise); track section and finish, not less than 30 feet long, not less than 50 signal (working model or otherwise); track signal (torpedo): pounds to the yard; iron rail in section and finish, not less than crossing signal; safety gate for crossing; flange device to re- 30 feet long, nor less than 50 pounds to yard; rail punch or move compact snow and ice from between the rails, and a drill; rail straightener; rail tongs; track bolt; track bolt washer; proper space outside the track; automatic switch: switch signal- railway fencing; tamping bar; track chair; claw bar; cross-tie ing device; electric signaling device for block or other signals; (metal); process for preserving wood cross-ties and timber; snow plow. RAIL-JOINTS AND RAILS. A SIDE from their feature of greatest importance, which is STEEL RAILS AND RAIL PATTERNS. the rail, tracks must be supplied with methods of fastening The rapid advancement of steel-rail-making industries in the rails to the ties, and of guarding against the fatal effects of a United States, which typified the substitution of steel for iron lack of continuity of the great avenues of modern commerce. rails on many of the older lines, and the general use of steel The rails cannot be placed 80 closely together that the ends rails on new lines, has been referred to elsewhere. It was would touch in cold weather, because if this was done the ex- accompanied with considerable changes in the shape and pansion caused by heat would damage the entire line, and this weight of rails, and the introduction of many patterns repre- disaster has often occurred. The problem being to place the senting minor modifications. In 1881 there were regularly ends of the rails closely together, so as to form a continuous manufactured in 11 Bessemer steel-rail mills of the United line, and yet not to permit them to touch each other, except States 119 patterns of steel rails of 27 different weights per when the highest temperature prevails, yard. The variations in shape are of comparatively small im- EFFECTIVE RAIL-JOINTS OR SPLICES portance, nearly all approximating to a type known as the "Chanute" head or the Lehigh Valley Templet of 1872. The of one kind or another must be provided, and the adjustment first of the American steel rails were generally made of pat- of this matter, which seems comparatively simple, has under- terns previously used in the manufacture of iron rails, which gone a long series of experiments, the expedients ranging varied considerably, but were frequently of a type known as through various forms of chairs, fish-joints or plates, angle- pear-headed, adopted for the purpose of preventing the sides bars or angle-bar joints, with a strong tendency favorable to of the head from breaking down, represented by the Buffalo, the latter, because it affords additional strength, as compared with other devices. Corning and New York rail of 1857. Another type of iron rail, however, which had rendered excellent service was the old The material required for one mile of single-track railroad, Reading rail of 45 pounds. It more nearly conformed to the with rails of the usual length of 30 feet, embraces 704 splice- original type of T-rail designed by Robert Stevens. With the bars or fish-plates of one kind or another, or half that number introduction of steel rails, a material change of pattern be- of chairs, and unsatisfactory workings of any appliances that came desirable on account of the differences in the metal, and are so numerous, and intended to serve such important pur- for various reasons, one of which was that the superior strength poses, necessarily cause much inconvenience. This is aggra- of steel rendered it practicable to cut out the under side of the vated by the fact that the joints are generally the weakest head, leaving a nearly flat table to hold a fish-plate, and 80 sus- places in the track; it is there that the wear of rails is most tain and preserve the ends of the rail. The practical conclu- serious; whatever may be defective there speedily grows worse. sions reached, after an elaborate consideration of this subject, In attempting to provide for this requirement, if the rail is are illustrated by diagrams representing 10 patterns of the dif- cut, drilled, or punched to an unusual extent, it sometimes suddenly breaks, and thus creates one of the greatest of track erent weights of 30, 35, 40, 50, 56, 60, 63, 65, 67, and 72 pounds dangers. Although no device fully meets all requirements in per yard, which approximately represent modern American practice, and which were strongly urged for adoption for the a pre-eminenly satisfactory manner, great advances have been made, and the best of the modern arrangements represent a purpose of saving to rail makers, and incidentally to railway notable and important improvement. companies, unnecessary expense, in an interesting paper on Even angle-bars, however, frequently break, if they are sub- Rail Patterns, read by A. L. Holley, at a meeting of the Ameri- can Institute of Mining Engineers, held in 1881, as a substitute jected to unusually severe strains, arising from imperfections for the numerous patterns then in use. in the track, flat wheels, rough wheol flanges, or other causes, or if they are of relatively light weight and made of poor iron. The general considerations which affected the adoption of the An interesting paper on the question, "Why Do Rail-Joints PREVAILING SHAPES OF STEEL RAILS and Splice-Bars Break?" was read before the Engineers' Society are explained in the following extracts from Mr. Holley's paper, of western Pennsylvania, in January, 1885, by M. J. Becker. referred to above:- It states that he had "found 1,130 broken angle-bars on a single "1st. A few years' use of steel abundantly proved that the division of six miles of track." sides of the head do not break down, even it quite thin. The One of the notable stages of progress was the extensive use, only normal mechanical destruction is the wearing out. The at one time, of fish-plates on one side of the rail and angle- occasional mashing of the ends, and the very rare splitting hars on the other, a practice subsequently followed, to a con- and crushing of the rail elsewhere, are due to the bad casting siderable extent, by the use of angle-bars on both sides of the of ingots, and to working spongy ingot tops into rails. The rail. breaking of rails which are properly laid, is due to chemical Digitized by Google SWITCHES AND SIGNALS. 299 defects. The strength of steel thus rendered it practicable to cut teenths of an inch. But no web of any of the current patterns out the underside of the head, leaving nearly a flat table to hold has broken down from being too thin. Whether or not a 64th a fish-plate, and to sustain and preserve the ends of the rails. should be added or removed, no man can say; nor is the ques- 2d. The next point was to decrease the normal destruction tion of farther variation of any importance. by wear. Breaking down did not occur, and lamination could III. The foregoing proportions having been settled, the ques- not occur in the product of a fusion process. The first, and tion is: How much of the remaining metal shall go into height very obvious suggestion was to put as much metal as possible of web, and how much into thickness of head? To perfect the into the head, without robbing the web and flange, and im- rail as a beam, 80 much of it should go into the web as to at least pairing the rail as a beam. These points will be considered double the standard height, because the stiffness of the beam in- farther on. creases as the cube of the height. But it has been ascertained Having as much metal as possible in the head, what propor- that with the best existing type of road-bed, 54-inch rails wore tions and shape endure best, reference also being had to the out more rapidly than 4-inch rails of the same quality. The wear of the rolling stock? A wide head theoretically reduces reason is obvious. The higher rails were too rigid. The lower the pressure per square inch, of the wheels. But on account rails yielded slightly under the load. Dr. Dudley graphically of the slight coning of the wheels, it has been observed that describes wear as the breaking or mashing of the infinitesimal their actual foot-prints are only three-quarters to one inch teeth which form the surface of the rail. We may regard the wide, while those wheel-treads which are worn hollow do not whecl as a projectile, which breaks and mashes these teeth. take a full bearing on a wide head. If the head is wide, it Its destructive effect is as the square of its velocity. The must be thin, with a given weight of rail, so that its side pre- elasticity of the rail increases the time of impact, and 80 de- sents less surface and hence a higher rate of flange wear, and a creases the power of the blow. greater variation in the gauge of the track. The heads must As the tread of the rail becomes a more and more perfect be wide enough to give ample bearing to the fish-plates, other- plane by means of better manufacture and road-bed, the stiff- wise they are soon worn to such shape that they cannot be ness of the rail may be increased, and no doubt will be increased kept tight. Exactly the best width of head for a given weight to carry heavier loads per wheel. With good ballast of the of rail can hardly be determined, but the experience of a de- present type, and sleepers 2 feet apart centres, it has been found cade has convinced experts generally, that for 56- to 70-pound that a well-proportioned rail of about 41-inch height will carry rails, it lies between 2t and 21 inches. Rail designers have, the present loads of 5 or 6 tons per driving-wheel to the best therefore, respectively adopted every possible fraction of this advantage. The Great Western n-rail, still used, is the worst undetermined quarter of an inch. form for stiffness. 3d. The width and shape of the head having been provided The rule for spacing sleepers in a country where they are for, how much metal can be spared from the web and flange comparatively cheap is to leave just as little space between to deepen it, and how shall the remaining metal be disposed? them as will allow the convenient tamping of ballast. There The rail is now to be considered as & beam, and as a bearing to is great convenience in the even number, 2 feet, and it cannot transfer the vertical and lateral strains to the sleepers. It is be proved that it is not as good as 2 feet and a quarter of an obviously impossible to determine the exact proportions which inch, which some rail tinker would no doubt have specified, if are better than any others, because the conditions of use vary it had occurred to him. almost infinitely; but so nearly the best form for average use Iron and steel sleepers, so largely used in Germany and else- has been determined by practice, that no one can prove it not where, and especially the longitudinal system, will no doubt to be the best. modify our permanent way in all departments at a no distant I. The web and base of the rail have been pared down to day, but we shall have time to enjoy any improvement of our meet the conditions of the beam, until further reductions present system. would impair their safety. The width of base must be Having thus determined all the proportions except the thick- 80 great that the rail will not turn over, and not cut into the ness of the head, we find rails of 60 to 72 pounds per yard may sleepers. In the best American practice, with sleepers have heads of 11- to 14-inch mean thickness, which will last, 2 feet apart centres, the base and height of rails are usually the under average traffic, until new conditions of road-bed, load, same. A 4-inch base, with 41-inch height, is the largest devia- and manufacture shall have indicated farther improvements in tion from this rule. the weight and proportions of steel rails. It probably would II. The web of the steel rail has been pared down until it not pay, considering the interest account and probable improve- runs in the twenty-two 56-pound patterns, from 13 to 20 thirty- ments, to secure longer wearing capacity, except in rails for seconds, and in the thirty 60-pound patterns, from 7 to 10 six- specially severe service." SWITCHES AND SIGNALS. A FTER a railway is furnished with the indispensable ap- cade, and since 1880, enormous sums were expended in the pliances to which brief reference has been made, in- directions indicated, and a large proportion of the outlays were cluding road-bed, ties, rails, and rail-joints, the work of sup- applied to improvements that greatly increased the practical plying all the requirements of modern lines is still far from efficiency of American railways. The work of advancing the furnished. In an important sense it may be said that it has condition of many of the older lines goes on incessantly, sub- only fairly commenced. Even if the main line contains but ject to fluctuations similar to those which occur in the progress one track, as is the case with a large proportion of the existing of new construction, and a very large amount of capital is re- mileage of American roads, there must be sidings and switches. quired for this purpose. As business increases a considerable number of sidings and Meanwhile each feature is, in itself, improved. The station double-tracking, on an extensive scale, become necessary; the accommodations of one period are found to be inadequate at demands for stations, depots, improvements of bridges, signals, a later date; the favorite switch of one era is considered inferior shops, and shop appliances multiply rapidly; the necessity for to a new device; in the whole range of signal appliances there making large outlays for terminal facilities becomes urgent. has been a remarkable advance, not only in the number used The original cost of the main line of a number of the older but in their mechanical characteristics; and the cost of the roads has been more than duplicated by several classes of terminal facilities now existing represents as large an aggregate supplementary expenses, the largest being for bridges, stations, as the cost of the entire railway system of the COI terminal facilities, and rolling stock. During the eighth de- decades ago, or long after it had passed through Digitized by Google 300 SWITCHES AND SIGNALS. stages. Comments are frequently made upon the rapid in- The last principle is the present basis of interlocking systems. crease of the capitalization of the older lines which fail to give The switches and signals of a junction, crossing, drawbridge, due credit for the extent to which useful ends were served by terminus, or other dangerous points, are controlled by a single many of the additional outlays, and for the multiplicity of pur- operator from a cabin. In this are placed the levers, set in a poses to which they were applied. cast-iron frame, by which the whole system of signals and SWITCHES AND FROGS. switches is operated. By the peculiar mechanism of this locking apparatus the Many accidents have been caused by the switch originally levers are 80 interlocked with each other that the switches used on American railroads, and still used extensively on many must be properly set and locked before it is possible to move lines, known as the stub-switch, or rather by the neglect to use the corresponding signal levers, and the different signals are all the precautions necessary to render it a safe device. Through 80 interlocked as to protect the path of a signaled train until carelessness it has exposed many thousands of trains to the it has passed the danger point. In brief the pith of the system danger of running off tracks, often caused great loss of prop- consists:- erty, and not unfrequently loss of life. In conjupction with 1st. In concentrating as many signal and switch levers switches frogs are used at the points where one rail crosses together as can be worked conveniently from one station. another, and a considerable number of improvements in both 2d. The switches and signals of any danger point, however these appliances were devised and extensively introduced. complicated, are connected in such a way that it is mechani- Originally the frog was frequently made of rails, at a later date cally impossible that the position of the switches should ever it was generally made of cast iron, but subsequently steel frogs be contradictory to that of the signals, or that incompatible were found to be much more durable and reliable, and there signals should be given. were improvements of patterns as well as of material. One of No matter how complicated the junction may be, if there the new switches avoided altogether any breaking of the track are twenty, one hundred, or any number of levers brought of the main line, which was the great cause of switch acci- together in a signal cabin, there is no possibility of the signal dents; others kept one track unbroken, and all diminished, to man making a mistake. a considerable extent, the dangers arising from carelessness on This is illustrated in the words of Mr. J. W. Barry, in his the part of switch tenders or imperfect mechanism, as com- excellent work on Railway Appliances. He says: 'If a man pared with the primitive stub-switch. As traffic increased, were to go blindfolded into a signal-box with an interlocking especially at terminal points, where many trains passed in and apparatus, he might so far as accordance between points and out of stations daily, requiring a large number of switch move- signals is concerned, be allowed with safety to pull over any ments, some of the most complicated of modern railway me- lever at random. He might doubtless delay the traffic, because chanism was invented for the purpose of dispensing with nu- he might not know which signal to lower for a particular train, merous switch-tenders and rendering a large number of rapid but he could not lower such a signal or produce such a com- movements from one set of tracks to other tracks safe. Effect- bination or position of points and signals as would, if the sig- ive signals are extensively interwoven with these devices, and nals were obeyed, produce a collision." the highest modern combinations of switches, switch-stands, frogs, signals, signal towers, and interlocking levers or ma- SIGNALS FOR THE GENERAL PROTECTION OF LINE. chines, represent very notable and ingenious advances, as they Aside from the use of signals at or near switches and at ter- enable hundreds of trains to daily make movements in a minal stations, extensive advances have been made by a num- limited space with a degree of freedom that would formerly ber of companies in the adoption of devices for the protection have been considered unattainable, and at the same time make of lines from the dangers arising at crossings of highways, on the best possible provision for safety, by contrivances that can- tracks over which many trains pass at varying rates of speed, not be operated in a manner that will cause serious damage at way stations, or from breaking of rails or land-slides. It is no matter how much operators may blunder. evident that, in addition to the watchfulness of employés, 8ys- tematic arrangements should be made, as far as possible, for SIGNALS. giving timely warning of any probable or possible danger There have been and continue to be considerable variations arising from overcrowding or derangement of tracks, and a in the shapes and patterns of signals with a tendency towards variety of devices were invented, and to a considerable extent a preference for the semaphore on account of its natural applied, for the accomplishment of this object. Electrical forces effect in arresting attention, due to its resemblance to an out- are generally used as an agent, and through their aid it is stretched arm when it is 80 set as to give a warning of danger, claimed that timely notice of any disturbing influence on a while when safety is indicated the arm is dropped. Various track, such as would be caused by a broken rail, can be given other forms are extensively used, some of which revolve in a to the engineer of an advancing train through signals; that manner that gives, at the will of the operator, such information crossings can be protected; that the proximity of trains can be as he wishes to convey. Many of the signals are intended for announced at stations, and that trains can be prevented from use at night as well as by day, and much ingenuity has been following so closely in the wake of each other as to create a displayed in arranging lamps with sides of various colors, to danger of rear collisions. Most of these devices are substitutes, perform the necessary service, red being a sign of danger, green more or less complete, for the block system, being in most usually of caution, and white of safety. respects inferior, although it is claimed that in some particu- INTERLOCKING OF SWITCHES AND SIGNALS. lars, especially in giving notice of broken rails, in reduction A catalogue, issued by the Union Switch and Signal Com- of expense, and avoidance of reliance on uncertain human pany in 1883, says: "The complete system of operating railway agencies, they are superior. switches and signals by interlocking apparatus has been reached THE BLOCK SYSTEM. by successive steps, the gradual development covering many A method of guarding against accidents by preventing trains years. The first step was probably the combination of the stub- from following each other too closely, which resembles the switch and target, still extensively used, the target standing English block system, was applied to the main line of the perpendicular to indicate 'main track clear,' and inclined for United Railroads of New Jersey before 1870. The following 'side track clear.' description of it is condensed from a statement made by T. L. The second step, a combination of the stub-switch and re- Pope, to the Massachusetts railroad commissioners, dated Jan- volving red and white target, coupled with red and white lights uary 22d, 1872:- moving simultaneously with the switch. "The running of all trains on the main line of railroad be- The third step, the removal of the target and light to a dis- tween New York and Philadelphia is controlled by a series of tance from the switch, and operating the two separately, first safety signals operated in connection with a telegraph line em- the target, then the switch, either of which could be moved ployed exclusively for this purpose. independently of the other, and thus the operator could break The system is arranged, in general terms, as follows: Tele- the main track without first setting the danger signal, which graphic signal stations are established along the line at dis- cannot be withdrawn while the switch is on the side track. tances apart corresponding to the shortest interval that is per- Digitized by Google BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. 301 mitted by the regulations of the road between any two trains rator at the station at once exhibits the white signal, providing going in the same direction. The engineer of each train, upon that all preceding trains have passed the next station in ad- passing one of these stations, is informed by means of the vance, and he knows of no other obstruction. proper signal if the preceding train going in the same direction If the white signal is not shown, the train is stopped in order has passed the next signal station in advance. In the absence to obtain information from the operator in regard to preceding of a signal denoting that such is the case, the train is required trains which have not passed the next station, or of any other to stop and receive explanations, and is either detained until obstruction. the preceding one has been heard from, or else is followed, by In case the train is allowed by the train dispatcher or other orders from the proper authority, to proceed on its way, using authorized person to proceed without the safety signal, and all necessary precaution, and expecting to overtake a disabled without knowing where the preceding train is, the engineer is train. required to look out carefully for obstructions, and keep his train On the New York and Philadelphia Railroad there are perfectly under control till he reaches the next signal station. thirteen signal stations between the northern terminus of the When a train has passed a signal station, the time of passing road, at Jersey City and New Brunswick, a distance of thirty- is at once reported back to the last signal station and forward one miles. This portion of the road is, therefore, divided into to the next one in advance, as well as to the principal office at fourteen sections, averaging but a little over two miles each. Trenton or Jersey City, as the case may be. No operator is per- As a matter of fact, none of them are more than three miles. mitted to report a train as passed unless he has seen the red The number of regular trains which leave Jersey City during flag or light at the rear of the train, in order to be sure that no each twenty-four hours is forty, and the number arriving is the cars have been uncoupled and left on the track in the way of a same. Of these, twenty run to and from New Brunswick and following train. When this does happen, he reports the fact points beyond, and the remainder are local trains for the ac- to headquarters and the proper telegraphic instructions are commodation of the citizens of Newark, Elizabeth, and other issued to provide for the case. intermediate points. With a single exception, none of these Trains passing a signal station, and which have not come trains leave Jersey City at a less interval than ten minutes from nor passed the preceding station-for instance, when apart, this exception being a slow way train leaving four coming in from a branch road-are required to notify the minutes behind an express train. operator of that fact, so that he will not report it back, and Between New Brunswick and West Philadelphia, a distance cause a risk of its being mistaken for another train which may of 58.25 miles, there are twelve signal stations, averaging about have passed the preceding station. When a train is to stop or four and a half miles apart. There are on this portion of the leave the main line between two signal stations, it is required road seventeen regular trains each way daily between New to report that fact to the last station it passes. In this case the Brunswick and Trenton (twenty-six miles), and twenty-four operator does not show the white signal, but explains the cir- between Trenton and Philadelphia. cumstances to the next succeeding train. In passing over certain portions of the road in the cities of The system of controlling trains by telegraph and signals, New Brunswick, Elizabeth, Newark, and Jersey City, the move- which has been described, docs not dispense with nor super- ments of the trains are not under the control of safety signals. sede any of the precautions previously in use, or which are All engines or trains going in either direction are obliged by used on roads not provided with such a system. A train the regulations to run with caution at these places, 80 as under stopped or delayed on the main track is not permitted to de- no circumstances to endanger a preceding train. These por- pend upon the station signal to hold the succeeding train, but tions of the track are much occupied with branch trains, shift- is required to send back a warning signal at once. Thus it ing engines, crossings of other roads, &c., &c., which makes it would seem that only by the grossest negligence or disobedience necessary to except them from the general system. of positive orders on the part of two distinct persons simul- The signal employed is a white board, or a white light at taneously, is any collision liable to take place. night, shown through an orifice two feet in diameter, in a black It will be noticed that on this road safety signals are relied signal box, and placed in a conspicuous position at the side of on to control trains, and not danger signals. In other words, or directly over the track, so that it can be seen as far as possible. where there is any liability to interruption or obstruction, such A partition within the box separates the signals for the opposite as drawbridges, crossings at grade, &c., the thing is presumed directions. A screen of red cloth covers the orifice in the box to be wrong until the engineer has positive evidence that it is when the signal is in its normal position, concealing the white right. If, on the contrary, a danger signal is relied on, and if, board by day or coloring the light red by night. The safety signal either from defect in the apparatus, or negligence on the part is exhibited to an approaching train by the telegraph operator, of the signal man or engineer, or if from fog, smoke, or any who pulls a cord attached to it, and terminating in his office, other cause, the danger signal, if made, is not seen, the result which lifts the red screen, and exhibits the white board or may be a terrible disaster. When a safety signal is depended light. The moment the engine passes he lets go the cord, and upon, then if it is not made or not seen, the most serious result the red screen again drops into its normal position by the that will follow is an unnecessary stoppage of the train." action of gravity, concealing the white safety signal. A similar system, intermingled with sundry modifications, When within half a mile of a signal station, each approach was established a few years later on the main line of the Penn- ing train gives a long, loud whistle. On hearing this, the ope- sylvania Railroad, and a few other roads. BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. THE portion of a railway ordinarily devoted to bridges, cul- amount of trestle-work. The difficulty of maintenance is ma- trestle-work probably forms not far from 1 per terially heightened by a variety of considerations, such as un- cent. of its entire mileage, and on account of the expense of certainty in regard to the possible volume of floods at the time such structures, and their liability to injuries or deterioration of original construction, the financial necessity of reducing cost of various kinds, which lead to fearful accidents, they fre- to the lowest possible limits consistent with safety, notable quently cause great anxiety. transitions from one set of plans and materials to others, the The civil engineer of one of the prominent north-western frequent erection of new bridges on old bridge sites under con- roads recently stated that there were about two culverts to ditions that do not permit a serious interruption of train move- each mile of its main line, and if this average holds good every- ments, and the rapid growth of traffic, accompanied with the where there are now about 260,000 such structures in the United substitution of heavy for light cars and locomotives. States, in addition to many thousands of bridges and a large Unless enormous outlays are made, and constant vigilance Digitized by Google 302 BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. exercised, special dangers lurk in every point of a line which of effort before a bridge was constructed at St. Louis, and since is not based on solid earth. The simplest culvert may prove its erection laws have been passed authorizing the construc- the scene and incidental cause of a dreadful calamity, if it fur- tion of bridges at Memphis and Vicksburg. To bridge the nishes an inadequate channel for gathering waters during Ohio at Wheeling was formerly considered quite an achieve- an unusual freshet, or if it gives way at a critical moment. ment. Subsequently bridges were erected at Cincinnati and In the course of years all sorts of disasters, including a Louisville, and now (1887) a railway bridge near its mouth at number in which scores of lives were lost, have happened at Cairo is reported to be in course of erection by the Illinois important and unimportant bridges. Late tendencies have Central. Schemes for bridging the Hudson have been under been rather towards disasters at the latter class of structures; consideration for years, but it was not before 1887 that the frequently on account of comparative neglect; but in view of speedy completion of a structure at a point as near its mouth the vast number of bridges and culverts in the country; the as Poughkeepsie was assured. Similar progress towards the extent to which wide and deep streams have been crossed; the erection of bridges at points nearer and nearer the mouth of variety of new designs rapidly introduced; and the wonderful other great rivers has been made in nearly all sections of the increase in the weight of trains, it is n matter of surprise and country. congratulation that fatal accidents are not much more frequent. Since 1865 few things have advanced more rapidly in the WOODEN BRIDGES. United States than the art of bridge building. One of the notable tendencies has been towards the substitution of iron Notwithstanding numerous great improvements a large num- for wood, followed by an extensive substitution of steel for ber of the wooden bridges originally erected have not been re- iron, and at a later date by a proclivity, in some directions, placed, the tendency on many roads over which the amount of towards the erection of stone bridges wherever they were prac- traffic is not unusually large being to repair and strengthen as ticable. Intermingled with these changes there have been long as safety can be secured by such expedients, while on por- many important modifications or inventions of designs, and tions of lines on which an immense amount of business is an increasing disposition to entrust the work of building im- transacted new bridges have frequently been erected. Even a portant bridges chiefly to bridge building firms or companies. considerable number of the new bridges of comparatively late A number of the latter have been formed, each of which, to a date have wooden superstructures. In connection with this considerable extent, controls special designs. They have gained subject, as of various other topics connected with railway im- extensive reputations for the cheapness and reliability of the provements, it should constantly be borne in mind that im- structures they erect, and on account of facilities and skill ac- portant changes are usually made slowly and gradually, and quired by special attention to this important industry their on portions of lines rather than their entire length, from the services are 80 frequently required, that the general practice is necessities of the case, a desire to utilize old structures and now to have bridges built by them, instead of by railway devices as long as possible, and economic or financial consider- companies. ations. Some of the earliest of the wooden railway bridges After the desirability of numerous high and lengthy railway were in use after the ninth decade was well advanced, and the bridges over navigable streams became evident, strenuous number of wooden bridges now (1887) in existence probably efforts were made to secure appropriate superstructures of a greatly exceeds all other descriptions. This view is justified material more durable and less inflammable than wood, at a by statistics furnished in reports of state railway commissions. moderate cost, as compared with the prices commonly paid in Of seventeen railways in Illinois it is reported that they have England and on the continent. Great ingenuity in the direc- 268 iron and stone bridges and 5,605 wooden bridges; on nine- tion indicated was rewarded by extraordinary success. teen railways in New York there are 1,633 iron and stone The details of these advances are so complex that they can bridges and 3,563 wooden bridges; on the railways of Michigan scarcely be understood by non-professional readers. Like sun- there are 107 iron and stone bridges and 705 wooden bridges; dry other things connected with transportation they represent on the railways of Iowa there are 108 iron and stone bridges some of the highest achievements of applied science. A and 12,000 wooden bridges. The figures given above for several good general description of the salient features and leading states do not include trestles, which are generally of wood. Of characteristics of the structures of an important road in Iowa it was recently reported that they embraced 47 wooden truss bridges, 1,287 AMERICAN IRON RAILWAY BRIDGES wooden trestle and pile bridges, 31 iron bridges, 7 iron trestles, as they were constructed in 1876, and to a large extent since. 2,331 cattle guards, 1,250 timber box culverts, and 444 stone box is furnished in the following extract from a paper on this sub- culverts. The proportion of iron or stone structures is much ject read by Thomas C. Clarke, M. I. C. E., before the American greater on roads of some sections. Institute of Mining Engineers, in Philadelphia, during the centennial year:- RAPID ADVANCES IN THE ART OF BRIDGE BUILDING. "Some philosopher has said that results come from internal Of the state of the art of iron bridge building in the United impulses modified by external conditions. Applying this to States about 1865 a distinguished engineer said in 1877 that European bridges, we find that the internal impulse is, first, "none of the roads centreing in New York had substituted iron to make as strong and as safe and as durable a structure as for wood. The Pennsylvania Railroad, almost alone in that possible, and that the question of cost holds a secondary place. state, was but in the infancy of the effort which has since re- The external conditions are plenty of time and rivers of com- sulted in securing to her use some of the finest specimens of paratively uniform regimen, 80 that there is but little danger bridge architecture in the world. In the west a few scattering of scaffolding being washed out by floods during erection. efforts had been made, and the subject was beginning to attract Hence we find, consecutively, stone arches, cast-iron arches, the attention of some of the best minds of the country. Squire plate girders, and, finally, lattice girders of plates and angles Whipple, Albert Fink, Shaler Smith, Jacob H. Linville, and riveted together, copying the proportions already established Thomas C. Clark had built bridges at that time, it is true, but for plate girders. such names could almost be counted upon the fingers, and In this country, on the other hand, the internal impulse is even these would, perhaps, now admit that they then 'builded to build the bridge, and in fact everything else, in as short a better than they knew." time as possible, and for the least possible sum. Hence our As skill in bridge building increases, and the cost of construc- railway bridges were originally made of the most abundant tion diminishes, or available capital grows more abundant, new and cheapest material, wood, and so designed as to be put to- undertakings are commenced and prosecuted to a successful gether with the utmost rapidity, inasmuch as our rivers are conclusion which would scarcely have been seriously considered subject to sudden and heavy freshets, and it never is safe to at earlier periods. This tendency is illustrated not only by a trust the bridge long supported by staging which may be notable increase in the number of important bridges erected, but washed out in a night. Hence when we began to build our by the location of such structures at points nearer the mouth of iron bridges we copied the proportions already established as large rivers from year to year. After the possibility of bridg- most economical in wooden trusses, and instead of riveting the ing the Upper Mississippi was demonstrated, it required years several parts together on the scaffolds, we adopted the use of Digitized by Google BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. 303 tenons and sliding joints for the compressive members, and of to 8,000 pounds per square inch, or posts 4,000 pounds to 6,000 pins and eye bars for those in tension, which enables us to pounds. erect our bridges, without fitting, very rapidly. The different designs may be divided, for purposes of com- Having begun in this path, we have seen no reason to depart parison, into four classes: 1. Riveted lattice girders, short panels, from it. We find that great economy of material, which simply 6 feet to 8 feet long; low trusses 16 feet to 18 feet high; weights means little dead weight, is got by concentrating the iron along 244}, 221, 2064, 202 tons. 2. Riveted lattice girders, panels, the lines of strain, by making long panels, which means few 9 feet to 10} feet long; trusses 20 feet high; weights 141, 140, parts, and by proportioning our girders of a depth of never less 137, 1441 tons. 3. Pin connected trusses, panels, 9 feet to 11 and often more than one-eighth of their span. The form of feet; trusses 20 feet to 22 feet; weights 128}, 1261, 122 tons. 4. truss now almost universally adopted, and which, by a process Pin connected trusses, panels, 12 feet to 14 feet long; trusses 25 of natural selection, has almost driven out of use the Bollman, feet to 28 feet high; weights 111, 1094, 102 tons. It will be Fink, and triangular girders, is the quadrangular girder with observed that the saving of dead weight is due more to the vertical posts, and main tie bars inclined at an angle as nearly design than to the difference between riveted and pin con- 45 degrees as possible. This has the merit of subjecting the nections. We may say roughly that the difference due to this iron to strains in one direction only, either tension or com- cause alone is nothing for spans of under 100 feet; from 100 pression; and if we agree with Herr Wöhler that iron strained feet to 200 feet 5 to 20 per cent. Above 200 feet the increase is both ways is as highly strained as if the tension and compres- rapid in favor of pin connections. When we come to examine sion were added together, this is a point of no small import- the question of rapidity of erection, the pin connections have ance. We prefer to hang our cross-floor beams from the pin, a great advantage. They can not only be built much quicker, because then the load is transferred directly by the diagonal tie but they require no skilled labor; any ordinarily intelligent bars without any bending moment. laborers can erect them, under a good foreman. Those of my Our peculiar web system allows us to give great height to our hearers who have had the opening of their lines delayed by a trusses, sufficient to enable us to put in vertical transverse strike of the riveters can appreciate this point. bracing high enough to clear the smoke-stacks of the locomo- Spans up to 150 feet can be erected by a gang of 20 men in tives, which, we think, adds much to the lateral stiffness of our a single day, if necessary; a 200 foot span, 2 to 8 days; a 250 bridges. feet, 3 to 4 days, &c. THE USUAL PRACTICE OF AMERICAN ENGINEERS As we put a less quantity of iron in our bridges, we are able to use a better quality. In fact it is difficult to make the eye is to provide, in addition to the weight of the structure itself, bars, forged by hydraulic pressure, except out of a good quality for a general rolling load of 4,000 pounds per foot for spans of of iron. 50 feet and below; 50 feet to 100 feet 3,000 pounds; 100 feet to AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN METHODS CONTRASTED. 150 feet 2,750 pounds; 150 feet to 250 feet 2,500 pounds; 250 feet to 300 feet 2,250 pounds; above 300 feet 2,000 pounds. In addi- One more point, and I have done. In Europe I believe that tion to this, the floor and panel system is strengthened to pro- the practice is to receive tenders by the pound upon detailed vide for a load arising from the concentrated weight of the drawings. engine of 3,500 pounds and sometimes 4,000 pounds per foot In the United States the engineer makes a general specifica- lineal. Strains in tension are taken at 10,000 pounds per tion, giving the lengths of spans, width, angle of skew, if any, square inch; and in compressions 8,000 pounds to 10,000 pounds the loads the bridge must be designed to carry, and the limit for chords of 10 to 14 diameters, and 4,000 pounds to 6,000 of allowed strains, leaving all details of construction and ar- pounds for posts of 20 to 30 diameters. rangement of depth, length of panels, &c., to be determined by So much for the designs of our bridges. When we come to those competing. Different engineers, either connected with examine the methods of construction, we shall see that the bridge establishments or acting independently, but all follow- marked feature is the use of special machine tools, by which ing that branch as a specialty, make plans in accordance with the sizes and lengths of all the parts are fitted with the utmost the specifications, and tender 80 much per foot or span, keep- exactness at the place of manufacture. The ends of the upper ing the weights to themselves. These methods have their ad- chords and of the columns are faced in lathes; and the lower vantages and corresponding disadvantages. chord bars and diagonal tie bars are drilled with a pair of drills The European method, while securing plenty of iron and set on a wrought-iron bed, 80 as to give absolute accuracy of safety in construction, has overloaded its bridges with dead length. The pins are turned, and fill the holes 80 well that weight, and made very long spans unattainable except at great 100ᵗʰ of an inch is the limit of play allowed. cost, from there being no competition in design. The Ameri- Now the point to which I particularly wish to call your atten- can method has up to this time secured both a safe and an tion is that when once the machinery is provided this accuracy economical use of material, and good quality of iron and work- of workmanship costs nothing. Hence there can be no dispo- manship. This has been due directly to competition in design. sition to slight work, and make imperfect joints and bearings. ECONOMIZING MATERIAL. The process of manufacture is the best inspection possible. But, as prices fall, the tendency is to economize material too The bridge is calculated to come to a certain camber, and if it much, particularly in short spans, which ought relatively to does not come to that camber, or if any of the eye bars are be stronger than long spans, which are strained chiefly by dead loose, something is wrong. loads. The next step will be to use an inferior quality of iron, Now every one who has ever built riveted lattice bridges unless this is prevented by rigid inspection, or, as in the buying knows that unless iron templates are used, and the greatest of locomotives, purchasers trust in a great measure to the possible care taken in laying out the work, that the rivet holes reputation of the large establishments, which is too valuable will not come opposite to each other, and either drifting or to be sacrificed for a few tons of iron. Where this guarantee riming must be allowed. Exactness of workmanship can be is not attended to, as in the case of county road bridges, which attained, but it costs the maker a great deal more money than are almost always let to the lowest bidder, entirely irrespective rough fitting, while in the machine-made bridges there is no of skill or reputation, the most disastrous results follow. If a inducement to do poor work. county road bridge will stand up until it is paid for it is con- As to the actual economy of material, perhaps the best illus- sidered a good bridge. It is said that the elephants who travel tration that I can give you is to quote the weights of the 200- with menageries, when they encounter an iron road bridge, foot spans over the Miramachi river, on the Intercolonial Rail- cannot be prevailed upon to even try to cross it. A wooden way, of Canada. Tenders were received for these bridges from bridge they will condescend to examine, and if it seems firm, various European, English, and American bridge builders. they will sometimes go over it. But when they see an iron There were 17 spans of uniform length, and these were all de- bridge they take for the river, and argument is in vain.' signed on the same specification, viz., to carry a general mov- ing load of 2,800 pounds per lineal foot, and a load on floor GENERAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR IRON BRIDGES system of 3,600 pounds per foot; strains in tensions, 10,000 to be built on the New York, Lake Erie and Western, issu pounds per square inch; in compression, in chords, 7,500 pounds by that company in 1879, state that the following modes Digitized by Google 304 BRIDGES AND CULVERTS. be preferred, viz.: Spans up to 17 feet, rolled beams; spans 17 having a span from 100 to 150 feet, 8,000 pounds per lineal foot to 40 feet; spans 40 to 75 feet, riveted lattice girders; spans over for each track; those having a span from 150 to 200 feet, 2,900 75 feet, pin-connected trusses. pounds per lineal foot for each track; those having a span from The bridges were required to be proportioned to carry the 200 to 300 feet, 2,800 pounds per lineal foot for each track; those following loads:- having a span from 300 to 400 feet, 2,700 pounds per lineal foot 1. The weight of iron in the structure. for each track; those having a span from 400 to 500 feet, 2,500 2. A floor weighing 400 pounds per lineal foot of track, to pounds per lineal foot for each track; and in all bridge trusses consist of rails, ties, and guard timbers only. of whatever length the several members in each panel shall be These two items, taken together, shall constitute the "dead 80 proportioned as to sustain, in addition to its share of the load." uniform load as above stated, such concentrated panel load as 3. A moving load for each track, supposed to be moving in is herein provided for a bridge of a length equal to the length either direction, and consisting of two consolidation engines of the panel. coupled, followed by a train weighing 2,240 pounds per run- SEC. 2. Every railroad bridge shall be so constructed as to be ning foot. capable of carrying on each track, in addition to its own weight, A clause required that "the maximum strains due to all two locomotives coupled together, each weighing 91,200 pounds, positions of the above 'live load' and of the 'dead load' shall on drivers, in a space of 12} feet for each locomotive, and said be taken to proportion all the parts of structure.' Other speci- locomotives to be followed by cars weighing 2,250 pounds per fications required that provision should be made for wind strains lineal foot, covering the remainder of the span; and all railroad and vibrations, for variations in temperature, and that there bridges shall be so projected that the loads above mentioned in should be strict compliance with a large number of directions section one shall not strain any part of the material in such relating to details of construction and other subjects. structure beyond one-fifth its ultimate strength. The accidents which occur at bridges, through their giving SEC. 4. In the construction of all bridges for public travel, way at a time when a passenger train is passing over them, either for railways or common wagon ways, the stress on any sometimes cause such a terrible loss of life that they awaken material used in the construction of the bridge, in carrying the national interest, elicit general discussions and elaborate in- maximum load for which such bridge is designed, shall not ex- vestigations, which are sometimes followed with legislation or ceed the following, namely: For the best quality of wrought regulations of railway commissions and companies relating to iron, in tension, long bars or rods, 10,000 pounds per square methods of erection and inspection. inch; for short lengths, 8,000 pounds per square inch, and One of the disasters which caused more than the usual against shearing force 7,500 pounds per square inch; and for amount of agitation, on account of great loss of life, was the the best quality of wrought iron, in beams either square or failure of the Ashtabula bridge in December, 1876. It was an cylindrical in section, in compression, the following, namely: iron bridge erected in the autumn of 1863, and after having Beams having a length of 10 diameters, 8,100 pounds per been used for more than a dozen years it suddenly gave way square inch, with square ends, and 7,400 pounds with round during a blinding snow storm. A committee of the Ohio legis- ends; beams having a length of from 10 to 15 diameters, 7,800 lature and a number of civil engineers investigated the causes pounds per square inch, for square ends, and 6,500 pounds for of the accident and the report, in which three civil engineers round ends; beams from 15 to 20 diameters, 7,400 pounds per concurred, concludes as follows: "We find nothing in this case square inch, for square ends, and 5,500 pounds for round ends; to justify the popular apprehension that there may be some beams from 20 to 25 diameters, 7,000 pounds per square inch, inherent defect in iron as a material for bridges. The failure for square ends, and 4,500 pounds for round ends; beams from was not due to any defective quality in the iron. It was not 25 to 30 diameters, 6,500 pounds per square inch, for square owing to the sudden effect of intense cold, for failure occurred ends, and 8,800 pounds for round ends; beams from 30 to 85 by bending, and not by breaking. It was not the result of a diameters, 6,000 pounds per square inch, for square ends, and weakness gradually developed after the erection of the bridge. 3,200 pounds for round ends; beams from 35 to 40 diameters, It was due simply to the fact that it was not constructed in 5,500 pounds per square inch, for square ends, and 2,700 pounds accordance with certain well-established engineering princi- for round ends; beams from 40 to 50 diameters, 4,600 pounds ples. We find no evidence of any weakness which could not per square inch, for square ends, 2,000 pounds for round ends; have been discovered in the plan and avoided in the con- beams having a length from 50 to 60 diameters, 3,800 pounds struction." per square inch, for square ends, and 1,400 pounds for round The fact that this bridge, notwithstanding these defects, had ends; beams having a length from 60 to 70 diameters, 3,200 proved serviceable during a protracted period, directed atten- pounds per square inch, for square ends, and 1,100 pounds for tion to the desirability of improved methods of inspection and round ends, and for beams from 70 to 80 diameters, 2,700 repair, as well as of construction, and the nature of the con- pounds per square inch, for square ends, and 900 pounds for clusions reached, and of the character of the precautions that round ends. If iron inferior to the best quality be used, either were deemed necessary, are indicated by the following extracts in tension or compression, the stress on the same shall be pro- from a bill to secure greater safety for public travel over bridges, portionately less than the foregoing standard for wrought iron the passage of which was recommended by a joint Senate and of the best quality. House committee of the Ohio legislature:- SEC. 5. Cast iron may be used in the construction of bridges, SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of in compression only, and in lengths not exceeding 20 diameters, Ohio, That all railroad bridges hereafter erected and designed at the same stresses as those prescribed for wrought iron by or used for public travel, excepting those provided for in SCC- this act, and in shapes other than square or cylindrical, whether tion seventeen of this act (relating to narrow-gauge railways), wrought or cast iron be used, the stresses shall vary accordingly. shall be built to carry, for usual loads, not less than the follow- SEC. 6. Where wood is used in the construction of any such ing, in addition to their own weight, namely: Bridges having a bridges, as aforesaid, the greatest allowable strains shall not span of 81 feet and under, 9,000 pounds per lineal foot for each exceed the following, namely: For oak in tension, 1,200 pounds track; those having a span of 74 to 10 feet, 7,500 pounds per per square inch; for pine, 1,000 pounds per square inch; and in lineal foot for each track; those having a span from 10 to 12} feet, compression, for oak beams of 10 diameters, 1,000 pounds per 6,700 pounds per lineal foot for each track; those having a span square inch; and for pine, 900 pounds per square inch; for oak from 121 to 15 feet, 6,000 pounds per lineal foot for each track; beams, from 10 to 20 diameters, 800 pounds per square inch, and those having a span from 15 to 20 feet, 5,000 pounds per lineal 700 pounds for pine; for oak beams, from 20 to 30 diameters, foot for each track; those having a span from 20 to 30 fect, 4,300 600 pounds per square inch, and 500 pounds for pine; and in pounds per lineal foot for each track; those having a span from oak beams of from 30 to 40 diameters, 400 pounds per square 30 to 40 fect, 3,700 pounds per lineal foot for each track; those inch, and 300 pounds for pine. having a span from 40 to 50 feet, 3,300 pounds per lineal foot SEC. 7. It shall be the duty of all railroad companies or other for each track; those having a span from 50 to 75 feet, 3,200 corporations erecting a bridge for public travel, whether by pounds per lineal foot for each track; those having a span from contract or otherwise, to keep on the spot a competent en- 75 to 100 feet, 3,100 pounds per lineal foot for each track; those gineer to superintend the work, who shall have power to reject Digitized by Google The Delaw are Lack an ama Huston Rail Road Company SEAL dreathambers Attent by Pain Roan President Digitized by Google Scoretary In Presence of attest AS Receivers of the covered by New Grand hunk Railway JALayng Shore and Bullelo Railway Company. Company or anada SEAL Per The Pennsylvania Rail Road Ompany General Manager. by. G.B.Rohub- SEAL President. The chew Cale Certral attest. Inv C.ohm's Jr. and Herdran Riven Rail Road armpany chearding. By Charney. U. Residant Deferr The Battimon and This RailRood Company SEAL subject the reservation that it mil be bound ay the proseurs hereof sofor The new Lork Sake Eie and as relates to Passengs tooffes, only Line in case it is a member ofthe Trunk Aesbern Rail Johnshing Road Company SEAL G G have Resident SEAL President secretary Scretory SIGNATURES TO TRUNK-LINE CONTRACT OF NOVEMBER, 1885. Digitized by Google NOTABLE NEW BRIDGES. 305 any piece of material which may have been injured or which as aforesaid oftener than once in two months, if required by may be imperfect from any cause. said commissioner, and it shall be the duty of said commis- SEC. 8. All railroad bridges in this state used for public travel sioner to prescribe the form of blanks to be used by such in- and having over a 15-foot span, or having a truss, shall be in- spectors of railroad bridges, embracing such information as spected once every month by some competent person ap- said commissioner may desire. pointed by and in the employment of the rporation owning INSPECTION OF BRIDGES. or using the bridge, for the purpose of seeing that all iron posts The provisions in the above bill for the inspection of bridges, are in order, and all nuts screwed home, that there are no loose pertaining, first, to the material used, and second, to the con- rivets, that iron rails are in line and without wide joints, that dition of the structure when finished, have given rise to much the abutments and piers are in good condition, that the track discussion relating to the manner in which these important rails are smooth, and that all wooden parts of the structure are duties are discharged, and what steps should be taken, either sound and in proper condition, and that the bridge is safe and by governments or companies, or both, to insure entirely re- sound in every respect. The person 80 inspecting railroad liable inspection of each of the descriptions indicated. It is to bridges shall, as often as once in two months, make report, be regretted that there is frequently too much laxity, which under oath, giving a detailed statement of the condition of occasionally leads to the acceptance of material that should be each bridge to the general manager or superintendent of the rejected, and to a practice of inspecting bridges from the rear railroad company employing him, who shall forthwith forward end of a progressing train, which would be ridiculous if it did the same to the commissioner of railroads and telegraphs, and not represent a species of trifling with serious affairs that is such inspection, in whole or in part, shall be made and reported reprehensible. NOTABLE NEW BRIDGES. KINZUA VIADUCT. priate truss, to build out the river arms, panel by panel, until O NE of the most notable new works completed in 1882 was the the whole space was spanned by the meeting of the two river Kinzua viaduct, which was alleged to be the highest bridge arms and the intermediate truss. Work was carried on simul- structure in the world. It is located on a branch of the Erie, taneously from both sides of the river. At the crossing point or New York, Lake Erie and Western Railway, that runs the Niagara river is about 450 feet wide, and the distance from through the Bradford oil regions of north-western Pennsyl- the base of rail on the finished bridge to the surface of water is vania into the Elk county coal fields. The roadway is 2,065 239 feet. The quantity of material used in the bridge and feet above sea level, on a spur of the Allegheny Mountains, towers, exclusive of approaches, is as follows: Steel, 1,272,900 which is intersected by the Kinzua gorge, through which the pounds; wrought iron, 3,093,000 pounds; cast iron, 126,000 Kinzua creek runs. To span this gorge under conditions that pounds; total of steel and iron, 4,491,000 pounds; timber in would save the construction of about eight miles of road, and floor, 154,000 feet B. M.; Beton in foundations, 81,100 cubic ensure a relatively straight and direct line, the construction of feet; masonry in piers, 2,800 cubic yards; masonry in anchor- the viaduct was recommended, after elaborate surveys, by age piers, 900 cubic yards. The bridge was designed by C. C. Oliver W. Barnes, chief engineer of the branch road before it Schneider, member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, passed under the control of the Erie. Bids were invited, and and chief engineer of the Niagara Bridge Company. the design for iron work by Messrs. A. Bonzano and T. C. NEW BRIDGES AND METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION. Clarke, of Messrs. Clarke, Reeves & Co., were approved by Mr. O. Chanute, the chief engineer of the Erie Railway. The via- References to important new structures as well as to the ten- duct is at its highest point 301 feet above the base of the gorge, dencies prevailing in 1886 are contained in the following ex- and 2,050 feet long, single tracked. It contains 3,500,000 pounds tracts from the annual address delivered at the Denver conven- of iron and cost $275,000. It is intended to be strong enough tion of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in July, 1886:- to sustain a live load consisting of a train of consolidation en- "The greatest activity in any branch of civil engineering gines. There are twenty towers; the height of the iron work during the past year seems to have prevailed in bridge con- of the lowest is 16 and of the highest 278 feet 3 inches. Of the struction. Quite a number of important bridges have been foundations it is stated that they are founded upon rock, shale completed, among them the bridge across the Susquehanna and gravel, and in a few cases timber cribbing was used below river, on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 6,315 feet in length, the level of the stream. There are 112 masonry piers and and having 4 spans of 480 feet and one of 520 feet; the Hen- abutments built of a hard sandstone. derson bridge, across the Ohio river, 3,200 feet in length, with one span of 525 feet; and the St. John's river cantilever, 447 THE CANTILEVER BRIDGE OVER THE NIAGARA RIVER. feet between piers, and the bridge across the Big Black river. In 1884 a new railway bridge over the Niagara river was Of large bridges in course of construction, the most important completed, which attracted much attention, and gave an im- is the Forth bridge, with 2 spans of 1,700 feet each, and the petus to a style of construction which applies the most modern Sukkur bridge, across the Indus, having a span of 790 feet; the forms of arranging the details of the superstructure to one of Tay bridge, and finally the Lachine bridge on the Canadian the most ancient of the primitive methods of constructing Pacific Railroad, with two spans of 408 feet. bridges, which is by fastening the roots of a tree in each bank, The contract for the erection of a bridge at Hawkesbury, and twisting together their branches in the middle of the New South Wales, has lately been awarded to one of our stream. In the new Niagara bridge, the completion of which American bridge companies-a very gratifying fact when it is was quickly followed by the erection of other structures of a considered that the contract was obtained in competition with similar description, a tower was first erected on each of the the bridge companies of England and France. The main diffi- opposite banks. Each tower supported near its centre a girder culty to be overcome in the construction of this bridge lies in with a horizontal top and an inclined bottom chord. These its deep foundations, which are to be sunk to a depth of 170 two girders did not meet in the middle of the river by about feet below the surface of water. 120 feet, and they were connected by a straight and suspended Bills have been passed authorizing the construction of bridges truss placed between them. The shore arms being first furnished, over the Mississippi river at Memphis and Vicksburg, and over their extreme ends were securely anchored to a mass of ma- the Ohio river at Cairo; also over the Mississippi river at Alton. sonry that far exceeded in its dead weight the lifting tendency A bill for a second bridge across the Mississippi at St. Louis is of the dead and live loads upon the river cantilevers. With pending. the shore arms firmly held down, it was possible, by an appro- The extremely low price of iron and steel greatly favors the 39 Digitized by Google 306 STATIONS AND TERMINAL FACILITIES. selection of long spans for bridges, as the saving in piers and solid bearing on rock, hard pan, or gravel can be insured. foundations balances the extra cost (per lin. foot) of long spans. Where a soft material overlies a hard bottom, loose stone is It has become possible to build bridges of such dimensions thrown in, which soon forms a solid bearing for the crib work, through the substitution of steel for wrought iron; but it must, or the crib is built tight with square timbers, with an open at the same time, be confessed that our knowledge of the bottom, sunk by temporary loading, the soft material-mud, properties of this comparatively new material, under the heavy sand, or silt, as the case may be-sucked out by pumps, or duties which it is called upon to perform, has not kept pace dredged out, as may best apply to the circumstances, the void with the general use into which it has suddenly come; and few then being filled in with concrete or broken stone. In case of a questions are more interesting, and at the same time of graver rough or sloping bottom, the lower courses of the crib are made importance to the engineering profession, than a careful and to conform to it as nearly as possible, from previously deter- conscientious study of the strain to which we are justified to mined soundings. Many of the cribs used are of round logs, subject the same. notched at their intersections, and secured with long drift bolts. The tendency among bridge engineers at present seems to For bottoms ill-adapted to crib work, the most usual practice be favorable to the selection of systems in which the strains to is to drive piles, the area of the foundation having been pre- which any member may be subjected can be accurately deter- viously dredged below scour, if possible. The piles are cut off mined by calculation, and the use of the pin joint, which may truly level by means of a horizontal saw on a vertical shaft, or be called a distinctive feature of American bridge construction, the simple device of a pendulum saw, and as close to the bot- favors the attainment of this object. Another feature, which I tom as possible. The interstices between the piles are leveled venture to propose to our engineers as being desirable, is that, up with stone. On the bottoms so prepared a crib is sunk, as far as practicable, the different members be 80 disposed that economizing the masonry up to near low-water mark, or a they will be subject to strains in but one direction. timber caisson is floated over the piles, the bottom of which The rapidity with which bridges with pin joints can be erected forms the platform for the masonry, which is carried up in the is an immense advantage, particularly when material for such usual way as in the open air. To control the flotation, a valve bridges has to be prepared at a great distance from its final is sometimes provided in the caisson, through which water destination, or when erection has to take place where no facili- may be admitted, to be pumped out again as occasion requires ties for doing iron work exist. This system of construction is, The sides of the caisson are detachable, and are used again, therefore, particularly adapted for new and thinly-settled coun- should there be more than one pier to found. A modification tries, and it is a matter of surprise to me that English engineers of the former method has been practiced by depending on the have not more extensively adopted it for their colonies. piles for the immediate bearing of the platform, and using a Since the great success of the cantilever bridge at Niagara timber crib as a protecting envelope surrounding them, all Falls, a number of other bridges have been built on this prin- voids being filled up with stone or concrete. In this case the ciple. Indeed, by far the greater number of long-span bridges piles, of course, are cut off at the distance below low water lately proposed are to be cantilevers, as this system offers great that it is desired to commence the masonry. In all cases advantages in erection. But they are subject to greater deflec- where there is any possible chance of scour it is usual to tions than those built on other systems, and I believe that the protect the area surrounding such foundations by means of arch might, in many cases, be preferable, as it gives almost the rip-rap. same facilities in crection, and is less deflected under the action Exceptional works often require expensive methods; but of a moving load." even such works, in this country, are of very recent dates. FOUNDATIONS OF BRIDGES. The application of the pneumatic system, 80 long practised in The most difficult labors involved in the construction of Europe, to the foundations of the East river and the St. Louis many bridges relate to the establishment of firm foundations. bridges, are examples familiar to the profession, having been It is largely on account of such difficulties, intermingled on detailed at length in the printed reports of their respective some streams with the necessity for avoiding obstructions to engineers. They are probably the most extended examples of navigation, that remarkable additions to the available length the system extant, and required great boldness and constructive of spans have been made. The chief difference between skill to carry out. Two notable improvements wero developed American and European practice in deep water has been in in the construction of the St, Louis bridge piers, viz., the use the relatively free use of timber in this country. An article of the water column for driving out the sand through pipes, on foundations, in the November-December, 1878, number of and the placing of the air lock at the bottom of the well, Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, says: leaving the long ascent and descent of the workmen to be RC- "Many of the most important railroad bridges have their piers complished in the ordinary atmosphere. The common Euro- founded on timber cribs filled in with stone, the timber work pean practice of using iron cylinders with the pneumatic sys- being carried up to within a couple of feet of lowest water tem, has been applied in this country to but few bridges, of mark before starting the masonry. On bottoms subject to which that at Omaha is the most extreme example." erosion a plentiful supply of rip-rap is dumped around the Since 1878 there has been an increasing tendency to use the foundation, and replenished from season to scason until well pneumatic system in efforts to secure reliable foundations on solidified. This is the most common system employed through- some of the deep rivers of the country, especially on the Platte, out Pennsylvania and New York, and in fact in all states where Missouri, and Mississippi, and improvements have been made the character of the river bottoms is of such a nature that a in the appliances used. STATIONS AND TERMINAL FACILITIES. THERE are no features of the American railway system that veniently furnished to locomotives. As a prime necessity they undergone more important changes and advances, are universally provided, but the particular methods used have, on progressive lines, than those relating to way and terminal like everything else connected with railways, undergone a passenger and freight stations, and shops for repairing and variety of improvements. One of the most noticeable is a sometimes for constructing locomotives and cars. method used on the main line of the Pennsylvania, of having long tanks on the track, from which water can be drawn by SUPPLIES OF WATER AND FUEL. locomotives while they are running rapidly, but a much more There is one class of things a railway must have before it common practice is the substitution, at stations, of various de- can be operated, at various points on its line, viz., water tanks, vices for such tanks as formerly were often placed in the pipes, or other appliances by which water supplies can be con- second story of a wood shed, from which supplies of locomo- Digitized by Google STATIONS AND TERMINAL FACILITIES. 307 tive fuel were drawn. Modern tendencies are indicated by the Passenger station, located in the heart of the city, and one of fact that the Chicago Exposition of Railway Appliances, held in the finest edifices of the kind in the country. 1883, offered premiums for the following articles under the head The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad Company has exten- of pumps and water-station appliances: Steam pump for water sive terminal facilities in the city of Philadelphia. Its piers and station; hand pump; hydraulic ram; water column or stand wharves at Port Richmond were long famous as the leading pipe; water tank; water tank fixtures; windmill for water work of the kind in the United States. A water front of about stations. Wood sheds on the ground floor, and water tanks two miles is occupied with 23 piers and docks. There are above them, formed substantially all the structures of some of 18,000 feet of dock room for coal alone, and about 5,000 feet the old lines, during the wood-burning era, except a few build- for miscellaneous freight. By recent improvements facilities ings which contained limited shop facilities; and even at the have been created for promptly and cheaply loading vessels of present day some new lines are completed in accordance with the largest class used in the coal trade. The depth of the water such precedents, nothing being furnished except what is abso- in some of the coal docks never falls below 23 feet. The piers lutely necessary; which consists at the outset of a provision for are connected with the main road by 44 miles of railway track, furnishing water and fuel to locomotives. 11 miles of which are used for the delivery of coal to vessels. GRADUAL INCREASE OF STATION AND TERMINAL EXPENDITURES TO The company also has many useful terminal facilities in other ENORMOUS SUMS. portions of the city. The annual report of the New York Central and Hudson From this crude beginning many advances are soon found to River Railroad Company for the year ending September 30th, be exceedingly desirable, and with the growth of traffic they 1886, in its enumeration of the items of the cost of the road rapidly became indispensable. On the degree of judgment and and equipment, amounting in the aggregate to $146,630,689.19, success with which these advances are made, the time and includes the following: Passenger and freight stations, build- methods adopted, the extent and characteristics of improve- ings and fixtures, engine and car houses, machine shops, ma- ments, the prosperity or adversity of many lines has largely chinery, and fixtures, $14,740,303.71; land, land damages, and depended. Some companies have done too much and some too fences, $15,089,201.83. The report also states that the company little. Many have failed to do the right thing at the right has 58 engine houses, with 638 stalls; 12 machine shops, 7 car time, and through procrastination lost golden opportunities for shops, and 5 elevators, with an aggregate capacity of 8,450,000 securing considerable quantities of land cheaply, which it after- bushels. wards became necessary to purchase at high figures. Some A detailed estimate of the railway terminals used in connec- companies have paid large sums for terminal lands which they tion with the traffic of New York, and located in that city and were not prepared to utilize, and thus created an interest ac- Jersey City, and other points contiguous, made a few years ago count which has been a serious drain on their treasuries by Gratz Mordecai, civil engineer, is to the effect that they in- through a protracted period. clude 200 miles of track, which cost $2,000,000; 378 acres of But whatever may be the special features of the policy, or yards, which cost $20,000,000; 22,000,000 square feet of piers, good or ill fortune of any given company, it may usually be which cost $2,200,000; 2,000,000 square feet of covered floor set down as an approximate estimate, with all important area, which cost $1,000,000; 890,000 square feet covered at New American lines, that after they have been in operation for some York city stations, which cost $5,400,000; 69 yard engines, which years the outlays made from time to time for stations, depots, cost $600,000; 44 propellers, which cost $1,100,000; 230 lighters, shops, and various classes of terminal facilities, gradually grow which cost $2,100,000. The aggregate estimated cost was to such proportions that they represent a sum larger than the $35,000,000. The cost of maintaining and operating, per an- entire cost of the original road. num, including investment charges, was $5,460,000. The num- It is often necessary and profitable to make the bulk of such ber of employés was 4,700, and the number of tons of coal used additional outlays, and one of the most important sources of per day was 450. the prosperity of some lines is derived from the improvements Specially extensive terminal facilities have also been estab- they provide. It is comparatively easy to build a railway ex- lished at Buffalo. They were largely increased since 1880. In tending between two cities, but it is often found very difficult Chicago, Boston, Baltimore, St. Paul, Pittsburgh, Kansas City and expensive after the main portions of such a line have been and indeed all important progressive commercial cities additions finished to secure an effective entrance into or near the busi- of material consequence have been made during late years. ness centre of either of those cities, especially if they are old The money value of the railway terminal facilities in a num- and populous, and without such approaches the railway almost ber of cities is much greater than their cost, on account of the inevitably becomes a failure. rapidity with which the price of real estate in their vicinity has EXTENT AND COST OF TERMINAL FACILITIES AT VARIOUS POINTS. advanced since they were purchased, and any attempt, at the Indications of the magnitude of outlays for terminal im- present day, to obtain corresponding property would either be provements at various places are furnished by the following wholly unsuccessful or require enormous expenditures. This statements, and at a number of other prominent traffic centres fact does much to restrain undue competition for traffic origi- expenditures on a corresponding scale have long been pro- nating at important traffic centres. gressing. SPECIAL ENDS SERVED. The report of the investigating committee of the Pennsyl- vania Railroad Company, published in 1874, says, under the To describe the terminal facilities of even a single important head of Terminal Facflities:- company in detail would require more space than is available. "We repeat the summary of the estimates of the real estate, Reference can only be made to their general characteristics. buildings, and improvements as follows:- They are leading adjuncts of the great work involved in the process of alternately concentrating at, and distributing from, Philadelphia division $13,319,138 75 traffic centres, all the commercial products of industry. Middle division 4,806,598 00 Pittsburgh division 9,679,509 08 Some of the most prominent purposes they serve are the con- venient delivery of live stock, at yards in the vicinity of abat- Amounting in all to $27,865,240 83 toirs, a business that has of late years been supplemented or These investments of capital are mainly in the cities of Phila- partly supplemented, to a considerable extent, by the trans- delphia, Columbia, Harrisburg, Altoona, and Pittsburgh. About portation to eastern cities of large quantities of dressed meat $22,000,000 has been expended for terminal facilities, machine from Chicago or elsewhere, and the erection of appropriate and repair shops, &c." edifices for its reception; the creation of conveniences for Since this statement was published important additions have steamship and other vessel business; the economical move- been made to the terminal facilities of the company, especially ment of grain, which includes the erection of in the city of Philadelphia, including the purchase of the old elevators in which it can be cheaply stored, unl Navy Yard and creation of extensive wharves, docks, and cars, and reloaded into wagons, cars, or ships; the landings available for commercial purposes, and the construc- coal, whether it is intended for railway uses, 1 tion of an elevated railroad leading to the new Broad Street transhipment to vessels; the special mov Digitized by Google 308 STATIONS AND TERMINAL FACILITIES. ducts, including ice, petroleum, cotton, lumber, and sundry We are told by a veracious historian that the army swore ter- classes of merchandise. Aside from all other developments ribly in Flanders," and if railway managers and employés ever the extension of tracks to the warehouses, stores, or manufac- imitated this bad example in chorus, such a deplorable occur- tories of various large shippers forms an important class of rence is most likely to happen when their road is "blocked" improvements, and another large class consists of facilities for through inability to promptly load, unload, distribute, and the delivery of freight at numerous wharves and landings, from move arriving and departing trains. barges or floats owned or controlled by railroad companies. There are terminal points in the country where more than a Competition has been a great incentive to the expansion of hundred passenger trains arrive and depart daily from a single the scope of all kinds of terminal facilities, and each company station, and on the adjacent lines more than a hundred freight that desires to keep pace with its rivals is compelled to make trains are frequently moved daily in each of two different material additions from time to time to the capacity and de- directions. Where proper facilities exist such complicated and scriptions of accommodations furnished to the shippers of extensive transactions can be conducted without disorder or large traffic centres. serious difficulty. If a sufficient number of tracks are pro- The measure of the usefulness, and consequent ability to vided, and adequate interlocking systems are supplemented obtain patronage, of any railway depends upon the character with appropriate special provisions for each important class of of its terminal facilities. Stations must be placed at accessible traffic, it would be hard to assign limits to the capacity of a and convenient points, even if large expenditures are neces- railway. There is said to be a point on an English road where sary to attain that end. The economical movement of freight seven hundred trains pass daily, and this statement indicates to foreign countries, or from one native city to another via the magnitude of the movements that may be performed water routes, requires that tracks should be laid down to within a comparatively limited space, if adequate safeguards, wharves in which gigantic steamships can float, and in lake tracks, and terminal facilities are supplied. and river cities corresponding facilities must be supplied. REDUCTIONS OF COST AND TIME FOR LOCAL MOVEMENTS. For passenger traffic, accommodations for arriving and de- parting trains, waiting and baggage rooms, ticket offices, and It would be a comparatively cheap and simple matter for a sundry other conveniences, should be erected in large centres railway company to provide such facilities as are necessary to and at numerous points along a line. These requirements are handle all the traffic offered or received at terminal points if now met in a creditable way at a number of places, although there was not a strong desire to increase traffic by cheapening there remain many others at which there are still deplorable the cost of local freight movements, and the time required for deficiencies. travelers to reach passenger stations; but provisions are often As the condition of locomotives and cars must be kept at a made for receiving and delivering freight at numerous points high standard, and the terrible wear and tear to which they are which are comparatively distant from the original end of the subjected constantly causes defects which must be promptly line, and for establishing central passenger stations at points remedied, numerous shops are indispensable. Of the entire most convenient to the bulk of the persons served, even when railway system it may be said, with respect to the matters dis- these objects can only be attained by enormous expenditures. cussed, that it is in a transition state, with a strongly-marked The economy of modern rail movements, as compared with tendency, during prosperous years, towards a notable im- the ordinary service of drays and wagons, is 80 great that the provement. sums paid for moving a ton for a few miles through a city have In the eighth decade, and since that time, the necessities frequently exceeded the amount paid for making a similar indicated received a more general recognition than at any movement over hundreds of miles on steam roads, and there previous period. In a few instances railways were built which, are many transactions which would be rendered practically at the outset, contained an unusually large proportion of the impossible by diminutions or annihilations of profits, if con- appurtenances experience had shown to be indispensable, and venient terminal facilities did not furnish opportunities for a considerable proportion of such new enterprises as are well avoiding such damaging outlays. Step by step, and year after backed by capital now commence providing extensive shop, year, so much has been done in the directions indicated, and station, and terminal facilities at a much earlier period in their in increasing the conveniences for transferring the contents of history than was formerly common. cars into ships, and the contents of ships into cars, that these labors form a very notable feature of the transportation devel- TERMINAL FACILITIES AS A GAUGE OF A ROAD'S CAPACITY. opment of the country, and go far to explain the extraordinary Particular importance was attached to arrangements for in- cheapness with which gigantic commercial movements are now creasing terminal facilities during the early portion of the conducted. eighth decade, on account of the granger agitation and con- RAILWAY YARDS. gressional investigation of transportation routes to the sea- Indications have already been given of the important part board, because these facilities were properly considered an which railway yards play in the handling and distribution of essential element of such an increase of the available capacity traffic at leading terminal points, but their full significance is of railways as was required by the growing needs of great often underestimated. The multiplicity of tracks, frequently national interests. While traffic is confined to a few trains extending over a considerable distance, affords facilities for each way daily, the accommodations for loading and unload- promptly assorting the cars conveying different classes of mer- ing and shifting cars are of comparatively small importance, chandise or destined to different points, and thus separating and as this is the normal state of many new lines, they suffer and remaking up trains. This work. requires an immense comparatively little inconvenience from their lack of facilities. amount of space, a great deal of switching, or moving cars But when business grows to an extent represented by scores of from one train or place to another. An idea of the magnitude freight trains and many passenger trains running at varying of yards and yard room and the length of the tracks they con- rates of speed each way, daily, a time arrives when the capa- tain is furnished by the statement that in 1884 there were in city of a line is gauged by the character of its terminal facili- the yards of the railways radiating from Buffalo 436.10 miles ties. Without adequate provision for promptly dispatching of track. A tabular statement of the uses to which it was ap- different classes of freight on different tracks radiating from a plied, published in A. M. Wellington's work on the Economic common main line, and such conveniences for shifting cars Theory of Railway Location, divides it as follows, in miles: and remaking up trains as are furnished by extensive yards, sup- Main track, 155.09; passenger stations, 6.08; freight trains from plemented by distinct commodious places for discharging the west, 12.81; from the east, 29.90; from Canada, 8.75; to bulky products like live stock, lumber, petroleum, coal, and Canada, 17.84; distributing for west-bound freight, 17.22; trans- grain, together with appropriate warehouses for receiving and fer, 15.81; lake freight, 13.27; coal, 29.27; stock yards, 9.88; delivering miscellaneous merchandise, and adequate facilities storage for empty cars, 13.00; local city freight, 20.72; shops and for passenger movements, any attempt to perform the amount coaling, 39.05; miscellaneous, 47.91; freight side track only, of work now performed daily at the terminal points of great 274.93; grand total, 436.10. Very large additions have since lines would result in inextricable confusion, and establish chronic been made to this mileage, and although the aggregate amount chaos of the distressing kind represented by a practical blockade. of space and length of track devoted to railway yards in Buffalo Digitized by Google GRAIN ELEVATORS. 309 is unusually great, it is typical of corresponding provisions in he said that "the stations upon American railroads are as a a number of other places. The practice of different compa- rule conspicuous by the absence of the accommodation and nies varies considerably in the extent to which reliance is convenience which characterize the stations on English or Con- placed upon yards chiefly, or almost exclusively, for the re- tinental railways. There are, of course, exceptions to this gen- assorting and distribution of freight, in contradistinction to eral rule, which are found at the terminals of trunk lines in completeness of supplementary arrangements for different great cities, and at a few special points, chiefly summer resorts classes of traffic,-but all important companies use yards very or centres for suburban residences. As for the stations serving extensively; and labors in them form such an important por- small outlying towns, they consist of little more than rough tion of railway transportation that it has been referred to as a sheds, giving shelter, but nothing more, while the absence of work divided into two general heads, one of which consists of platforms and of railway officials tends still further to mark work on the road and the other of work at division and station the characteristics of these stopping places. Upon second-class yards. lines, especially in the Southern states, the popular criticism Different portions of yards or distinct yards are set apart for upon a slow train, that 'it stops at every wood pile,' has in it special purposes, indicated by such titles as oil yard, coal yard, not much of exaggeration. The reason for this disregard of east-bound yard, west-bound yard, grain yard, empty yard, appearances, and of the comfort and convenience of passengers, passenger yard, fast freight yard, receiving yard, &c. is a simple and obvious one. The railway company cannot It is in the yards, mainly, that trains are broken up, and afford to spend large sums in station accommodation, and the arrangements made for sending each car to an appropriate absence, or rather reduction in this item of expenditure, is one destination, and that trains are made up of the particular cars of the causes why railroads in the United States are built 80 which form them. cheaply. Travelers habituated only to the necessities of station accommodation see no reason for complaint if they have to PASSENGER STATIONS. commence their journey from a rough timber shed, devoid of Improvements in the station accommodations for travelers furniture except for a few wooden benches and the universal attract much attention because they fall under the immediate stove, and complete it on the narrow platform of a dark and notice of millions who utilize passenger trains. The advances dirty terminus, or they might console themselves with the re- at many places are marvelous. At numerous points it may flection that had greater things been attempted in this direc- be said that railway stations have been transformed from the tion the railway would never have been built at all." meanest and most despicable to the most elegant and commo- On a number of lines great improvements have been made dious structures intended for extensive public use. There have during late years. Terminal stations have been brilliantly been and still are innumerable Mugby Junctions, but there are illuminated with electric lights; all their accommodations and also many marvels of architectural elegance, and there are few characteristics have been much improved, and even in the periods when notable additions to their number are not being matter of absence of railway officials at stations little or no made. Much remains to be done, however, before complete cause for complaint has been left, in view of the activity and changes will be effected in the situation of affairs described by courteous attentions and assistance rendered by brakemen and an English writer in the last half of the eighth decade, when conductors. GRAIN ELEVATORS. ONE of the most striking objects connected with terminal Name of elevator. Capacity, bushels. is grain elevators. Small ones have been con- Neely & Hambleton's elevator 600,000 structed at many places, and large ones at all the prominent Chicago and Danville elevator 350,000 north Atlantic seaboard and lake cities. At Chicago they are Pacific elevator A 500,000 most numerous. An account of the elevators of that city, Pacific elevator B 1,000,000 published in June, 1887, says:- George A. Seaverns' elevator 900,000 "The grain elevators in Chicago represent a capital invested E. Hess' elevator 250,000 of $10,000,000, and a capacity of 27,000,000 bushels of grain. George A. Weiss' elevator 300,000 They give regular employment to 600 men, whose average Total capacity 27,025,000 wages are $2.50 per day. Following is a list of the elevators In addition to the elevators named above the St. Paul railroad and the storage capacity of each:- is now engaged in driving piles on Goose Island for the founda- Name of elevator. Capacity, bushels. tion of the largest elevator in the world; it will have a capacity Central elevator A 1,000,000 of 4,000,000 bushels, and will cost, it is estimated, over $600,000. Central elevator B 1,500,000 Besides the grain received by rail, lake vessels brought to Chi- Chicago, Burlington and Quincy elevator A 1,250,000 cago during 1886, 8,379 barrels of flour, 29,361 bushels of wheat, Chicago, Burlington and Quincy elevator B 800,000 3,000 bushels of barley, and 3,980 bushels of oats, and during Chicago, Burlington and Quincy elevator C 1,500,000 Chicago, Burlington and Quincy elevator D 1,800,000 the same period there was shipped by lake 1,319,235 barrels of Chicago, Burlington and Quincy elevator E 1,000,000 flour, 10,513,126 bushels of wheat, 40,956,177 bushels of corn Rock Island elevator A 1,500,000 3,219,833 bushels of oats, 114,025 bushels of rye, and 282,946 Rock Island elevator B 1,100,000 bushels of barley." Galena elevator 700,000 The use of elevators is not confined to the transfer of grain, Air Line elevator 700,000 either from cars to vessels, or from vessels to cars, or from one North-western elevator 500,000 class of water craft to another. They also furnish facilities for Fulton elevator 400,000 storing and weighing. City elevator 1,000,000 Union elevator 800,000 AN ERIE ELEVATOR. Iowa elevator 1,500,000 A good brief description of the character of the work per- St. Paul elevator 900,000 formed in them, and of the appliances used, is furnished in the Illinois river elevator 175,000 1,000,000 following account of one of the Erie elevators of the Empire National elevator Chicago and St. Louis elevator 1,000,000 Transportation Company, contained in the pamphlet it Wabash elevator 1,500,000 describing its exhibit at the Centennial Exhibition in Indiana elevator 1,500,000 "Elevator B, erected in 1870, is a frame structure 96 Digitized by Google 310 FACILITIES FOR HANDLING COAL, LIVE STOCK, &C. by 72 feet wide, enclosed by substantial brick fire walls, and city, 2,500,000 bushels. Elevating capacity, 60,000 bushels per has a slate roof. The main building is 109 feet, and the tower hour. 124 feet in height. The stone foundations of the building stand The main building consists of nine compartments, separated on nests of 9 to 15 piles each, that were driven to and rest on by heavy brick walls, extending above the roof, with no com- the solid rock at an average depth of 17 feet. Surrounding the munication between compartments. The engine and boiler piling is a sunken crib filled solid with lake sand. Forty-seven houses are separate from the building, and made as nearly fire- separate bins furnish an aggregate storage capacity of 250,000 proof as possible. bushels, and the transfer capacity direct from lake to rail may Dimensions of main building: Length, outside, 600 feet; be estimated at 100,000 bushels per each 24 hours. A steam height of lower story, 21 feet; number of bins in each depart- engine of the most approved construction furnishes the power ment, 40 feet; width, outside, 100 feet; depth of bins, 52 feet; requisite to do the work of the building. The plan of operating number of bins in all compartments, 360. These are sub- the elevator is as follows:- divided and used for special purposes. A movable ship leg, containing an endless 5-ply rubber belt Height from wharf to top of front of main building, 82 feet; 157 feet long and 7 inches wide, on which 154 metal buckets of length of wharf from end of building, 600 feet; length of wharf 9 quarts' capacity each are secured, is lowered from the house room for vessels, south side, 580 feet; height of three elevating into the hold of an adjacent grain-loaded vessel. The belt is towers on stores, 176 feet; length of wharf room for vessels, then started, and elevates the grain to the hopper of a 100-bushel north side, 850 feet; total length of building, 1,200 feet. receiving scale, located in the elevator tower, where it is weighed. Six vessels may be loaded and two barges unloaded at the After weighing, the grain is dropped by gravity into an iron same time. receiver, located below the floor of the building. From this Steam is supplied by ten boilers to a pair of 28 X 48-inch receiver it is elevated on another similar bucket belt to a large condensing engines, making 90 revolutions per minute. Power distributing bin at the top of the house. From this bin the is distributed from four driving pulleys, 18 feet diameter, by 40- grain is spouted by gravity into any one of the numbered inch belts to four counter shafts, and from these sent to the dif- storage bins, from which it is again spouted (direct into cars), ferent parts of the house by belts and seven sets of wire when ready for shipment by rail. Two railroad tracks, accom- ropes. modating six cars at a time, are located in the building below All grain is received by two elevators, on dock, weighed, the storage bins. On each railroad track there is a track scale cleaned, and conveyed to store No. 1, dropped to other con- of the most approved pattern, which is frequently tested by veyer belts on lower floor, and elevated to the top of most sealed weights, and kept in perfect repair. The light weight convenient tower above stores, and thence sprouted to storage of each car is taken on entering the building, and the loaded bins. weight as it passes out-the difference giving the weight of the There are six cleansing machines, each using about 40,000 grain. Each lot of grain is kept entirely separate and distinct cubic feet of air per minute, and having 10,000 bushels capa- from every other, no mixing or grading of grain being allowed. city per hour. All parts of the house are well ventilated. A A small sample is taken from each lot of grain handled, and hydraulic elevator goes to the top of engine house and roof. is preserved for reference if desired. Great attention has been Nearly all machinery is driven by paper friction. Two power- paid to making the most perfect provision against fire losses." ful compound duplex fire pumps connect with the water pipes, which extend to all parts of the house. One pump is constantly DOWS' STORES, IN BROOKLYN. working. Electric fire signals, call bells, and telephones con- There are notable variations in the capacity and details of nect the different parts of the house. There is nearly one mile the appliances used in elevators, numerous improvements of wire rope for the transmission of power and five miles of being made from time to time, and much mechanical skill vulcanized rubber belting in the house, 14,000 feet of which are being displayed in construction. The following brief descrip- for conveyers. tion of Dows' stores, which, although they appear to be used The drawings for nearly every part of the house and ma- only for water movements, also represent railway advance- chinery were made in the engineer's office. ments, is printed on the backs of photographs illustrating Work was begun May 1st, 1879, and the first grain received them:- May 17th, 1881. "Dows' stores, situated in Brooklyn, at the foot of Pacific These stores were designed and the construction superin- street, are used exclusively as a grain elevator. Storage capa- tended by George B. Mallory, engineer." FACILITIES FOR HANDLING COAL, LIVE STOCK, &C. COAL HANDLING. has in operation in connection with its extensive system and A8 more tons of coal are transported than of any other its enormous coal traffic, many arrangements, at numerous single article, and as its price requires that the expense points, for the delivery of coal. All the roads extensively en- of movement from cars to vessels should be kept down to the gaged in anthracite or bituminous coal transportation have lowest possible point, places and contrivances devoted to the created special terminal facilities of considerable importance handling, cleaning, weighing, loading, unloading, and storage for this important traffic. The Lehigh Valley has made notable and stocking of coal formed the first extensive terminal facili- improvements of this kind at Perth Amboy, Buffalo, and else- ties in the country, and they continue to hold a leading place. where. The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western has specially Delivering points are numerous, and devices adapted to the advantageous arrangements for delivery in operation at Hobo- wants of different branches of the trade, varying from an an- ken. Coal is frequently dumped by opening hinged doors in nual demand of hundreds to millions of tons per annum, have the bottom of cars, and in some instances this species of un- been adopted. loading is done direct into vessels, while in others the coal is At the present time (1888) about two millions of tons per first unloaded into enormous bins, from which it is subse- annum are transhipped from cars to vessels at Port Richmond, quently taken, in wheelbarrow loads of 224 pounds each. to and its terminal facilities include eleven miles of track used in vessels. At Buffalo special devices for very quickly loading the delivery of coal to vessels. The Philadelphia and Reading vessels with coal, from enormous pockets, are in use. has a number of other places for delivering coal. Many other companies have extensive corresponding facilities. The Penn- LIVE-STOCK YARDS AND ABATTOIRS. sylvania Railroad devotes a number of piers to transhipments An important feature of the structures of most of the trunk to vessels from cars in the southern part of Philadelphia, and lines at their eastern terminal points is their stock yards or Digitized by Google FACILITIES FOR HANDLING COAL, LIVE STOCK, &C. 311 pens for cattle, sheep, and hogs, and adjacent abattoirs in which an ample supply of hot and cold water is provided. In the stock can be slaughtered. During the eighth decade great winter the building is warmed by coils of steam pipes running advances were made in the facilities for the transaction of this around the walls. The place has a capacity for killing and branch of business, especially in New York, Philadelphia, and dressing 1,200 beasts a day. The sheep are slaughtered in the Jersey City. Their character is indicated by the following de- basement at the west end of the building. Here is a row of scription of what was done by the Pennsylvania Railroad on raised pens, enclosed by a wire fence and iron posts, and paved the west bank of the Schuylkill river, a few hundred feet north with stone. In front of these pens is a stone table with a gutter of Market street, in Philadelphia, work being commenced in running round it for catching the blood of the slaughtered ani- 1875, and finished in the early part of 1876: On a site which mals. Three thousand sheep can be slaughtered and dressed occupied an area of 21 acres, traversed by branches of the main in this department. In the basement at the east end of the line, the ground was prepared in a thorough manner and paved building facing the river (the basement here is on the ground with granite blocks for pens to hold 7,000 cattle; sheep pens level) is the engine and boiler house, the former being 60 horse- accommodating 10,000 animals; hog pens of about the same power and the latter equal to 100 horse-power. Here also is capacity; covered sheds for 500 cows and calves; a main office placed the plant for reducing the tallow, and treating the blood and exchange building, in which sales are conveniently and refuse from the animals." conducted; stable for storing and selling horses; an abattoir, There are live-stock yards of great capacity at various places, which is an extensive structure, and one of the most notably in Chicago; and the business of transporting live stock complete in the world; a fat and refuse reducing department. from Chicago and other western cities to eastern cities has The enclosure is laid out in blocks and streets, which are care- attained great magnitude. Of late years, the east-bound trans- fully drained and well lighted. The cattle pens are framed and portation of dressed meat, or cattle slaughtered in the west, has roofed in to the extent necessary to protect the animals from rapidly increased and caused a corresponding diminution of rain and sunshine without preventing free ventilation. There live-stock movements. Material changes have also occurred are 172 pens, and all assigned for the use of cattle in approach- in the respective quantities of cattle and dressed meat exported ing trains are provided with water and food before the cattle to Great Britain and elsewhere. At some eastern points large arrive. There are two sheep enclosures 350x130 feet, and hog structures for the storage of dressed meat have been erected. pens adjacent. Great efforts were made to prevent obnoxious MISCELLANEOUS FREIGHT. odors from the stock yards or the operations of the abattoir, Aside from special facilities for handling exceptionally bulky which were attended with a remarkable degree of success. Of articles, such as petroleum, for the movement of which a num- the abattoir the following account is given in Dredge's work ber of ingenious labor-saving devices are used, and lumber, one on the Pennsylvania Railroad:- of the greatest tasks is to make adequate provision for hand- "The roof of the building is supported on light iron columns, ling miscellaneous freight. This includes articles of all classes and the pens, &c., are divided off with iron railings. The floors not particularly mentioned elsewhere, and many complications of the pens are laid with Belgian blocks grouted in cement, and arise from variations in quantities, differences in characteristics, they are formed with sides sloping to a central gutter, falling necessity of furnishing many points of final delivery or original in the other direction to a transverse drain. A stream of water loading in each important city, making up car loads of suffi- flows constantly along the gutter, and carries off all impurities. cient size to avoid much waste of space without endangering Two rows of wrought-iron columns carry the roof, and divide the the condition of things subject to injury by contact with other building into a central aisle 50 feet wide, and two side aisles 30 freight, great diversity in points to which merchandise is to be feet wide each. The middle portion of the building is covered forwarded, and sundry other causes. Various labor-saving ma- with an arched roof springing 40 feet above the ground. The chines have been devised to accomplish desired ends, but there side aisles are 20 feet in height to springing, and have also a are so many kinds of work to be done quickly, under condi- central roof. Along the sides of the building are a number of tions that are constantly varying, that a large force of men is doors 6 fect wide, and placed 15 feet apart, which are used to employed, at important traffic centres to load and unload, or admit wagons for the purpose of loading the meat. Ventilators move from place to place. The movements to and from New are placed over each door. Large windows are placed at each York are exceptionally numerous and varied, partly on ac- end of the central aisle, and further ventilation is secured by count of their great magnitude, and partly because a large louvres running along the roof. The floor of the building is proportion of them are made over lines which do not directly supported on cast-iron columns, and the space below forms a enter that city, but terminate on the opposite bank of the Hud- basement 11 feet in depth. Both the main floor and the base- son, and which are, therefore, obliged to forward freight to and ment are covered with an asphalte pavement 4 inches thick, from New York in floats, lighters, or other vessels. A con- having a sufficient slope to insure perfect drainage. The work siderable quantity of freight is moved across the river in cars, of slaughtering the cattle is carried on entirely on the main which are either loaded or unloaded in New York city, and floor, that portion set aside for this purpose being divided off many articles are moved in packages. Deliveries can be into pens, the floor of which is laid with heavy yellow pine made from Jersey City at any available point on either com- planking, carefully caulked. The cattle are admitted through mercial river front of the city of New York, and the work of doors in the ends of the building, through which they pass into transferring railway passengers and freight is of such magni- the middle aisle, and thence through gates into the slaughter- tude that it employs a large number of vessels, and their move- ing pens, the centre space being fenced off from the sides by ments usually form a very large proportion of all those that iron-pipe railings. Each slaughtering pen is provided with the are being made at any given period in the busiest of Ameri- requisite apparatus, and with appliances for hanging up the can harbors. Ample pier and dock accommodations are, of carcass and dressed meat. The blood and refuse are removed course, required, and they form an important item in terminal to that part of the building set apart for their utilization, and expenses. Digitized by Google 312 RAILWAY SHOPS. RAILWAY SHOPS. I NTERWOVEN with the subject of terminal facilities, and for repairs of locomotives was $21,830,963.43; for repairs of pas- yet distinct from it in some respects, are the shops, which senger, baggage, and mail cars, $10,558,823.99; for repairs of form exceedingly important railway structures. They are di- freight cars, $22,595,553.09; total for repairs of machinery and vided into several classes, one based on distinctions between cars, $54,985,340.51. A number of companies made reports car work and locomotive work, and another on the extent to relating to locomotives and cars they had manufactured in which now construction of cars or locomotives is attempted. their shops during the census year, but from many companies Most of the railway shops of the country are exclusively re- no such reports were received. pair shops, and it is only in a few of them that new locomotives The general public sees comparatively little of railway shops, are made. In some, however, excellent locomotives are con- but observant travelers who make daylight journeys over im- structed; in others, many cars have been manufactured; and portant lines, cannot fail to notice the magnitude of some of the most extensive railway combinations for construction em- these structures, and from time to time many interesting de- brace facilities for making many of the distinct parts of roll- tails relating to them are published. Nothing is more power- ing stock, portions of the permanent way, such as frogs and less than a gigantic locomotive when it is disabled by a serious switches and sundry other things needed in railway service. defect in a vital portion of machinery; and few things are more As a general rule, shops are used exclusively for repairing, dangerous than cars in active motion on a line at a time when and repair shops differ widely in the relative magnitude of axles or wheels are in a defective condition. The shops pro- their capacity, or importance of the sort of work they under- vide safeguards against such disasters. take and in the kind of repairs conducted, some being devoted They are also, to a great extent, practical schools of instruc- to repairs or classes of repairs of locomotives, and others to tion for many important features of railway operation. It was repairs of cars. There are also round-houses for locomotives, in the brains of men familiar with such surroundings as they in which minor repairs are frequently made, and they usually furnish, and proficient in such arts as they represent, that the contain a turn-table. Scales, on which cars, freight, or fuel can idea of the modern railway was first conceived, and it is largely be weighed, frequently form part of the appliances provided in through the continuous efforts of a long line of worthy suc- or near shops, and turn-tables are occasionally erected at points cessors, who are connected with railway shops or manufac- where shops have not been established. turing establishments devoted chiefly to the production of rail- Like everything else connected with the American railway way machinery or supplies that numerous improvements have system, the shops have gradually been developed into their been rapidily made. As difficulty after difficulty has arisen, present position through a series of progressive changes, a and one new requirement has succeeded another, many of the number of which occurred during the eighth decade, additions most intricate problems involved, and especially such as relate being frequently made to the machine tools, and other aids to to rolling stock, have been worked out in the shops. effectiveness provided, the number of men employed, and the The world has been benefited to an immense extent by the character of the work undertaken. There have also been im- labors that have increased the powers and improved the ma- portant modifications of methods at some places, such as the chinery of locomotives and cars, and a large proportion of such introduction of templets and standards of various kinds, the improvements have directly or indirectly either originated or establishment of rules relating to the extent to which repairs been advanced to a state of practical utility in railway shops, should be carried before a locomotive or car is finally con- while substantially all the labors required to keep rolling stock demned and broken up, and similar subjects. Many new shops in working order have been performed in them. have been erected, not only by new companies, but to some Labor-saving machinery means a great deal in the United extent by old organizations, which have frequently felt a press- States, and there are no departments of industry in which it ing necessity for an increase of shop facilities, on account of has a deeper significance than in matters connected with rail- the rapid increase of rolling stock. ways, railway shops, and the manufacture of articles intended Much depends upon the completeness of provisions for insur- for railway use. In the last-named category an immense num- ing prompt, effective, and economical repairs of cars and en- ber and variety of things are embraced, as they include not only gines, and for protection against disastrous mistakes in the prime necessities such as are used by railways, but substantially selection of parts of equipment and numerous articles required everything needed in the construction, ornamentation, and for current use or consumption. The fortunes of a company furnishing of dwellings, offices, and restaurants. may be made by successes or marred by failures in its shops. COMBINATIONS OF FACILITIES FOR CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIRS. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LABORS IN SHOPS The most extensive shops, which embrace facilities for con- is partly indicated by the relatively high percentage shop ex- struction as well as repairs, sometimes include, in addition to penditures usually bear to the total outlays for operating other departments, the following, viz.. 1. A machine shop, con- expenses, and this percentage would be materially increased if taining tools for all classes of machine work. 2. A boiler shop, a rapid growth of business did not generally lead to numerous containing all desirable facilities for manufacturing or repair- additions to equipment, or new locomotives and cars which ing locomotive boilers. 3. An erecting shop, for putting to- commonly require, during the early periods of their service, gether all the different parts of a locomotive. 4. A foundry, in much less than the average outlays for repairs. which castings of locomotives, cars, and general castings are The census statistics of 1880 show that the aggregate number produced. 5. A vise shop, used for the finishing work of parts of railway employés was 418,957, subdivided as follows: General of locomotives, and various forgings and castings. 6. A tube officers, 3,375; general office clerks, 8,655; stationmen, 63,380; shop, in which tubes used in locomotives are tested or repaired. trainmen, 79,659; shopmen, 89,714; trackmen, 122,489; all other 7. A blacksmith shop, in which there are a number of forges employés, 51,694. It will be seen that the shopmen formed and heavy steam hammers, and a large amount of heavy forg- more than one-fifth, or about 21.1 per cent. of the entire ing is done. 8. A wheel shop, in which locomotive and tender number. The character of their labors is imperfectly indi- wheels, and sometimes car wheels, are furnished and mounted. cated by the census statement that of the 89,714 shopmen, 9. A pattern shop, in which patterns are manufactured and 22,766 were classified as machinists, 23,202 as carpenters, and stored. 10. A paint shop, in which locomotives are painted. 43,746 as all other classes. The cost of the repair work per- 11. An oil house, in which waste, oils, tallow, &c., used for formed in all the railway shops of the United States in the lubricating or illuminating purposes are prepared, stored, and census year is shown by the statement that the sum expended arranged for future delivery. 12. Round-houses, provided with Digitized by Google 45 lbs. Digitized by Google OLD READING RAIL BUPFALO,OORNING & N.YORK RAIL. 1897 LENION VALLEY TEMPLET OF 1872. 87/2 ow 65 lbs. 67 lbs. U/S " 72 lbs. % per yard. per yard per yard. % ri % K Endius 18 36 Radiua 10 ya w 1/5 4½i STANDARD RAIL-PATTERNS PROPOSED BY A.LHOLLEY.O Digitized by Google RAILWAY SHOPS. 313 turn-tables, radiating tracks, hydraulic jacks, and various heavy house, by night or by day, without materially diminishing the and light tools used in making speedy repairs of locomotives amount of service performed by a locomotive. The effective- at times when their condition is not impaired to an extent ness of the labors of a given number of shopmen has been necessary to require a general overhauling. 13. A tin shop, materially increased by improvements in tools and additions for manufacturing or repairing such light sheet iron and tin to their number. Much of the work formerly done by files, for work as forms part of a locomotive, or oil cans used in oiling instance, is now done by emery shapers, wheels, or grinders, cars and locomotives. 14. A steam transfer table, which pro- and year after year new inventions or improvements are per- vides facilities for the convenient movement of locomotives or fected which make similar changes in various departments, or cars from one shop to another adjacent shop. 15. A testing reduce the amount of manual dexterity necessary to accom- department, in which the strength and other qualities of rails, plish given results. boiler-plate iron, car axles, lubricants, and various supplies and The men and machinery employed must deal with many materials are tested. 16. A shop used for-repairing and con- ponderous substances, and adequate agencies are provided for structing freight cars. 17. A passenger car erecting and re- lifting, moving, handling, shaping, cutting, shearing, drilling, pairing shop. 18. A planing mill, containing a number of fitting, boring, pressing, punching, sawing, taking wheels off wood-working machines. 19. Extensive blacksmith shops, for axles, putting wheels on axles, and modifying in all desirable making or repairing iron work of freight or passenger cars. ways bulky masses of wood, iron, steel, brass, and other metals. 20. Cabinet shop, in which the fine wood work of passenger The hardest of these must be as completely subject to manipu- cars is made. 21. A machine shop, in which heavy metallic lations as wood. work, connected with cars, such as wheels, axles, &c., is made, In arranging large railway shops and providing them with fitted, arranged, or repaired. 22. Car-painting and upholstery desirable facilities, the forces pressed into service embrace air, shops. 23. Sand house. 24. A shop for air brakes. water, fire, steam, electricity, and many classes of powerful The above list embraces a mere enumeration of a number machinery. Air is a vital force in connection with blowers used of the leading kinds of shops or departments at Altoona to increase draughts in blacksmiths' forges. One large blower There are besides general offices and extensive drafting rooms properly arranged is sufficient to provide all the currents of air in which the details of new work are carefully designed and needed in a considerable number of forges. The blacksmith is working plans are prepared; and several important depart- one of the most indispensable of the employés, as much of the ments not named in the list given above, including a car-wheel iron work must be heated, but the amount of labor he is able foundry in which many wheels are made daily, and a shop for to perform in a given period, in comparison with old-fashioned manufacturing and repairing telegraphic instruments and ap- methods, has been greatly increased by the blower, which, pliances used along the line, extensive lumber sheds and driven by machinery, does away with the hand bellows. He houses for drying and storing lumber. is also greatly helped by steam hammers of various sizes and There is no single combination of railway shop facilities in dimensions, a weight of several tons being not unusual, adding this country covering 80 wide a range and extensive capacity immensely to the force of blows made upon heated iron; as the works at Altoona, which, a few years ago, extended over shaping tools or models which render effective assistance in an area of 123 acres, and furnished employment to 4,500 men, giving desired shapes; shears or combined shearing and punch- but there are counterparts of some of their principal char- ing machines, and various other devices. Air and water com- acteristics at a number of other places. A few railway shops bined furnish the motive power for a number of hydraulic have made things not made at Altoona; and on the other hand, machines and tools, used extensively in putting on and off each of any one of many shops contains only a small propor- wheels, in lifting upper portions of locomotives or cars while tion of the machinery and departments combined there. they are undergoing repairs, in lifting or sustaining heavy As a rule there are shops of considerable importance, in weights in foundries or other shops, and in several important which repairs of cars and locomotives are made, at or near the classes of riveting operations. Hydraulic machinery is one of headquarters of each division of each railway, and the average the few things more extensively and successfully utilized in length of such divisions on some lines is but little more than railway operations in England than in the United States. The one hundred miles. There are also some shops for making machines used in machine shops and other departments are minor repairs at points which are not located near head- usually driven by steam power, and much ingenuity has been quarters of divisions, and the aggregate number of railway displayed during late years in improving the devices for in- shops of all grades runs well up into thousands. creasing the amount of available power taken to each desired point or machine, and also in transmitting steam power to MACHINE TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. tools which can be freely moved from place to place by flexible Few, if any, industrial pursuits combine in a set of concen- shafts. Systems of electric lighting have been extensively trated shops a larger number of skilled workmen, a wider adopted in railway shops. Cranes are provided for readily range of mechanical proficiency, and a more extensive variety moving heavy masses from point to point, some of which have of powerful machines and appliances, than leading construc- a capacity for lifting from twenty-five to thirty tons. Few or tion and repairing railway shops. Discussions have arisen none of the important modern improvements, relating to from time to time in regard to the extent to which new con- methods for applying any of the standard forces to machinery, struction should be attempted in them, but the necessity of or to improvements in machines, which could be rendered great capacity for repairs is universally admitted, as it would useful in railway shops, have failed to secure, in them, an ex- be practically impossible for any important railway company tensive representation. to conduct transportation in a satisfactory or successful manner Railway machine shops, in which cold iron, steel, or other if adequate provision was not made for the speedy and skillful metals are manipulated, have been supplied with numerous repair of cars and engines. They are subject to many mishaps varieties of machines and tools, including lathes of various and injuries; attempts to keep them running when they are in sizes and styles, bolt and nut screwing machines, drills, presses, a seriously defective condition are either impracticable or dan- drilling and boring machines, milling machines, planing ma- gerous; and any considerable loss of time in making repairs chines, punching and shearing machines, shaping machines, materially diminishes revenue. and slotting machines, in many of which improvements are To repair defective rolling stock as speedily as possible, and frequently made, and great advances have been achieved in to keep it in good running order at all times, are objects of the wood-working machinery of car shops. supreme importance, and the problems involved have received A large proportion of railway-shop repairs relate to run- so much intelligent consideration that modern methods repre- ning gear, and as wheels are sure to wear out or become sent great advances. One of the most notable is the introduc- defective after a comparatively limited amount of service, tion in progressive shops of templet systems, 80 arranged that they must be taken off or put on axles, an operation that re- exact duplicates of a number of the particular parts of an en- quires an exercise of hydraulic force supplied by hydraulic or gine subject to injury are kept in stock, and when a disaster hydrostatic wheel presses, which commonly apply to car wheels happens comparatively little delay occurs; and there is an ex- a pressure of about 30 tons, and to locomotive wheels a much tension of the range of repairs that can be made in a round- greater pressure, or about 80 tons. It is claimed that some of 40 Digitized by Google 314 RAILWAY SHOPS. the wheel presses are capable of exerting a pressure of 150 with carriage and roll feed for dressing out of rind and sur. tons. facing; Daniels or Traverse planing machine; double-surfacing While many of the machines, tools, and appliances used in machine to dress on one or both sides, 26 inches wide and 8 railway shops are also used in shops of various other classes, a thick, and under; surfacing machine for smoothing purposes; considerable number are used exclusively in manufacturing or band-saw machine for general work; band saw for resawing, to repairing rolling stock. In brief, it may be said that extensive resaw 24 inches wide and under; cutting-off saw machine, with railway shops contain, in addition to such aids as are peculiar traversing arbor for timbers; bracket cutting-off saw machine, to their own requirements, nearly all important classes of with traversing arbor for timbers; railway cutting-off saw ma. machines and tools used by workers in metals and wood. In chine, with traversing arbor for timbers; carriage cutting-off saw addition to appliances to which brief reference has already been for cabinet work; ripping saw with elevating arbor; ripping saw made, there are stationary steam-boiler riveting machines, and with stationary arbor; edging-saw machine; reciprocating saw stationary and portable boiler-riveting machines, which not for scroll work; rotary-car morticing and recasting machine; only greatly increase the amount of work done, but improve reciprocating morticing and boring machine; cabinet morticing the quality of the riveting. There are machines or apparatus and boring machine; reciprocating blind-morticing and boring for bending, setting, removing, and facilitating the heating of machine; one-spindle horizontal boring machine; two-spindle tires, and one of the most striking operations frequently per- horizontal boring machine; three-spindle horizontal boring ma- formed is the fastening of the thick steel tires of locomotives chine; radial horizontal machine; one-spindle vertical boring to the wheels, to which they are applied by shrinking without machine; two-spindle vertical boring machine; three-spindle any mechanical attachment whatever. The method of per- vertical boring machine; automatic car-gaining machine; ver- forming this operation, which represents a notable advance, tical car-tenoning machine; universal tenoning machine, with has been described as follows: "The tire is bored out smaller movable carriage for timber work; tenoning machine with than the periphery of the cast-iron centre is turned, the differ- copes for cabinet and general work; universal sill and cutting- ence being always one-ninetieth of an inch per foot of diameter off and boring machine; vertical spindle-shaping and edge- of tire. The tire is expanded in a heating furnace, and when moulding machine; single spindle and edge-moulding and placed on the wheel it is cooled by water." There are rail- carving machine; universal wood-worker and moulder; straight drilling machines, intended specially for making the holes for moulding machine to work four sides; surface polishing ma- the joint bolts near the ends of steel rails. In addition to car- chine; surface scraping and finishing machine; automatic knife- wheel-boring mills, there are wheel-quartering machines, on grinding machine; wood-turning machine for pattern makers' which important labors are performed on locomotive wheels use. of all sizes, including the largest, and axle lathes in which iron In addition to these iron-working and wood-working tools, or steel axles can rapidly be reduced to desired dimensions. premiums for sundry other things used in railway shops, or There are machines and bars for boring locomotive cylinders, which form part of their equipment, were offered by the Chi- flue-cleaning machines, car-box-boring attachments, portable cago Railway Exposition, aside from the wide range of woods, drilling machines for drilling holes in locomotive smoke boxes metals, furnishings, materials, and articles wholly or partly fur- and cylinder flanges, and machines for turning off crank pins in nished which form parts of cars and locomotives, or are used position, and while wheels are under an engine. In addition in making and repairing them. In this class may be included to numerous turn-tables at many points on railway lines or in systems for lighting depots and shops by electricity, leather round-houses, railway transfer tables, intended to facilitate the belting, rubber belting, fire-clay brick, cranes, hydraulic jacks, transfer of cars or locomotives from one shop to another, are lever jacks, portable forges, tire heaters, turn-tables, power used at extensive shops. blowers, hand blowers, &c. Each class of important shops is a centre of mechanical WORK DONE IN REPAIR SHOPS. labors, progress, and improvements, embracing a mechanical world in itself. In the machine tools and other appliances It is the business of railway repair shops to keep rolling stock used the United States leads the world, and it is largely on in sufficiently good order to render it improbable that accidents, account of this superiority that American cars and locomo- delays, or damages to property will occur on account of de- tives and the best native methods of manufacturing and re- fects. Accidents attributed to bad condition of equipment rep- pairing them have gained a corresponding supremacy. resent a considerable percentage of those reported, and the An illustration of the classes of machine tools and wood- causes specified include the following: Broken wheel, broken working machinery used extensively in railway shops is fur- axle, broken truck, failure of coupling or draw-bar, broken nished by the following lists of articles for which premiums parallel or connecting rod, broken car, loose wheel, fall of were offered by the Chicago Exposition of Railway Appliances, brake or brake beam, broken tire, boiler explosion, cylinder held in 1883:- explosion, miscellaneous breakages of rolling stock. Such Iron- Working Machinery.- Display of iron-working power classes of accidents would be much more numerous if in- tools, not less than six in number; axle turning machinery; car- spections of cars and examinations of locomotives were not wheel-boring and turning machine; six-spindle drilling ma- frequently made, and necessary repairs completed as quickly chine; hydraulic-wheel press; wheel grinding or trueing ma- as possible. chine; iron-planing machine; iron-crank shaping machine; Repairs of Cars. screw-cutting-engine lathe; upright-drilling machine; radial- The code of rules governing the condition of and repairs to drilling machine; milling machine; bolt-heading machine; bolt- freight cars, used in the interchange of traffic between connect- forging machine; bolt- and screw-cutting machine; set-screw ing roads, specifies in detail the defects of cars. They are machine; gear-cutting machine; power hammer; power punch divided into two classes, viz., first, those which render the car and shears; planer chucks; universal and independent chuck, unsafe to run or unsafe to trainmen, and which, on account of over 12 inches in diameter; universal-lathe chuck, 12 inches such defects, may be refused by a connecting road, and second, and under; assortment of lathe chucks; assortment of planer defects which are sufficiently serious to render desirable speedy chucks; expanding mandrel; flexible mandrel for bending pipe; repairs, that may be made by the company receiving the cars, adjustable lathe mandrel; differential pulley blocks; machine for at the expense of the owners, but which are not of a character testing quality of metals; machine for testing strength of metals; to render movement necessarily unsafe. drop press for stamping and forging; display of emery grinding The defects which justify a refusal to receive cars under the machinery; display of machinists' hand tools; display of ma- rules adopted by the Master Car-Builders' Association, in June, chinists' vises; displays of taps and dies; nut-tapping machine. 1887, are as follows:- Wood-Working Machinery.- Display of wood-working ma- Defects of Wheels. chines (not less than six); timber-dressing machine with capa- a. Worn or slid flat, exceeding 21 inches in length, or diam- city of reducing 16 inches wide and 14 inches thick, on all four eter. sides at one cut; planing and matching machine, to plane 24 b. Worn flange, flanges less than 1 inch thick, or having flat inches wide and under, and not match less than 12 inches; vertical surfaces, extending more than 1 inch from tread. flooring and beading machine; dimension planing machine, c. Wheels cracked or broken in any manner. Digitized by Google RAILWAY SHOPS. 315 d. Shelled out; wheels with treads defective on account of There are 80 many things about a locomotive liable to circular pieces shelling out, leaving round, flat spots, deepest derangement, that repairs are frequently necessary, especially at the edge, with raised centre. Wheels must not be con- after they have been in service for a few years. Of the loco- demned from this cause, unless the spots are over 21 inches in motives of companies engaged in extensive operations, a con- length, or diameter, or are 80 numerous as to endanger the siderable percentage, usually not far from 17 per cent., are in safety of the wheels. the shops for repairs, and the average cost of such repairs per e. Wheels with longitudinal seams on treads 3 inches long or mile run has varied on different lines, from five to eight cents. more. DEPARTMENTS FOR TESTING MATERIALS. f. Wheels clipped on the rim, leaving tread less than 3} The disposition to establish departments, connected with inches in width when measured from the flange at a point 1 central shops, in which various materials, parts of rolling inches above tread. stock, steel rails, &c., could be subjected to sundry tests, in- g. Wheels with flanges chipped, so that they are unsafe to cluding a chemical analysis in some instances, has been to a run. moderate extent increasing during late years. The general h. The determination of flat spots, sharp flanges, thin flanges, practice continues to be to rely chiefly upon the reputation or and chipped treads shall be made by a gauge of the following representations of the manufacturer, or tests and inspections form:- made at the place of manufacture, which are frequently but In this gauge the f-inch dimensions are changed to one inch. not universally elaborate and satisfactory. Of the physical Defects of Axles. tests and machinery used at Altoona, comparatively soon after i. Axles bent or with journals cut. its department of physical tests was organized, Dredge's History j. Axles with journals of less diameter than the following of the Pennsylvania Railroad, published in 1877, says: "It con- limit:- tains two testing machines, one of which is supplied by Messrs. Inches. 60,000-pound car, limit Fairbanks & Co. This machine is designed to test material to 34 50,000-pound car, limit 3t a strain of 50,000 pounds, and is adapted only for tensile and 40,000-pound car, limit 3t transverse strains. The machine has a scale for reading abso- 30,000-pound car (or less), limit 24 lute deflections or extensions to .01 inch, and is supplemented Defects of Mounting Wheels on Axles. by a vernier which gives readings to .001 inch. Measurements k. Loose wheel. are taken between the shoulders at the ends of the test pieces, 1. Out of gauge, or wheels that measure less than 4 feet 5 which are almost of uniform size, and a percentage of elonga- inches or more than 4 feet 51 inches between flanges, or less tion is thus obtained on a definite length. The diameters in than 5 feet 4 inches over treads. widths of samples are calipered to .001 inch. When deter- Cars may be refused if their wheels measure less than 4 feet mined, the load producing permanent set, and the ultimate 5 inches or more than 4 feet 54 inches, or if less than 5 feet 4 strength, are stamped upon the sample, which is indexed and inches on the lower line. placed in store. The principal materials tested for ensilestrength Other Defects. are iron and steel bars, cast iron from the shop foundries, m. Brakes in bad order. steel boiler plates, sheet iron, phosphor bronze, brass, and brake n. Brake wheels, steps, ladders, or running boards in bad chains. The tests for transverse strains are principally confined order or insecurely fastened. to cast iron, from the general and the wheel foundries; usually o. Draw-bars or attachments in bad order. four samples from the former and two from the latter are p. Draft sills or draft timbers spliced. tested daily. The pieces are all 15 inches long and 2 inches q. Intermediate or outside sills recently spliced in a manner square, and are put into the machine just as they come from not prescribed by the rules. the sand. These test pieces are run from different parts of the r. Leaky roofs on merchandise or grain cars. same cupola charges, and they are broken by the application 3. Doors which are not sufficient protection against fire or of a load in the centre, the bearings being 12 inches apart. storms. The average breaking weights of the wheel mixtures, contain- t. Special or general defects of bodies or trucks, which render ing 10 per cent. of steel, is 21,000 pounds per square inch, and cars unsafe to run. the tensile strength is about the same. The strength of the The percentage of the cost of various classes of repairs to cars samples taken from engine cylinders, wheel centres, &c., is differs materially on different roads, and varies materially with generally about 14,000 pounds per square inch in samples first the classes of cars. From a variety of information the con- taken from the cupola; about the middle of the charge this clusion is drawn by A. M. Wellington, in his work on the increases to 16,000 pounds, and rises to 18,000 pounds at the Economic Theory of the Location of Railways, that on freight end, where the metal is much harder from the mixture used. cars the average percentage is very nearly as follows: Wheels, These stronger irons are employed for special purposes, such 30 per cent.; axles, brasses, and axle boxes, 30 per cent.; springs, as brake blocks, &c. The tensile strength of all samples is 10 per cent.; truck frames and fittings, 5 per cent.; total truck, about the same as the transverso strengths given above. 70 per cent.; brakes, 5 per cent.; draw-bars, 10 per cent.; sills The second testing machine is for recording torsional strains, and attachments, 5 per cent.; car body, painting, &c., 5 per and was designed by Professor R. H. Thurston. This machine cent.; total, 100 per cent. produces during its operation a diagram indicating the value The cost of repairs of passenger cars, in proportion to mile- of the test. An ordinate to the curve, perpendicular to the age run, differs from charges for freight-car repairs chiefly in datum line, measured at any point, represents the moment of the expense of decorations, interior fittings, and painting. torsion at that point, while its distance on the datum from o Repairs of Locomotives. indicates the angle of torsion at that point. The point of de- Of the repairs of locomotives and tenders, A. M. Wellington, cided change in the direction of the course, a short distance in the work referred to above, concludes from a variety of data from the commencement, marks the elastic limits of the test that the total cost chargeable to repairs of engines, including piece, and various other results can be deduced from the dia- removals, may be distributed about as follows:- gram; thus the degree of toughness is indicated, the resilience Per cent. is shown by the area of the diagram, the homogeneity of the The boiler and its attachments require about 20 test piece from the form of the curve, and elasticity by occa- The running gear and frame (of which the frame consumes very sionally relieving the sample of strain, and noting the deviation little, say 2 per cent.) 20 of the pencil. For machinery proper 30 The mountings, fittings, and painting Belonging to the same department, but in another part of 12 The smoke box and attachments 5 the works, is the testing machine for car axles. These are placed under a drop, supported on bearings of cast iron, 3 feet Total of engine 87 apart from centre to centre. The drop, which weighs 1,640 The running gear of tender 9 Tank and body of tender pounds, strikes the axle in the middle of its length, and is 4 raised in vertical guides by a wire rope passing around 100" at the top. An old locomotive is employed upon Digitized by Google dred, and if it stands the test the lot is accepted; if not, they are adjustable weight. This pendulum is supported on the journal all rejected. For the steel passenger-car axles the required test by brass boxes, which can be weighted 80 as to bear upon the is that they shall withstand 5 blows from the 1,640-pound journal with a pressure varying from the weight of the pendu- drop falling through 25 feet, the axle to be turned half round lum to 210 pounds by means of a spiral spring. The brass after every blow. A similar percentage of the steel freight-car bearing above mentioned has set in it a thermometer, and in axles is also placed under the test, the requirement being 5 testing the lubricant a given quantity of oil is placed in the blows from a height of 20 feet, and for iron freight-car axles, 3 journal, and the pressure is adjusted as desired." blows at 10 feet, and 2 at 15 feet. From time to time other articles than those named above Lubricants are also tested in this department. For this pur- have been added to the lists of things tested, including coal, pose a journal 1118 inches in diameter, and running at a speed paints, the zinc and sulphate of copper used in telegraphic ser- of 2,200 revolutions per minute is employed. The journal is vice, and also the air taken from passenger cars. IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVES. B RIEF reference has been made to leading improvements number of places or shops at which a practical test of any im- in the important features of railways which are stationary, portant new idea can be secured, the magnitude of the work including permanent way, stations, signals, culverts, bridges, of making locomotives for home and foreign use which goes shops, and terminal facilities. In cost they form much the on annually, subject to the fluctuations between periods of most expensive portion of railway systems, and yet they yield adversity and prosperity, keen rivalry existing between some no direct pecuniary return, in themselves, of material conse- of the various locomotive works, and the unceasing efforts of quence, until they are quickened into earning power by cars skillful designers connected with them and with railway shops and locomotives. to meet new requirements. Railway companies spend enormous amounts of money on a variety of indispensable adjuncts for the purpose of extract- LOCOMOTIVE MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS. ing cheap labor from coal and water, converted into steam, The following list of the locomotive builders in the United and for making this operation a possible source of profit by States and Canada forms part of the contents of the National the peculiar nature of the business undertaken by all operat- Car and Locomotive Builder Supplement, of July, 1887:- ing companies, which is the manufacture of transportation, in Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa. large or small quantities, to suit the requirements of purchasers. Brooks Locomotive Works, Dunkirk, N. Y. To make coal and water work cheaply and effectively for the Canadian Locomotive and Engine Company, Kingston, Ont. furtherance of the desired end it is necessary that a reliable Cook Locomotive and Machine Company, Paterson, N. J. road of an appropriate kind should be constructed and kept in Dickson Manufacturing Company, Scranton, Pa. good order, that an abundance of vehicles should be supplied, Fleming & Sons, St. Johns, N. B. and that the complicated mechanism of locomotives should be Grant Locomotive Company, Paterson, N. J. rendered available at all desired times and places. Grant Iron Works Company, 222 Fremont street, San Fran- The locomotive furnishes the motive power of movements cisco. made on railways, and few of the existing lines would ever Hinckley Locomotive Company, Boston, Mass. have been constructed if locomotives had not been advanced Lima Machine Works, Lima, O. to a high stage of development. Manchester Locomotive Works, Manchester, N. H. Relatively speaking, and referring to the condition of all Mason Machine Company, Taunton, Mass. lines in the United States, rather than to those which have Mount Savage Locomotive Works, Mount Savage, Md. done most to improve permanent way, locomotives and cars New York Locomotive Works, Rome, N. Y. have been improved much more rapidly and generally than North Pacific Iron Works, Seattle, Washington Territory. railways. The special excellence or superiority of the railroads Pittsburgh Locomotive and Car Works, Pittsburgh, Pa. of this country, in comparison with those of other countries, Porter, H. K., & Co., Pittsburgh,: consists in rolling stock rather than permanent way. Many Rhode Island Locomotive Works, Providence, R.I. details of the latter continue to be, on numerous roads, de- Risdon Iron and Locomotive Works, San Francisco, Cal. plorably deficient, but much has been done to compensate for Roanoke Machine Works, Roanoke, Va. such deficiencies by the extensive use of superior cars and Rogers Locomotive and Machine Works, Paterson, N. J. locomotives. Schenectady Locomotive Works, Schenectady, N. Y. This country has, to a much greater extent than any other, Taunton Locomotive Works, Taunton, Mass. been Tanner & De Laney Engine Company, Richmond, Va. THE LAND OF LOCOMOTIVE IMPROVEMENTS. Virginia Iron Works, Norfolk, Va. A variety of influences have contributed to this important Wyoming Valley Manufacturing Company, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. result. They include the fact that more locomotives are used The Census Report of 1880 gives the following list of loco- here than in any other country, that nearly every locomotive motives made by railway companies at their shops during the used on American soil for scores of years has been of home year ended June 30th, 1880: Central Vermont, 4; Cheshire, 1, manufacture, that locomotives are one of the few things re- Concord, 1; Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers, 1; Housatonic; quiring in production a large amount of skilled labor that has 1; Northern of New Hampshire, 2; Old Colony, 5; Baltimore been extensively exported, that special necessities for new de- and Ohio, 26; Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianap- signs and alterations or improvements of details have been oplis, 5; Cleveland and Pittsburgh, 1; Cumberland and Penn developed here on account of excessive competition and sylvania, 1; Indianapolis, Peru and go, 2; Indianap phenomenally low rates, and that an unusually large number and St. Louis, 2; Michigan Centri York, Lake of establishments, including shops of railway companies, as and Western, 11; New York, Penn Ohio, 3; PM well as works specially devoted to the manufacture of locomo- delphia and Reading, 11; Philadel ton and Bal tives, have been actively engaged for years, in efforts to devise more, 1; Pittsburgh, Fort Wr yracus improvements of varying significance. The effectiveness of Binghamton and New York, 1 enben these conditions is materially increased by the unusually large hanna Valley, 1; Chicago, St. Lo Louie- Digitized by Google IMPROVEMENTS IN LOCOMOTIVES. 317 ville and Nashville, 10; Seaboard and Roanoke, 3; South Caro- Trunk Lines. Miles. Locomotives. lina, 7; Washington City, Virginia Midland and Great Southern, Baltimore and Ohio 1,805 685 1; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, 4; Chicago and North-west- New York Central and Hudson River 983 661 ern, 87; Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific, 8. New York, Lake Erie and Western 1,088 460 As many companies made no returns whatever relating to Pennsylvania Railroad Company's roads east of their manufacture of rolling stock to the Census Bureau, it is Pittsburgh and Erie (general divisions) 3,561 1,665 probable that the above list conveys an inadequate idea of the Anthracite Coal Roads. number of locomotives made in railway shops. The compa- Lehigh Valley 582 426 nies which have made locomotives since 1880, embodying im- Philadelphia and Reading 1,586 606 portant changes or improvements that are not mentioned above, Southern Roads. include the Pennsylvania, Lehigh Valley, Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, and Central Pacific. Central of Georgia 1,115 148 East Tennesse, Virginia and Georgia 1,098 155 The necessities developed in the anthracite coal regions of Louisville and Nashville 2,344 891 Pennsylvania furnished one of the strongest incentives to Mobile and Ohio 680 88 notable improvements. They stimulated efforts to perfect the Richmond and Danville roads 2,324 262 system of coupling numerous driving wheels, by which a Central Western Roads. marked increase in power was obtained, some of these wheels Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago 468 288 being without flanges, which finally resulted in the construc- Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis 954 263 tion of locomotives of the mogul and consolidated types. They Chicago, St. Louis and Pittsburgh 588 190 led to the continuous experiments which secured the complete Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis success of the anthracite coal-burning engines. They incited and St. Louis railways and Dayton and Ohio 788 283 efforts to secure a coal-dirt-burning engine, which resulted in Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 1,340 535 the production of engines of the Wootten type. They increased Michigan Central 1,563 396 the demand for powerful fast passenger engines, intended for New York, Chicago and St. Louis 524 108 use in hauling heavy trains over steep grades, which require- Ohio and Mississippi 622 115 ment the Strong locomotive, manufactured at Lehigh Valley Roads Radiating from Chicago in Western, North-western, South-western, shops, is specially intended to meet. The work done, or plans or Southern Directions. conceived in, Lehigh Valley and Philadelphia and Reading Chicago, Burlington and Quincy 2,080 463 shops, in connection with the improvements referred to above, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 5,181 626 was of great importance, and the Lehigh Valley is entitled to Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific 1,381 836 special credit for achievements connected with the develop- Chicago and Alton 849 228 Chicago and North-western 4,019 705 ment of the consolidation and Strong locomotives, while men Illinois Central 2,148 368 connected at various periods with the Philadelphia and Read- ing can point with just pride to early successful anthracite coal- Pacific Roads. burning engines and the Wootten locomotive. Northern Pacific 2,800 386 The Pennsylvania Railroad, with its enormous and varied Union Pacific 4,482 500 traffic, great variety of grades and classes of business, the mag- South-western Roads. nitude of its coal-carrying labors, which involve movements Atchison, Topeka and Banta Fe 2,776 380 similar to those necessitated in the anthracite regions, and the Missouri Pacific 1,346 288 completeness of its shop facilities at Altoona, has done much St. Louis and San Francisco 943 103 to promote substantial improvements in locomotive construc- Texas and Pacific 1,487 175 tion. The other trunk lines, some of the New England roads, The locomotive capacity of the country has increased with some roads which had peculiar requirements, such as those wonderful rapidity, the gains being not only in the number in existing on the heavy mountain grades of the Central Pacific, use, but in the average working of many of the new locomo- have made corresponding efforts to provide for their special tives. Their number is shown by the following figures, com- needs. In several of the roads radiating from Chicago great piled from reports in Poor's Railway Manual: Number of attention has also been paid to locomotive improvements of locomotives belonging to railway companies in the United various kinds. States in 1876, 15,618; in 1877, 15,911; in 1879, 17,084; in 1880, The advances made include first, a great increase in the 17,949; in 1881, 20,116; in 1882, 22,114; in 1883, 23,623; in 1884, number of locomotives; second, a material increase in styles, 24,587; in 1885, 25,937; in 1886, 26,415. The number made an- or classes, for the purpose of securing special adaptation to nually is considerably greater than the annual increase repre- different uses; third, a notable increase in the size and capacity sented by the above figures. One of the estimates of their of freight locomotives; fourth, an increase in the speed of pas- average life is from fifteen to twenty years, and a considerable senger locomotives; and fifth, numerous improvements in de- amount of new construction is required, annually, to supply tails of construction. substitutes for the old engines that are finally broke up. During the census year ending June 80th, 1880, the total INCREASE IN NUMBER OF LOCOMOTIVES. number of locomotives reported was 17,412, and their geogra- In the number of locomotives per mile of road there is a phical distribution was as follows:- Number great difference between the railways of different classes and Geographical group. of loco- motives. sections, which corresponds, to a considerable extent, to differ- I. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode ences in volume of traffic. The general tendency is towards Island, and Connecticut 1,733 an increase. A writer who had investigated this subject in II. New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Mary- 1885 reported that at that time the four trunk lines, the Read- land, Delaware, New Jersey, and District of Columbia 8,886 ing, and the Boston and Albany had from 46 to 66 locomotives III. Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, per 100 miles of railroad; the other lines from 13 to 26. Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, and South Carolina 1,771 In September, 1887, the number of locomotives of representa- IV. Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri, and Minnesota 3,496 tive roads of various classes was reported to be as follows:- V. Louisiana, Arkansas, and Indian Territory 82 VI. Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, New England Roads. Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, California, Miles. Locomotives. Nevada, Oregon, and Washington 1,444 Boston and Albany 372 245 New York and New England 471 147 Total 17,412 Boston and Maine 594 233 INCREASE OF CLASSES OF LOCOMOTIVES. New York, New Haven and Hartford 265 132 Old Colony 475 133 In the earlier days of railroading the varieties of locomotives, Central Vermont 583 122 as well as their number, were limited. Many of those in use Maine Central 585 86 were not designed for special service, being intended for pas- Digitized by Google 318 INCREASED SIZE AND CAPACITY OF FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. senger as well as freight service, or for hauling mixed trains, used on it, and its requirements may presumably be best served made up in part of passenger cars and part of freight cars. by locomotives of the "American" type, intended either for Engines of the same class were usually employed in switching freight or passenger service, or for hauling mixed trains. service. In the progress of development a variety of different An indication of the extent to which varieties of locomotives requirements have arisen, each of which, on a number of lines, have been introduced is furnished by the fact that the catalogue is of sufficient consequence to render it desirable and economi- of the Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1881 illustrates and de- cal that locomotives specially adapted to each of the various scribes the following classes, of which a number of different classes of work to be done should be procured, and new con- sizes, amounting in the aggregate to more than five hundred, struction has, to a considerable extent, responded to this state could be procured, viz.: Light passenger locomotives, 'Ameri- of affairs. On a small farm the horse of all work alternately can" type; passenger and freight locomotives, "American" pulls the plow, the wagon, and the carriage, but in communi- type; fast passenger locomotives; freight and mixed traffic loco- ties where there are diversified demands for the equine race motives, "10-wheeled" type; light freight locomotives, "mogul" may be found the dwarfish pony, the gigantic draft horse, the type; freight locomotives, "mogul" type; freight locomotives, average car horse, the serviceable carriage horse, the fast trotter, "consolidation" type; switching locomotives, 4-wheels-con- and the fleet racer. Similar advances have been made in con- nected; switching or local service locomotives, 4-wheels-con- nection with the introduction and extensive use of distinct nected, and leading pony truck; switching or local service loco- varieties of locomotives, and about or soon after 1870 these motives, "Forney" type, 4-wheels-connected, and trailing pony diversifications began to materially increase. One of the direc- truck; switching or local service locomotives, "double-ender" tions was in the construction of economical switching engines, type; local passenger locomotives, "double-ender" type; switch- in which service many locomotives are employed. Others were ing or freight locomotives, 6-wheels-connected; switching or in the establishment of broad lines of distinction between pas- freight locomotives, 6-wheels-connected, and trailing pony truck; senger engines and freight engines; in improvements intended switching or freight locomotives, 6-wheels-connected, and trail- to have a special effect on the kinds or quantities of fuel used; ing 4-wheeled truck; inclosed switching locomotives. in the various styles of passenger engines, with reference to For general railway purposes the leading classifications are speed or number of cars to be hauled, and in different classes passenger locomotives, freight locomotives, and switching en- of freight engines, with reference to the weight of trains, speed, gines. A French engineer of motive power, who visited the grades, curves, nature of traffic, and variations in the charac- United States in 1885, for the purpose of investigating the loco- teristics of different divisions of many lines. Some manufac- motive service of this country, reported that "each company turers have made a specialty of light locomotives, and other has four principal types, one with two axles coupled for pas- establishments are engaged principally in making locomo- senger trains, one with three axles connected for light freight tives to be used in mines, hauling logs, &c. The net result of trains, one with four axles connected for heavy freight trains, a response to the varied requirements is the production of and one for switching. These types do not differ greatly on many more kinds of locomotives, if allowance is made for the different roads, and a great many parts are common to all the variations in size and capacity of different classes, than could types, considerably reducing the number of spare pieces to be formerly be procured. At the same time, there is a large kept in stock." This general rule is subject to the qualification amount of railway mileage in the United States on which that some companies have more and some less than four prin- traffic is so light that it is a matter of comparatively small cipal types, and the relative number of engines of the Ameri- importance whether engines of more than one class should be can type has been rapidly decreasing during late years. INCREASED SIZE AND CAPACITY OF FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. A NOTICEABLE feature of the modern transportation de- dation engines. These were carefully limited to an average of velopment of this country is a much more rapid increase 11,000 pounds per wheel, which was somewhat less than the in the number of freight cars than in the number of passenger weight then existing upon the 'American' engine. And I cars. would say with regard to the wear of rails that we have not There was also, necessarily, a much more rapid increase of yet been able to detect any more wear from the wheels of the requirements for additional motive power for moving those consolidation engines than from the 'American' engines freight, than of the demands for additional passenger locomo- which they displaced. The effect of putting these engines has tives. One of the outgrowths of the prevailing needs was a been, I believe, to increase the average train to about 38 cars, great increase in the capacity of many of the new freight and the freight per train to about 228 tons instead of 106 tons. locomotives, as well as in their number. There were, at the beginning, some difficulties apprehended, A vital change promoted by the use of the engines of in- chiefly from the breaking of trains in two, the pulling out of creased size and capacity hinged on the fact that the useful effect draw-heads, breaking of links and pins, and similar accidents of the labors of locomotive engineers and firemen employed was likely to detain the traffic. It was, therefore, determined to greatly increased, sometimes to the extent of from fifty to more change and to increase the strength of the draw attachments than one hundred per cent., and there was a notable gain in to the car. A stronger draw-head spring was substituted. The the weight of the average train load moved without a material draw-head arms were more firmly fastened to the main-sills of additional expense for labor being incurred. the car, the draw-head was increased in strength, the pin and The nature of such gains is forcibly described in the following the link were also increased in size, and then pains were taken extract from remarks made by O. Chanute at a meeting of the to prevent, as far as possible, the breaking of trains in two, American Society of Civil Engineers held in January, 1883:- which, railroad men all know, causes the largest number of "The practice on the Erie road makes it very clear and ap- minor accidents occurring on railroads. These precautions parent that the heavy engines are the economical ones to use. were found to produce an entire success, and although the In 1874 the average train upon the Erie Railway was about trains were about double the former length, the accidents were twenty-two cars. The road was then mainly equipped with actually diminished in number; and not only was the useful 'American' engines of eight wheels (of which four are drivers) train load increased, but the expenses of doing the freight on the various divisions. On the Buffalo division and on the traffic were diminished from 0.958 cents a ton a mile to 0.526 Western division the average load was from 17 to 19 cars, and cents a ton a mile, which latter cost the operating accounts the average train load, including the empties, was, I think, show for last year." about 106 tons. In 1876 the road began to put on the consoli- The increase of the average train load which occurred on the Digitized by Google INCREASED SIZE AND CAPACITY OF FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES. 319 Erie railroad was fully equaled by corresponding developments lation to the respective merits of mogul and consolidation en- on a number of other lines. Elaborate statistics bearing on gines, with reference to their applicability to particular lines, on this subject have been published, and they afford one of the which powerful freight locomotives were considered desirable most important indications of the extent to which economy of differed materially, some preferring the former and some the movement has been promoted, as it costs comparatively little latter, but a decided preference for one of these types has been more to move a heavy train than a light one. A condensed manifested in many quarters, and it is to the performances of statement of the results on a few typical lines will illustrate an these locomotives, especially those of the consolidation type, extensive movement:- with its various modifications, perhaps, more than to any other AVERAGE TRAIN LOAD IN TONS. single influence, except the introduction of steel rails, that this In 1875. In 1880. In 1885. country and the world are indebted for the establishment of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern 168 252 254 cheapest known system of overland freight movement. New York Central 169 219 204 Of the most powerful of modern American locomotives, it New York, Lake Erie and Western 184 211 227 has recently been stated that they could convert 3,000 gallons Pennsylvania 128 184 209 of water into steam in an hour. Boston and Albany 82 97 109 Delaware, Lackawanna and Western 83 107 The catalogue of the Baldwin Locomotive Works for 1881 Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago 96 125 138 describes four sizes of locomotives of the mogul type which had Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis 98 166 182 a capacity of hauling on a level, respectively, loads, of cars and Chicago and Alton 124 177 184 lading, of 1,740, 1,835, 1,920, and 2,000 tons of 2,240 pounds. One of the advantages claimed for heavy modern freight en- The heaviest of these locomotives could baul a load of 880 tons gines is that their construction has been simplified, 80 that, in on a grade per mile of 26.4 feet; 520 tons on a grade of 52.8 feet; comparison with former practice, they need fewer repairs, being 360 tons on a grade of 79.2 feet; 270 tons on a grade of 105.6 kept more steadily at work, and losing less time in shops. feet; 215 tons on a grade of 132 feet, and 170 tons on a grade of 158.4 feet. THE LARGEST AND MOST POWERFUL LOCOMOTIVES Two freight locomotives of the consolidation type bad a ever built in this country up to 1885 were "El Gobenador," capacity of hauling on a level, respectively, loads of 2,560 and constructed by the Central Pacific Railroad at its shops at 2,740 tons of 2,240 pounds. The heaviest of these could haul Sacramento, California, under the direction of Mr. A. J. Stevens, 1,205 tons on a grade per mile of 26.4 feet; 720 tons on a grade general master mechanic of the Central Pacific, for service on of 52.8 feet; 495 tons on a grade of 495 feet; 870 tons on a grade the Sierra Nevada mountains, and Decapod, or 12-wheeled of 105.6 feet; 290 tons on a grade of 182 feet, and 235 tons on a locomotives, built at the Baldwin works, one of which was for grade of 158.4 feet. the Dom Pedro II Railroad of Brazil, and another for the Detailed reports of actual performances of engines of the Northern Pacific, for service on one of its mountain divisions. classes referred to, furnished by railway officials in various sec- It was believed, in 1884, that the El Gobenador was the most tions of the country, are published, which substantially show powerful locomotive ever built up to that time in the world. that the capacity claimed is not exaggerated. In one instance Its leading dimensions were as follows:- mention is made of a train consisting of 100 cars, weighing 2,201 Diameter of cylinders 21 inches. tons of 2,240 pounds each, including the weight of engine, tender, Stroke of cylinders 36 inches. and fuel, hauled over a road, containing a number of sharp Diameter of driving-wheels 57 inches. curves, by a consolidation engine. Sundry other statements Driving-wheel base 19 feet 7 inches. furnish evidence of corresponding capacity in ascending steep Total length, engine and tender 65 feet 5 inches. grades. Total weight of engine, ready for service 146,000 pounds. Weight of tender, without coal or water Of the performances of the heaviest locomotive of the con- 50,650 pounds. Weight of water in tank (3,600 gallons) 30,000 pounds. solidation type, built at the Baldwin Locomotive Works pre- Weight of coal 10,000 pounds. vious to 1881, constructed for an extension of the Atchison, To- Total weight, engine and tender, fully equipped 226,650 pounds. peka and Santa Fe, the catalogue says: "This locomotive was Weight on drivers 128,000 pounds. built for working a temporary switchback track (used during The following are the principal dimensions of the Decapod the construction of a tunnel) crossing the Rocky mountains, locomotive built in 1885 for the Dom Pedro II Railroad of with maximum grades of 6 in 100. Over these grades the en- Brazil:- gine hauled its loaded tender (40,000 pounds) and 9 loaded cars Actual weight, in working order, exclusive of (each 43,000 pounds); total load, exclusive of its own weight, tender 144,000 pounds. 541,000 pounds. On a grade of 2 per cent. it hauled a train Actual weight on driving-wheels 128,000 pounds. weighing 965,000 pounds, and on one of 3} per cent., 517,000 Estimated weight of tender, including fuel and pounds. Curves of 16 degrees occurred on the switchback water 80,000 pounds. track, but not in combination with the 6 per cent. grade." Estimated weight of locomotive and tender, in Of the performances of consolidation engines on portions of working order 224,000 pounds. the Pennsylvania system, Mr. Dredge, writing for Engineering Cylinders 22X26 inches. in 1876, said:- Driving-wheels, five pairs coupled 45 inches diameter. Total wheel-base 24 feet 4 inches. "The type of engine we have been describing does some very Driving wheel-base 17 feet 0 inches. heavy work on the Pennsylvania Railroad. Thus on the Phila- Rigid wheel-base 12 feet 8 inches. delphia and Columbia division, where the maximum grade Boiler of iron, # inch thick 64 inches diameter. going eastward is 40 feet to the mile, or 1 in 132, the load, Height of centre line of boiler above rail 7 feet. taken at a speed of 15 miles per hour, consists of a train of 35 Fire-box 10 feet 1 inch long by 391 inches wide inside. loaded cars weighing 735 tons, exclusive of the engine; while Tubes 268 in number, 2 inches diameter, 12 feet 91 inches long. going westward over the same division, a maximum grade of Heating surface of fire-box 160 square feet. Heating surface of flues 49 feet per mile, or 1 in 107.8 to be surmounted, and the load 1,783 square feet. Total heating surface 1,943 square feet. is then 30 loaded cars weighing 630 tons. The consumption of Tank capacity 8,500 gallons. fuel on this part of the road averages 4.2 pounds per mile per car hauled. On the Columbia and Harrisburg division there is MOGUL AND CONSOLIDATION LOCOMOTIVES a short grade of 30 feet per mile, or 1 in 176 going eastward, had been manufactured before 1870, but there was a light de- and a short grade of 37 feet per mile or 1 in 142.7 going west- mand for them for some years, as they were originally devised ward, and on this section the loads in the two direc to meet special exigencies arising in the anthracite coal regions 70 cars weighing 1,470 tons, and 65 cars weighing of Pennsylvania, but about the middle of the eighth decade respectively, the consumption of fuel averaging 2.7 their numbers increased materially, and a few years later, car mile. On the Erie and Langdon's division the especially after 1880, their increase became rapid. gradient going eastward is 71 feet per mile, or 1 in During a portion of the eighth decade, and since that time, this gradient the engines haul 24 loaded to a considerable extent, the views of a number of experts in re- On the Renovo and Jersey Shore se Digitized by Google per mne, or the remainder of the line being practically level, and on this vember 14th, 1878, embrace a statement of the advantages that division the load for the engines consists of 80 loaded cars road would derive from the substitution of mogul and consoli- weighing 1,680 tons, with a consumption of 2.7 per car per dation locomotives for lighter engines, presented in a series of mile. Finally, on the Susquehanna division, which is about questions and answers by Charles Latimer, chief engineer, level, the load going eastward consists of 85 loaded cars weigh- which include the following:- ing 1,785 tons, this load being frequently taken at a speed of "Q. How many common engines do we now use? 25 miles per hour, and the fuel consumption being 2.5 pounds A. Upwards of one hundred. per car per mile. These performances are of much interest, Q. How many moguls will do the same work? the loads being unlike anything hauled in England." A. Two-thirds of one hundred, or sixty-seven. At a later period improved types of consolidation engines Q. How many consolidations will do the same work? were built for the service of the Pennsylvania Railroad, prin- A. 182 of one hundred, or fifty-five. cipally at its own shops at Altoona, which possessed consider- Q. How many engines will we thus save? ably greater power than the engines referred to above. A. Thirty-three engines by using moguls, or forty-five engines A good illustration of the prevailing modern tendencies is by using consolidations. furnished by the following details of this change in the type of Q. What amount of money would thus be saved in capital consolidation engines used on the Pennsylvania Railroad, which invested? was made in 1886, the first of the new sample engines having A. 100 engines of present type at $7,500 each, cost $750,000; been made at the Altoona shops in 1885. 67 engines of mogul type at $8,100 each, cost $542,700; 55 en- The consolidation locomotive of 1876, designated class I, was gines of consolidation type at $9,750 each, cost $536,250; saving the heaviest standard freight locomotive used on the road at by using moguls, $207,300; saving by using consolidations, that time and for some years later. The new class, adopted in $213,750. 1886, is designated class R. Some of the most notable changes Q. What amount would be saved in engine repairs? in weight and general dimensions, which presumably represent A. $51,755 annually. corresponding changes in power or effectiveness, were as fol- Q. What amount would be saved in train wages? lows:- A. $144,940. Class I. 1876. Class R, 1886. Total weight of locomotive in working Q. What amount would be saved in fuel and oil? order 91,640 lbs. 114,625 lbs. A. $46,756. Total weight on driving-wheels 79,400 lbs. 100,600 lbs. Q. Since fewer engines will be used and less weight in the Number of tubes in boiler 138 183 aggregate pass over the line, how much would be saved in Total heating surface 1,258 sq. ft. 1,731 sq. ft. maintenance of way?. Weight of tender, loaded 55,760 lbs. 57,800 lbs. A. $51,726. The water capacity of the tank of the tender of each engine Q. How much would be saved in engine houses? is 3,000 gallons, and the coal capacity of the tender or fuel-bin A. Only from one-half to two-thirds of the present amount of each is 8,000 pounds. The gains, in effectiveness, in addi- of room will be required." tion to weight, &c., include a higher boiler pressure. CONTINUED USE OF MANY OLD-STYLE LOCOMOTIVES. THE RELATIVE POWER OF LEADING TYPICAL LOCOMOTIVES, As locomotives are wonderfully durable machines, in view of as shown by the maximum working loads in tons of 2,000 the large amount of hard service they perform, a change in the pounds on a level road, uncomplicated by curvature or fluctua- character of the engines used on any road can only be made tions of velocity, has been estimated as follows: American light, gradually, old types continuing in service until they are worn 1,198 tons; American standard, 1,442 tons; light 10-wheeled loco- out, and new types being purchased or manufactured only motives, 1,690 tons; average 10-wheeled and light mogul, 1,936 when replacements or additions to equipment become neces- tons; standard 10-wheeled and heavy mogul, 2,183 tons; light sary. The life of a locomotive may be greatly prolonged by consolidation locomotives, 2,430 tons; average consolidation en- limiting the amount of its annual service, and in a few excep- gines, 2,675 tons; standard heavy consolidation engines, 2,920 tional cases their existence as working machines extended over tons; extra heavy mastodon locomotives, 3,163 tons. a period of about half a century. Longevity from twenty to The capacity diminishes with an increase of grade, until even thirty years is not uncommon, but in the best modern practice the heaviest of the locomotives can haul comparatively light a considerable percentage of locomotives are condemned before loads over some of the heavy mountain grades of this country. they reach their fifteenth year. Of some of the old locomotives The standard load of freight varies greatly on different roads, which are still in comparatively good condition it is reported and on different divisions of the same road, if there is a marked that they are too light to be efficient in hauling the heavy trains variation in the characteristics of its divisions. One of the now handled on the roads to which they belong, and a number highest achievements of the ninth decade, on favorable grades, of companies have manifested a disposition to hasten the sub- is to haul standard loads of about 1,500 tons, or 3,000,000 pounds stitution of relatively heavy for light engines as much as poe- of freight, exclusive of weight of engine, tender, and cars, and sible. Meanwhile much of the freight service of the present standard loads vary from these figures downward to a few hun- day is done by engines made during the eighth decade, or be- dred tons. fore that time, when some of the conditions which now favor ECONOMIC EFFECT OF SUBSTITUTION OF HEAVY FOR LIGHT ENGINES. and demand relatively heavy and powerful locomotives did The proceedings of the road masters' meeting of the Atlantic not exist. INCREASED SPEED OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES. (ONSIDERABLY more attention was formerly paid to the comparat loads at speed than had improvement of freight locomotives than to material previous non. Ex etic efforts were changes in the construction of passenger locomotives. Slight made to speed of tives running modifications of the American type of engines supplied for on the ro York Philadelphia more than a score of years the requirements of nearly all com- and Wasl and Chicago, panies. Shortly before the beginning of the ninth decade, a few and some as however, and to an increasing extent since that time, demands other sectio became urgent for passenger locomotives which could draw One of the of Digitized by Google Digitized by Google VARIOUS STYLES OF AMERICAN RAILWAY BI X X X X X X mumm Numman M INCREASED SPEED OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES. 321 number of notable styles of locomotives, for each of which a The run from Alabama to Genesee Junction, 36.3 miles, was speed of at least sixty miles per hour, under favorable condi- made in precisely 80 minutes. tions, is claimed, with ability to make considerably faster time The run from East Buffalo to Newark, 93.4 miles, was made for short distances, under exceptionally favorable circumstances. in 97 minutes. There are two stoppages to be deducted from Some of the most important of these improvements are this, one of 7 minutes at Genesee Junction for water and oiling represented by new or modified types of passenger locomotives engine, and a full stop at Red Creek for the New York, Lake manufactured at the Altoona shops for service on various por- Erie and Western grade crossing, for which we deduct 2 min- tions of the Pennsylvania Railroad system; at the Baldwin utes, making the actual running time 88 minutes. works or Reading shops for the Bound Brook route; engines At Newark the train stopped 9 minutes to change engines. made for service on the New York Central and Hudson River; The conditions are not 80 favorable for fast running east of engines made at the Rogers works for the New York, West Newark as west, but the distance from Newark to Frankfort Shore and Buffalo; engines made at the Rhode Island Loco- was covered in 134 minutes; distance, 108.3 miles. There were motive Works for service on the New York, Providence and six stoppages in this distance, aggregating a delay of 17 minutes, Boston road; and the Strong locomotive made at the Lehigh which makes the actual running time 117 minutes. Valley shops. The whole run from East Buffalo to Frankfort, 202 miles, It is obvious that there is a great difference in the possible was made in 4 hours, or 240 minutes. Deducting total deten- performances of a locomotive under the most favorable condi- tions of 35 minutes, the actual running time was 205 minutes." tions, and the speed that can be maintained with sufficient The train was composed of an engine and tender, a baggage steadiness to furnish a basis for regular schedules. On portions car, and the official cars, having an aggregate weight of 155 of all American roads of considerable length there are serious tons, a little more than one-half of which consisted of the weight obstacles to be encountered, such as those arising from heavy of the engine and tender. The engine used on the north end grades, sharp curves, weak bridges, defective track, or grade of the division was a class A anthracite locomotive, weighing crossings, which make it easy to traverse some sections more 96,000 pounds, which increased the weight given above to the rapidly than others; and unpropitious weather or crowded con- extent of 1,500, while on the other portion of the run a class B dition of tracks materially increase the obstacles to high speed bituminous coal engine, weighing 94,500 pounds, was used. along entire lines. Therefore, locomotives that maintain with The weight of the tender, with two-thirds load of coal and approximate regularity any given schedule time could do water, was 62,800 pounds. These engines were of a type de- much better under exceptionably favorable circumstances. signed by the late Howard Fry for the West Shore, and made RECORDS OF AVERAGE DAILY PERFORMANCES at the Rogers Locomotive Works. One of such engines, which include the following: The Railroad Gazette, of February 11th, was on exhibition at the Chicago Exposition of Railway Ap- 1887, says:- pliances in 1883, attracted much attention there, and was re- "The fastest train on the New York Central runs from New garded by some observers as an embodiment of all the latest York to Buffalo, 440 miles, in 10 hours and 45 minutes, or at improvements. the rate of 40.93 miles per hour. This can be done because FAST RUN ON THE NEW YORK CENTRAL the grades are remarkably favorable, and the stopping stations Of a remarkable run made at a later date on the New York average no less than 110 miles apart. The Pennsylvania runs Central the New York Sun, in an article printed in November, the limited express from Jersey City to Pittsburgh, 443 miles, 1887, says:- in 11 hours 17 minutes, corresponding to a speed of 39.27 miles "The heaviest engines that go over the New York Central per hour, the average distance between stoppages being 1104 road weigh 74 tons. This includes the tender. Mr. Buchanan, miles. The speed is fully 11 miles slower than on the New the superintendent of motive power, says the largest wheels he York Central, showing the effects of the more unfavorable is now putting on are 5 feet 8 inches. Six-feet drivers were gfades and curves. On a straighter track, the Pennsylvania used, but the reduction was made to get more power. attains a considerably higher speed, the fastest train between Mr. Buchanan was asked if it is possible to make a mile in Jersey City and Washington covering the distance, 226.7 miles, 38 seconds. He said that depended upon all the conditions in 5 hours 2 minutes, which gives a speed of 45.04 miles per being exactly right. He said he had made, in observation loco- hour. The distance from New York to Boston by the Boston motive 522, three miles in succession in 40, 41, and 42 seconds and Albany route is 234 miles, and notwithstanding the keen respectively. The following schedule was given as the fastest competition and great through travel, the speed is only 39 time ever made for the distance, 149 miles in 136 minutes. It miles per hour by the fastest train on this route, which covers is the running time made by newspaper special train No. 11, the distance in 6 hours. between Syracuse and Buffalo, on August 8th, 1886, drawn by The fastest run in regular work between any two stopping engine 541; John W. Cool, engineer:- points give a speed of slightly over 53 miles per hour. Higher Inter- Time Rate of rates of speed have been obtained when making up time, but mediate between speed distance. stations. per hour. at present the average speed while in motion seems to be con- Syracuse siderably under 60 miles per hour. Many trains doubtless fully Oswego Junction 8.00 3.30 54.54 attain that speed on a large portion of the run, but the time Warner's 6.34 6.00 63.40 occupied in getting up speed after starting and slackening Jordan 7.71 7.00 66.08 before stopping reduces the average speed to about 53 miles Weedsport 4.34 3.50 74.40 Port Byron 2.37 3.00 per hour." 67.40 Savannah 7.00 6.15 68.29 A number of accounts of notable performances of locomo- Clyde 6.20 5.25 70.85 tives over considerable distances have appeared. Detailed re- Lyons. 7.37 6.50 68.03 ports were published of a Palmyra 12.51 10.45 71.82 Fairport 12.80 10.25 74.93 FAST RUN MADE ON THE NEW YORK, WEST SHORE AND BUFFALO, Rochester 10.09 9.00 67.27 on July 10th, 1885, which was claimed to be the fastest run, for Rochester (stopped for water). the distance, ever made up to that time in this country. W. Coldwater 6.16 5.35 69.08 W. Wheatley, chief train dispatcher, in describing it, said:- Bergen 11.55 9.40 73.72 "Several miles were made in 43 seconds, while the greater Byron 7.72 6.55 70.72 part of the run was made at a speed averaging 45 to 48 seconds Batavia 6.59 7.50 52.72 per mile. This is at the rate of 70 to 83 miles per hour. If Crittenden 15.77 13.30 71.14 Gainesville you will analyze the run, you will be surprised to find that their 9.59 8.30 69.32 Buffalo (E street) 10.59 12.00 52.95 assertions must be true, and that the speed was maintained There was a slow up at Batavia. throughout the whole of the run. Please note the run from Average speed, Syracuse to Rochester 67.27 East Buffalo to Genesee Junction, 61 miles. Starting from a Average speed, Rochester to Buffalo 63.72 dead stop at East Buffalo, they came to a stop at Genesee Average speed, Syracuse to Buffalo 65.60 Junction within exactly 56 minutes. The standard passenger locomotives on the New York C 41 Digitized by Google 322 INCREASED SPEED OF PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES. tral and Hudson River Railroad in use about 1884, known then the fire, which makes this fire-box phenomenal for the manner as class A, were intended for the use of bituminous coal as A in which it burns the softest bituminous coal without producing fuel, and had exceptionally effective smoke-preventing devices. smoke. Superheated steam is used to induce jets of air upon They represented the most advanced developments of the de- the fire through four openings made in the front and four in signs of Mr. Buchanan, superintendent of motive power on the back of the fire-box. Steam is led from the dome through that road, at that time. A description published in the Ameri- an iron pipe which passes inside the fire-box to a coil which can Journal of Railway Appliances includes the following rests on top of the water table. Here the steam is superheated statements:- and afterward passes on to the jets mentioned. These jets act "The engine has cylinders 17x24 inches, and the driving as air injectors, and propel a considerable volume of air into wheels are 70 inches diameter outside of tires, the tires being the fire-box, imparting to it a portion of the heat of the super- 31 inches diameter. The boiler is designed to carry steam at heated steam, thereby tending to keep up the temperature of 145 pounds pressure. With a mean effective pressure of 120 the fire-box. pounds, the engine is capable of exerting a force of 11,890 The crown sheet is stayed with girder stays. There are 18 pounds to turn the drivers. As the total weight of the engine square feet of grate area, the heating surface of the fire-box is in working order is 82,760 pounds, and as 52,160 pounds rest 153.12 square feet, heating surface of tubes 1,200 square feet, on the driving wheels, the whole force stated may be used in the total heating surface being 1,353.12 square feet. starting a train without trouble from slipping. The engine has an extended front end and open stack; this, Throughout the whole of the parts of engine and boilers in- in combination with the style of fire-box, providing a thorough dications are everywhere apparent of well-considered designing preventive against spark throwing. The base of the smoke and painstaking development of details. Ample wearing sur- stack is conical, and the exhaust pipes are brought up and face is provided for all the rubbing parts. A liberal margin of come together gradually, ending in a single nozzle 41 inches strength is given to all parts subjected to working strains, yet diameter. Mr. Buchanan believes that the single nozzle ex- the material is judiciously placed to secure as much lightness hausting the steam centrally into a conical-shaped stack, acts as possible consistent with the required strength, and all parts like an ejector in inducing draft, and that the required draft are put together in snch a way that they can easily be taken can be maintained in this way with a comparatively low speed apart for repairs, or reached when repairs are necessary. This of exhaust steam, which means light back pressure in the is a very important feature, and one that has very great in- cylinders." fluence on the cost of repairs when an engine is in service; FAST RUNS ON THE PENNSYLVANIA. and it is also a matter which is too often neglected by locomo- tive designers. In regard to exceptionally fast runs on portions of the Penn- The valve motion is of the ordinary shifting-link type, and sylvania Railroad system, an article was published in the Phila- it is designed 80 that the distribution of steam is remarkably delphia Record, of August 4th, 1882, which credited to Edward uniform from full stroke up to 6 inches cut-off. The steam Osmond, locomotive engineer, the statement that he had run ports are 1}x15} inches, and the exhaust port is 21 inches locomotive 724, an anthracite engine, between New York and wide. The valves have f outside and frinch inside lap, set Philadelphia in 93 minutes, stopping four times on signals, with to lead in full gear, and the greatest valve travel is 5 which, allowing 1} minutes for each stop, would leave the inches, being equal to the throw of eccentric. The main con- actual running time 87 minutes. necting rod is 7 feet 9 inches long, the length of the eccentric An article published in the Philadelphia Times in June, 1886, rods is 471 inches, and the links are slotted to a radius of 631 says:- inches. Strap ends are used on connecting and side rods. A "Lew Silence is one of the veteran passenger conductors on plain steel cross-head working in four-bar guides is employed. the New York division of the Pennsylvania Railroad. His The centres of the cylinders are 6 feet 1 inch apart, and the name suits him, too. He seldom talks. He runs the 7.30 driving wheels tram 8 feet 6 inches between axle centres, that train to New York every morning. Yesterday he pulled a length of side rods being required. The driving-axle journals little note book out of his pocket, and, turning to June 13th, are 7 inches diameter and 8 inches long, the main crank-pin said: 'I made that memorandum 6 years ago. That was the bearings are 4X4 inches, and the side rod bearings X3} fastest run ever made on the New York division of the Penn- inches. sylvania Railroad from Philadelphia to New York, 92 miles in But the most noteworthy parts of this locomotive are the 93 minutes. The train made three stops and seven slow-ups. boiler and fire-box. This combination of boiler and fire-box There was only one car and an engine. The car was filled can hardly be regarded as a novelty, for the pattern has been with passengers from the west, and I ran the train. There had in use for several years, but its features and performance are been a storm up in the state the night before, and on the Mid- not nearly so well known as they deserve to be. The boiler is dle division of the main line, between Harrisburg and Altoona, of the wagon-top variety, being 50 inches diameter at the a big tree blew across the track. I think it was in the Lewiston smallest ring, and the wagon top is raised 11 inches. Iron Narrows. The fast line, as the train was called, was 4 hours I-inch thick is used throughout the shell, the horizontal seams and 21 minutes late when it got to Philadelphia. I got orders have a single lap welt and are double riveted, and the circum- to take those passengers to New York as quick as an engine ferential seams have single lap, single riveted. There are 198 could pull a car. The whole road was cleared for my train. steel tubes 2 inches diameter and 11 feet 8 inches long. We went so fast that telegraph poles looked like toothpicks, The inside fire-box is of steel, the side, front, and back sheets and houses looked like soap boxes. One mile was made in 46 being inch thick, the crown sheet 1-inch thick, and the tube seconds, another mile in 47 seconds, and a third mile in 49 plates 1-inch thick. Beginning at a point in the front sheet of seconds. When we went down the hill at Menlo Park we the fire-box, level with the bottom of the barrel of the boiler, traveled 3 miles at the rate of 78 miles an hour around curves a water table passes diagonally across the fire-box to a point and on the straight track. If a man had put his head out of a above the fire-box door, dividing the fire-box into two parts. The window he would have lost his breath. That's the history of only communication between the part of the fire-box where the the fastest run ever made on the New York division. I've been grates are, and the part connecting with the tubes, is an oval on some pretty fast trains, but that beat them all. I often see opening resembling an ordinary fire-door, which is made in the stories in the newspapers about fast runs made on western middle of the water table. Through this opening all the gases of roads, but when you come to ride 92 miles in 93 minutes, combustion must pass in their way to the tubes, and the upper through a thickly-settled country like that between this city portion of the fire-box acts as a combustion chamber to complete and New York, why, it's fast riding, because an engineer has to the chemical combination of the products of the fire. This slow up going through every big town. Still, we went through arrangement in itself is a good smoke-preventing device, for it Elizabeth that day running 58 miles an hour." tends to promote the admixture of the gases which results in The following specifications of a standard Pennsylvania Rail- the perfect combustion that produces no smoke, but Mr. road class K passenger engine, with tender, were published a Buchanan has added special mcans for supplying air above few years ago:- Digitized by Google Tender. Heating surface of fire-box 151 sq. f Gauge 4 ft. 9 in. Heating surface of mbustion chamber 32 sq. fl No. of pair driving wheels 2 Total heating surface 415 sq. fl Diameter of driving wheels 78 in. Diameter of smoke-stack 18 ir Wheel centres Cast iron. Exhaust nozzle variable, from 4 to 5 in. diameter. Tires Steel. Weight on driving wheels 60,780 lb Total wheel base 22 ft. 71 in. Total weight of engine 89,750 lb: Length of rigid wheel base 7 ft. 9 in. The Wootten engines intended for passenger and freight sei Diameter of driving axle bearing 8 in. vice, were designed by John E. Wootten, who was for man Length of driving axle bearing. 104 in. years general manager of the Philadelphia and Reading Rai Kind of frames Wrought iron, inside. road Company. They have attracted much attention, as the Distance between centres of frames 44 in. Boiler material Steel. represent notable departures from general practice, particu Thickness of boiler sheets, dome, and extended smoke-box A in. larly in the matter of a great increase in the available area ( Thickness of boiler sheets, barrel, outside fire-box, slope, waist, and heating surface, and in the location of the cab, which is directl roof sheets 1 in. over the boiler, instead of at its rear. They have gained a hig Thickness of sheet under dome 16 in. reputation for extraordinary steam-producing power and effect Thickness of smoke-box 1 in. iveness, and also for ability to utilize the anthracite coal dus Maximum internal diameter of boiler, wagon top 502 in. or other inferior classes of combustible materials as fuel. Minimum internal diameter of boiler, wagon top. 401 in. Height to centre of boiler from top of rail 7 ft. 51 in. THE STRONG LOCOMOTIVE. Number of tubes 201 Considerable interest has been manifested in a new style ( Inside diameter of tubes 1t in. passenger engine known as Strong's Express Locomotive, de Outside diameter of tubes 17 in. signed by George S. Strong, of Philadelphia, of which severa Tube material Wrought iron. specimens had been built at Lehigh Valley Railroad shops, unde Length of tubes between tube sheets 10 ft. 101% in. the superintendence of Alexander Mitchell previous to 188 External heating surface of tubes 1,085 sq. ft. Fire area through tubes, less ferrules 2.9 sq. ft. This locomotive embraces novel features, and it is claimed the Length of fire-box at bottom, inside 9 ft. 111 in. it possesses unprecedented power to draw heavy passenge Weight on truck 20,300 lbs. trains at high rates of speed over heavy grades. An elaborat Weight of engine in working order 96,700 lbs. report on its characteristics and performances, made in Augus Weight on first pair of drivers 32,900 lbs. 1887, by E. D. Leavitt, jr., says: "In my judgment Mr. Strong Weight on second pair of drivers 32,000 lbs. valve gear for the locomotive promises to do what Mr. Corlis Weight on truck 31,800 lbs. has accomplished for stationary engines; it gives a good ink Engine fitted with driver brake. and a free exhaust, its mechanical details are simple, and, wit Capacity of tank 2,400 gal. Capacity of tank coal box 12,000 lbs. proper construction, will be durable and free from derang Number of wheels under tender 8 ment." Of changes in boiler construction he says: "Mr. Stron Diameter of wheels under tender 33 in. has widely departed from previous locomotive practice at th Material of wheels under engine truck Cast iron, steel tired. fire-box end; he has discarded stays, and the deep fire-box, f( Diameter of tender truck journals 31 in. corrugated circular furnaces and combustion chambers, whereb Length of tender truck journals 7 in. he gets a very large grate area and heating surface of the mos Weight of tender, empty 26,100 lbs. effective type." The records of a number of performances as Weight of tender loaded 56,300 lbs. given, some of which are at the rate of about a mile a minut Tender fitted with water scoop. Material of wheels under tender trucks but special significance is attached to the drawing of heav Cast iron, chilled thread. THEODORE N. ELY, Superintendent Motive Power. trains at high rates of speed over steep grades, at points when two locomotives are usually necessary to perform similar se About 1884 another class of anthracite-burning engines, de- vice. One of these records is as follows:- signated class P, intended for fast passenger trains on the New York divisions, were constructed. Their principal dimensions "On June 23d, 1887, engine No. 444 took a train out on th Northern Pacific Railroad to Brainerd, leaving St. Paul at were as follows: Diameter drivers, 68 inches; cylinders, 181 x24 P. M. On this occasion the train consisted of 14 heavily-loade inch; tractive power, 120.6 pounds; total weight of the engine cars, to wit: One United States railway post-office car; 1 e: in working order, 100,000 pounds. A description of one of the press and 1 baggage car, all heavily loaded; 7 full passeng coaches, with people standing; 3 Pullman sleepers, and 1 di HIGH SPEED WOOTTEN ENGINES, ing car. The weight of this train was about 875,000 pound used on the Philadelphia and Reading system, stated that its Immediately out of St. Paul station a 3-mile grade is struck, general dimensions were as follows:- 86 feet per mile. Our engine easily climbed the hill on schedu Cylinders time, and when about two-thirds up the grade began blowir 184X22 in. Diameter of driving wheels 68 in. off steam. The Northern Pacific Railroad has a very heav Diameter of truck wheels 30 in. engine, specially constructed for this grade-weight, 106,00 Wheel base 20 ft. 58 in. pounds-but it has never succeeded in making this hi Diameter of boiler at smoke-box 53 in. alone, with 9 cars. On this occasion the tractive pull of th Diameter of boiler at fire-box 581 in. engine could not have been less than 23,000 pounds, corr Number of tubes 845 sponding to a mean effective steam pressure of 150 pounds p Length of tubes 9 ft. 2 in. square inch. The boiler pressure was 175 pounds. The tra Diameter of tubes (outside) 11 in. tive force due to grade alone, neglecting friction, is over 14,00 Sectional area of tubes (inside) 514 sq. in Length of fire-box (inside) 8 ft. 6 in. pounds." Width of fire-box (inside) 8 ft. On some roads 10-wheeled or mogul locomotives have be Combustion chamber 31 in. long. extensively used when it was necessary to pull heavy train Grate area 68 sq. ft. over steep grades. 324 IMPROVEMENTS IN DETAILS OF LOCOMOTIVE CONSTRUCTION. IMPROVEMENTS IN DETAILS OF LOCOMOTIVE CONSTRUCTION. MULTIPLICITY OF DETAILS. 650 pounds stay bolts 29 25 WIDE scope for changes or improvements is furnished by 165 pounds planished iron A 22 91 the multiplicity of devices and separate parts of a loco- 1,403 pounds crown-bar iron 70 15 130 pounds T iron 50 motive, as each of many things is subject to modifications and 223 pounds B. B. iron 18 94 wear and tear. The Railroad Gazette published, in December, 665 pounds sheet iron 26 60 1882, a detailed list of the pieces, and weight of the respective 15 pounds Russia iron 78 parts of a locomotive and tender, built in 1865 for the Illinois 44 pounds boiler iron 07 Central Railroad Company by the Hinckley Locomotive Works. 8,093 pounds steel for boiler 778 32 It was of the American type, and a light engine, compared with 296 pounds steel boiler-head plate 39 96 many of the locomotives of the present day. The total weight 871 pounds cast steel 130 65 of the engine was 54,078 pounds. The weight of each of the 1,208 pounds cast spring steel 110 73 1,012 pounds old steel 23 90 different materials used was as follows: Brass, 1,948 pounds; 1,129 pounds bronze 340 07 wrought iron, 29,627; cast iron, 19,785; wood, 2,718. The total 517 pounds brass 101 66 number of pieces, including bolts, &c., was 4,904. The sub- 16 pounds Babbitt metal 23 divisions of the engine were classified as follows: Boiler; domes, 1,319 pounds lead 94 43 &c.; safety valves, &c.; throttle valves, &c.; steam and exhaust 53 pounds bar and sheet copper 16 68 pipes; petticoat pipe, &c.; blower; smoke-box, door, &c.; smoke- Rivets 47 39 stack; grates, ash pan, &c.; boiler braces; frames, &c.; bed Bolts 31 19 Nuts casting, &c.; cylinders, &c.; cylinder cocks, &c.; steam chest, 49 69 Washers 40 &c.; valves, &c.; pistons, &c.; cross-heads, guides, &c.; crank 2 driving axles (1,780 pounds) 20 pins; driving wheels and axles; driving springs, &c.; driv- 6 pairs wheels and steel sxles 424 60 ing boxes; valve gearing; reverse lever, &c.; pump; check 4 Butcher steel tires (3,993 pounds) 439 23 valves; injector, &c.; check chains; sand box; bell and stand; 144 feet pipe 12 35 hand rail; running board; cab, foot-board, &c.; wheel covers; 4 steel crank pins (414 pounds) 12 42 cow-catcher, &c.; head-light, brackets, &c.; steam gauges, cocks, 7 tube ends 76 &c.; sundries. Of these sub-divisions, the following had an ag- 1,721 feet tubes 395 83 gregate weight exceeding A ton: Boiler; frames; cylinders, &c.; 131 pounds copper pipe 55 39 Copper rivets 20 crank pins; driving wheels and axles, and engine truck. The Screws 83 tender weighed 18,518 pounds. The aggregate weight of each Nails 24 of the materials used, in pounds, was as follows: Brass, 83; 12 steel set screws 00 wrought iron, 8,330; cast iron, 6,987; wood, 3,118. The total 17 pounds lagging screws 8 number of pieces was 1,366. The leading sub-divisions were 6 pounds black rubber 36 the tank; tender frame, &c.; tender trucks, and brakes. 16 feet chain 25 11 pounds sheet rubber 04 COST OF ONE CLASS "c" BITUMINOUS LOCOMOTIVE ABOUT 1876. Split keys 36 Another indication of the complexity of the locomotive is 6 feet rubber hose 8 furnished by detailed lists of the cost of various portions of a Brass and copper wire 25 number of locomotives built in the Altoona shops about 1876, Emery paper 0 06 which are published in Dredge's account of the Pennsylvania 81 pounds packing 66 Tacks 0 03 Railroad. One of these lists gives the number of hours of Wick 0 05 labor devoted in each of the respective shops to each task in- Sponge 0 08 volved in the completion of a class "C" bituminous locomo- 4 pounds leather 28 tive and tender, as well as the cost of the materials used. The Type metal 0 25 number of hours of labor and its cost in each shop was as fol- Glue 0 07 lows:- 5 firebricks at 90 50 Total hours. Value of labor. 3 screw eyes. 0 In smith shop 3,495.20 $557 63 2 pounds soap 0 22 In boiler shop 3,152.00 502 97 Brushes 0 45 In lathe shop 2,695.10 430 12 1 tank cistern 425 00 In vice shop 1,158.00 184 74 1 signal bell 27 In wheel shop 156.00 24 88 1 whistle 13 00 In erecting shop 3,061.00 488 46 1 steel counter spring 8 10 In tin shop 338.00 58 97 1 water scoop hose 2 25 In carpenter shop, 490.00 78 48 1 counter balance spring 7 61 In paint shop 412.00 67 66 2 unions 2 05 Extra attachments 1,323.00 211 14 1 Richardson safety valve 10 12 Total 16,280.30 2 swivels 1 28 $2,600 05 4 hose nuts 4 20 The total expenses for labor and materials, exclusive of shop 4 deflector nuts 4 00 expenses other than those for gas, fuel, and stores are as fol- 1 goore neck 1 89 lows:- 1 steam chest gland nut 0 60 Labor $2,600 05 1 boiler check 16 35 Proportion of gas-light 40 00 2 tallow caps and joints 7 31 Proportion of fuel and stores 138 92 4 eccentric straps 27 00 10,506 pounds forgings 332 93 8 driving-box shoes 14 00 17,096 pounds castings 389 58 4 driving-box wedges 5 20 6,360 pounds castings (driving-wheel centres) 143 10 4 spiral springs 07 8, 106 pounds iron 245 88 10 oil caps 8 410 pounds boiler iron 24 60 1 steel plunger 5 13 276 pounds angle iron 9 04 1 steam gauge 11 40 626 pounds tank iron 37 56 1 injector 87 00 Digitized by Google 4 acorns 3 12 of parts, which, being peculiarly exposed to breakage, required 4 tallow connections 2 80 duplicates to be kept on hand: Seventy different styles of cylin- 1 hose 2 10 ders, 14 of crank axles. 17 of smoke-stacks, 41 of front end doors, 1 steam chest. 1 50 1 blower 0 43 25 of driving-wheel centres, 71 of driving-wheel boxes, 50 of 4 packing rings 22 20 parallel rods, 42 of driving-wheel springs, 32 of eccentrics, and 10 face plates 2 88 25 of links. 1 spring balance 11 25 In 1876, when the old 6-foot gauge was reduced to the stand- 1 set of copper joints 5 04 ard of 4 feet 84 inches, it was determined to make an attempt 2 hose strainers 0 34 to reform the diversity, and the engines were first taken in 4 truck oilers 0 48 hand. A consolidation engine was designed, and elaborate de- 4 brass oilers 1 08 tailed drawings made to secure an absolute interchangeability Elbow, hinges, door slides 3 44 of parts. Sixteen engines were built in accordance with the 2 cab-door catches and knobs 1 32 1 tank cock 2 00 drawings and specifications, six of them at the road shops, and 1 blower cock 6 30 the remainder by two locomotive-building establishments. It 1 pet cock 1 00 was, however, subsequently found that the parts were not inter- 1 blow-off cock 5 50 changeable, and it was then determined to furnish each con- 2 stop cocks 3 83 tracting engine builder with a certain number of templets, in ad- 4 cylinder cocks 6 00 dition to drawings and specifications, for all engines put under 2 heater cocks 4 50 contract, the original templets being kept in the company's own 4 gauge cocks 6 40 shops, and duplicates furnished as wanted. There were 39 of 2 tallow cocks 6 50 1 scum cock these templets for a consolidation engine. Those with holes 8 75 2 port cocks 2 40 in them are provided with hardened steel bushings. The re- 1 steam-gauge cock 1 15 sult has been that 108 engines of this class were on the road in 1 feed-pipe cock 2 80 1882 so exactly built that there was no 'difficulty in keeping 112 feet deflector pipe 17 92 duplicate parts on hand that were sure to fit in case of need. 28 sheets of tin 6 14 The same plan was adopted with respect to passenger engines. 370 feet water grate 59 20 The following table shows the cost of maintenance of loco- 9 bushings 1 31 motives on the road from 1870 to 1881, inclusive, the system 3 pounds solder 0 75 having been inaugurated in 1876:- 9 lugs 0 59 13 00 Year. No. of Repairs. 250 feet oak Engines. Mileage. Cost. Cost per 522 feet ash 20 50 100 miles. 509 feet pine 1870 440 36 26 9,326,379 $1,312,798 33 $14 07 60 feet hickory 3 00 1871 475 10,579,766 945,207 63 8 93 6 07 1872 488 171 feet poplar 12,318,504 1,000,059 04 8 11 530 feet yellow pine 1873 497 15 90 13,697,460 1,096,755 36 8 00 1874 469 670 feet pine. 16 75 13,123,701 1,064,882 73 8 11 1 44 1875 461 36 feet cherry 12,762,879 807,719 85 6 33 1876 468 24 feet weather strips 1 20 12,632,365 890,381 03 7 05 4 35 1877 466 15 lights 12,587,998 621,543 89 4 94 1878 475 Sand-paper 0 70 12,716,583 646,714 97 5 09 C6 pounds bone black 2 64 1879 504 14,174,523 539,638 97 3 80 1880 528 20 pounds lead color 4 00 14,293,876 582,158 20 4 07 22 pounds filling 3 88 1881 544 15,905,282 630,181 48 3 96 20 pounds "ironclad" paint 2 40 This includes the building of new engines every year to re- 7 pounds Swedish green 1 75 place those worn out and condemned. 4 pounds roofing brown 0 56 Much of the saving shown was doubtless due to other reforms 25 pounds dark Brunswick green 9 60 introduced by the management of the road, as well as to the 2 gallons black Japan varnish 2 40 substitution of steel for iron rails, to the decrease of wages sub- 2 gallons rubbing varnish 7 76 1 gallon finishing varnish 4 25 sequent to the panic of 1873, and to the fact that many of the 27 books of gold leaf. 11 34 engines were new; but a considerable part was certainly due to the adoption of rigid standards, and of interchangeable parts." Total $8,411 93 Corresponding changes, with like result, were made upon a By brass and bronze turnings; turnings, borings, and cuttings. 63 12 number of roads. The practice became common among the Total $8,343 81 manufacturers of locomotives of keeping in stock and furnish- ing to purchasers exact duplicates of such parts as were most INTERCHANGEABILITY OF THE PARTS OF LOCOMOTIVES. likely to need renewals or repairs, and numerous efforts have In the progress of development one of the most important been made by railway lines to establish uniform standards. advances made was the adoption by a number of lines, and by In Dredge's account of the Pennsylvania Railroad it is stated locomotive manufacturing establishments, of a system pro- that the company had in 1876 "carried out completely their viding for the interchangeability of the parts of all locomotives system of interchangeability of parts, and very many of the of a given class, many of the parts being also applicable to all details of one engine are applicable to others of a different or nearly all the engines in active use by some lines, or nearly type. Thus the maximum variation is only four different all the engines made at a given establishment, without refer- patterns of brass or iron castings for any given part for the ence to the class to which the engines belonged. The signifi- ten different classes of engines built." Tables relating to this cance of interchangeability in reducing the cost of repairs and subject are published, which show that "out of the 1,500 cast- construction can scarcely be overrated. ings (in round numbers) required for 10 engines of the differ- The old order of things, and the nature of changes effected ent types, 84 special patterns only are required among 9 classes, in sundry quarters, are indicated by a paper read before the of which 43 are used in class I alone, while 178 patterns are dis- American Society of Civil Engineers by O. Chanute, formerly tributed among the 10 classes. In the same way the variations chief engineer of the Erie Railway, which embraced the fol- in forgings are reduced to the narrowest limits. The number atements:- of forgings in each engine averages 245, and with very few here were upon the the Erie Railway (now exceptions these are identical in classes A, B, C, and D. A ske Erie and West locomotives. These greater variety exists in the remainder, especially in class I, than 83 differe engines, among which is of quite a special type." STEAM-GENERATING AND STEAM-CONTROLLING FUNCTIONS. O NE of the greatest difficulties involved in the construction and improved methods of manufacture. It is an advance step and successful operation of locomotives arises from the of great importance in promoting economy of fuel and adding task imposed upon them of carrying the fuel, water, and to the efficiency of locomotives. heating apparatus necessary to furnish sufficient power for Interesting indications of the course of development in this self-propulsion and for drawing heavy trains. It is largely on respect are furnished in the following extracts from remarks account of this requirement that stationary steam engines had made by J. N. Lauder, master mechanic of the Old Colony long been in extensive use, and that a considerable number of Railroad, at the annual convention of the American Railway steamboats were plying the waters of this and other countries Master Mechanics' Association, held in June, 1887: "The sub- before locomotives become an important factor in civilization. ject we are discussing now is the advisability of increasing the Convenience and economy in all that pertains to the generation steam pressure. Now, I say it is advisable. We have gone on of steam can much more readily be promoted in connection for years with 140 pounds, a good many of us have got to 150 with the arrangements for stationary and marine engines than pounds at the present time, few have got above that. Mr. with those relating to locomotives; and progress in the direction Underhill, of the Albany road, has been carrying on his heavy indicated by this statement has formed one of the most desira- engines 160 pounds with, it is claimed, good results, for a num- ble and difficult of the labors involved in useful improvements- ber of years. Mr. Stevens, of the Lake Shore, has recently put The bulk of the entire machine, including the tender, is to work passenger engines carrying 180 pounds. I have got up made up of appliances for carrying fuel and water, and con- to 175 pounds, and I think with good results. The fact is the verting water into steam with a minimum of injurious or dan- transportation department is calling on us every day for greater gerous results and a maximum of useful effect. Many of the duties. To-day more work is required from the locomotive, most important actual and projected improvements relate to the cars are heavier built and they are loading the cars heavier, steam-producing and steam-controlling functions. Problems and we are expected to do more. Now, I think we have got which have awakened deep anxiety pertain to methods for our engines up to about the maximum weight and size. It is generating a sufficient quantity of steam to meet the require- impracticable, it seems to me, in ordinary service, to go much ments of engines intended to draw heavy loads over steep above the weights we have in our heavy passenger and freight grades or for fast passenger service; plans for saving fuel; de- engines. The question then is, how to get more power without vices for increasing the effectiveness of fire-boxes and diminish- increasing weights? Some would say that the power of a pas- ing smoke and spark throwing; and means for extracting from senger engine is depending upon adhesion; that is true to some the steam generated an increased amount of useful service. extent, but there is very little trouble with well-designed en- CHANGES IN METALS USED FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES. gines of the present day slipping. To get more power without Closely interwoven with this branch of locomotive improve- increasing the weight, I see no way but to carry higher pres- ments, as well as with others, is a notable change in the nature sure. It will not do to put on larger cylinders, because we are of the metals or materials used for given purposes, and espe- troubled now to get steam enough. The power of a passenger cially the extensive substitution of steel for iron and copper, locomotive is just her capacity to make steam. She has got and iron for brass. adhesion enough, she has got well-designed valve motion that One of the important differences between American and Eng- distributes the steam properly; everything is all right, but the lish methods of locomotive construction hinges on the fact that question is how to get steam. There are very few engines that in this country steel fire-boxes and iron tubes are in general will hold steam when running fast and cutting off at ten inches use, while in England the common practice is to use copper with full throttle. Now, if you can get the boiler to carry a fire-boxes and brass tubes. A tendency towards the use of steel higher pressure and work up to a short point, say eight inches, plate for the shell of boilers in the construction of American you have got an engine that is going to do the work better than locomotives began shortly before the end of the seventh decade, with lower pressure. In my own practice an engine carrying which subsequently was rapidly increased. On the latter sub- 175 pounds of steam is hauling the Fall River boat train, com- ject a report of the boiler committee of the American Railway posed to-day of fifteen cars, eleven of them 60 feet long and Master Mechanics' Association, read at the annual meeting, averaging 25 tons weight each. We have a heavy grade on held in 1885, says: "Steel was reluctantly used in 1869, but 200 the road to pull over, and we never had an engine that would boilers of steel are reported for 1875, and it is recommended in make the steam to pull that train over in proper shape until that year, exclusively recommended in 1877, and the commit- we placed in service those we have recently put out. There is tee is unanimous in 1878." Rapid progress in the direction of nothing peculiar about the engines; they have a large boiler, manufacturing kinds and sizes of steel plate specially adapted they are good, well-designed engines, that is all. They have for use as the material of boilers exerted an important influ- got nearly 1,500 feet of heating surface, and that enables them ence in hastening this change. Other statements in the report to work freely and keep the steam up. We can work the train referred to, relating to the substitution of steel, include the follow- over that hill, cutting off at ten inches, 170 pounds steam pres- ing: "Steel rivets are not reported as being used in 1871, neither sure, and take it over in good style. When we strike a heavy are they used to any extent at this date, yet in view of all the grade we cannot use engines that will not come down, down, conditions of the case, and until the obscure matter of galvanic down until they get to 100 or 80 pounds. We must have them action on corrosion, pitting, and furrowing is more clearly so that they will take the train up over the hills, and then, understood, it would be wiser to use steel rivets with steel when they get away, work right up again. It is my belief that plates, thus bringing metals together that are quite similar using high-pressure steam is a step in the right direction, and in nature and electrical affinities. Steel flues were but with the material we have to-day for building boilers and the slightly used in 1870 and their use at present is not common. knowledge we have for designing them, there ought to be no They are thin, give a lengthened service, and in the hands of trouble in carrying 200 pounds of steam, and carrying it just good workmen are (with borax and flux) readily pierced and as safely as 140 pounds. There is ample margin of safety, even rewelded to iron ends. Difficulty in rewelding was the chief at that high pressure, and when you get the high pressure and defect mentioned to their discredit in 1873." everything about the locomotive properly proportioned, you INCREASE OF BOILER PRESSURE. will find you have got a very economical working engine." Another important modern tendency is towards an increase CONSTRUCTION OF FIRE-BOXES-GRATE AREA-ASH PANS. of boiler pressure, which is facilitated by the increase in the A radical departure was made in the construction of the strength of the materials used in the construction of boilers, Wootten engines in the matter of increasing grate area, or the STEAM-GENERATING AND STEAM-CONTROLLING FUNCTIONS. 327 space available for making fires. By placing the cab over the tion of locomotive engines for the London, Brighton and boiler, and in front of the fire-box, instead of in the rear of the South Coast Railway, he makes the following remarks under fire-box, it became possible to increase the width and length the head of ash-pan: "Care has been taken to provide these of the fire-box to an extent never previously attempted, with engines with means for effecting perfect combustion of the the power of spreading, relatively, their fires over a large sur- fuel, and to prevent the emission of sparks. To do this they face. In a standard Wootten dirt-burning engine the grate have been fitted with an air-tight ash-pan, which has an angle area extends over a surface of 76 square feet, and the heating across the opening for the damper at the back. Water is surface in the fire-box is 205 square feet. allowed to escape into this to quench the ashes, and so keep These figures represent an immense increase in grate area, the fire-bars cool and in good order. A deflector plate is placed in comparison with other types of locomotives, and animated across, above the opening for the damper, pointing inwards, controversies have arisen in regard to the utility of this change. and this throws the cinders which fall near the opening A report on improvements in locomotive boiler construction, towards the centre of the ash-pan. The opening itself is made to the American Railway Master Mechanics' Associa- covered to within 41 inches of the top, with a perforated plate tion in 1884, after mentioning a number of particulars about mounted on hinges; this allows the air to pass into the ash-pan, which substantial uniformity of opinion had been established, and prevents large cinders from falling out. A damper, having enumerated other points involved about which there was still a handle convenient to the driver, is arranged to shut practi- a great diversity and wide range of opinion, one of which was cally air-tight, giving him the means of adjusting the amount as follows: "The fire-grate area, and proper amount and di- of air. These contrivances, combined with the comparatively vision of air openings for rapid and thorough combustion of extensive grate and heating surface, and with large blast nozzle, different qualities of coal. Mr. Wells says that the area of live entirely prevent the emission of sparks. The ashes carried grate should be as small as possible. Mr. Wilder says grate forward into the smoke-box would pass through a sieve having 120 inches long is economical for soft coal. Who can reconcile t-inch mesh; the average quantity being for the heavy passen- the difference of opinion?" ger or goods engines about 21 cubic feet per 100 miles run." The adverse views of Mr. R. Wells, to which reference is This statement may, perhaps, indicate one of the few direc- made, were presumably those contained in a report he made tions in which English methods may be advantageously to the annual convention held in 1882, which included the fol- imitated. lowing remarks: "As a rule, it may be said that the area of SIZE, ARRANGEMENT, AND NUMBER OF BOILER FLUES OR TUBES. 'live grate' should be as small as possible that will burn the Great diversity of opinion continues to prevail in regard to amount of fuel necessary to generate the required amount of the size, arrangement, and number of flues or tubes, but in steam. The area of grate to give the best results will depend comparison with engines of former eras there has been a great largely on the quality of coal used. For instance, a grate area increase in the number generally used. The report of the com- of the proportions generally used in the Wootten boiler would mittee on improvement in boiler construction of the American certainly be wasteful in fuel when a good quality of bituminous Railway Master Mechanics' Association, presented at the annual coal was used, but would perhaps be the most economical convention in 1884, stated that there was a material difference where a very inferior quality of anthracite or semi-bituminous of opinion among the members of that body on the following coal is burned. As nature has made the coals to differ greatly points, viz.: "The proper diameter of flue for a given class of in kind and quality, equal variety in the proportions of grate, fuel. The proper clearance for space between flues, and their and to a certain extent of fire-box and boiler, seem necessary geometrical arrangement. The value of each additional foot in order to obtain the best results in its consumption. Careful in length of flues. If, as many suppose, any additional length tests and observations must be relied on mainly to determine beyond eight or nine feet is of no practical use, we had better the proper modifications necessary to suit each variety of fuel. shorten our boiler barrels, and obtain the same weight and No one pattern will answer best for all kinds. It is important, cubical capacity by increasing their diameter. On our freight more particularly, however, where bituminous coal is used, engines we can safely lift the centre of gravity very much which is rich in gas, that the area of fire-box be large enough higher than is being done at present, and even on our passenger to give time for the perfect combustion of the gases before they engines the limit has not yet been reached. All increase of enter the tubes, that the heating surface be as great and the pressure will tend to lessen the value of the last few feet of boiler as large as possible within the limits allowable for the long tubes. If by experiment the heating value of the tubes class of engine in which it is used." was ascertained, we could readily obtain the value of the fire- These views can scarcely be considered decidedly antagonistic box surface by deducting from total heating value of boiler, to large grate areas. While they advocate the doctrine that the and thus, having two values, we could better adjust the propor- "area of live grate should be assmall as possible, that will burn tion between tube and fire-box surfaces." the amount of fuel necessary to generate the required amount A review of the mechanical differences of locomotive con- of steam," the real question is how large an area can be advan- struction, as illustrated by locomotives at the exposition of rail- tageously used for that purpose, and in view of the numerous way appliances held in Chicago in 1883 stated that "the exist- chronic difficulties that have arisen from imperfect combustion ing differences are principally in those parts of the locomotive of fuel, and lack of sufficient quantities of steam, there are good relating to its steaming qualities. The great 'Mastodon,' for reasons for the belief that a considerable increase of the grate instance, has flues 2t inches outside diameter. The 'Little area of many classes of engines would prove beneficial, and the Mastodon,'a narrow-gauge engine standing near its larger con- drift of progressive sentiment appears to be in this direction. temporary, has flues 2 inches outside diameter, while the noted One of the advantages derived from a large grate area on the fast locomotive of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, also Wootten engine, to which sufficient importance has probably standing under the same roof, has flues 1} inches in diameter. not been attached, hinges on the fact that it admits of a very This last-mentioned engine has 345 flues with a total heating gentle blast, and thus materially diminishes one of the most surface of 1,415 square feet, which number of flues equals 33 serious difficulties involved in the successful operation of many per cent. more than any other engine has upon the ground, locomotives. If all goes well with the fire in the fire-box, and and 10 per cent. more heating surface, yet there was a locomo- in devices for furnishing a sufficient supply of air to the fire tive engineer present at the exposition with a model for a loco- from the rear, ends of great significance will be promoted. A motive boiler containing a much less number of flues than any neglect of ash pans and ash-pan arrangements, and of methods existing steam boiler contains to-day, with a largely increased of firing, are closely interwoven with this subject. It is proba- diameter of flues. The fast passenger locomotive made by the ble that lack of attention to details relating to ash pans is a Brooks Locomotive Works has flues 2 inches in diameter, and prolific cause of waste of fuel and unsatisfactory results on a 80 has the small logging engine built by the Porter Locomotive number of the locomotives of this country. Works, also the narrow-gauge passenger engine built by the Much more attention is commonly given to this subject in Mount Savage Locomotive Works." England than in the United States, and this may be one of the BOILER CONSTRUCTION-POINTS OF AGREEMENT AMONG AMERICAN important causes of differences in the amount of fuel con- RAILWAY MASTER MECHANICS. sumed. In William Stroudley's description of the construc- The report of the committee on improvements in locomotive Digitized by Google 328 STEAM-GENERATING AND STEAM-CONTROLLING FUNCTIONS. boilers, presented at the annual convention of the American extension front end, a cleaner train; I will show you less fuel Railway Master Mechanics' Association, enumerated the fol- used, and I will show you less fires along the right of way by a lowing points in boiler construction upon which that body had larger per cent. than the records of that engine show for the arrived at a general uniformity of opinion:- year previous. [Applause.] 1. The keeping of all longitudinal riveted joints above the And as an engineer I feèl that I know what I am talking water line. about. And when, gentlemen, you tell me it is of no value 2. The use of butt or welt longitudinal joints, instead of to increase the size of a nozzle half and three-fourths of an inch, single or double lap joints; this practice chiefly doing away it does seem to me that you are mistaken. You ought to think with furrowing at seams. how hard you try to get your engineers to enlarge their nozzles 3. Use of mild steel for all parts of shell and inside fire-box. by a little care in firing, and a little urging up to do this and to 4. Wide water spaces surrounding fire-grate-never less than do that, to lower the petticoat pipe, or to raise it up, and to do 3 inches, and 4 inches preferred if possible, the width increasing this and that, and the other, and then to think that you can, upwards rather than narrowing, thus securing better circula- by applying the extension front end in a proper manner, en- tion and freely getting rid of the steam as fast as it is formed. large it by one-half or three-fourths of an inch at once. Is that 5. Clearance space between flues not less than t of an inch. of no value? Why, no man in his right mind ought to say that. 6. Disuse of inside ferrules to secure flues in tube sheet, a Now, it is not very long ago that we had a committee on the practice still common in other countries. extension front end, and they reported on it favorably, but per- 7. Exclusive use of lap-welded iron or steel flues, instead of haps they did not go into the details of it as minutely as they composition. ought to, and show why it was abandoned on the roads that 8. Disuse of solid fire-door ring around fire-door opening.' have taken it off, but to most of us it is very easy to see proba- 9. As few holes as possible through shell, for connections, ble causes. We know when the extension front end was first cocks, valves, &c., and as many as necessary for washing-out applied it was done in a slipshod manner, and was not air-tight, purposes. and nothing of that kind will succeed unless it is as tight as a 10. Dome opening to be reinforced by strengthening plate or boiler, and that is where the point comes in. double flanging. Not many years ago I was appointed superintendent of mo- 11. Rocking grates for bituminous coal. tive power of a road, and one of the first things the general 12. Leaving boiler free for movement on engine frame; and manager said to me was, 'Mr. Setchel, I want to know one the abandonment of back boiler-head braces, even with slotted thing. I want to know why the road right next to us runs the holes to allow expansion. extension front end, and we cannot do it,' and I said, 'Why 13. Original or construction test by hydraulic pressure through can't you do it?' And he said, 'They keep getting on fire with injector, and, therefore, with warm water; but all subsequent us. I can see the engines coming every night, and they look tests by inspection with hand and eye, both internally and ex- as if they had a thousand lights in front. They are all on fire.' ternally. The reason, of course, was because they were not air-tight. 14. Not attempting to get rid of mud by providing with mud Why? If there had been no air going in there would have pockets or drums, but by blowing boiler off under full head of been no trouble. 'Another thing,' says he, 'passengers coming steam. through catch on the iron railing, and they say it is the dirtiest 15. There is also to be noticed an increased initial pressure line they were ever on. They say, 'Why can't you do as well of from twenty to thirty pounds per square inch, and we see as the Baltimore and Obio road?' I said, 'I guess we can. no reason why this practice should not become still more gen- Just as soon as I get warm in the seat I will try it.' And we eral, and the pressure steadily grow higher. Our steam is used did; and I think there are gentlemen here who can say it was 80 rapidly after formation, and is, therefore, 80 wet, that there a perfect success on that road. You can find thousands of pas- is little cause for fear of trouble resulting from the higher tem- sengers on that road that will bear testimony to the great im- perature of the steam interfering with the smoothness of the provement in dust and smoke. working faces of valve and cylinder. This temperature is not On the Pan Handle line, with which I was connected for increased one-tenth in raising steain from 140 to 200 pounds many years, the same thing occurred. The passengers coming pressure, and if the full economical value of compounding to the Pan Handle over other lines where they were using the locomotive cylinders is to be obtained, the pressure must be extension front end, when they got on the Pan Handle, were increased above 150 or 160 pounds, which is the maximum deluged with smoke. The general manager wanted to know to-day. what was the matter. Cars coming from the west, if they hap- EXTENSION SMOKE BOXES. pened to be out in a rain storm, were just covered so you could One of the devices applied to a large proportion of the loco- not get hold of a spot on the railing without getting your hands motives traversing some sections of the country, and used to a covered with dust and soot, unless some kind brakeman had very limited extent in other sections, about which a consider- taken a piece of waste and wiped it off. able diversity of opinion exists, is the extension front. Its Now, these things are noticed by passengers. Not only is it operations have been reported to be very useful on a number forced on the public mind, but it is forced on the public.body. of lines and alleged to be unsatisfactory or detrimental on I have in my mind a road where I was called on as an expert others. On some roads it was discarded after being used for a in a case involving many thousand dollars, and the whole thing considerable period and subsequently reapplied. Forcible hinged on this: 'Are you using the best known appliances for speeches for and against it have been delivered at annual withholding sparks?' And they proved by a large majority of conventions of the Master Mechanics' Association. The views witnesses that the extension front end was the best. They of its advocates, who appear to be in a decided majority in were not using the extension front end, and the case went that body, and the nature of the purposes it serves are forcibly against them, and that would have paid for equipping and described in the following remarks made by J. N. Setchel, keeping front ends in order for the next ten years on that road. general superintendent of the Brooks Locomotive Works, at Now these are facts. When you say an extension front end is the convention held in June, 1887:- of no value, I want to say, first, how do you apply it? Then, As a builder, if a man comes to me and tells me that the how do you use it? How does your engineer use it? Does he extension front end is of no use, I say all right; if he says 'it is throw in coal just as he did before, about ten or fifteen inches, a good thing and I want it,' I say, all right. But as a manager and then complain that he does not get any draft? of the machinery department of railroads, as a runner of loco- Now, I think that it is the experience of every man that has motives for many years, as a master mechanic and superin- had experience with the extension front end, that the engines tendent of motive power for many years, I am your equal, and steam better if you will carry a lighter fire. You can use a when you tell me that an extension front end is a fraud, a poorer quality of coal, because you use it thinner and give it humbug, and of no value, gentlemen, I will agree to take any more time for combustion than when you use a finer exhaust engine you have on your road, take its record for the last year, and take it out through the chimney by shovefuls." give it to me in the same condition, as far as its wearing parts It is conceded by some of the strongest advocates of the are concerned, for another year, and I will show you, with an extension front, the use of which seems to be rapidly incress- Digitized by Google E MODERN RAILWAY STATIONS. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google GENERAL LOCOMOTIVE IMPROVEMENTS. 329 ing, that most of the ends it served could be attained by an production of steam used in locomotives are a series of compli- enlargement of the grate area, and it may be said to be a sub- cations that have their root either in impure water, inferior stitute for that expedient. fuel, careless firing, or a failure to thoroughly cleanse boilers MISCELLANEOUS IMPROVEMENTS. as frequently as that operation should be performed. The utility A number of other appliances intended to improve arrange- of a number of the mechanical improvements attempted or ments for controlling steam have been invented and exten- perfected would be greatly diminished if such complications sively used during a comparatively recent period. The list did not exist, and a considerable amount of effort has been includes valves, steam reverse gear, reverse lever latches, and directed towards reducing their malign influence, such as en- a steam-gauge stand, which greatly diminishes dangers arising deavors to secure improved qualities of coal, to purify the water from the escape of steam. A report presented at the master used or to advantageously change the chief sources of supply, mechanics' convention of 1882, stated that to Mr. Jacob Johann, to stimulate an increased degree of carefulness on the part of the general master mechanic of the Wabash, St. Louis and Pa- firemen by paying premiums for fuel-saving labors, and en- cific Railroad, "first belongs the honor of making public a deavors to establish improved methods of washing boilers. It steam-gauge stand provided with a safety valve opening into is evident that there is a wide field for improvement in some the boiler which closes when an accident breaks off the stand." or all of these respects in many quarters. There is a great dif- The value of effective devices for the accomplishment of such ference in the steam-generating qualities and other character- a purpose as a safeguard against one of the worst of railway istics of the numerous varieties of coal used as fuel for locomo- dangers, can scarcely be overrated, and it is to be regretted tives with which the country abounds, and similar differences that the entire subject of diminishing the perils arising from in the quality of the water used on the locomotives which tra- attachments to locomotive boilers has not received, in all verse various sections. In some cases it is practically impossi- quarters, as much attention as it deserves, in view of the good ble for managers to secure material improvements in these results that have attended the use of improved devices for in- respects, but in other instances better supplies could be ob- suring safety. tained with comparatively little trouble or expense if sufficient Valves and valve gear intended to promote the efficiency of attention was given to this subject. Much of the waste of fuel locomotives have received much attention from inventors, man- which has occurred and is constantly occurring is caused by ufacturers, and master mechanics. Considerable progress has careless firing, and there is little doubt that the deplorable con- been made in this direction. dition of many locomotive boilers in which impure water is BAD WATER, BAD FUEL, POOR FIRING, AND NEGLECT OF BOILERS. used is due, in a large degree, to a failure to cleanse them with Closely interwoven with nearly everything that relates to the requisite frequency and thoroughness. GENERAL LOCOMOTIVE IMPROVEMENTS. STRENGTH, SIMPLICITY, AND ORNAMENTATION. The use of steel as the tire of driving-wheels of locomotives, directions of development which have and the adoption of the practice of fastening the tires on wheels not universally adhered to, are towards by shrinkage alone, without any mechanical support whatever, an increase of the strength and simplicity, and a diminution of are now substantially universal on American locomotives. the ornamentation of locomotives. The increase of size neces- These methods, and, the use of chilled iron or paper wheels for sitated an increase of strength which was often secured by an the engine truck and tender, represent a great advance on improvement of the materials used, such as the substitution of English methods, and form important elements of the supe- steel for iron, but the increase in thickness or weight of such riority of American locomotives. John Fernie, Member of the parts as the shell of a boiler has not always kept pace with the Institute of Civil Engineers, England, in a vigorous and in- enlargement of its dimensions. structive contrast of English and American locomotives, pub- Elaborate discussions have occurred in regard to the par- lished a few years ago, said:- ticular parts of a locomotive in which steel can be advan- "The American engineer set himself to improve the manu- tageously substituted for iron. The nature of the diversity of facture of railway wheels in the simplest of all ways by casting views prevailing in the early part of 1887 is indicated by an them; he improved the manufacture of his pig iron by care- analysis of expressions of opinion or votes obtained from more fully selecting pure ores and smelting them with charcoal. than sixty officials by the American Machinist, the result being Then by admixture of various brands he made a metal which as follows:- would take a deep chill. Then followed improvements in an- favor of nealing them, and the cheapest, simplest, and most scientific Steel. Iron. Per cent. Per cent. way produced a wheel centre and a tire in one solid piece, un- Crank pins. 56 44 breakable, and with great endurance, and with the advantage Piston rods 62 38 that when worn out on the tread it could, with a small addi- Cross heads 50 50 tion of new metal, be again cast into a new wheel. Such are Guides* *44 *43 the wheels running under wagons, carriages, and the heads of Driving axles 40 60 locomotives to-day, and for many years they were running as 13 per cent. for cast iron. the drivers in passenger and goods engines; of later years these Experience with the use of steel for the purposes mentioned driving-wheels have had steel tires shrunk on them. Such above has, on a number of roads, either been very limited or wheel centres require no compressive force to hold them unfortunate; while on other roads, on which all the matters together, and no bolts or complicated fastenings of any kind involved had been thoroughly investigated, and the steel used to bind the tire to the centre are used in America, and although was of the best kind obtainable in quality and shape, the re- the temperature varies from 40 degrees below zero to 110 degrees sults were deemed highly satisfactory. It seems to be one of above it, the American wheel is perfectly safe in atmospheric the lessons of extended experience that any defect in shape, changes which would ruin an English wheel." manufacture, or intrinsic quality of steel is apt to render it It is easier to specify particular directions in which efforts inferior to iron, while under the best attainable conditions have been made to stengthen the locomotive than to enume- superior results can be obtained from the use of steel. rate particulars of attempts at simplicity or avoidance of un- The drift of development is decidedly towards an increased necessary complications. The latter object, however, has been use of steel as the favorite material for parts of a locomotive kept steadily in view in many quarters, and in connection with which were formerly, and still are, to a great extent, made of the adjustment of numerous details. iron. A considerable amount of discussion has been devoted, in 42 Digitized by Google this and other countries, to the ornamentation of locomotives, Burlington and Quincy; the Pennsylvania is having a very and the dominant tendency has been towards a repression or varied practice, in which the 'first in, first out" system is par- abandonment of ornate styles. On the one hand it is alleged ticularly noticed. that sombreness leads to neglect, and on the other that super- Exceptional cases of locomotive service are mentioned, as abundance of bright metallic work and elaborate paintings are follows: On the New York Central, 415,790 miles, with passen- ridiculous, expensive, and not in keeping with the labors per- ger trains in five years, by No. 100, an average of 278 per day, formed. costing 2.17 cents per mile for maintenance, and two similar RUNNING LOCOMOTIVES "FIRST IN, FIRST OUT," OR WITH TWO OR cases. On the Pennsylvania Railroad No. 1,047 hauled passen- MORE CREWS. ger trains between Altoona and Pittsburgh, 14,100 miles, in July, 1885, and 14,200 miles in August, or an average of 457 Interwoven, to some extent, with the questions involved miles per day for the two months. This was done with two with the ornamentation of locomotives important considera- crews. [This record has since been surpassed by performances tions have arisen in connection with the adoption on the New of a passenger locomotive on the Philadelphia, Wilmington York Central, and Pennsylvania, some years ago, of a system and Baltimore, running between Philadelphia and Washington, of operating locomotives by which the amount of service ob- tained from them in a given period was greatly increased. The on which four crews were utilized.] The first left Pittsburgh at 7 A. M., and reached Altoona at 10.45 A. M.; left Altoona at 3.40 old practice, and the custom still followed by many roads, is to P. M. and reached Pittsburgh at 8.15 P. M.; when the second treat the locomotive and a given crew as practically inseparable, crew took it out at 9.10 P. M., reaching Altoona at 1 A. M., and the same men always running the same machine, and a given machine having only one crew to operate it, except in unusual started back at 2.30 A. M., reaching Pittsburgh at 6.15 A. M. emergencies; or in cases where this rule was departed from In the year 1884, the largest passenger mileage made by one then two given crews would be identified with a given locomo- locomotive between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh was 82,500 tive. The usual custom formerly was that no locomotive did miles, by No. 95, and the largest freight mileage 48,800, by No. more work in a given period than one crew could superin- 975; the average passenger mileage of all engines being about tend, and the capacity of each engine was thus limited to the 33,500, and the average freight mileage 25,200." Mr. Banderali concludes as follows:- powers of endurance of one man. Where this state of things "In the preceding statement of facts I have abstained from exists it is usually considered desirable that special pains should be taken to inspire in the minds of the engineers and firemen expressing any personal opinion on the comparative value of the different systems of using enginemen in locomotive service; a feeling of pride in their particular engine, which is to some extent fostered or strengthened by a superabundance of orna- evidently in a matter of this kind nothing is absolute. But one remarkable fact prevails; everywhere and whatever the mental work, as well as to stimulate and secure special know- ledge of the peculiarities of each locomotive by its particular system adopted, I found the engines in a perfect state of repair, engineer. Of the new system, William P. Shinn, member of and the motive-power service as satisfactory as possible. the American Society of Civil Engineers, in an instructive paper, In conversation with the vice-presidents, general managers, written in 1882, on the Increased Efficiency of Railways for the and engineers of the different companies which practice the Transportation of Freight, says:- system of more than one crew for one locomotive, I have "Until quite recently every locomotive had its regular 'en- found them all positive in the opinion that the system is ad- gineer,' and when he slept the locomotive was idle. This was vantageous, even from the point of view of the yearly expendi- changed on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad ture for repairs. Mr. Thomson, of the Pennsylvania Railroad, some eight or ten years since, with but indifferent success, by and Mr. Buchanan, of the New York Central, told me that their the adoption of the rule 'first in, first out,' both for locomotives own statistics proved that a great reduction of cost of repairs and crews, 80 that the next crew in order takes the next engine per mile run had followed the change from the old system to in order, and by having many more crews than locomotives the new. I hardly dare say, fearing I may have misunderstood, nearly 50 per cent. more service is got from the latter, with that Mr. Buchanan calculated that the cost per mile had fallen from 6 to 3 cents; that is, had been reduced one-half. less deterioration caused by frequent alternations of heating It has not been without difficulty, however, that American and cooling. engineers have succeeded in modifying the established customs. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company, after carefully experi- menting with it on their Middle division, adopted it for their Their personal intervention, unceasing, energetic, patient, per- whole line in 1878, and the benefits of this system were shown sistent, and at the same time adroit, has overcome all oppo- sition. by its results in 1879, as will be seen by reference to schedule E, giving the average miles run per annum by freight locomo- As I have already said, they did not make the system gen- tives on the Pennsylvania Railroad, and the average number eral from the first, and without regard to circumstances. They of tons of freight hauled by each from 1870 to 1881. applied it first where they thought it would have the best effect, It shows as the average of all divisions:- profiting sometimes by a pressure of traffic, in which cases all Per locomotive. Miles run. Average engineers agree in adopting the system. Only gradually was it ton mileage. applied to the whole of a division or a system. They took care In 1870 19,244 2,100,000 to interest the men in the success of their experiment. They In 1878 20,000 3,000,000 associated together in the working of the same engine men of In 1879 24,355 4,200,000 good character who were on good terms with each other, and In 1881 27,614 5,100,000 in some cases it was often only after several months' experi- an increase in mileage of 38 per cent., and in effective service ment, quietly conducted, that they succeeded in realizing their of 150 per cent. from 1870 to 1881. Of course, much of this plans and obtaining the satisfactory economical results which latter increase is due to the use of more powerful engines and I have ascertained." better cars. A report presented to the annual convention of the American Of the general practice of this country, and the extraordinary Railway Master Mechanics' Association, held in June, 1887, on results secured in some cases, in increase of locomotive mile- the control of engineers over driving-wheel tires, says:- age, Mr. Banderali, an experienced French engineer, after "From the answers received on the fourth question, 'Do you making extended personal investigations in the fall of 1885, have regular engineers on your locon it appears that made the following statements in a French journal, which the practice of having regular ms to be gen- were translated and republished in the Railroad Gazette:- eral. Your mittee is of the op much more "The American companies which favor having a locomotive econom regular engine and that always run by the same engineman and fireman, Mr. Bande- saving to 20 per cent. wear rali says, do not hesitate to violate their own rule whenever tires, a essarily follow traffic presses and they are not able or do not wish to get more shown the machinery engines. He gives the following as generally having two crews the opin is necessary to one engine: The New York Central, the Cincinnati, New crew on should be a Orleans and Texas Pacific, the Boston and Albany, the Chicago, and held same, allowis Digitized by Google this way." annually; engine No. 57, built in 1859, has run 676,574 miles: LOCOMOTIVE PERFORMANCES No. 58, built in 1859, has run 844,196 miles, or upward of 32,000 are a vital feature of the life of operating railway companies, miles per annum; No. 76, built in 1863, has run 657,917 miles, and expenditures for motive power form a large proportion or close on 30,000 miles annually; No. 142, built in 1865, has of all operating expenses. Financial results are, therefore, run 630,260 miles, and No. 113 has since 1883 made a monthly greatly influenced by whatever materially affects cost, amount, mileage of 6,647 miles. Most of the Philadelphia and Reading and character of locomotive service. Railroad engines are of Baldwin make, and all built within the The changes that have been progressing include not only a last six years have the Wootten fire-box. great increase in size and capacity, but a remarkable diminu- Mr. T. N. Ely, general superintendent of motive power of the tion in the cost of new locomotives, and in the expenses for Pennsylvania Railroad, has furnished us with many particulars repairing and operating them, per car mile or ton of freight bearing on the mileage made by passenger and freight engines moved. Elaborate statistics represent the reductions that have on long and short runs on the main line and branches of the occurred in cost of locomotive service per train mile, but in road, and covering about 60 per cent. of the whole number in many instances the actual results are much more favorable service. Of the passenger locomotives, 65 made an average of than those represented by these figures, on account of a nota- 31,707 miles annually, and the engines have an average age of ble increase in the amount of effective work represented by a 13 years. The freight engines made an average of 22,331 miles, train mile, through the increase in the number and weight of 349 locomotives being represented by the figures, the average the cars moved. The cost of repairs per mile run and of fuel age of these engines being 13} years. As an example of spe- has frequently been greatly reduced, and the average amount cially long mileage, we may mention the case of engine No. of service performed by each locomotive materially increased. 273, which, between September, 1875, and August, 1880, ran Reports of many companies have been phenomenally favorable 251,552 miles, and was not off her wheels during that time. in the matter of repairs, on account of a rapid expansion of During the months of June, July, and August last, engine No. operations which necessitated the frequent purchase of new 1,047, on the Pittsburgh division, made 41,510 of a total mile- locomotives, but aside from the effect of such additions great age. In 1882, 72 passenger locomotives made an average of gains have resulted from the adoption of improved shop 45,936 miles each, the highest being 79,258 miles, the lowest methods, the use of superior machine tools, and the establish- 30,089 miles. In the same year 175 freight locomotives made ment of standards which made similar parts of all locomotives an average of 36,584 miles each, the highest mileage having of a given class interchangeable. been 58,711 miles, and the lowest 30,000. Of the durability and working capacity of American locomo- According to data received from Mr. H. Schlacks, superin- tives, Angus Sinclair, in an article printed in the National Car tendent of motive power of the Illinois Central Railroad, we and Locomotive Builder, said:- find that some old Rogers locomotives belonging to that road "Mechanical men who have given the subject attention do have performed extraordinary mileage since they were first not require new statistics to convince them that the American built; No. 23, which Mr. Morris Sellers ran for some months locomotive is a wonderfully durable machine, considering the thirty years ago, and did exceptionally hard service pulling hard usage it is daily subjected to; but as others, who ought to gravel to fill up the ground where many of the principal be well informed, continue to remain ignorant about the work- tracks at Chicago are now laid, was built in 1853, and has ing capabilities of the engine, we have collected a few facts 1,029,965 miles of a running record, or over 32,000 miles per that bear convincing testimony regarding the extraordinary annum of exceptionally protracted service. No. 25, built in durability of the locomotives turned out from American work- 1854, has run 1,007,973 miles; No. 35, built in 1854, has run shops. On April 23d, 1883, engine No. 137, a passenger loco- 1,015,488 miles. Of their recently-built engines, No. 221, put motive designed by Mr. A. B. Underhill, superintendent of mo- to work in 1880, ran 168,161 miles up to the end of August; tive power, with cylinders 18x22 inches, and driving wheels 66 No. 226, put to work in 1883, has run 82,437 miles to date, at inches in diameter, was turned out of the Boston and Albany an expense of 1.94 cents per mile for repairs. The oldest en- Railroad shops. After a few days of preliminary running on gines mentioned belonging to this company are still in service, freight trains, this engine was put to running fast passenger and are in fair order. They might still be considered good for trains. From Mr. Colby, master mechanic at Boston, we learn 10 years' more work, only that they are getting too light for that the regular run of this engine has been 200 miles per day the heavy trains now handled all over the road. on heavy fast express trains until the last five months, when Mr. William Buchanan, superintendent of motive power of she has not run on Sundays. But during any busy season, or the New York Central road, has supplied us with figures show- when locomotives were scarce, this engine did extra running, ing the mileage of a few of his passenger engines. These en- as was the case in May last, when she made 10,910 miles, or an gines have cylinders 17x24 inches, driving-wheels 69 inches in average of 352 per day. The engine is still in good order, and diameter, steel fire-boxes of the Buchanan pattern, and the will not be taken in for general repairs for some months. In working weight of engine is about 35 tons. From July 1st, doing this enormous amount of work, all the repairs effected 1884, to June, 1885, engine No. 105 ran 95,003 miles at an ex- on the engines, besides the minor running repairs, was turning pense for repairs of 95 mills per mile; from October 1st, 1883, the driving-wheel tires once and facing the valves once. The to December 1st, 1884, engine No. 82 ran 103,455 miles at an division where most of the running was done is very crooked, expense for repairs of 97 mills per mile; from July 1st, 1883, and has curves of 10 degrees. In 57 miles an ascent of 893 feet to December 1st, 1884, engine No. 84 ran 121,750 miles; from is made, and in the next 41 miles the descent is 833 feet. The April 1st, 1884, to June 1st, 1885, engine No. 453 ran 105,135 train, including the engine and tender, generally weighed about miles; from October 1st, 1883, to April 1st, 1885, engine No. 289 800 tons. THE ran 140,546 miles; from November 1st, 1883, to October 1st, From Mr. Wootten, general manager of the Philadelphia and 1884, engine No. 338 ran 98,405 miles; from May 1st, 1884, to Reading Railroad, we learn that their engine No. 44, built in fthe As July 1st, 1885, engine No. 613 ran 118,256 miles. These figures 1857, has run 707,119 miles, or over 25,000 annually; engine are taken from thoroughly reliable records." June, ares, says- question, 332 IMPROVEMENTS OF CARS. IMPROVEMENTS OF CARS. O NE of the most important of all the transportation im- year, and the gain is even greater than that indicated by sta- provements in this country consisted in a long series of tistics, as a large proportion of the new freight cars have con- extraordinary advances in cars, which included a rapid in- siderably more capacity than those formerly used. crease of their number, numerous additions to varieties, a The following statement, compiled from Poor's Manual, ap- notable increase in size and capacity, and the adoption of proximately represents the movement of recent years:- many useful devices for promoting the comfort of passengers Passenger Baggage, mail, Freight and the economical movement of freight. cars. express, &c. cars. 1877 Intelligent foreign critics of railway appliances have re- 12,053 3,854 392,175 1879 12,009 4,519 480,190 peatedly praised in high terms the systems of car construction 1880 12,789 4,786 539,355 adopted here, even when they found much to condemn in the 1881 14,548 4,976 648,296 permanent way of many lines, and in comparison with other 1882 15,551 5,366 730,451 nations the record of the United States, in connection with this 1883. 16,899 5,948 778,663 subject, is remarkably good. 1884 17,303 6,411 798,399 1885 17,290 6,544 805,519 INCREASE IN NUMBER OF CARS. 1886 19,252 6,325 845,914 The rapidity with which the number of cars increases more The Railroad Gazette compiled and published the following than keeps pace with the increase in railway mileage, as many partial summary of locomotive and car construction for eight of the older lines usually make considerable additions every years, ending with 1887:- 1887. 1886. 1885. 1884. 1883. 1882. 1881. 1880. Total Locomotives built by 19 private firms 2,044 1,436 800 1,149 2,067 2,282 1,977 1,405 13,160 Freight cars built by 15 car works 12,131 7,870 2,073 3,043 9,756 15,636 15,961 10,588 77,658 Freight cars built by 29 railroads 4,014 2,225 1,482 2,634 4,031 2,943 4,055 3,250 24,664 Total 16,145 10,095 3,555 6,277 13,787 18,579 20,046 13,838 102,322 Coal cars built by 15 car works 11,644 5,067 1,729 4,425 3,927 5,035 6,535 3,510 41,872 Coal cars built by 29 railroads 2,412 1,079 869 1,213 1,890 1,238 1,565 196 10,462 Total 14,056 6,146 2,598 5,638 5,817 6,273 8,100 8,706 52,334 Passenger, baggage, mail, express, and caboose:- 15 car works 496 844 209 257 406 294 286 292 2,584 29 railroads 167 112 50 117 181 164 121 103 1,015 Total 663 456 259 374 587 458 407 895 3,599 Bleeping, dining, buffet cars, &c.:- 15 car works 65 58 58 64 49 50 65 16 415 29 railroads 2 4 7 8 11 10 10 1 53 Total 67 57 60 72 60 60 75 17 468 The census report of 1880 on railways states that there were While there was in the entire country an average of between then in the United States 12,330 passenger cars, 4,475 mail, 600 and 700 cars to each hundred miles of main line, the equip. express, and baggage cars, 875,812 freight cars, and 80,188 cars ment of the roads of different groups varied from a little more of all other descriptions, owned by railroad companies, and than 200 cars per hundred miles of main line to nearly 1,800 that, beside this equipment, there were used upon certain roads cars per hundred miles, and the differences between companies "sleeping cars, palace or parlor cars, express cars, and other was much greater. The proportionate amount of equipment rolling stock, owned by corporations or companies separate and in the United States falls considerably below the standard of distinct from the railroad corporations, such as freight and trans- Belgium, France, Germany, and Great Britian, but approxi- portation companies, the Pullman Car Company, railway equip- mately equals or exceeds that of most other countries, and the ment companies, United States Rolling Stock Company, &c." train movement on some of the busiest American lines exceeds As the number and capacity of cars available approximately in magnitude that of nearly all foreign railways. indicate the amount of business transacted on the railways of each section, their distribution between the lines of different MAINTENANCE AND CONSTRUCTION OF CARS. groups is a matter of some interest. At the close of 1885 it As the tendency is nearly universal in this country, except was as follows: The New England group, with a mileage of during eras of disastrous developments, towards a rapid in- 6,809.78 had 45,935 cars of all classes. The middle group, com- crease of traffic, the maintenance of old cars and construction posed of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and of new ones form an industry of considerable importance, in Maryland, with a mileage of 18,578.28, had 829,828 cars. The which many railway lines and private firms or companies are central northern group, embracing Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, engaged. All operating railway companies are obliged to main- Illinois, and Wisconsin, with a mileage of 41,518 66, had 268,589 tain departments of varying magnitude, which are specially cars. The south Atlantic group, containing Virginia, West devoted to repairing cars, and they frequently, also, construct Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida, with a new cars. There are also a large number of car-building estab- mileage of 12,165.89, had 29,114 cars. The gulf and Mississippi lishments. A list of car builders in the United States and valley group, with a mileage of 9,675.19, consisting of the states Canada in July, 1887, gave the names and locations of ninety of Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Louisiana, car works. had 33,197 cars. The south-western group, consisting of Mis- In the manufacture and repair of cars a number of extensive souri, Arkansas, Texas, Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico, auxiliary industries are conducted in independent establish- with a mileage of 22,223.07, had 64,794 cars. The north-west- ments. Many car wheels, car axles, and car springs are thus ern group, containing Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Dakota, made, and the requirements for fitting up in the most ap- Wyoming, and Montana, with a mileage of 19,362.82, had proved style modern passenger cars are 80 exacting that they 89,792 cars. The Pacific group, containing Washington Ter- include an immense variety of things specially adapted to ritory, Oregon, California, Nevada, Arizona, and Utah, with a them, and also many others that are used in dwellings, hotels, mileage of 7,952.01, had 18,261 cars. or carriages. Digitized by Google INCREASE OF VARIETIES OF CARS. 333 INCREASE OF VARIETIES OF CARS. THE Sea freight care live of passenger, baggage, mail, express, tastes, including ventilation, heating, lighting, strength, safety, been supplemented by a number of mechanical efficiency, avoidance of jarring or jolting, orna- minor divisions which represent important distinctions. mentation, superiority of appliances for supplying food or securing rest or sleep, has received due consideration, on a PASSENGER CARS. stupendous scale, regardless of expense. Cars devoted exclusively or chiefly to the transportation of The highest type of modern American cars are traveling passengers have assumed types which either originated in this mechanical triumphs, which embody all useful known inani- country or embody an immense number of American improve- mate devices for ministering to the comfort and luxurious ments. The list includes the following varieties:- tastes of mankind, at all hours of the day or night, whether The first-class passenger car or coach, often called H day-coach, the passenger is asleep or awake, whether he wishes food as which is the car used by the bulk of passengers. The second- he is journeying at a rapid pace, or prefers a day coach, a class passenger car or coach, which usually closely resembles parlor car, a smoking car, or a sleeping car. None but those the car designated as first class, although it may be somewhat who zealously endeavor to familiarize themselves with details antiquated or relatively inferior in its interior arrangements, can form even a faint conception of the immense variety of and it is frequently used as, and designated, a smoking car. things pressed into useful service in passenger cars. The parlor car, bay-window parlor car, drawing-room car, chair One of the great fields of progress has been the increase of car, or palace car, contain more comfortable seats or more the strength of the car. The best of the modern passenger cars luxurious and attractive surroundings to a sufficient extent to are strong enough to resist shocks and concussions which would command an addition to the standard fare. The sleeping car, inflict fatal injuries upon the inmates of an inferior and rela- in which berths or beds are made up for the use of passengers tively weak car. Other important spheres of effort related to at night, and the car rearranged 80 as to furnish convenient methods of lighting and heating cars, to seats, platforms, coup- seating facilities during the day. Such cars, as well as a num- lings, lavatories, retiring rooms, ventilation, baskets, and mis- ber of other high types of cars, including parlor cars and dining cellaneous furnishing and finishing, and to plans for improving cars, are supplied by the Pullman, Wagner, and Woodruff car all the details of passenger-car trucks. They include articles companies to railway companies, under various business ar- designated by more than a hundred names, embracing wheels, rangements, and they are used in a large proportion of the axles, journal boxes, transoms, springs, equalizing bars, brake first-class through travel of the country. The buffet car and beams, brake shoes, and many other things. In their arrange- hotel car combine facilities for sleeping with arrangements for ment and improvement American mechanics and car builders furnishing food; the meals provided in the buffet car are usually have perfected a long list of devices which are superior to comparatively light lunches or repasts which do not require others used for similar purposes in any foreign country. much cooking. The uso of the hotel car, in which more di- The latest of the notable achievements, which is the con- versified meals are supplied, is confined to a comparatively few struction of the vestibule train, combines the power to ward routes and is apparently declining. One of the varieties of the off danger in the highest state of development with the most buffet car is used as a smoking car, and not as a sleeping car, important of all other advances made in connection with the while from the side-board, which furnishes the origin of its dis- trucks, decoration, construction, or furnishing of dining, sleep- tinctive name, various articles of food or refreshments are sup- ing, and parlor cars. Its distinguishing feature is the coup- plied. There are suburban excursion cars and observation cars, ling together of the best of these cars under conditions that used in ordinary passenger travel, especially during the sum- render it as safe and comfortable for the passenger to move mer season, and on routes leading to or from places noted for from one car to another as to pass between the rooms of a fixed scenic attractions or mountain or sea breezes, the special fea- habitation, and at the same time to provide new safeguards ture of these cars being free vent to air currents or exposure against the danger of telescoping cars, which are presumably similar to that obtained in a carriage which has a top but no infallible. side curtains. Aside from these there are a comparatively BAGGAGE, MAIL, AND EXPRESS CARS small number of cars fitted up for excursion parties or im- are frequently run as parts of passenger trains. Some of the portant members of theatrical troupes, which combine specially cars used to carry baggage in a portion of their available space luxurious arrangements for sleeping, dining, and resting. They are used partly for that purpose and partly for the carriage of probably furnish the most notable contrast, among the cars passengers. When specially arranged for such a dual use they available to the public, to emigrant cars, some of which are are styled combination coaches or cars. An analogous pur- fitted up as sleepers in an inexpensive manner, but all of pose is served by mail or postal cars, which, in addition to which are usually decidedly inferior in interior finishings and carrying heavy mails, transport postal clerks or officials en- furnishings to the passenger coaches in contemporaneous use gaged in assorting mail matter. Express cars are fitted up for on the lines over which they are running. carrying light packages, valuable articles, and valuable perish- In the construction of the various grades of passenger cars able freight, on passenger trains. There are combination bag- a vast amount of mechanical and decorative talent has been gage cars, which have apartments set off for mails or express displayed. Every detail has received prolonged and thoughtful matter, or both, in addition to space for baggage. consideration, and changes representing advances or improve- Postal cars possess special interest and significance on ac- ments of one kind or another have been gradually introduced count of the opportunities they afford for expediting mail and are constantly under consideration. So far as the vehicle matter. They were first introduced in this country in 1864, is concerned, the higher classes of American cars approxi- about which time they commenced running on one important mately typify the perfection of travel, and yet active brains north-western route, and between Washington and New York. are always at work in devising additional improvements, and The service performed by railways in hastening the dissemi- there are few periods in which changes of considerable conse- nation of letters and newspapers forms a very important por quence are not extensively introduced. Passenger cars have tion of their labors in an intellectual point of view. Mechs gradually been advanced through many stages of development, cally some of the postal cars embody interesting features. representing forward movements in each particular, to an ex- some routes they are of unusual length and weight, to fur tent that approximately parallels changes in domestic archi- the requisite capacity, and one of the appliances used is a tecture and household arrangements. Everything relating to catcher, consisting of a bent iron bar, for takin~ comfort, ease, health, elegance, and ministration to luxurious ing mail bags while the train is in motion. Digitized by Google CARS USED IN OPERATION AND CONSTRUCTION, OR WORKING CARS. a car constructed especially for the purpose, and contains, be A considerable number of cars are used to carry persons sides the dynagraph, excellent accommodations for the in- officially connected with railways. They include the officers' ventor and his wife, who accompanies him, and is an excellent car, used chiefly by high railway officials in passing over their assistant. The draw-bar of the car is connected with a piston, lines, or by distinguished passengers, such as Presidents of the which works in a cylinder under the floor, and which is filled United States, to whom courtesies are extended. These cars with oil. These are 80 arranged that if the draw-bar is sub- are usually provided with kitchens, a sleeping apartment, and jected to strains of either tension or compression they are a drawing or sitting room. They are sometimes fitted up in resisted by the oil in the cylinder. From this cylinder there an clegant and attractive style. A pay car is a special variety. runs a small pipe, which connects with a small cylinder placed For the accommodation of the conductor and train men of upon the top of the machine. This has a piston in it, which freight trains, for carrying various stores and tools, and, in connects by a rod, and carries a pen which draws a diagram of some instances, for displaying signals, a caboose car or cabin the resistance of the train upon a roll of paper some thirty car is attached to the rear of freight trains. On some roads inches in width. This paper is fed over a table at the top of eight-wheeled cars are used for this purpose, and on others the machine by a very ingenious contrivance. As the paper four wheeled cars, the latter being usually termed cabin cars. rolls across the table a stationary pen marks what is called a In the modern style of rapid construction, especially in com- base line. This line is followed by the pen mentioned above paratively new western, south-western, and north-western re- when there is no tension upon the draw-bar, but as soon as gions, trains specially fitted up for the purpose of hastening there is any pressure in the draw-bar cylinder the pen is carried operations, and cars intended to facilitate particular labors away from the base line a distance proportional to the pressure, play an important part. A novelty rarely attempted, which and the diagram immediately indicates the tension on the draw- involves obvious perils, was a construction train used in the bar. The speed of the train is recorded by means of an electri- rapid extension of the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba cal attachment, with a chronometer clock upon the machine, Railroad in 1887, of which a brief description says: "This train which indicates the space traveled over each second. The next left Minot, Dakota, on April 2d, 640 miles east of Helena, and pencil is arranged to mark the distance traveled over every ten 531 miles west of St. Paul, reaching Helena, Montana, Novem- seconds, and still another pen is used to record minutes. A ber 19th. It carried about 250 men, who ate and slept in the pen is also arranged so that by an electrical connection it re- three-story cars. Some pitched tents on the top of the lower cords each revolution of the driving wheels. Another records cars, preferring plenty of fresh air. The train also carried the the mile posts as they are passed, which is done by an assistant, feed for 200 teams used in hauling ties and bridge timbers. who touches an electrical key at each post. The alignment of The cars have strong cables attached to the sides, which are the road-that is, the curves and straight lines-are recorded fastened to the ties in heavy winds, as the cars are somewhat in a similar way. A pen next to this is connected with a water top heavy." There are cars provided with appliances for meter attached to the feed pipe of the locomotive, and records driving piles, and others for digging ditches alongside of a the quantity of water consumed at different times and places. track, a combined steam shovel and derrick car, gravel cars, Still another pen is arranged 80 that an assistant in the loco- ballast cars, and a car styled a scraper and leveler. There are motive records every shovelful of coal as it is put on the-fire. hand wrecking or derrick cars, carrying ten-ton cranes, steam The same pen has been used to record the time that black wrecking or derrick cars, and a block car, attached to wrecking smoke escaped from the chimney. A pen is also provided trains, for carrying blocks, ropes, chains, and tools. Also snow which records the distance run by the car, and another records plows, tool cars, sweeping cars, ferry push cars, which are long the indications of an anemometer placed on top of the car. platform cars, used for pushing or pulling other cars off a ferry The fourteenth pen gives a record of the surface of the road, boat, when it is approached by an incline too steep for locomo- and shows at a glance any inequalities that exist. Besides the tives, and a number of varieties of hand cars. above, there is also attached to the machine a finely-constructed One of the most interesting of the cars used for assisting rail- integrating apparatus. The pens used to record the numerous way labors is a dynagraph or inspection car, which records the phenomena connected with train resistance, &c., consist of speed of trains, amount of fuel used, and imperfections in track. small glass tubes, which are drawn to a fine point and filled with Of one of these, invented and extensively used by P. H. Dud- eozine, one of the products of coal-tar distillation. A half grain ley, a description says that the dynagraph "is a very compli- of this is dissolved in an ounce of water, and makes a beautiful cated machine, occupying a space three or four feet square in red color." FREIGHT CARS. IN numbers, industrial importance, and revenue-earning rarely furnished with more than eight wheels, but when they power freight cars greatly exceed all others. They are the are to be used in transporting large cannon or heavy machinery principal source of net income to a large proportion of Ameri- they are sometimes supplied with sixteen wheels and givens can roads. Much has been done to construct cars specially carrying capacity of more than a hundred tons. adapted to particular classes of traffic, and also to invent plans Of the classes of cars used for special purposes, some of for promoting the economic movement of every description of which have received particular attention, aro freight. The varieties include the following: Box car, box stock car, cannon car, coal car, coal dump car, coke car, double-deck HEATER CARS, REFRIGERATOR CARS, FRUIT CARS, AND STOCK CARS. car, drop-bottom car, dump car, flat cars, fruit car, furniture The heater cars are used chiefly in high northern latitudes, car, gondola car, grain car, heater car, hopper-bottom car, ice and mainly in New England, for the purpose of transporting car, iron-hopper coal car, lumber car, logging car, milk car, fruits and vegetables under conditions that will prevent them mine car, oil or tank car, ore car, refrigerator car, stock car, from freezing during cold seasons. These cars are generally tip car. heated by particular forms of mineral-oil lamps, ingeniously One of the distinctions is between four-wheeled cars and arranged with the view of automatically controlling the tem eight-wheeled cars. Few of the former are now used, except perature by the expansion and contraction of metallic rods. for carrying coal, and even for this purpose, as well as others, A wide range of usefulness has been secured for refrigerator there is a strong modern tendency to use eight-wheel cars to cars in connection with the transportation of dressed meat over increase capacity, which is one of the most important methods long distances, a business that rapidly gained great magnitude, of reducing the cost of extensive movements. Freight cars are and various other perishable articles of food. A number of FREIGHT CARS. 335 varieties of these cars have been constructed, and during late grain cars. The former play an important part in the business years important improvements have been made. One class of divisions of railways located near large cities, while the uses ice and salt for refrigerating; another uses ice only; in latter are used extensively in such lengthy movements as those some cars ice is carried in their upper portion, or overhead in made between the Mississippi valley and the Atlantic seaboard. ice pans; in others ice is carried in the ends of cars in ice racks Milk cars, used for carrying milk in cars, generally resemble or tubes, and great differences exist in the extent to which the baggage cars, and are commonly provided with springs similar desirable atmospheric conditions are produced. The tempera- to those placed under passenger cars. Box cars are rendered ture aimed at is a few degrees above the freezing point. On appropriate vehicles for carrying grain by having a tight inside account of the magnitude of the interests involved great losses grain door attached, to prevent the grain from falling out. would result from a failure to produce the necessary effects, Many of the modern box cars have an attachment to accom- and as such failures are certain to be detected by discriminating plish this purpose which can be thrown on one side when food consumers, the success which has attended modern efforts other articles are to be carried, and other kinds of doors are to increase the demand for articles carried in refrigerator cars most convenient, and a number of devices have been invented affords convincing proof of the excellence of the highest types to facilitate such operations. of these useful vehicles. They have done much to make the COAL CARS, COKE CARS, AND TANK OR OIL CARS. perishable food products of each section of the United States available to all other sections of the country, or at least to pre- The largest amount of tonnage moved on railways of any vent distance being a barrier to such an interchange. one class of articles consists of coal and coke, especially the An analogous purpose is served by fruit cars in which neither former. For a considerable period anthracite furnished the ice to cool nor lamps to warm are used, but in which ventila- bulk of such tonnage, and it still supplies a large proportion, tion is necessary, and is provided by ventilators that can be but bituminous coal, semi-bituminous coal, and coke are for- opened or closed while the car is in motion. The success of warded by rail in large quantities. The cars used are generally, efforts in this direction, and the practice of attaching fruit cars but not universally, of a kind exclusively devoted to this traffic, to passenger trains to increase speed, have done much to de- hauling no back loads, and many of the movements are at very velop the fruit trade of California, and the carriage of various low rates. Earnest endeavors have, therefore, been made in kinds of fruit and vegetables from other sections over long dis- various ways to promote economy by improvements in car tances in cars which do not contain novel appliances has had construction, and a variety of styles of coal and coke cars have an important influence in developing producing regions, and been manufactured. They commonly have drop or hopper diversifying the food supplies of large cities and numerous bottoms to facilitate unloading, and include the following districts. styles: A 4-wheeled wooden anthracite coal car, valued at from Stock cars for the transportation of cattle, sheep, and hogs $205 to $250, weighing from 7,600 to 7,900 pounds, with a carry- over long routes are used extensively, and they, too, form im- ing capacity of 13,000 pounds; iron cars, with 4, 6, or 8 wheels, portant agencies in the distribution of food supplies. Some with drop or hopper bottoms; ordinary flat or platform cars, cars are intended for the movement of horses, including very with side-boards; hopper-bottom gondola cars. The modern valuable animals. A car known as a box stock car, which is tendency is to increase capacity, and use various sizes of drop- substantially an ordinary box car with either large grated or bottom gondola cars, some of which weigh 16,000 pounds, and slatted openings for ventilation, is little used except for trans- have a capacity of 28,000 pounds. Others weigh 22,000 pounds, porting horses. For the movement of specially valuable horses, and have a capacity of 40,000 pounds. During late years the such as famous trotters or racers, elaborate accommodations capacity was increased in some instances to 50,000 pounds, and are sometimes provided, including the padding of the interior subsequently to 60,000 pounds. Coke cars differ mainly from of the cars, so as to reduce the risk of injuries to the lowest the longer styles of gondola cars in having higher sides, the possible limits, and ingenious devices for ensuring ample sup- upper portion being slatted. plies of food and water and attendance. For the transportation Tank cars, or oil cars, used for the transportation of petro- of sheep and hogs a double-deck stock ear, with two floors, one leum, furnished for a considerable period the only available above the other, is used. Considerable attention has been given facilities for moving crude oil from the producing regions to to their construction, and some have been built of sufficient distant refineries, but subsequently pipe lines leading to the strength to carry heavy loads. Many of the modern stock cars seaboard and other centres of refining industries were con- are 80 designed that they can be used as double-deck cars. The structed. This change materially diminished the utility of transportation of live cattle over long distances is a business of tank cars, but a considerable movement is still made in them, great magnitude, many cattle being moved in cars from one which now consists largely of refined instead of crude oil to set of pasture grounds to districts in which they are fattened, southern districts, from which cotton-seed oil is forwarded in and many other cattle being sent by rail to abattoirs or them as a back load. They are cylindrical, boiler-iron vessels, slaughter houses after they are supposed to be in proper con- resembling somewhat in shape the boiler of a locomotive. They dition. The ordinary cattle cars are all provided with ample are held in place on a platform by tank bands, and prevented facilities for ventilation, having many open slats. But on ac- from turning. They have a tank dome and a tank nozzle, used count of sufferings of the animals, in some instances, from for emptying the oil. Their usual capacity is from 8,700 to lack of food or water, overcrowding, detentions, or other causes, 3,850 gallons. special efforts have been made to promote the construction of LUMBER CARS, LOGGING CARS, FLAT CARS, GONDOLA CARS, AND cars popularly styled palace stock cars, which are intended TIP CARS. to carry stock with less injury and more comfort than the Peculiarities in car construction, intended to promote con- vehicles generally used for this purpose. Endeavors have been venience and economy in loading, unloading, or moving build- made to secure the passage of laws intended to enforce the ing materials are displayed in logging cars, lumber cars, flat adoption of improved methods, and the American Humane cars, tip cars, and gondola cars. A lumber car is generally, Association has given prizes for designs of palace stock cars but not always a box car, and it is usually of extra length,- which it considered most meritorious, to A. C. Mather, of about 84 feet. Logging cars are used extensively for transport- Chicago; W. Stuart Hunter, Belleville, Canada; J. M. Lincoln, ing logs through portions of lumber districts to saw mills, where Providence, Rhode Island; Montgomery Palace Car Company, they can be converted into lumber. Prominent varieties are New York city; Burton Stock Car Company, of Boston, Massa- an extension reach eight-wheel logging car, with a capacity for chusetts; Thomas Clarke, of Truro, Nova Scotia; and John W. carrying 3,000 feet B. M., weighing 6,200 pounds, height, 27 Street, of Chicago, Illinois. inches, length, 21 feet over all; and a flexible truck eight-wheel logging car with a capacity for carrying a weight MILK CARS AND GRAIN CARS. of 4,000 pounds, height, 24 inches, le all; a In addition to the cars referred to above, box cars are used flexible, frame lumber larry, having f ng frequently for the transportation of food or products which can cars bear about the same relation to be converted into food. Two of the most important classes wagons bear to other wagons,-platfo containing special mechanical arrangements are milk cars and platforms or floors being omitted Digitized by Google or platform car, in which there is nothing above the platform, applicable to nearly all purposes already mentioned, either and no obstacles to loading or unloading heavy articles, such with or without a few temporary modifications, and also to the as large stones, are presented. To prevent slipping or sliding transportation of an immense variety of miscellaneous articles, off, stake pockets are provided on the sides of these cars in including groceries, dry goods, hardware, and nearly all de- which stakes can be placed. scriptions of merchandise, is the box car. Provided with a A flat or platform car is converted into a gondola car when roof and strong sides, it affords thorough protection from the boards rising above the level of the platform are attached to weather when in good condition, and is practically the only all its sides. There is a modern tendency to increase the num- description of freight car used for the transportation of articles ber or height of such boards, and to rely upon a hopper-bottom needing such protection which are not usually moved in cars rather than upon the removal of the boards from one of the embodying special features. A few four-wheeled box cars are sides of the car to facilitate unloading. used, but box cars nearly all have eight wheels, and one of the The tip car is a style extensively used in railway construction most important of the modern changes was to increase their and sometimes for other purposes. It is usually four-wheeled, capacity, which formerly rarely exceeded ten tons, and was but sometimes eight-wheeled. One style of the latter weighs subsequently increased to from twenty tons upward. There is 13,000 pounds and has a capacity of 16,000 pounds. It com- a considerable diversity in the details and size of the box care bines the leading features of a gondola car with arrangements used by different leading lines, but an active general movement for tipping the body 80 as to let the load slide out, instead of has been progressing for some years towards an increase of their discharging it through a drop-bottom. An improved style of size, strength, and capacity, and a diminution in the number and tip car provides for slowly tipping the load by gearing. extent of the diversities in the details of their construction. INCREASE OF THE CAPACITY OF FREIGHT CARS. THE final result of many preceding and auxiliary move- A comprehensive statement of the general railway practice was a notable increase in the size and capacity of of the country and of the economic advantages of an increase freight cars, which was one of the most important agencies in of the capacity of freight cars is contained in a circular issued promoting the economic movement of many products. Before by a committee of the Master Car-Builders' Association, dated the commencement of the eighth decade few of the freight cars March 30th, 1882, which was intended to elicit information of the country had a nominal capacity greater than ten tons, from railway officials in regard to the advisability of increasing although heavier weights were often crowded into them; but it the capacity of freight cars above twenty tons. The following was scarcely considered safe or prudent to move loads exceed- is an extract from this circular:- ing ten tons in such cars as were then generally used. Years "It is only a few years since freight cars were allowed to be of effort, indeed, had been spent in establishing a ten-ton loaded with more than ten tons. At the present time but few standard, the rise from a much lower level being slow and eight-wheel cars are built with a carrying capacity of less than gradual. The conservative course pursued was largely due to twenty tons. From this fact we infer that twenty-ton cars can the defective condition of many of the railroads, and soon after be run as safely as ten-ton cars, and that freight can be trans- they were materially improved an extraordinary increase of ported with greater economy in cars that have the greatest the nominal capacity of a considerable number of freight cars carrying capacity. was produced in a remarkably cheap and easy manner, being The increase of freight traffic upon our leading railroads simply the work of the paint brush; that is to say, inscriptions during the last five years has been very large, and if it had on the body of cars announcing that their capacity was ten been necessary to transport it in ten-ton cars the expenses for tons were superseded by figures setting forth that they could motive power and train men, cost of maintenance of the greater carry fifteen tons. Such a feat would scarcely have been pos- number of cars, &c., would have been enormous. Road-beds sible if the practice of loading cars with greater weights than and bridges are made more substantial than in former years. their designated capacity had not been extensively followed, Locomotives have of late been made of enormous weight and and it was succeeded by changes in methods of construction power, and such locomotives are 80 successful and satisfactory which gave to a large proportion of the freight cars of the coun- that railway managers still continue to build them. If these try an actual increase of capacity of from ten up to fifteen tons. heavy locomotives can be run without serious injury to road- Statements bearing on this subject include the following:- beds and bridges, are there any objections to increasing the load In an interesting paper "on the increased efficiency of rail- of freight cars when there are so many advantages to be gained ways for the transportation of freight," read by William P. thereby, with 80 few and trifling objections? Shinn, before the American Society of Civil Engineers, on De- The following are considered a few of the most important cember 20th, 1882, he said:- advantages that may be derived in transporting any given For many years, say from 1855 to 1876, the standard capacity amounts of tonnage in thirty-ton cars: Less cost of cars; less of freight cars was 20,000 pounds, although much more was fre- cost of repairs; less dead weight; less number of way bills to quently loaded on a car. About 1877 a few cars were built to make; shorter trains; shorter side tracks; less coupling and un- carry 30,000 pounds, and since 1879 the standard freight cars coupling of cars, and damage to draw-bars and fixtures; less built for the principal east and west lines of railroad have been number of brakes to operate; less number of journal boxes to constructed to carry 40,000 pounds. I am informed that the oil; less number of wheels to inspect; less train men, and many Pennsylvania Railroad Company has ordered the construction other smaller advantages." of some cars having 50,000 pounds' capacity. This increased At the present time (1888) box cars with a nominal capacity capacity is obtained by using a somewhat heavier car body, or of twenty tons approximate most closely to the prevailing 'cargo box,' with slightly heavier axles and journals. The standard, but cars with a nominal capacity of twenty-five tons comparative weight of a standard Pennsylvania Railroad box are not unusual, and some of 60,000 pounds nominal capacity car, with its load, in 1870 and 1881, was as follows, viz.:- are in use. A large proportion of the latter are gondola cars. It is probable that the practice of overloading is still followed Weight Weight Load. Per of car. of load. Total. cent. of not infrequently, and it occasionally results in making a twenty- total. In 1870 20,500 20,000 ton car carry from twenty-five tons upward; a twenty-five-ton 40,500 49,40 In 1881 22,000 40,000 62,000 64,48 car carry more than thirty tons, and a thirty-ton car carry per- haps more than thirty-five tons. The extent to which such Increase 1,500 20,000 21,500 15,18" practices have heretofore been followed has been urged, in Digitized by Google TERMINAL FACILITIES. Digitized by Google DETAILS OF CAR CONSTRUCTION. 337 annual conventions of the Master Car-Builders' Association, arising from heated journals and other wear and tear. At as a serious objection to a material increase of the nominal another convention several house or box cars of 60,000 pounds capacity of freight cars above twenty tons. capacity, erected under the direction of a committee, were on Other considerations bearing on this subject are presented in a track near the place of meeting, subject to inspection. At 8 report made to the annual convention of the Master Car- the convention of 1887 a committee submitted plans of axle, Builders' Association, held in 1883, and discussions it elicited. journal box, journal bearing, and journal-bearing wedge for a A committee which had addressed circulars of inquiry to nu- standard freight-car truck and axle for cars of 60,000 pounds merous members stated that "all the replies agree that 40,000 capacity. pounds of load, not including the car, is all that can safely be The reports to the Master Car-Builders' Association, and the put upon the present master car builders' standard axles and course pursued by those who built box cars with the increased our present construction of freight-car equipment. They also nominal capacity showed that important changes in details of agree that there are several conditions to be considered in this construction were considered desirable if not absolutely neces- connection: (1) Our imperfect mode of lubrication; (2) the carry- sary. In a new 60,000-pound box freight car designed for the ing capacity of bridges and track; (3) the tendency to increase Michigan Central Railroad, by Robert Miller, master car builder the speed of freight trains. All combined make them very cau- of that company, the first specimen of which was built in No- tious as to what increase of carrying capacity to reccommend." vember, 1886, both the body and trucks were considerably In the discussion of this report Mr. Wilder said: "In regard strengthened, in comparison with the usual style of 40,000-pound to the increased capacity of cars, it seems to me that we are box car. The length of the car outside of the sills was increased running pretty nearly to the limit we can put on one vehicle. to 35 feet, and additions were made to height and width, in com- It is very hard work to get most of the freights offered to us parison with usual standards, which increased the space avail- into one of our 33-foot cars in a load of over 40,000 pounds, able for receiving freight. The truss rods were arranged in a and we must increase the length of the cars if we carry more manner that materially strengthened the support of the floor. weight. I have had occasion to look into that matter very In addition to the cars mentioned above, which are intended thoroughly, and with most of the different kinds of staple goods for extensive use, a side-dump car, with a nominal capacity of that are forwarded-pork, lard, and grain-you must load the 40 tons, was constructed in 1887, for use on one of the branch present cars very nearly to the roof before you can get 40,000 lines of the Pennsylvania Company, for transporting ore from pounds into them. Of course, with coal, iron ore, pig iron, vessels to storage trestles. and other materials of that kind, the load which can be carried Where special necessities require extraordinary strength, in one of these cars is not 80 limited." such as is needed for transporting heavy cannon or machinery, Mr. Wall said: "Some cars were built for the Pennsylvania freight cars with a capacity exceeding 100 tons have been built. Railroad of 50,000 pounds, which were of the same length as One of the latest cars of this description was built at the Pack- hopper gondola cars, with higher sides. We have not had any erton car shops, on the Lehigh Valley Railroad, in January, of those cars on the Pan Handle, and we do not expect to get 1888. Its capacity was 120,000 pounds, and in a preliminary any for some time to come. We found that we could not take test it was loaded with 122,724 pounds of material. The dimen- cars of 50,000 pounds capacity and run them over bridges sions were similar to those of an ordinary flat car. The body of safely. You can take one car of 50,000 pounds capacity on the car was made much stronger than usual, and it was sup- almost any road, probably, in existence, that has a good road- ported by two six-wheeled equalized trucks. bed, and take it over bridges, too. But there is another con- INCREASED SIZE OF PASSENGER CARS. sideration, if you take two 50,000 pounds cars, and they are The increase of size and capacity, which forms such a notable loaded, the points between the trucks will be very heavily and important feature of changes in freight cars, was to some loaded. That is, if you take the total wheel-base from the extent accompanied with an increase of the capacity and weight outside of one track to the outside of the other on two ad- of various portions of passenger cars. The following compara- jacent cars, the weight per foot will be too great to run safely. tive statement of the details of passenger cars in general service If you take the total wheel-base under one car it will be all in 1863 and in 1884 was published a few years ago:- right, because that is distributed over, say, thirty feet, while 1863. 1884. P.ct. P.ct. the other is distributed in a length of probably sixteen feet, inc. dec. Length of car body in feet 30 57 90 and we found, in investigating the subject, that it would not be Seating capacity 44 77 72 safe to run them over our road." Weight of car body 14,000 27,000 92 At this convention a committee of seven was appointed to Weight of car trucks 13,000 18,000 37 confer together and agree, if possible, upon a standard house Total weight of car 27,000 45,000 66 car with details of all its parts, whose maximum load shall be Weight of each wheel without load 3,375 5,625 66 60,000 pounds. The agitation of the subject was continued at Weight of load (passengers) on each wheel. 770 1,330 72 conventions held in subsequent years. At the convention of Total weight on each wheel when loaded 1885 a committee appointed to report upon a standard house up to its seating capacity 4,145 6,955 67 Weight of body to the foot 466 474 1 car to carry 60,000 pounds of lading, announced that they had Weight of body and truck to the passenger. 613 592 3 agreed upon dimensions, which were described. In the dis- Rate of speed under which brakes are ap. cussion which followed several members stated that the roads plied in miles 12 24 100 with which they were connected had cars that carried 60,000 Weight of 33-inch cast-iron wheel 540 540 pounds, but that there was a good deal of trouble with them Weight of 33-inch steel-tired wheel 687 DETAILS OF CAR CONSTRUCTION. IN connection with the construction and operation of cars a and the strong desire manifested in many quarters to cheapen number of interesting and complicated questions have the cost of moving freight by every available mechanical de- arisen, and on their judicious solution much has depended. vice, and to add to the safety and att used in Methods of manufacturing or arranging nearly everything of competitive passenger traffic. material importance relating to cars have frequently been in a One of the fundamental points i ion transition state, on account of the multiplicity of new inven- of questions affecting freight cars tions pertaining to such matters, diverse views of numerous an advantageous relation railroad companies and heads of car-building establishments, may be desirable for 48 Digitized by Google 338 DETAILS OF CAR CONSTRUCTION. would not be conducive to the interests of other organizations include a number of articles classified under the general bead employing their equipment chiefly in moving different pro- of furnishings, such as basket racks, bell cord and appliances, ducts, and it may be desirable to increase the capacity of some doors and aids for opening, shutting, and fastening them, gas classes of cars and not of others. fixtures, lamps, seats, curtain fixtures, stoves and heaters, venti- The efforts of the Master Car-Builders' Association to pro- lators, lavatories, windows, &c. There are hundreds of names mote uniformity have led to the establishment of standards for for the different portions of the bodies of cars and articles used some of the parts of freight cars, and this is one of the most in their construction. Truck details include axles, brake shoes, important fields of persistent labor. Others relate to automatic journal bearings, journal boxes, pedestals, side frames, side freight couplers, freight train brakes, methods of heating pas- bearings, spring swing links, and wheels. There are more than senger cars with steam obtained from locomotives, brakes, one hundred parts of some trucks. Changes of varying sig. brake-shoes, couplers, trucks, journal boxes, journal bearings, nificance are frequently made, and sometimes they represent springs, wheels, axles, draw-bars, dead blocks, methods of notable improvements, in many of the details of bodies and framing cars, and methods of lighting and ventilating passen- trucks. ger cars. MATERIAL AND LABOR REQUIRED TO BUILD A BOX CAR. The net result of an immense amount of labor has been such a great improvement over old devices, that one of the The following itemized list of the material and labor required serious difficulties of late years has been to choose between a to build a box car was furnished by William Kinyon, master multiplicity of meritorious inventions. The progress made in car builder of the Western and Atlantic Railroad Company, to improving details of car construction is a feature of general Eugene C. Spaulding, car accountant of that company, in 1886. advancement which has-contributed much to industrial pros- It was described as a first-class box car, but capacity was not stated:- perity and the personal comfort of travelers, and in this great Material and Labor in Body of Car. work the United States has taken the lead of all other nations. Articles. Rate. Amount PREMIUMS FOR CAR APPLIANCES OFFERED BY THE CHICAGO RAIL 3,987 feet lumber 2 cents per foot $79 74 704 pounds wrought iron 5 cents per pound WAY EXPOSITION. 35 20 606 pounds cast iron 8 cents per pound 18 18 An indication of the classes of articles used in car construc- 100 pounds nails 4 cents per pound 00 tion which are made by numerous manufacturers is furnished 6 pounds plat washers 6 cents per pound 36 by the following lists of things for which premiums were offered 10 pounds lag screws 7 cents per pound 70 by the Chicago Railway Exposition of 1888:- 1 gross 14-inch screws 30 cents per gross 15 Running Gear.-Best steel axle, best iron axle, best hollow 46 pounds steel springs 9 cents per pound axle, best passenger-train brake, best freight-train brake, best 160 sheets tin 7 cents per sheet 11 20 brake shoe, best springs (elliptic), best springs (spiral), best 8 pounds solder 13 cents per pound 130 2 pounds tin nails. 10 cents per pound 20 springs (bearing), best springs (buffer or draw), best springs 28 pounds mineral paint 1 cent per pound 28 (rubber), best equalizing spring, best draw-bar for freight car, 4 gallons linseed oil 75 cents per gallon 800 best journal box, best journal-box lid, best journal bearing, best 20 days carpenter's labor $2.25 per day 00 steel tire for car wheels, best steel-tire metal wheel, best car 2 days tinner's labor 2.00 per day 4 00 iron wheel, best steel-tire combination wheel, best car step, best 11 days painter's labor 2.00 per day 3 00 passenger-car platform, coupler, and buffer, best passenger-car Total in body $210 35 six-wheel truck, best passenger-car four-wheel truck, best freight- car truck, best automatic freight-car coupler, best freight-ear Material and Labor in Pair Trucks of Car. coupler (non-automatic). Articles. Rate. Amount 487 feet lumber 2 cents per foot $9 Interior Furnishings for Passenger Cars.-Best display, best 1,000 pounds wrought iron 5 cents per pound 50 00 bell-cord fixtures, best bell cord, best car-door butts, best car- 1,306 pounds cast iron 3 cents per pound 39 door latch (saloon), best car-door lock, best seat end, best seat- 184 pounds steel springs 9 cents per pound 16 56 end lock, best seat-end fixtures, best curtain goods, best curtain 64 pounds brasses 22 cents per pound 14 08 roller, best curtain-rod fixtures, best deck-light catch, best dis- 4 pairs wheels $40 per pair 160 00 play of car lamps, best centre lamp (one burner), best centre 4 pounds mineral paint 1 cent per pound 4 lamp (two burners), best centre lamp (three burners), best centre 1 gallon linseed oil 75 cents per gallon 38 lamp (four burners), best electric light for cars, best postal-car t gallon asphaltum $1.50 per gallon 37 lamp, best side lamp, best door, window, and deck glass (illu- Carpenter's labor 5 65 Painter's labor 50 minated), best heater, best stove, best head lining (cloth), best head lining (wood), best hopper, best urinal, best window lift, Total in trucks $296 best sash lock, best deck-light opener, best decorating material, Total in body 210 35 best sash, best window blind, best window-blind lift, best sash Total in both or one $506 spring, best sash stop, best seat frame, best upholstering, best system of ventilation, best dust guard, best display fancy woods MATERIAL AND LABOR REQUIRED TO BUILD A STANDARD PASSENGER and vencers, best water cooler, best berth and seat springs, best CAR IN 1876. berth curtain hook and fixtures, best wash-room pump, best Dredge's account of the Pennsylvania Railroad gives the fol- cooking range, best reclining chair, best revolving chair, best lowing itemized statement of materials used and cost of labor washstand for parlor or sleeping car, best basket rack, best door in constructing a standard passenger car at the Altoons shops holder, best door knob, best coat hook, best hat hook, best cus- in or about 1876:- pidor or spittoon, best headboard and fixtures (for sleeping car), Labor $1,263 9 94 best folding bed for car, best curtain-rod bracket, best double- Proportion of fuel and stores 28 61 acting hinge, best electric or other call bell. Proportion of superintendent, chief clerk, and storekeeper's Freight- Car Appliances.-Best car seal, best car replacer, best time 13 53 car pusher, best grain-car door, best freight-car door, best end- 2,480 feet poplar at $35 per 1,000 86 80 door inside fastener, best freight-car lock, best door hanger, best 3,434 feet ash 127 08 1,100 feet pine at $19 20 90 metal roofing, best wood roofing, best combination roofing. 2,350 feet yellow pine at $30 70 50 THE NOTABLE IMPROVEMENTS IN CAR CONSTRUCTION 500 feet oak at $20 10 00 are based on progressive changes relating to many details, each 450 feet hickory at $30 13 60 of which has received much attention from many intelligent 700 feet Michigan pine at $70 49 00 mechanics and inventors. The two grand divisions of a car 400 feet cherry at $40 16 00 439 feet maple veneer 24 are the body and trucks. The brake gear and draw gear are 4 pairs wheels and axles 832 % considered part of the details of the body. In box freight cars 2 pairs passenger car trucks complete 533 62 these details include framing, grab irons and ladders, roofs, 87 pounds color at 15 cents 13 05 doors, locks, and seals. In passenger cars details of the body 13 pounds putty at 12 cents 56 Digitized by Google DETAILS OF CAR CONSTRUCTION. 339 59 pounds Hunter's paint at 12 cents 97 08 2 coat hooks $0 05 35 pounds oil filling at 12 cents 4 08 3 match lighters 17 49 pounds filling at 13 cents 6 37 1 waste cock 85 15 pounds Tuscan red 8 75 172 sheets tin 20 inches by 28 inches. 34 17 21 pounds drop black 0 70 66 sheets tin 14 inches by 20 inches 6 27 2 pounds lamp black 0 34 272 pounds galvanized iron 25 31 2 pounds green 0 32 14 pounds solder 2 24 Gold bronze. 2 76 2 pounds rivets 0 32 6 pounds pulverized pumice stone 0 36 6 pounds tinned nails 0 76 1 quart olive oil 0 58 5 square feet wire gauge 0 30 8 quarts black varnish 1 17 52 pounds No. 12 sheet iron 2 73 1 quart shellac 0 66 4 pounds nails 0 24 3 gallons varnish at 68. 14 04 Pins, dc 0 68 10 gallons varnish at $3.83 38 30 2 yards brown muslin 0 98 1 gallon linseed oil 0 59 34 yards hat cord 4 08 45 pounds glue 14 33 Burlap sacking 0 09 23 pounds white lead 2 59 96 yards scarlet plush 228 87 2,925 pounds iron 87 75 44 yards plain green plush 109 99 Nails 2 25 61 yards sheeting 10 30 72 pounds square nuts 5 05 15 yards buckram 8 79 158 pounds nails 5 52 52 yards fiax canvas 8 32 Brass wire and small nuts and washers 0 41 1 yard 8 OZ. duck 0 18 792 pounds castings 16 99 14 yards cocoanut matting 7 22 2 pounds spring steel 0 17 1 bell rope 1 44 9 pounds washers 0 63 1 pound thread 0 98 6 pounds hexagonal nuts 0 00 Tinned tacks 0 14 119 pounds wagon box iron 5 59 1 pound brass washers 0 20 Wood screws. 4 05 124 yards 10 OZ. duck 3 56 Screws 51 88 2 yards 6 OZ. duck 0 53 31 pounds carriage bolts 0 45 11 yards ship canvas 0 16 1 set gas pipes, &c 7 19 Seaming cord 0 04 Gas burners 0 22 5 gross plush nails 8 33 Brass connections 0 25 5 gross plush buttons 2 82 1 gas regulator 15 00 11 pounds tufting twine 0 78 1 gas gauge 10 25 1 pound spring 0 23 2 two-light chandeliers 50 72 243 pounds hair 72 95 1 gas bracket 09 Tacks 3 68 2 gas tanks complete 84 00 12 springs 22 96 2 soldered joints.. 0 40 12 spiral elliptic springs 20 20 1 air brake complete 131 79 22 spiral springs 0 92 1 water cooler faucet 3 25 21 pounds lining nails 0 50 8 pounds lead pipe 0 80 1 head lining 80 63 1 pound chain 0 04 Flour 0 15 Screw eyes 0 05 1 gallon sample varnish 2 37 57 sash balances 44 61 2 packets gold leaf. 14 58 27 pounds rubber draught packing 12 65 3 gallons alcohol 7 81 31 lights, white glass 26 11 Beeswax, &c 0 46 2 lights, plate glass 10 56 4 pounds sole leather 1 28 25 lights, ruby glass 27 72 26 quires sand paper. 5 72 8 extra lights 1 44 $4,423 75 Wood filling 0 13 12 vertical registers 8 32 PORTIONS OF CARS SPECIALLY LIABLE TO WEAR AND TEAR. 2 stoves 77 56 50 seat arms 8 50 Neither of the above lists furnish an adequate idea of the 2 bronzed sash fasteners 4 84 portions of cars peculiar to those vehicles, which are specially 2 bronzed sash fasteners 3 70 subject to wear and tear, or breakage. Many of the repairs of 20 brass alcoves 3 77 freight cars must be made on foreign roads, and the wide range 25 sets of seat fixtures 50 50 formerly given for diversity of patterns led to a lack of uniform- 2 bronze notice plates 4 00 ity which became a serious evil or inconvenience after the 4 notice frames and notices 2 44 practice of interchanging cars, or sending the cars which be- 3 bronze lamps 13 50 longed to one company over the roads of connecting lines, 2 bronze door locks and fittings 15 20 became common. One of the leading objects of the Master 1 saloon door lock 6 26 8 lamp "canopies" 2 43 Car-Builders' Association was to diminish this diversity, or to 8 pairs bronze butt hinges 5 41 promote uniformity. A circular directing attention to this 1 pair 3 inches by 3 inches bronze butt hinges 2 43 subject, issued by a committee of that body in 1882, said:- 11 inch by 11 inch brass butts 0 24 "It is, of course, impossible for this committee to anticipate 21 pairs iron butts 0 13 all the work which the car-builders' association may advan- 26 pairs brass butts 7 37 tageously do in the future. It can be said, though, that if 1 drip pan 5 06 sufficient uniformity in the construction of cars could be 1 urinal 4 25 brought about it would result in the saving of hundreds of 1 W. C. tube 6 30 3 seven-inch ventilator rings 2 43 thousands of dollars annually to railroad companies. To show 2 brass bushings 0 28 how great the diversity still is, the committee requested several 5 leather bell-cord hangers 6 50 car builders to give the number of different duplicate parts 2 bronze bushings 0 44 which they are now obliged to keep on hand at certain points 2 ten-inch ventilator rings 2 44 for the repair of foreign cars. 1 eight-inch ventilator ring 0 52 Mr. Adams, master car builder of the Boston and Albany 1 three-inch ventilator ring 0 44 Railroad at Boston, writes:- 13 bracket racks 77 35 'We have about forty different kinds of brake-heads and 12 sash levers 42 00 2 door holders 3 00 shoes, eleven different journal boxes, thirty-seven journal bear- 61 bronze window lifts 24 40 ings, ten cast-iron and five or six wrought-iron draw-bars, eigh 61 bronze window fasteners 16 47 or ten different draw-bar side castings and a multitude of vario 94 bronze window stops 8 14 other kinds of different parts of cars.' Digitized by Google Mr. Packard, master car builder of the Baltimore and Ohio 20 different kinds of brake shoes, 10 different kinds of side Railroad at Baltimore, says:- bearings. "The list I give you is from the patterns we use at this point At a recent meeting of car builders, Mr. W. W. Snow, who is and distribute to other points where interchanges of other cars engaged in the manufacture of brake shoes, reported that he are made. We also have to order a great many from different had 182 different patterns at his works, which had been sent roads when we have not the patterns to make them from, as samples to manufacture from, and that at the present time which would increase this number very materially if we had there are not less than 300 different kinds in use in the whole the patterns for every one we use. I submit the following, viz.: country. 65 different kinds of journal bearings, 25 different kinds of The parts enumerated are only a few of those used in the journal boxes, 25 different kinds of journal-box covers, 20 dif- repair of cars, and if they were all named it would increase the ferent kinds of brake-shocs, 22 different kinds of brake-heads, lists to enormous proportions. A similar condition of things 12 different kinds of brake-hangers, 6 different kinds of axles, to that indicated by the few reports given exists wherever any 8 different kinds of draw-bars, 10 different kinds of draw-bar considerable number of cars are interchanged from one road follower plates, 15 different kinds of draw-bar springs, 8 dif- to others. ferent kinds of draw-bar stop castings, 10 different kinds of Not only is an enormous expense thus incurred by keeping side bearings.' immense quantities of what may be called dead supplies 00 Mr. Verbryck, master car builder of the Chicago, Rock Island hand, but the cost of making repairs is very much greater than and Pacific Railway at Chicago, reports:- it would be if the cars were more uniform in construction, and, 'We have five kinds of journal boxes on our road, and I what is worse, traffic is greatly delayed thereby." have patterns for three kinds of New York Central and Hud- MASTER CAR-BUILDERS' STANDARDS. son River and the Master Car Builders' standard. But in look- The list of standards recommended for adoption by the ing over my orders for the last year I find I have had to order Master Car-Builders' Association up to May, 1887, includes the forty-six different kinds of journal boxes, besides the kinds I folowing:- have cast for repairs of foreign cars broken on our line, and A standard form of wheel tread and flange. miscellaneous castings for sixty different kinds of cars, wrought A standard wheel gauge. iron draw-bars for forty-four different kinds, and eight or nine A standard car axle. kinds of cast iron. I have fifty-four different patterns of jour- Standards for journal bearings, journal boxes, and pedestals nal bearings, and have had to buy thirty-five different kinds A standard brake head and shoe. besides during the year. I cast five kinds of brake heads and A standard system of screw threads, bolts, and nuts. shoes, and have bought forty-three different kinds more. A standard of sizes for limit gauges for round iron. Springs, side bearings, and follower plates I cannot tell how A standard for height, attachments, and dimensions of draw. many kinds I have used, but they are about as numerous as bars, and for capacity of draw-springs. the different kinds of foreign cars that are run over our line.' Standard dimensions of dead blocks. The master car builder of the New York Central Railroad at Standards for positions of brake shafts, brake steps or plat Buffalo gives the following list of different kinds of parts which form, and fastening of brake ratchet wheel and pawl, running must be kept on hand at that point: 56 different kinds of boards, wrought-iron steps of freight cars, ladder, and handles axles, 46 different kinds of journal bearings, 2 different kinds An endorsement of truck and car-body chains as part of pas- of journal-box covers, 58 different kinds of journal boxes, 24 senger equipment. different kinds of draw-bar follower plates, 22 different kinds A standard system of making cars. of brake hangers, 26 different kinds of draw-bars, 8 different A standard system of lettering and numbering fast freight- kinds of draw-bar stops, 27 different kinds of brake heads, line cars. THE BATTLE OF THE BRAKES. THE power incond ind in to suddenly arrest train movements is only trol of locomotive engineers has long been recognized, as they importance to the ability to make them. It is enable the person who is generally the first to see danger and for many purposes as essential that the brake should stop a the first to know that a quick stoppage is desirable for any running train suddenly as that the locomotive should propel it cause, to promote that object by his individual efforts instead rapidly. Few, if any, problems connected with the mechanical of being obliged to call for the assistance of a number of brake branches of railways have attracted more serious attention men who may not promptly respond, and who, even when the than those relating to brakes, and there are probably none on speedily put forth their best efforts, cannot be expected to stop which a greater amount of ingenuity has been exercised, or a a train as quickly as it can be stopped by an effective COD- closer approach made to the attainment of desirable ends. tinuous train brake. In the United States special exertions in this field of effort The importance of such an appliance, as an attachment ti were rendered necessary by a number of circumstances, such passenger trains, was clearly pointed out some years before as the abundance of grade crossings and heavy grades, which efforts to provide it were successful. Then came an era when made it more important, if possible, here than elsewhere, that the advantages of continuous train brakes, in their application effective brakes should be invented and applied. The response to passenger trains, were so clearly apparent that their use be to this requirement has been so creditable that superior means came practically universal in this country, and was extended of meeting all native necessities have been provided, and the to nearly all other civilized nations. This stage of progres most important portions of the brake power of all the pro- was intermingled with the invention and extensive use of 1 gressive railways of the world are now based on American great improvement on the first of the leading continuous models. brakes, which is represented by the difference between the For many years hand brakes constituted the sole reliance for Westinghouse air brake (non-automatic) and the Westinghous stopping trains; and a great variety of hand-brake methods and automatic brake. The period when the advancement described appliances have been pressed into service, and are still in use above was attracting most attention as a progressi movemen: on freight trains. Their best forms represent an immense ad- was between 1870 and 1880. vance upon the primitive brake apparatus, and include em- Shortly after the commencement of the ninth decade effort bodiments of some of the most useful of railway inventions. to secure the application of continuous brakes to freight trains But the desirability of brake systems that are under the con- were initiated in the United States, but they proceeded some THE BATTLE OF THE BRAKES. 341 what slowly until about the middle of the decade, when the to provide for a sudden stoppage of the train by other agencies subject began to attract much attention, and since that time than appropriate movements of the locomotive engineer. For interest in it has been 80 much increased that a leading event these reasons the original Westinghouse air brake, although it of 1887 was the triumphal tour over a number of important long continued to be in extensive use, and is still used by a American railways of a train of fifty freight cars, equipped number of roads; and, although it has doubtless been the with an improved style of the Westinghouse automatic freight- means of saving many lives, and of preventing the destruction train brake, and practical demonstrations, in the vicinity of a of much property, did not fully meet all the desirable condi- number of populous cities, and in the presence of thousands of tions, and it was, therefore, supplemented, in a large degree, by critical spectators, of the fact that this brake not only fulfilled the conditions desirable in a freight-train brake, but also em- THE WESTINGHOUSE AUTOMATIC BRAKE. bodied improvements which rendered it more efficient than A protracted discussion in England of the qualities that a con- any of the pre-existing passenger-train brakes. tinuous brake should possess finally led to the extensive adop- It would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of these tion, by the railways of that country, and of continental nations, achievements. The advance steps were made in competition of the Westinghouse automatic brake after numerous animated with numerous devices, some of which possessed great merit, competitive struggles with rival brake systems. The result was and competitive struggles, in this and other countries, were chiefly due to a conviction that it more completely fulfilled the conducted under such imposing circumstances that they were desirable conditions than any other known device. One of the aptly termed "The Battle of the Brakes." best statements of those conditions is the following, published in Engineering of December 15th, 1876:- NECESSITY OF CONTINUOUS TRAIN BRAKES ON PASSENGER TRAINS. "The main requirements to be sought for in selecting a rail- Formerly trains usually moved at low rates of speed, and way brake which may be placed with confidence upon high- they generally consisted of a comparatively small number of speed trains may be summarized as follows:- cars, 80 that it was not a matter of much consequence whether 1. It must be capable of application to every wheel through- they could be quickly stopped or not; but after passenger trains out the train, if so desired. commenced running at relatively high rates of speed many 2. It must be 80 prompt in its action that no appreciable loss accidents happened that could have been averted by effective of time occurs between the time of its application, and the continuous brakes, and it became evident that they were neces- moment when its full power can be exerted throughout the sary adjuncts, on many roads, of any serious effort to gratify the train. public demand for rapid transit, and to combine it with safety. 8. It must be capable of being applied by the driver of the To illustrate the importance of prompt stoppages, and the engine, and at any desired point throughout the train. difficulty of securing them, various statements have been made. 4. It must be capable of application by driver and guard It is said that in one second a train traveling at 60 miles an acting in concert, or by either independently of the other. hour passes over 88 feet; at 45 miles an hour, 66 feet, and at 30 5. It must under all circumstances be capable of arresting miles an hour, 44 feet. The time required to move over a dis- the motion of a train in the shortest possible distance. tance of 100 yards is 3.4 seconds if the train is running at a 6. It must be so arranged that in the event of the failure of speed of 60 miles an hour; 4.6 seconds if the train is running at any one of its vital parts, such failure must record itself by the a speed of 45 miles an hour, and 6.8 seconds if the train is application of the brakes or otherwise; so that the train, if in moving at a speed of 30 miles an hour. The difficulties to be motion, may be automatically arrested, and the existence of a overcome in securing a quick stoppage, after the locomotive defect be thereby made known. engineer endeavors to stop the engine, arise chiefly from the 7. It must, in the event of a train breaking into two or more momentum of the train, which varies with its weight, the parts, be capable of immediate automatic application to every speed at which it was progressing, and the grade of the line on vehicle, under all conditions. which it was moving. Captain Douglas Galton, in a discussion 8. It must be simple in its construction and in its mode of of this subject, stated that "a train, through the locomotive, working, and not be more liable to derangement in any of its slowly accumulates energy, and for each ton of weight in the parts than any other portion of the mechanism on the train. train the accumulated energy is equal to 120 foot-tons at 60 9. The duties it is called upon to perform must be done by miles per hour, 53 foot-tons at 40 miles per hour, and 13 foot- the apparatus itself, and not by the addition of any auxiliary tons at 20 miles per hour. Thus for a train of 15 vehicles, contrivance called in to aid an appliance which cannot of itself weighing 200 tons, the energy at 60 miles per hour is equal to fulfill the necessary conditions. 24,000 tons falling a distance of one foot, or approximately to 10. It should preferably be inexpensive for first establishment, the energy of a shot from the 80-ton gun." and necessarily cheap in maintenance, for if the latter condition Scientific experiments in England, made in 1875, demon- be not fulfilled, constant watching and frequent renewals would strated that with the hand brakes then in use a train of a loco- be required, and the eighth requirement named above would motive and 13 cars moving at a speed of 45 miles an hour not be complied with." could not be brought to a stand in less than one minute, or A leading feature of the Westinghouse automatic brake is before the train had traversed a distance of half a mile. Several an arrangement by which the force employed must always be distressing accidents in this country taught a similar lesson. in good condition to prevent the application of the brakes. The difference between the magnitude of the calamities that They become operative in retarding or preventing advance may be caused by a train plunging madly onward for such a movements the instant they are seriously out of order, or distance, after the locomotive engineer plainly discerns danger, when any important exceptional influence affects the train and the catastrophes that would occur if the train could be movement, and they can also be applied by the conductor, stopped in a few seconds of time and the space of a few hun- brakemen, or other employé in any of the cars, or by the loco- dred feet, represent the gain derived from the use of an effective motive engineer. In brief, the brakes are only kept off the continuous brake. The arguments in favor of the application wheels by forcible pressure of compressed air, and any sudden of such a life-saving appliance to passenger trains are over- reduction of pressure in the brake pipe, whether it is produced whelming. The first device that was extensively introduced by defects, accidents, conductors, brakemen, or the engineer, was the Westinghouse air brake (non-automatic). The fact applies the brake. The essential parts of the machinery by that the agency used in applying brakes was then somewhat which these results are achieved are stated, in a pamphlet novel, as it consisted of compressed air, and that it required issued by the Westinghouse Brake Company, to be as follows:- appliances which sensibly increased the complications con- "1. The steam engine and pump, the com- nected with locomotives and car movements were serious pressed air. obstacles to its universal use. Another difficulty arose from 2. The main reservoir, in which th d. the fact that it did not fill all the requisite conditions. Two 3. The engineer's brake valve, W important deficiencies consisted first, in the liability of the air from the main reservoir into I brake to occasionally fail, even when it received such attention the brakes, and from the as was commonly bestowed upon it; and second, in its inability applying the brakes. Digitized by Google 4. The main brake pipe, which leads from the main reser- The same train, running at a speed of 40 miles an hour, is voir to the engineer's brake valve, and thence along the train, stopped by the air brakes in a distance of 646 feet. supplying the apparatus on each vehicle with air. These stops are made with the braking power low, as it is to 5. The auxiliary reservoir, which takes a supply of air from be used, in ordinary service, so that it will not slide the wheels the main reservoir, through the brake pipe, and stores it for of empty cars. With the braking power increased 80 as to use on its own vehicle. make the quickest possible time, regardless of sliding the wheels, 6. The brake cylinder, which has its piston rod attached to a train of 20 cars, running at 20 miles an hour, is stopped in the brake levers in such a manner that, when the piston is 96.7 feet, and running 40 miles an hour is stopped in 388 feet." forced out by air pressure, the brakes are applied. Interesting statements relating to the particular changes 7. The triple valve, which connects the brake pipe to the made in improving the Westinghouse brake, and also to other auxiliary reservoir, and connects the latter to the brake cylin- matters relating to brakes, are contained in an address de- der, and is operated by a sudden variation of pressure in the livered before the New York Railroad Club, in January, 1888, brake pipe (1) 80 as to admit air from the auxiliary reservoir by H. H. Westinghouse, from which the following is con- to the brake cylinder, which applies the brakes, at the same densed:- time cutting off the communication from the brake pipe to the "In the tests at Burlington, the necessity for substantially auxiliary reservoir, or (2) to restore the supply from the brake simultaneous action of the brakes on all of the cars to pre- pipe to the auxiliary reservoir, at the same time letting the air vent shocks in the rear portion of the train, particularly when in the brake cylinder escape, which releases the brakes. quick stops are required, was made so apparent that it was 8. The couplings, which are attached to flexible hose, and seen that a freight-train brake could not come into general use connect the brake pipe from one vehicle to another." without possessing that virtue. After considerable effort the AUTOMATIC FREIGHT-TRAIN BRAKES. desired result was accomplished, as was fully demonstrated by After the use of heavy freight cars, carrying large loads, the running of the 50-car freight train over the country under became common, and a considerable number of such cars were requirements approximating as nearly as possible those obtain- frequently coupled together in a single train, the desirability ing in ordinary practice; and in some respects the conditions of applying continuous brakes to freight trains increased, were extraordinary. The cars were 38 feet 4 inches long, and especially on lines which wished to make rapid movements, the length of the whole train, which included a Pullman hotel or which were so located that they interchanged cars with few car, was equal to 60 ordinary freight cars; so that the demon- other roads. About 1883 the Central Pacific, Union Pacific, stration may be said to have been made upon & train of 60 Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, and Northern Pacific con- rather than 50 cars. tracted with the Westinghouse company for continuous train It would be tedious, if possible, to accurately describe in brakes to be applied to all their equipment, and numerous detail the modifications that were made in order to bring the freight trains, supplied with continuous brakes, were soon brake to its present state; but in general it may be said that afterwards running west of the Missouri. A few trains east of the combination of two improvements was the principal agent. the Mississippi were also furnished with continuous brakes, The first was the enlargement of all the air pipes and passages, but they were chiefly live-stock trains. The problems involved and the second was the addition of a valve to the present triple were especially intricate in connection with the operations of valve, which is so arranged that, for purposes of emergency railways east of the Mississippi on account of the great extent stops, the air in the train pipe is admitted directly to the cylin- to which they interchanged cars. The subject began to receive der, instead of passing out of the valve on the locomotive. In considerable attention from the Master Car-Builders' Associa- this way a practically instantaneous reduction of the pressure tion. At their annual convention held in 1885 a report on the in the train pipe is brought about throughout the entire length subject was presented. It stated that the types of automatic of the train, and the pressure of the auxiliary reservoir is aug- brakes then being pressed on the attention of railroad com- mented by that in the train pipe, resulting in an increased panies for freight equipment might be classified under four pressure and promptness of action that combine to make the general headings, viz.: 1. Buffer brakes. 2. Friction brakes. brake very powerful and uniform in its action. Particular 3. Air brakes. 4. Electric brakes. Of these the only kinds attention is called to the fact that the quick action is princi- then in comparatively extensive use were of the first and third pally brought about by the addition of a valve which does not varieties, 2,815 freight cars being then equipped with the modify the existing triple valvè, and also that the proved brake American brake, classed as a buffer brake, 24,243 with the has the triple valve in substantially the same shape as the one Westinghouse automatic, and 6,806 with the Westinghouse now in common use throughout the country. The emergency non-automatic. or quick-acting part of the valve is not operative, and performs Elaborate investigations and competitive tests, under the no functions, except in cases of emergency, the present triple direction of the Master Car Builders, followed this report. A valve doing all the work of graduated braking. It is, therefore, series of competitive trials were made near Burlington, Iowa, apparent that the new brake will work in perfect harmony with in the spring of 1886, which were followed by similar tests in the apparatus now in use. The presence of a quick-acting raise 1887. They probably embodied the most extensive competi- in a train fitted principally with the old valves will have a bene tive investigations of the brake question that were ever made. ficial effect, for, in cases of emergency, it discharges some of One of the most important results was the invention of im- the air from the train pipe into its cylinder, and thus quickens provements of the Westinghouse automatic freight-train brake, the action of the other valves. It is important that this feature which enabled it to meet the original requirements, and to of the improvement should be thoroughly understood, as other perform extraordinary feats in the way of stopping a train of wise it might be imagined that it would be necessary to imme fifty freight cars. diately change the existing brakes in order to have them work In the closing months of 1887 practical proofs of the efficiency in connection with the improved form. of the new system were furnished to large audiences of railway One point of advantage came with the new brakes that was experts assembled at points near a number of leading cities. unexpected and very desirable. Noting that it is only in The average results of eleven of these tests were summarized emergency stops that the air from the auxiliary reservoir in the following statement:- increased by the addition of the train-line pressure, it becomes A train of 50 cars of a total length of 1,900 feet, weighing plain that the greatest force is brought against the wheels about 1,700,000 pounds, running 20 miles an hour, can be the proper time; that is to say, in cases of emergency and when stopped by the use of hand by five men, all ready, and under quick stops are necessary. With the new brake, the power the most favorable circumstances, in 1,563 feet. be based upon the combined pressures of the train pipe By the air brakes, the same train, running at the same speed, auxiliary reservoir. The increase of pressure due to the can be stopped in 171 feet, or less than one-ninth the distance ance from the train-line pipe is about 20 per cent., and, there required by hand brakes. As in cases of genuine emergency fore, in regular practice, the available force to mall the air brake is ready for immediate action, and the brakemen stops will be 20 per cent. less than in cases of never are, it is fair enough to say that the air brake stops the There can be no question that this will to a great train in one-tenth the distance required by hand brakes. vent sliding of wheels, as it is almost impossible Digitized by Google CAR WHEELS AND AXLES. 343 except the emergency brake is applied. If flat wheels should The putting of power brakes on freight trains means at once then be found in the train, it will be from one of two causes; an increased speed for such trains, and a consequent much either the engineer will have applied the emergency brake for greater use of the brakes, and every consideration demands ordinary stops, which is reprehensible, or it will have been that this very important part of the brake apparatus should caused by emergency stops, in which case the flattening of receive the most careful and mature consideration. The West- wheels or anything else, that would contribute to the stopping inghouse Brake Company, Limited, operating in Europe, have of the trains is justifiable. had an extended experience in fitting up brake rigging. None It is well known that, when air is admitted to the cylinder of the passenger cars abroad formerly had brakes of any kind, and the piston moves out, the air-brake part of the apparatus and when power brakes came to be applied the work involved has performed its functions, but if the connecting mechanism brake beams, shoes, and rigging, as well as the air mechanism. from the cylinder to the brake shoe is inadequate for the work, The cost of wood precluded its use in brake beams, and, con- it is obvious that it is a matter of but little importance whether sequently, iron has been employed entirely, and many forms air passes into the cylinder or not, and in plain terms it may and shapes of head gear, especially brake beams, have been be stated that, unless cars are fitted with a good brake gear, it tried. Our 50-car freight train had an iron beam of a construc- is a waste of money to put on any power apparatus to operate tion that will recommend itself on account of its simplicity and a poor one. That much of the brake rigging that is now em- great strength. Some defects in the minor details were made ployed on freight trains is not fit for use in connection with apparent during the trip of the train. These have been reme- hand brakes, is beyond question. How utterly useless then is died, and we are now desirous of having the features of this any attempt to use such rigging in connection with a device beam examined with a view to the general adoption of what- that exerts an instantaneous and tremendous force! ever good points they present." CAR WHEELS AND AXLES. of car wheels is an important and exten- This conversion of the part of the iron that strikes the metallic A list of car-wheel manufacturers in the mould into the hard, white variety is called 'chilling,' and it is United States and Canada, in June, 1887, enumerated 118 men, upon this principle that the manufacture of chilled car wheels firms, or companies, a large majority of whom made a specialty depends. Metallurgists tell us that when most cast irons are of car wheels, but in some instances they were also car manu- melted and cooled suddenly the carbon in the iron is all re- facturing firms or companies engaged in other auxiliary or tained in the combined form, but that if the cooling is effected affiliated industries. The principal portion of all the car slowly it separates partly as free carbon or graphite, and the wheels made in this country are now, and always have been, chief chemical difference between the chilled iron and the soft chilled cast-iron wheels, but the manufacture of various forms iron of the same wheel or other article cast in a metallic mould of steel-tired wheels, intended for use under passenger cars and is in the carbon, that of the chilled portion containing it in the some classes of fast freight cars, is a growing industry, and combined state, whereas the soft or gray portion, while also some months ago it was reported that about one hundred containing some in the combined form, has more or less of it thousand such wheels were then in use in the United States. separated in the shape of graphite. All irons do not possess The number has since been materially increased. this property of chilling. It is possible to have such an excess Up to a comparatively recent period chilled wheels were of graphite carbon and silicon in the iron that, unless its chemi- used almost exclusively under both freight and passenger cars, cal composition is materially changed in melting, it will not chill and progressive changes consisted chiefly in improvements in at all when run against a metallic mould. Other ingredients, patterns, sizes, selection of raw material, or details of methods such as manganese, phosphorus, and sulphur, have more or of manufacture. The bulk of the car service of the United less influence on the chilling properties of iron and upon its States has always been, and is now (1888), performed by wheels strength. Many kinds of iron that possess good chilling proper- of this class, American practice differing materially from the ties are not strong-have not that degree of tenacity necessary course usually pursued by European railways. One leading to stand the sudden shocks or blows to which railroad wheels cause of the preference for chilled wheels is the fact that their are subject, nor sufficient elasticity to stand the expansion of first cost is materially lower than that of any other class of car the rim by the heating of the same by the application of the wheels, and another is the great experience gained in their brake, which often occasions the cracking of the brackets." manufacture and the variety of improvements which have It is obvious that in a process based on such principles the been introduced from time to time. The growing demand for qualities of the product depend largely upon the nature of the steel-tired wheels arises chiefly from a belief that they are raw materials or mixtures of iron used, and the degree of care capable of performing a greater amount of service, and are and skill exercised in the various stages of manufacture. The the safest under passenger cars run at high rates of speed. highest degree of excellence reached under favorable circum- Questions have been raised in regard to relative economy, the stances represents wheels that have fully met or exceeded all contention on behalf of steel-tired wheels being to the effect reasonable expectations, and the records of the performances that the extra amount of service they are usually capable of of the wheels made by reputable manufacturers are usually performing, and consequent diminution of the number of creditable; but unsatisfactory results have been reported in changes of wheels, compensates for the difference in first cost. cases where wheels were furnished at a price too low to afford This theory has been ably advocated on the one hand, and compensation for the necessary amount of skill, care, and labor. forcibly opposed on the other, by some of the manufacturers There are records of chilled wheels which ran considerably of chilled wheels and railway mechanics or managers. more than 100,000 miles, and in many cases their service has exceeded 50,000 miles, but their average performance is rated CHILLED WHEELS. by some authorities at from 40,000 to 60,000 miles. An address delivered by Mr. Lobdell, of the Lobdell Car There is a considerable diversity in the depth of the chill of Wheel Company, before the New England Railroad Club, in wheels made at various times and places and by different February, 1888, embraced the following reference to leading manufacturers, the general range being from t through the in- features of chilled wheels:- termediate fractions The diameter of the "When certain kinds of gray cast iron are melted and poured wheels is usually { of wheels of this against & metallic mould, that portion of the iron next to the size has varied from ds to more than mould becomes hard, white crystalline, and brittle, while the in- 600 pounds. terior portion remains gray and more or less tough and fibrous. The processes in some of Digitized by Google 344 CAR WHEELS AND AXLES. the details in different establishments, special care being de- pressure of 500 tons. After various other manipulations sev- voted at some places to annealing; at others extra efforts are eral of these twelve-sheet layers are pasted together, until there made to secure a perfectly cylindrical shape; and one of the are formed circular blocks containing 120 to 160 sheets each, methods involves the use of steel scrap in the mixtures of iron. compressed to 51 or 41 inches' thickness, just the size to fit the The productive capacity of the numerous works varies from inner circle of the tire." about forty or fifty to several hundred wheels daily. Wherever A report made to the Master Car-Builders' Association, in the business is pursued successfully the labors involved repre- 1882, says:- sent one of the highest branches of the art of casting iron, on "In making a comparison of the value of wheels of different account of the complexities involved in the selection of irons, kinds, it seems to your committee that the first and most im- in chilling, and in producing wheels of desirable forms. portant item to be considered is safety. The construction of All wheels are presumably subjected to severe tests, either the Allen paper wheel is of such a nature that the body of the by the manufacturers or railway companies, or both, before wheel, being paper, is a non-conductor, consequently the blow they are put into service. The following remarks in regard to upon the rail does not reach the axle or centre of the wheel, the tests of railway companies were made by Mr. Webber at a thereby obviating to a great extent, if not entirely, the crystal. meeting of the New England Railroad Club, held on February lization of the axle and increasing its safety and lessening the 8th, 1888:- liability of the breaking of the wheels. "The Pennsylvania specifications as to the design, inspec- So far as we can ascertain, and from the limited experience tion, and manner of testing wheels are very similar to those of we have had, the English wrought-iron centre wheel is a safe the New York, Lake Erie and Western; Chicago, Milwaukee wheel-perhaps as safe as any in use, 80 far as its liability to and St. Paul; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, and other west- break is concerned-but it does not obviate the concussions, ern roads. The essential points in all of these specifications which tend to crystallize the axle, as the paper wheel does. are: First, that the wheels shall be truly cylindrical; second, There are also other steel-tired wheels that commend them- that the body of the wheel shall be smooth and free from selves to the attention of railroad officers. The Paige wheel, shrinkage, slag or blow holes, the tread of the wheel from deep with a wrought-iron plate centre; the Cooper wheel, with & and irregular wrinkles, and free from sand or slag. Wheels cast-iron centre and which has a piece of vulcanized rubber broken must show clean gray iron, free from holes containing under the tire, and the old, perhaps the first steel-tired wheel dirt or slag more than one-fourth inch diameter, or clusters of used to any extent in this country, is made by the Washburn such holes, and the depth of white iron or chilled iron must Car Wheel Company, of Hartford, Conn. This wheel has been not vary more than one-fourth inch from the standard depth largely used by the Boston and Albany Railroad Company round the tread of the wheel. since 1870, and most of the passenger cars and many of the The drop test required to break out a piece of the iron varies engine and tender trucks are equipped with those wheels. from 140 pounds dropping 12 feet to 100 pounds dropping 7 Since that time there has never been an accident caused by feet, a corresponding increase in the number of blows being one of these wheels." required. The essential point in this drop test is that any After that report was presented various other steel-tired initial or shrinkage strain which may be in the wheel when wheels were invented or manufactured. The list of makers of cast will be detected by the force of these blows, and it is fair steel-tired and steel wheels in 1887 included the following: to assume that if one or two wheels out of 100 cast from the Allen Paper Car Wheel Company, Pullman, Illinois; Allen same heat and at the same time stand this test, the remaining Paper Car Wheel Company, Hudson, New York; Atwood ones would also stand it. Hemp Car Wheel Company, New York city; H. M. Boies, If the wheel is not truly cylindrical the brake pressure will Scranton, Pennsylvania; Chester Steel Castings Company, be greater at one point of the circumference than at another, Philadelphia; Fowler Steel Car Wheel Company, Chicago, resulting almost certainly in the skidding or slipping of the Illinois; Miltimore Elastic Steel Wheel Company, Arlington, wheel upon the rail, thereby producing a flat place upon the Vermont; Minton Steel Car Wheel Company, Chicago, Illinois; tread of the wheel, which is, of course, a source of great danger Paige Car Wheel Company, Cleveland, Ohio; Peckham Paper thereafter. Car Wheel Company, Syracuse, New York; W. W. Snow, The Chicago, Burlington and Quincy claim to be almost Ramapo, New York; Thomas Steel-Tired Wheel Company, entirely free from the breakage of wheels, and state that since Jersey City, New Jersey; Washburn Cast Steel Car Wheel the adoption of a system of car-wheel inspection and testing, Company, Raritan, New Jersey. as above, their mileage has increased very materially. About The tendency towards a substitution of steel-tired wheels for two years ago their mileage from wheels removed from their chilled wheels under fast passenger trains was presumably passenger equipment was only about 25,000 miles, and as a accelerated by the extensive and successful use of the Allen result of the above inspection and tests they have increased paper wheels under Pullman cars. In a few cases they have their mileage within the past year to an average of 43,000 run more than 500,000 miles, and the manufacturers guarantee miles. The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul in 1887, up to a minimum of 260,000 miles. Good records of steel-tired the 1st of October, claim to have obtained an average of 60,000 wheels under fast passenger trains in Europe also helped to miles for all wheels scrapped." direct attention in this country to that class of wheels after long runs of passenger trains at high rates of speed com- STEEL-TIRED CAR WHEELS. menced. It was regarded by some experts as a debateable Various styles of steel-tired wheels have been introduced on question, however, at the close of 1887, whether, if economy some of the railroads of the United States. One of the earliest and all other questions involved are duly considered, the best was the paper car wheel, of which the Chicago Journal says:- styles of chilled wheels could not be advantageously used in "When Richard N. Allen made his first set of paper car ordinary passenger service, and the use of chilled wheels under wheels in 1869 he was laughed at, and it was with difficulty freight cars continued to be nearly universal, except in con- that he got the use of a wood car for six months to test his nection with cars that rendered peculiar service, such as invention. The Pullman Palace Car Company gave him his "palace" stock cars, &c. There is also, presumably, a notable first order for a hundred wheels in 1871, and a few years later difference in the respective merits of the steel-tired wheels the Allen Paper Car Wheel Company made 17,000 such wheels made by different manufacturers. in one year. One of the first sets of wheels experimented with under a sleeper is now on exhibition in Hudson, N. Y. It has CAR AXLES: a record of 300,000 miles' travel. Only the body of the wheel The manufacture of car axles forms an important industry, is of paper. The material is a calendered rye-straw 'board' or usually but not uniformly conducted in establishments which thick paper, made at Morris, Ill. This is sent to the works in neither make car wheels nor cars. In service the wheel and circular sheets of 22 to 40 inches in diameter. Two men, stand- axle are inseparable, being even more closely united in railway ing by piles of these, rapidly brush over each sheet an even coat cars than in other vehicles, as they revolve together, instead of of flour paste, until there are a dozen of them, which make a the wheel turning round the axle. Notwithstanding the inge- layer. The layers are subjected to a hydraulic press, with a nuity displayed by a number of inventors in attempts to ob- Digitized by Google Baldwin. "American" Passenger Locomotive. High Speed Wootten Locomotive. 10% A, New York Central Passenger Locomotive. CAR WHEELS AND AXLES. 345 viate the objections to loose wheels, the steam railway practice Builders' Association, held in 1883, on the most economical of the country, with a very few minor exceptions, has always carrying capacity for freight cars, which was based on replies been substantially uniform in reference to this important sub- to seven questions asked in circulars, contains the following ject, wheels being pressed upon axles by powerful hydraulic statements:- pressure, and each pair of wheels and the axle to which they "Second Question. All the replies agree that 40,000 pounds of are fastened being incapable of independent movements. load, not including the car, is all that can safely be put upon A list of the car axle manufacturers in the United States and the present master car-builders' standard axles and our present Canada in June, 1887, contains the names of 71 makers, many construction of freight-car equipment. of whom combined the industry with auxiliary pursuits. Third Question. Two are of the opinion that journals 31 X7 The Chicago Railway Exposition of 1883 offered premiums inches are large enough for 5,000 pounds of load, not including for best steel axle (Master Car-Builders' Standard), best iron the car. Six say that they consider 5,000 pounds enough for axle (Master Car-Builders' Standard), best hollow axle. master car-builders' standard axles, and for carrying heavier Puzzling questions have arisen in the progress of develop- loads than 5,000 pounds per journal one is not prepared to ment in regard to the best methods of manufacture, including recommend the proper dimensions. The majority think that the shape and distribution of the metal used. Formerly axles for loads of 7,000 pounds per wheel the dimensions of axles were almost universally made of iron, but since the cost of steel should be increased. Journals should be 4X7 inches. One was reduced a considerable percentage of the axles used under says that for a load of 7,000 pounds per journal the journal passenger cars have been made of steel. One of the leading should be inches. Two recommend these dimensions. distinctions between iron axles is based on differences between One of the persons replying says that he has observed that hammered iron and rolled iron. As broken axles are one of journals larger than 7 inches are more liable to break off at the things most greatly to be dreaded in train movements, much the shoulder. attention has been advantageously given to the causes of such Fourth Question. Several instances could be cited where jour- disasters, and numerous advances have been made towards an nals have broken under the load, but in nearly every case the increase of the guarantees of safety. load has been 5,000 pounds or more on a journal only 3X51 All important American railway companies have usually inches. taken great pains to secure reliable axles for passenger cars. Fifth Question. If any change should be made, two would A notable illustration of this spirit is furnished by statements favor the journals to be 4X8 inches. One would favor an in- in a work on the Pennsylvania Railroad, published by its pas- crease, but he does not say how much. Two think that for a senger department in 1875. In describing details of the pas- 40,000-pound load the present master car-builders' standard senger cars then used by that company it says: "In the highly axle is sufficient, the wheel diameter being 33 inches. important part (the axles) the effort for safety may be said to Sixth Question. One does not think it policy to make axles reach its climax. The journals are 7 inches long and 31 inches larger than are required for safety, that being the only practical in diameter. This proportion of the axle renders it nearly consideration. The majority are of opinion that a large factor impossible to break inside the wheel, and makes the journal of safety is economical, inasmuch as it is safe. Cases are cited the weakest part of the axle. The breaking of a journal is of where the breaking of an axle has caused damage amounting little consequence, as the arrangement of the safety beams of to several thousand dollars. the trucks is so thoroughly secure that after the journal has Seventh Question. One says that his road has had no broken broken it will hold the wheel in its place for a distance of at axles this winter. One has had but few broken axles under least 20 miles, giving ample time to stop the train. Although freight equipment the past winter. Those that have broken the form of the axles is probably as perfect as any that has have generally been small in journal and wheel fit. One has ever been produced, yet the greater claim to excellence lies in had but one master car-builders' standard axle break, and that the quality of the metal used in their construction. They are was not properly welded. made from soft crucible steel out of Swedish charcoal iron; It is the opinion of your committee that the dimensions of are carefully turned to the proper size throughout, and before the journals and wheel seats of master car-builders' standard accepting them from the maker are subject to the following axles are sufficiently large for loads of 5,000 pounds. They test: From every lot of fifty axles one is taken at random, and think that the middle of the axle should be increased to not tested under a drop weighing 1,840 pounds. The axle is placed less than 4 inches diameter when 83-inch wheels are used." upon supports three feet apart, and struck in the centre. If the axle bears 5 blows of 25 feet each without breaking the lot JOURNAL BEARING, JOURNAL BOX, AND PEDESTAL. is accepted. As an illustration of the quality of the steel used, The fact that the wheels of steam cars revolve with the axles, a fact may be mentioned. On the 15th of November, 1867, one instead of round the axles, as in ordinary vehicles, changes the of these axles was broken only after 14 blows, of which 3 were point at which lubrication is necessary. It is on the part of at 35 feet, 1 at 36 feet, 2 at 38 feet, 7 at 30 feet, and the last at the axle called the journal, which is next to the extreme outer 40 feet, the axle being turned over at each blow. As end, consisting of a narrow portion called the axle collar. As soon as an axle is found to have been under a passenger car these journals must bear all the burden of the weight of the 18 months it is ordered into the freight service, although it may car bodies and their contents that falls upon the axle, and yet be as good as new." revolve when the cars are in motion, it is vitally important that journal friction should be reduced. Complicated con- MASTER CAR-BUILDERS' STANDARD AXLE. trivances have been devised to promote this end. They em- The Master Car-Builders' Association, at the annual conven- brace journal boxes or "brasses," placed immediately above tion held in Boston in 1873, recommended a standard of form the journal, and beneath a journal-bearing key or wedge, which and dimensions for car axles, which was modified by an are enclosed in a journal box, the lower portion of which is increase of the diameter in the middle from 8f inches to 41 filled with waste kept saturated with lubricating material. inches in 1874, and adopted. Other dimensions include the Serious defects or derangements of this apparatus produce the following: Length between hubs, 4 feet 1 inch; inside of collars, effect, with which many travelers are familiar, of "hot boxes," 6 feet 10 inches; from centre to centre of journals, 6 feet 3 necessitating the stoppage of trains until the defect is remedied. inches; total length over all, 6 feet 11} inches; gauge of track, The master car builders have established standards relating to 4 feet 8} inches. journal bearings, journal boxes, and a pedestal used in holding The action of the master car builders in establishing a the journal box in its appropriate place. It is alleged that standard axle had an important influence in promoting uni- some of the practical workings of the journal boxes commonly formity, as this standard has since been maintained, but the used in the United States are inferior to those of corresponding desirability of a change of some of its details, in axles intended devices in European countries, and that a great unnecessary for use under freight cars carrying 60,000 pounds of freight, has waste of oil occurs here. In view of the notable superiority of attracted much attention, and efforts have been made to pro- nearly all other portions of the devices used beneath American mote uniformity in regard to the axles used under such cars. cars, and the large amount of native inventive talent, it is A report presented at the convention of the Master Car- remarkable that there should be such a defect. 44 Digitized by Google DETAILS OF CAR TRUCKS. A FUNDAMENTAL feature of all American cars is their not be placed directly over the journal, but on a yoke or equal- trucks. The details include many parts, some of the izing bar to secure the best results as to lift of spring and ease most important of which are wheels, axles, journal-boxes, and of motion." journal-bearings. In the earliest railway operations in this country leather or These things are necessary to all successful car movements, thorough-brace springs were used under passenger cars, but and the great utility and importance of the car truck arises they were soon supplanted with imported elliptic springs, which from the fact that it combines them with a large number were not arranged in a manner that rendered acceptable serv- of auxiliary appliances under such conditions that the aggre- ice, and they were far inferior to the better classes of elliptic gate combination forms, in itself, in a mechanical sense, a springs subsequently manufactured here. The application of car. It might almost be said that the trucks are the cars, and spiral springs commenced at a comparatively early date, and what is placed above them is car bodies of many varieties. during a considerable period rubber springs were extensively There are 4-wheeled trucks and 6-wheeled trucks, the latter being used under passenger cars. Truck springs include the follow- used chiefly under passenger cars, and generally only under ing varieties: Half elliptic spring, triple elliptic spring for pas- exceptionally expensive specimens of them, such as Pullman senger service, elliptic spring, double elliptic spring for freight cars. A large majority of the cars of this country are 8-wheeled service, half elliptic bolster spring for freight service, triple cars, and these wheels and other necessary appliances are com- acme elliptic spring for passenger service, double or duplicate bined in two sets of 4-wheeled trucks, each of which helps to acme elliptic spring for freight service, concave elliptic spring. support the car body, and to carry it as a dead weight. A Elliptic springs are designated as duplicates, triplicates, quad- leading object of this arrangement is to support one long car ruples, quintuples, and sextuples, according to the number of body, with two short cars (or trucks), 80 as to enable long car single springs grouped together. Of spiral springs there are bodies to be conveniently moved round sharp curves. Various numerous varieties and patterns, and a number of these are other purposes are served, and it is by improvements of details also frequently grouped. The list includes the following: of trucks that the promotion of a large proportion of all ends Square-bar single-coil spring, keg-shaped spiral spring, spool- identified with the safety, economy, and comfort of car move- shaped spiral spring, volute spring, oval-bar double-coil buffer ments is sought. spring, round-bar triple-coil graduated spring, round-bar, double- An immense amount of mechanical genius has been devoted coil buffer spring, round-bar single-coil spiral spring, round-bar to such improvements, and changes of varying significance are double-coil spiral spring or nest spring, round-bar triple-coil constantly progressing. The peculiar conditions under which spiral spring or nest spring, half-round double-coil spiral many American railroads were constructed and operated re- spring or nest spring, flat-bar or equal-bar triple-coil spiral quired the adoption of methods differing materially from spring or nest spring, Hibbard or flat-bar quadruple-coil next European devices. It was necessary that passengers should spring, edge-rolled spiral spring, square-bar triple-coil nest ride in safety and comfort over roads abounding in sharp spring, Dinsmore spiral spring. Two-group spiral springs in- curves, and often in an imperfect condition, and that freight clude the following: Single-coil equalizer spring, double-coil cars should carry exceptionally heavy loads. The invention bolster spring, double-coil equalizer spring, triple-coil equalizer and improvement of the car truck and its details form leading spring, triple-coil flat-bar bolster spring, edge-rolled bolster causes of the remarkable degree of success which has attended spring. Three-group spiral springs include the round-bar efforts to accomplish these objects. bolster spring, the edge-rolled bolster spring, and the double- Radical defects in trucks are always dangerous, and fre- coil flat-bar bolster spring. Four-group spiral springs include quentiy attended with damaging or fatal results. In lengthy the double-coil round-bar bolster spring and double-coil flat-bar lists of causes of serious accidents, broken wheels, broken bolster spring. Groups, ranging in number, respectively, from axles, and broken trucks represent a considerable percentage, five to eleven, of bolster springs and graduated springs, em- which would be much larger if a vast amount of systematic brace the following varieties: Graduated two-group bolster carefulness was not constantly exercised. If precautions were spring, triple-coil graduated equalizer spring, graduated three- grossly neglected no train could ever be run at high speed group boister spring. graduated five-group bolster spring. double with a reasonable prospect that it would safely reach its desti- coil graduated bolster spring, double-coil graduated equalizer nation. spring, triple-coil graduated bolster spring, three-group gradu- TRUCK SPRINGS. ated bolster spring, and a two-group double-coil bolster spring, A number of springs of many sizes and patterns are used in with inside spring case. car construction for the accomplishment of various purposes. With the increase in the weight and capacity of freight cars One set are applied to different parts of the car body, and & necessity was developed for an increase in the capacity another set form part of the trucks. The truck springs are of of springs, which provision was promptly made by American great importance in promoting the comfort of passengers, and manufacturers, who have displayed great skill in this as in in diminishing the difficulties involved in the movement of other important ry railway industrie freight. There are few classes of improvements in land vehicles ARTS OF CAR TI in which more useful progress has been made than in those which relate to an increase in the quantity and quality of It was scart ected, amid the springs, and they are even more useful and indispensable in ventions, that should be of cars than in the numerous other vehicles to which they have but the advan ntions introde been extensively applied. time are usuall nized, and Leading varieties of truck springs are elliptic and spiral, the proximate unifor stened. former being used under passenger cars, generally in conjune- diamond type of almost the tion with the latter, while most freight-car trucks are supplied and for freight cars, rere a numl, only with spiral springs. Journal springs are also necessary. of this type, A list de the jou destal be Of these & report presented to the Master Car-Builders Asso- ciation in 1871 said: "The vital point to be secured in a journal ch-bar, auxl som, train spring is a direct up-and-down motion, with little or no side or truck-bols lateral motion. and on passenger cars the journal spring should - rod Digitized by Google Google Digitized by 8 I t E 1 ( B r I a r F V e c b o t p 0 la P a b B: S1 p i 348 INCREASE OF RAILWAY MILEAGE FROM 1880 TO 1887, INCLUSIVE. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1888. 1884. 1886, 1866. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. Miles. 1887. Miles. Miles. New York 47.50 269.61 705.05 357.86 10.91 57.06 96.27 97.00 New Jersey 54.50 89.29 89.41 12.22 27.13 14.12 37.29 15.00 Pennsylvania 159.50 165.37 526.29 877.74 315.68 231.43 204.69 125.00 Delaware 6.78 2.96 20.98 3.19 18.45 Maryland 40.75 25.00 33.46 21.50 12.90 51.45 35.98 18.00 West Virginia 10.00 15.00 107.39 133.80 81.75 20.00 107.00 53.00 Middle States 312.25 564.27 1,468.38 906.08 468.45 377.35 499.68 308.00 Virginia 207.90 327.19 221.85 102.82 118.09 18.51 37.00 64.00 North Carolina 30.50 158.75 136.75 80.75 174.12 57.50 173.90 184.00 South Carolina 31.00 52.00 38.25 40.75 25.75 100.00 126.50 104.00 Georgia 45.00 101.50 334.40 54.80 94.00 133.75 274.25 231.00 Florida 37.50 145.00 271.43 192.48 182.62 272.34 314.99 193.00 Alabama 22.00 14.00 50.00 177.10 96.26 20.40 54.50 515.00 Mississippi 55.50 120.50 313.35 228 21 82.49 191.09 99.00 Louisiana 124.00 262.00 94.81 193.78 112.00 55.00 10.70 65.00 Tennessee 32.00 56.83 165.44 47.40 55 99 7.00 41.56 68.00 Kentucky 47.50 142 30 73.00 106.73 24.33 37.35 106.84 168.00 Southern States 576.50 1,314.57 1,506.43 1,250.66 1,111.37 784.34 1,331.38 1,691.00 Ohio 500.00 496.56 610.33 316.05 106.35 20.30 118.66 155.00 Michigan 255.00 345.48 327.72 457.88 130.29 98.56 367.17 700.00 Indiana 185.50 386.05 611.65 171.06 28.20 65.40 111.87 115.00 Illinois 321.75 409.20 442.89 191.71 40.90 83.97 370 92 328.00 Wisconsin 226.00 302.05 352.86 228.42 238.10 128.07 451.27 363 00 Central Northern States 1,488.25 1,939.34 2,345.45 1,365.12 538.99 402.30 1,419.39 1,661.00 Minnesota 133.50 186.76 596.74 171.08 286.03 140 88 492.09 196.00 Dakota Territory 724.00 413.00 400 10 410.97 :63.60 118.50 821.48 760.00 Iowa 456.75 764.10 802.62 243.52 273.66 48.36 481.13 352.00 Nebraska 377.10 323.73 221.06 198.25 101.57 218.95 628.08 1,101.00 Kansas 363.50 208.56 211.33 144.17 159.21 260.37 1,678.04 2,070.00 Missouri 313.50 242.35 293.54 118.06 100.03 259 02 99.48 554.00 Indian Territory 6.00 65.00 3.00 7217 499.00 Arkansas 60.75 143.50 499.50 245.08 33.50 41 08 49.50 153.00 Texas 653.00 1,609.40 1,080.54 98.60 90.00 190.50 607.90 1,055 00 Colorado 348.25 616.98 579.41 66.01 28.30 12.00 59.20 818.00 Wyoming Territory 64.00 48.71 160.89 133 00 Montana Territory 73.53 157.00 391.50 401.80 9.97 15.80 616.00 North-western and South-western States 3,502.85 4,795.38 4,990.05 2,100.54 1,345.87 1,289.66 5,122.76 8,307.00 Nevada 71.00 156.00 53.50 California 2.00 114.40 327.89 245.40 41.70 149.55 252.46 4.00 New Mexico 540.50 289.37 41.68 50.90 43.89 3.30 38.00 358.00 Idaho 69.00 216.30 282.96 39.98 5.00 13.50 54.00 Utah 116.25 35.00 185.32 61.80 4.00 4.00 6.00 Arizona Territory 198.00 148.30 216.18 152.60 5.00 83.00 70.00 Oregon 165 50 66.00 180.00 194.30 211.60 100.20 88 20 48.00 Washington Territory 62.00 183.50 125.50 89.20 161.50 108.00 Pacific States, &c 1,155.25 1,061.57 1,220.87 1,113.46 435.37 262.05 586 66 648.00 Recapitulation:- New England States 115.25 114.10 59.75 73.56 73.72 15.54 40.66 109 00 Middle States 312 25 564 27 1,468.38 906.08 468.45 877.25 499.68 308.00 Southern States 576.50 1,314.57 1,506.43 1.259.93 1,111.37 784.34 1,331.33 1,691.00 Central Northern States 1,488.25 1,939.34 2,345.45 1,365.12 538.93 402 30 1,419.39 1,661.00 North-western and South-western States, &c 3,502.85 4,795.38 4,990.05 2,100.54 1,345.87 1,289.66 5,122.76 8,307 00 Pacific States and Territories 1,155.25 1,061.57 1,220.87 1,113.46 435.37 262.05 5t6.66 648.00 Grand total 7,150.35 9,789.23 11,590.93 6,818.72 3,973.71 3,131.14 9,000.48 12,724.00 Revisions have led to changes in the totals given above, so the panic of 1873, the restoration of specie payments, and the as to make them correspond to the following figures: 1880, export of immense quantities of agricultural products, helped 6,876; 1881, 9,796; 1882, 11,568; 1883, 6,741; 1884, 3,825; 1885, to incite and render feasible many projects. Other favorable 3,608; 1886, 9,000; 1887, 12,724. The aggregate additions to new conditions were the ease with which charters and the privilege mileage, from 1880 to 1887, inclusive, represented by these esti- of procuring or condemning a right of way could be obtained; mates are 64,138 miles, which amount, added to the census the rapidity with which new settlements were established, and report of mileage existing at the end of 1879, which was 84,964, a large immigration attracted to young states and territories, made the total length of railways in the United States, at the the reduction of public debts, and consequent necessity of end of 1887, 149,102 miles. shifting investments; the notable extent to which railway construction has become an established industry and a favorite CAUSES OF EXTENSIVE CONSTRUCTION. speculative enterprise with a large number of adventurous pro- The construction of 64,000 miles of railway in such a brief moters or projectors, contractors, and capitalists in the United period is an extraordinary feat. Its accomplishment can only States, and the absence of severe requirements relating to the be explained by a variety of circumstances. One of the most issue of railway securities, and the physical characteristics of important was the absence of the immense pressure imposed lines when they are first opened. upon other nations by huge standing armies, great naval estab- lishments, and burdensome public debts. Energies and re- SYSTEMS OF CAPITALIZATION. sources spent elsewhere, and in other ages, in destructive wars, Of some of the new lines it may be said that they were built or preparations for them, were here devoted to the removal of in haste to be improved at leisure, and that the face value of natural obstacles to free intercourse, and the creation of cheap the various securities issued to represent their cost greatly and convenient facilities for transportation. The rebound from exceeded the sums actually expended for construction. It has Digitized by Google INCREASE OF RAILWAY MILEAGE FROM 1880 TO 1887, INCLUSIVE. 349 been alleged that in some instances the proportion was not far arrived at its full momentum in the year 1882. The increase from three dollars of stock and bonds of different grades to in values represented by solid and permanent investments in one dollar of money spent, but such cases were exceptional, railroad property during the period covered by those three and probably less numerous than the instances in which it was years may be safely estimated at $1,250,000,000. In 1880 there impossible to earn interest on one-third of the real expenditure were constructed 7,200 miles; in 1881, 9,500 miles, and in 1882, for new roads. In a few of the older states, and notably in say, 11,000. This makes a total for the three years of about Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania, an increasing 27,700 miles, which, estimated at an average cost of $25,000 disposition was manifested to impose a check on fanciful rail- per mile, equals $692,500,000. Deducting this sum, leaves a way capitalization, or to create safeguards against unnecessary balance of $557,500,000, which represents the improvements or premature construction, but in most portions of the country and betterments to the old lines. there were few serious obstacles to the manufacture of all the Public interest in railroad construction during 1882 has cen- new securities that could be marketed, and the building of all tred largely in the completion of the new "Nickel-Plate" line the lines that could presumably be rendered a source of profit extending from Buffalo to Chicago, a distance of 523 miles, to their projectors. There were, however, in a number of which was commenced in 1881 and was completed about instances, notable improvements in matters relating to capi- August, 1882. The New York, Lackawanna and Western, talization and methods of construction. In some quarters better known as the Buffalo extension of the Delaware, Lacka- there was a tendency to return to the original method of pro- wanna and Western, extending from Binghamton to Buffalo, viding the bulk of the sum required to build a new line from 200 miles, and the Chicago and Atlantic, popularly known as the sale of stock. In others the purchasers of first mortgage the Erie's Chicago extension, extending from Marion, Ohio, to bonds received a much larger proportion of issues of stock and Chicago, 269 miles, were both completed during the year. junior securities than bad formerly been given to them. A Their chief value lies in the fact that they supply independent number of the new lines were built chiefly as extensions of old outlets to the points at which they terminate for the roads with systems, mainly with the proceeds of bonds endorsed by power- which they are affiliated. On the New York, West Shore and ful companies, and much of the new construction was, at the Buffalo road, which parallels the New York Central from New time it was opened, in a decidedly better condition, in an en- York to Buffalo, much of the preliminary work has been done gincering sense, and much more fully supplied with desirable and about 100 miles of new track have been laid. The other appurtenances, than was formerly common. lines in New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey have been actively extending and perfecting their lines into the coal and SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF DIFFERENT YEARS. oil regions of those states-notably the Buffalo, Pittsburgh and The average rate of increase during the eight years ending Western, the Buffalo, New York and Philadelphia, the Rochester December 81st, 1887, was a little more than 8,000 miles. The and Pittsburgh, the Pennsylvania, the New York, Susquehanna rapidity with which many of the additions were made forms one and Western, and other roads of minor importance. of the most notable and important events in modern industrial In the south the development, as compared with former and financial history. The variations in the amount of con- years, has been decidedly marked. The Louisville and Nash- struction per annum are as strongly marked as in previous ville has completed its branch to the Tennessee line, there to periods. The lowest new mileage in any one year is 3,131.14 connect with the Knoxville and Augusta line, controlled by in 1885, and the highest 12,724 in 1887. Before the commence- the Richmond and West Point Terminal Company. The East ment of the decade a furore for new construction commenced, Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia road has completed its Georgia which culminated in 1882. The lowest point of the receding division, giving it an unbroken line from Rome to Brunswick. wave was reached in 1885. The Pensacola and Atlantic has completed its line from Pen- The first great impulse favoring new construction commenced sacola to the Chattahoochie river, a distance of 160 miles. before 1880, during which year work was actively progressing Much work has been done on the New Orleans and North- on several new transcontinental lines and many smaller roads. eastern, the New Orleans line of the Erlanger syndicate, also Nearly 80 per cent. of the new mileage of 1880 was located west on the New Orleans and Mississippi Valley, not to speak of of the Mississippi river, and the activity displayed was largely innumerable small lines and branches. due, first, to the notable increase in its population, and, The south-western system of roads, consisting of the Mis- second, to the revival of a belief among projectors and capi- souri Pacific; Missouri, Kansas and Texas; St. Louis, Iron talists that it might be made prudent, practicable, and profit- Mountain and Southern; International and Great Northern, able to build extensive lines in districts where there was not and Texas Pacific roads; have been vigorously prosecuting the sufficient existing traffic to render such enterprises remunera- work of extending and perfecting their lines, the more im- tive in the confident expectation that the country would portant branches being the Omaha extension (in Nebraska) of speedily "grow up" to its railway facilities. the Missouri Pacific; the Crowley's Ridge branch (in Arkansas) The furore for new construction, and the demand for new of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern; the completion railway securities, continued to increase during 1880 and 1881 of the lines from Waco, Tex., to Taylor, and from Encinal to to such an extent that the Investors' Supplement of the Com- Laredo, where connection will be made with the Mexican, mercial and Financial Chronicle, published in October, 1881, Oriental, Interoceanic and International line. In the same contained an estimate of the miles of railroad to be laid from section we find the St. Louis and San Francisco completing its October, 1881, to December 31st, 1882, giving the names of the Fort Smith line; the Texas and St. Louis narrow gauge nearly companies, which footed up 15,886 miles. Geographically this completing its line from Texarkana to Cairo, which will give mileage was located as follows: Between the Atlantic coast and that company a line of over 730 miles in length, extending the Upper Mississippi river, and north of the Ohio and Potomac from Cairo to Galesville, Tex. The Fort Worth and Denver rivers, 4,791 miles; between the Atlantic coast and Mississippi City was completed from Fort Worth to Wichita Falls, 113 river, and south of the Ohio and Potomac rivers, 2,352; between miles, also the El Paso and Eagle Pass divisions of the Gal- the Rocky mountains and Mississippi river, and north of the veston, Harrisburg and San Antonio. The Atchison, Topeka latitude of St. Louis, 4,063; between the Rocky mountains and and Santa Fe, in addition to several small branches; has com- Mississippi river, and south of the latitude of St. Louis, 4,140; pleted its line in Arizona to the Mexican boundary line, and a west of the Rocky mountains, 540. connection with the Sonora Railroad, of Mexico, which that NEW CONSTRUCTION OF 1882. company owns. The new transcontinental line to be formed by the Atlantic Of the new construction actually completed in 1882, a review and Pacific and the Southern Pacific will probably be com- published in the New York World in January, 1883, said:- pleted in 1883. On the former line the western section of the "During 1882 there were constructed about 10,500 miles of road has been extended to a point Albu- railroad, with a possibility that more complete returns may querque, and the Southern Pacific 1 m increase the total to 11,000. The impetus given to railroad Mojave, a distance of 80 miles. building in 1880 and 1881, resulting from a revival of business, Atlantic and Pacific has been ext and the consequent abundance of capital seeking investment, gaps, when completed, will form Digitized by Google 350 INCREASE OF RAILWAY MILEAGE FROM 1880 TO 1887, INCLUSIVE. cisco to St. Louis over the Southern Pacific, Atlantic and Pacific, reported new mileage in each group was as follows: New Eng. and St. Louis and San Francisco roads. land states, 73.72; Middle states, 462.03; Southern states, 1,105.87; Further north the Union Pacific has been building several Western states and territories, 1,886; Pacific states and terri- branch lines and has been pushing the work on the Oregon tories, 450.27; total, 3,977.39. Short line, which will meet at Baker City a line now being A contemporaneous account of the operations of the year built south-east by the Oregon Railway and Navigation Com- says:- pany. The Denver and Rio Grande and the Denver and Rio "In 1884 receivers were appointed for 43 different com- Grande Western, an offshoot of the former, have nearly com- panies, several of them of much importance, including the pleted a line from Gunnison City to Salt Lake and Ogden, as New York, West Shore and Buffalo; Wabash, St. Louis and well as a number of branches. Pacific; Philadelphia and Reading; Denver and Rio Grande; The Northern Pacific Railroad in the north-west has prose- Allegheny Valley; Ohio Central; Texas and St. Louis; Western, cuted its work with surprising vigor. The western end is now Portland and Ogdensburg; Memphis and Little Rock; Wheel- some miles east of Second Crossing, Montana, and the eastern ing and Lake Erie, and some others of less note. Not a few end some miles west of Livingston, in the same territory. The other companies are struggling with difficulty to keep their intervening gap is rapidly being filled up, and it is expected heads above water, and unless the times and the public temper that by the 1st of April it will be less than 200 miles. In addi- improve there is likely to be a considerable addition to the list tion to the main track constructed by this line in 1882, amount- of receiverships during the coming year. ing to more than 600 miles, there have been built by the Oregon The construction record of 1884 has not been a remarkable Transcontinental Company for that line about 250 miles of one, although the total is even greater than could perhaps have branch road. been expected. About 4,000 miles of new main tracks have The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul is second on the list in been laid on 166 different lines. This shows an average of the north-west, its total construction during the year amount- only about 24 miles to each road, which indicates that ing to about 470 miles, mainly in lines and branches projected most of the construction has been on extensions or branches. last year. The Chicago and North-western follows closely with The principal lines which have been completed during the a few miles less than the St. Paul road. The latter's construc- year are the following: The Oregon Short Line of the Union tion was in Iowa, Dakota, and Wisconsin, and was also in Pacific Railway Company to its terminus at Huntington, branch lines and extensions. The St. Paul, Minneapolis and Oregon; the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company's main Manitoba also showed considerable vigor during the year, hav- line to the same point, connecting with the first-named road, ing constructed north to the Minnesota boundary line, west forming another route to the Pacific; the Louisville, New towards Devil's Lake, and from St. Cloud to Hinckley. The Orleans and Texas, completing a road from Memphis to New aggregate amounted to 226 miles. The Chicago, St. Paul, Orleans along the Mississippi river; the Wisconsin Central's Minneapolis and Manitoba has been no less active, and in line from Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, to St. Paul, Minnesota; various extensions has reached a total of more than 200 miles. the Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Northern extension through The Humeston and Shenandoah road, running through Minnesota to Watertown, Dakota Territory; the extension of southern Iowa 113 miles, has been built by the Wabash and the Minneapolis and St. Louis to the same point; the comple- the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy as joint owners. The tion of the Northern Pacific, Wisconsin division, to Ashland, latter company also completed early in the year its Denver Wisconsin; the New York, Philadelphia and Norfolk, which extension. has been finished through Maryland to a point opposite Nor- The Milwaukee and Lake Winnebago, or Milwaukee exten- folk, Virginia. A number of other shorter lines of local im- sion of the Wisconsin Central, 65 miles in length, was recently portance have been finished. Among the roads in progress completed; also the Minnesota Central, a new road of about are the Baltimore and Ohio's line to New York; the Milwaukee, the same length. Lake Shore and Western extension to Ashland, Wisconsin, In the central states of the Union the leading companies through Michigan; the Northern Pacific's main line over the have been actively engaged in perfecting their systems by Cascade mountains to Puget Sound, and the Oregon and Cali- building extensions and feeders in every direction where the fornia, and the California and Oregon roads, which are push- prospective traffic presented a suitable field. The more notice- ing towards each other to give an all-rail line between Portland able extensions have-been on the Indiana, Bloomington and and San Francisco. The very large number of railway enter- Western; Wheeling and Lake Erie; Grand Rapids and Indiana; prises commenced or projected during the year indicates that Toledo, Cincinnati and St. Louis; Connotton Valley; Chicago railway building will still continue in spite of business depres- and West Michigan; Louisville, Evansville and St. Louis, and sion, and when good times return it will assume extraordinary Louisville, Albany and Chicago railroads." activity." In 1885 there was a further decline in the amount of new NEW CONSTRUCTION IN 1883-84-85. construction, and few signs of a revival of confidence until the During 1883 a reactionary feeling was being rapidly developed; latter portion of the year, when an adjustment of trunk-line the price of stocks declining, and the eagerness of investors to difficulties, arrangements for the acquisition of the West Shore purchase bonds of railway companies diminishing. The mile- by the New York Central, and for a transfer of the control of age of the lines completed in that year in the various sections the South Pennsylvania project to the Pennsylvania Company, was reported to be as follows: New England states, 73.03; Mid- together with other favorable influences, infused a new spirit dle states, 877.78; Southern states, 1,241.02; Western states and in financial circles, and led to a large increase in the amount territories, 3,832.83; Pacific states and territories, 728.80. The of new construction in 1886 and 1887. companies that built lines more than one hundred miles in The following table shows the construction in each year, the length, in a single state or territory, included the following: cost of all roads, including equipment, the capital stock, and New York, West Shore and Buffalo, 238.93 miles; Louisville, funded debt on the mileage of all the companies reporting at New Orleans and Texas, 143 miles in Mississippi and 100 miles the end of the fiscal year:- in Louisiana; Michigan and Ohio, 121.50; Chicago and North- Year. New Cost of roads mileage. and equipment. Capital stock. Funded debt. western, 138.77 in Dakota; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 1880 6,876 $4,653,609,297 $2,553,734,177 144.94 in Dakota; Burlington and Missouri River, 111.25 miles $2,392,017,820 1881 9,796 5,577,996,931 3,195,438,156 2,890,497,364 in Nebraska; Kansas City, Springfield and Memphis, 134.77 in 1882 11,568 5,930,409,624 3,456,078,196 3,184,415,201 Arkansas; Atlantic and Pacific, 119.60 miles in Arizona; Oregon 1883 6,741 6,684,756,045 3,708,060,583 3,455,040,383 Short Line, 282.96 miles in Idaho; Northern Pacific, 330 miles 1884 3,825 6,924,554,444 3,762,618,686 3,669,115,772 in Montana; Carson and Colorado, Third division, 100 miles in 1885 3,608 7.037.627,350 3,817,697,832 3,765,727,066 California; Southern Pacific, 122.51 miles in California; Palouse 1886 9,000 7,254,995,223 3,999,508,508 3,882,966,330 branch, 100 miles in Washington Territory. 1887 12,724 In 1884 the distrust and depression which commenced in It will be seen that there was an immense increase in the 1883 were intensified, and the amount of new construction cost of roads and equipment, and a corresponding increase in greatly diminished, in comparison with former years. The the volume of railway securities, from 1880 to 1884, while from Digitized by Google NEW CONSTRUCTION IN GROUPS EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 351 1884 to 1885 the increase was comparatively slight. The new Railroads. Miles. construction of 1885 represented additions of one hundred Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic 204.00 miles or more to the length of lines in the following states: Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri Valley 358.00 Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha 34 05 Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Wisconsin, Wisconsin Central 32 62 Minnesota, Dakota Territory, Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, Northern Pacific 310.00 Texas, California, Oregon. Illinois Central 387.00 St. Paul and Duluth 15.00 NEW CONSTRUCTION IN 1886-87. Chicago, St. Paul and Kansas City 305.60 The revival of active railway-building operations in 1886-87 Minneapolis and St. Louis 10.00 led to comparatively small additions to mileage in the New Minneapolis and Pacific 71.00 England and Middle states, but to notable advances in other Total 3,533.96 groups, the gains being exceptionally large in the North-western The additions to large systems in the south-western group in and South-western states. 1887 have been estimated as follows: Atchison, Topeka and One of the most important new lines opened in 1886 in the Santa Fe, 1,694; Missouri Pacific, 900; Chicago, Rock Island Middle states was the Baltimore and Ohio extension from Balti- and Pacific, 825; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, 702; Union more to Philadelphia. Of the new construction in South At- Pacific and St. Joseph and Grand Island, 345; St. Louis and San lantic states, prominent features were large additions to the Francisco, 325. railway mileage of Florida, and extensions of the Norfolk and The fluctuations in amount of new construction per annum Western, and Richmond and West Point Terminal systems. furnish an indication of the speculative temper of various eras, The largest amount of new construction on a single line in the and the relative abundance or scarcity of money available for Central Northern states in 1886 was probably on the Chicago, railway purposes. When dividends are passed or reduced, Burlington and Northern. The amount of new construction failures to pay interest on bonds frequent, foreclosure sales in that year in each of the states of Michigan and Illinois numerous, and rival lines are engaged in fierce competitive exceeded 300 miles, and in Wisconsin the reported amount struggles, there is little to encourage capitalists to largely in- exceeds 450 miles. The specially active railway building of crease their investments in railway securities. When a period 1886 was in the North-western and South-western states, and it of gloomy distrust and depression is succeeded by a revival of consisted largely of lines intended to serve as extensions of the prosperity, and railway credit is in a great measure restored, it gigantic systems of those states. becomes comparatively easy to obtain enormous sums for the Reports or estimates of the new construction of 1887 classify construction of new lines, and excessive timidity is succeeded it geographically as follows: New England states, 109 miles; by eagerness to supply means for roads of many classes, in- Middle states, 308; Southern states, 1,691; Central Northern cluding some which have little prospect of speedily yielding states, 1,661; North-western and South-western states, 8,307; remunerative returns to investors. Pacific states, 648. The largest amount of new construction in Much of the new construction from 1880 to 1887 was in dis- any state east of the Mississippi was in Michigan. Alabama tricts that had not previously been supplied with railway stands second on the list. facilities. This is particularly true of many of the regions The following statement is published in the Government re- traversed in the specially active theatres of new construction port of internal commerce of new construction completed in lying west of the Mississippi. There was, however, a consider- the north-west in 1887, viz.:- able amount of building of new competitive lines; and much Railroads. Miles. St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba 845.00 of the new mileage competes for some classes of the traffic of Montana Central 97.00 roads completed before 1880. A large percentage of the new Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul 371.00 work in the older states consisted of the construction of short Minneapolis, Sault St. Marie and Atlantic 357.00 branches or extensions which increased facilities for local pas- Chicago and North-western 135.69 senger or freight movements. NEW CONSTRUCTION IN GROUPS EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. G EOGRAPHICALLY the new construction from 1880 to tensions of established railways. There was an addition to the 1887 was distributed, approximately, as follows: In New York and New England by which its system was extended New England, about 600 miles; in the Middle states, including to the Hudson river, and this is one of the few undertakings New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, that exercised a considerable influence upon through move- and West Virginia, nearly 4,900 miles; in the Atlantic, Gulf, ments. Some of the new mileage includes New England con- and Mississippi Valley states, including Virginia, North Caro- nections with Canadian roads. One of the longest of the new lina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Miasissippi, lines was the Central Massachusetts, 70.2 miles, leading from Tennessee, Kentucky, and Louisiana, about 9,500 miles; in the Cambridge to Ware. The Poughkeepsie bridge over the Hud- group of Central Northern states, including Ohio, Michigan, son river was well advanced towards completion during 1887, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin, about 11,000 miles; in the and new railway connections with it in New England and New group of North-western states, including Iowa, Minnesota, Ne- York may exercise an important influence on various classes braska, Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana, more than 14,000 of traffic, especially the coal trade. miles; in the group of South-western states, including Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, Kansas, Colorado, and New Mexico, more NEW CONSTRUCTION IN THE MIDDLE STATES. than 18,500 miles; in the Pacific group, including Washington A number of the lines constructed in the Middle states were Territory, Oregon, California, Nevada, Arizona, and Utah, comparatively short, and intended chiefly to promote local in- about 5,500 miles. More than 60 per cent. of the new mileage terests, or to furnish improved methods for traveling to and was in districts west of the Mississippi, and nearly half of this from popular seaside, mountain, or interior resorts. Several was in the states and territories belonging to the South-western roads were built mainly for the purpose of improving facilities group. for reaching various points in the Catskill mountains; a num- NEW CONSTRUCTION IN NEW ENGLAND ber of branches or short lines were constructed which are in- consisted chiefly of short lines intended to serve local interests, tended chiefly to facilitate movements to places on the Atlantic a leading object, in some instances, being an improvement of coast, in New Jersey and New York; and other short roads or facilities for reaching popular resorts, or short branches or ex- branches were built chiefly to reach a number of popular re- Digitized by Google 352 NEW CONSTRUCTION IN GROUPS EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. sorts in New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. The increase causes. In many cases they were built chiefly with the pro- of excursion-route business, and the occasional movement of ceeds of bonds, supplemented by very limited cash stock sub- large bodies of people from populous cities to adjacent resorts, scriptions. Much of the territory they traversed is subjected especially during the summer season, furnished one of the to sharp water and rail competition and exceedingly low rates. minor incentives to construction. Some of the roads were intended to form the principal portion, A considerable amount of new mileage was constructed for or entire length, of new systems of considerable consequence, the purpose of opening up connections with bituminous and which encountered from the outset active rivalry. A portion anthracite coal fields and coke districts. The most important of the new mileage was built more for the purpose of afford. new road extending into the anthracite region was the Penn- ing a profit to the projectors than to meet any well-defined sylvania Schuylkill Valley, leading from Philadelphia to and public requirement. A narrow-gauge furore stimulated the through the Schuylkill region, constructed under the auspices construction of a considerable amount of mileage which was of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Some of the new mileage of found to be unprofitable, and was subsequently changed to the the decade is intended to improve facilities for transporting standard gauge. In some instances bad judgment and in others anthracite in eastern or north-eastern directions. One of the bad luck, arising from such shocks to credit as were caused by most important new bituminous coal roads was the Beech the panic of 1884, or protracted rate wars, intensified other Creek and connections, by which the New York Central and difficulties. Reading systems obtained an entrance into the Clearfield dis- The two new roads of greatest length and significance were trict. A number of other coal roads materially improved the the New York, Chicago and St. Louis, commonly called the facilities of the Pennsylvania system for reaching bituminous Nickel Plate, completed in 1882; and the Minneapolis, Sault districts. The New York, Lake Erie and Western accom- St. Marie and Atlantic, completed in 1887. The "Nickel Plate" plished similar objects, materially increased its facilities in closely paralleled the main line of the Lake Shore along its some of the anthracite regions, and made considerable addi- entire length, more than five hundred miles, from Buffalo to tions to its mileage in north-western Pennsylvania. Various Chicago. Soon after the road was finished a controlling in- other corporations built main lines or branches which were terest in the stock of the company was purchased by the Lake intended chiefly to reach coke districts in south-western Penn- Shore, and in 1887 a sale in foreclosure took place and the sylvania or to promote the development of bituminous coal Nickel Plate company was reorganized. The Minneapolis, districts in Pennsylvania and Maryland. Sault St. Marie and Atlantic, or the "Soo" route, is nearly The longest new line in the Middle states was the West Shore, five hundred miles in length. It represents an effort to estab- 448.02 miles, which closely paralleled the New York Central sys- lish a new through rail route to the Atlantic seaboard from tem from New York to Buffalo, and led to an exceptionally Minneapolis, by which a passage through Chicago will be severe competitive struggle. It ended in the absorption of the avoided, a connection being made at Sault St. Marie with the West Shore by the New York Central. Another important new Canadian Pacific. A number of its active projectors were line was the New York, Lackawanna and Western, by which the deeply interested in the extensive milling interests of Minne- Delaware, Lackawanna and Western secured an extension to Buf- apolis and Mackinaw. The Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic falo. Other new lines which attracted attention were extensions was constructed along the southern coast of lake Superior of the Western Maryland intosouthern Pennsylvania; extensions between Duluth and Sault St. Marie, and it furnishes facilities of the Baltimoro and Ohio to Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and from for direct rail connections between the Northern Pacific and Baltimore to Philadelphia; and the New York, Philadelphia Manitoba systems, and Canadian lines leading to Montreal, or and Norfolk, which extended the Delaware portion of the Phila- branches of the Pennsylvania and New York Central systems delphia, Wilmington and Baltimore system to Cape Charles. in northern Michigan. Another new road of considerable Some of the most expensive new mileage of the period was length is the Toledo, St. Louis and Kansas City, extending composed of short lines intended to improve terminal facilities from Toledo to St. Louis, 451 miles. It was formed largely out in Buffalo, Jersey City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Pittsburgh. of new narrow-gauge mileage, much of which has been changed Illustrations of the tendency to expand systems, interwoven to standard gauge. with the disposition to invade contiguous or preoccupied terri- A large percentage of the new roads represents branches tory, which is one of the notable features of modern railway of systems that own or operate a considerable amount of mileage development, were furnished by a considerable portion of the in districts not embraced within the Central Northern states. new construction in the Middle states. In addition to the lines In this category may be included the Chicago and Atlantic, already referred to, which include material extensions of the 248.5 miles, completed in 1888, with the expectation that it New York Central; Now York, Lake Erie and Western; Penn- would practically become an extension of the New York, Lake sylvania; Baltimore and Ohio, and Western Maryland systems, Erie and Western system to Chicago; an extension of the a large amount of work was done upon the South Pennsyl- Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe system to Chicago; consider- vania Railroad, originally intended to serve as the principal able additions to the system of the Chicago, Burlington and portion of a new line between Pittsburgh and Harrisburg, but Quincy, one of which, the Chicago, Burlington and Northern, active labors were interrupted, and it was left in an unfinished 363.51 miles in length, leading from Chicago to St. Paul, is condition at the end of 1887. It was originally projected as a specially important; the construction of a number of branches virtual extension of the Vanderbilt and Philadelphia and Read- or extensions of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; the ing systems. Branches or extensions were built which in- Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha; the Chicago and creased the mileage of the Lehigh Valley; Buffalo, New York North-western; the Illinois Central; the Wabash, St. Louis and and Philadelphia; Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg, and Pacific; the Grand Trunk, of Canada; the Northern Pacific, and other roads. In West Virginia there was a considerable other roads. amount of new construction, some of which was intended to To a number of lines or systems, consisting mainly of mile- promote the development of mineral interests, or extensions of age constructed within the Central Northern states before 1880, the Norfolk and Western system, or the systems of other roads. considerable additions were made after that year. Extensions or branches were built by the Grand Rapids and Indiana; the NEW CONSTRUCTION IN CENTRAL NORTHERN STATES. Flint and Pere Marquette; the Detroit, Bay City and Alpens; There were a number of noticeable features in the new con- the Indiana, Bloomington and Western; the Indianapolis, De- struction in the Central Northern states. One of the most catur and Springfield; the Jacksonville and South-eastern; the important was the large proportion of the new lines that fell Milwaukee, Lake Shore and Western; the Terre Haute and into the hands of receivers during their infancy. Two classes Logansport; the Toledo and Ohio Central; the Scioto Valley; of roads generally escaped this fate. They were short logging the Wheeling and Lake Erie, and other roads. railways traversing the lumber districts, of which a considerable A considerable number of new roads were built, with & length number were built in Michigan, and branches or extensions varying from less than five miles to a little more than one bun- constructed under the auspices of powerful companies. dred miles. They were intended to serve a variety of purposes. The failure of most of the new companies to pay all the A few are belt or terminal roads located in and near important interest on bonds they had issued was due to a variety of cities. Others are intended chiefly to promote the develop- Digitized by Google Freight Locomotive, Consolidation Type. Mastodon Locomotive. Freight Locomotive, Mogul Type. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google NEW CONSTRUCTION IN GROUPS EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 353 ment of timber lands or mineral lands, including iron and cop- Belt, 148; Pensacola and Atlantic, 160; Silver Springs, Ocala per mines, or to increase the market value of land located near and Gulf, 65; South Florida, 205; Tavares, Apoka and Gulf, 55; cities as sites for suburban residences. In Ohio and Indiana Western, of Florida, 65. several new bituminous coal roads of considerable importance NEW CONSTRUCTION IN GULF AND MISSISSIPPI VALLEY STATES. were constructed. Some of the new lines furnish connections between important towns or cities. In some instances the ulti- In this region, as in nearly all others, a leading object of a mate destiny of new railways is subject to contingencies. They considerable proportion of the new construction of the ninth may become parts of either of several systems, or possibly serve decade was to expand old systems or to create new ones. as the foundation of a new system of considerable magnitude The Louisville and Nashville system traverses all the states by being allied with adjacent roads and additional construction. named above except Mississippi; and it built a number of ex- tensions or branches in Kentucky, Alabama, and Tennessee. NEW CONSTRUCTION IN SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES. In 1887 it had under construction, with the expectation that A considerable portion of the new construction in these the lines would be completed during that year, an extension states has furnished useful links or extensions to southern of the Bardstown branch, 22 miles; the Indiana, Alabama and systems expanded during late years, including the Richmond Texas branch, 57 miles; a branch from Corbin to Pineville, and West Point Terminal, the Norfolk and Western, the Sea- Kentucky, 30 miles; an extension of the Nashville and Flor- board and Roanoke, the Plant system, the Central Railroad ence, 25 miles. Work was also progressing on a road intended and Banking Company of Georgia, and the Louisville and to establish a convenient connection with the Norfolk and Nashville. Virginia furnishes the seaboard outlet for railway Western. In previous years of the decade it had completed a combinations of considerable magnitude, one not already re- number of branches or extensions, including several hundred ferred to being the Newport News and Mississippi Valley, and miles of new road in Kentucky, Alabama, and Tennessee. Its the efforts of these and other southern systems to expand their system has been rapidly expanded in all directions, partly by sphere of operations had an important bearing on much of the new construction, but more especially by the acquisition of a mileage constructed during the ninth decade. Prominent ob- controlling interest in a number of connecting lines, and it has jects of various lines were to improve connections leading in made zealous efforts to build up iron and coal interests. southern, south-eastern, or south-western directions, as well as The Richmond and West Point Terminal Company system westward from the Atlantic coast or northward from the gulf extends through the gulf states, and a portion of the new con. of Mexico. struction in them represents additions to mileage. One of the The new construction in Virginia included 55 miles of the most important of these is portions of the Georgia Pacific. Atlantic and Danville, built in 1885, and other extensions at a Work on parts of its line in Mississippi was progressing in 1887. later date; the Norfolk and Virginia Beach, 17.8 miles, built in One of the important new lines of the region was the New 1883; several extensions of the Norfolk and Western, including Orleans and North-eastern, 196 miles in length, completed in the Norfolk Terminal; the Norfolk Southern, 73 miles, extend- 1883. It forms part of the Erlanger system, and that system ing from Virginia into North Carolina; the Richmond and also controls the Vicksburg, Shreveport and Pacific, 189 miles, Alleghany and branches, 256 miles, built about 1881. opened in 1884. In North Carolina new mileage included 32 miles built by Additions were made, during the decade, to the southern the Albemarle and Ralcigh; 21 miles by the Asheville and portion of the Illinois Central system, which include the Can- Spartanburg; about 200 miles by the Cape Fear and Yadkin ton, Aberdeen and Nashville, 88 miles, opened in 1884; and the Valley; 125 miles by the Carolina Central; 71 miles by the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley, 115.69 miles, one portion of which Marietta and North Georgia; 20 miles by the Meherrin Valley; was opened in 1884 and another in 1886. 13 miles by the Oxford and Henderson; 10 miles by the Raleigh A considerable portion of the new mileage of the region con- and Augusta Air Line; branches of the Wilmington and Wel- sists of lines intended to reach or radiate from Birmingham, don, and of the Western North Carolina; and some construction Alabama, which has become an important railway centre. by other companies. One of these new lines was the Mobile and Birmingham, with New construction in South Carolina included 40 miles by a projected length of 250 miles, of which 56 miles were com- the Central of South Carolina; 44 by the Charleston, Cincinnati pleted in June, 1887. Another important road leading to Bir- and Chicago; 34.75 by the Eutawville; 87.50 by the Georgetown mingham was being constructed in 1887 by the Kansas City, and Western; nearly 200 miles of extensions or branches of Memphis and Burlington Railroad Company. It is 251 miles the Port Royal and Western Carolina, portions of which are in length, running in a south-western direction from Memphis located in Georgia; 65 miles by the Wilmington, Chadbourn through Tennessee and Mississippi, and was completed in Octo- and Conwayboro', a portion of which is in North Carolina. ber, 1887. Of the East and West Railroad, of Alabama, which New construction in Georgia included 48 miles by the Ameri- is projected from Gainesville, Georgia, to Birmingham, 117 cus, Preston and Lumpkin; 80 miles by the Augusta and miles were completed. Sandersville; 27 miles of extensions by the Columbus and One of the influences affecting new construction in the Gulf Rome; 50 miles by the Covington and Macon; 97 miles by and Mississippi Valley states was a great increase of the desire the Georgia, Midland and Gulf; 318 miles by the Georgia to develop iron and coal industries. The Tennessee Central, a Pacific, some of which is located in Alabama and Mississippi; narrow-gauge road 140 miles in length, was opened in 1882, to 1C miles by the Lawrenceville branch; 22 miles by the Rome be used as a coal road. The Sheffield and Birmingham, about and Carrollton; 15 miles by the Sylvania; 7 by the Talbotton; 87 miles in length, was opened in 1885, and it was subsequently 35 by the Wrightsville and Tennille, and 9 by the Roswell. consolidated with the Alabama and Tennessee Coal and Iron Other construction was progressing in 1887, or had been com- Company. The new company owns the railroad, 70,000 acres pleted in or previous to that year, two of the most important of coal and iron lands in Alabama, and 60 acres of land in projects being 135 miles undertaken by the Rome and Decatur, Shefield. Various short lines and branches were constructed and 253 miles by the Savannah, Dublin and Western. under similar combinations of mineral and railway interests. A leading feature of the new construction in the South At- A number of other new roads or branches were constructed lantic states is the large additions made to the mileage of rail- during the decade. The list includes the Anniston and Atlantic, ways traversing Florida. This may be partly due to the fact 53 miles, in Alabama; the Chesapeake and Nashville, 35 miles, that that state has become a favorite winter resort for visitors completed in 1887, and more than 200 projected; the East Ten- from many sections, including a considerable number of rail- nessee and Western North Carolina, 34 miles; the Montgomery way projectors and capitalists, and partly to land grants. In and Florida, 50 miles, in Alabama; the Nashville and Florence, 1879 a considerable portion of the state possessed no railways. 51 miles, in Alabama; the Natchez, Jackson and Columbus, 57 The new roads or extensions built or well advanced towards miles, in Mississippi; the Natchez, Red River and Texas, 25 completion during a comparatively recent period include the miles, in Louisiana; the New Orleans and Gulf, 65 miles, in following: Blue Spring, Orange City and Atlantic, 30 miles; Louisiana; and a considerable number of shorter lines, together Florida Midland, 20; Florida Southern, 307.54; Jacksonville and with various lines of greater length which were under contract Atlantic, 17; Jacksonville, Tampa and Key West, 240; Orange in 1887. 45 Digitized by Google NEW CONSTRUCTION WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 355 Mississippi in eight years. Such labors would have been im- A large proportion of their mileage was put in operation since possible if the influences by which. they were sustained had not 1879, and, like the original Southern Pacific, it has been leased been of corresponding magnitude. They were largely specu- to the Southern Pacific Company, chartered under the laws of lative, but also based, in a great measure, on a legitimate the state of Kentucky in 1884, which controls, in addition to demand for additional railway facilities, which grew out of the the lines named, those of the Central Pacific. At the end of enormous westward emigration of native and adopted citizens 1886 the mileage of its Pacific system was 3,138.98, and of its after the panic of 1873, and its active continuance, during a Atlantic system, consisting chiefly of its Texas and Louisiana period when the surplus products to be transported eastward, roads, 1,607.55, a total of 4,846.53. In March, 1888, the reported the merchandise and building material to be taken to nu- length of its rail lines was 4,976.23. merous settlements, and the local traffic developed, rapidly Another company which holds a very prominent rank among increased. those that built railways in three groups during the ninth de- In the group of north-western states the expansion was ap- cade is the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe. It was said of this proximately as follows:- company that it received during a recent year a larger sum of Mileage at Mileage at end of 1879. end of 1887. Increase. money applicable to new railway construction than had ever Iowa 4,779 8,286.80 3,507.80 previously been obtained by any other organization. It is Minnesota 3,008 5,019.11 2,011.11 deeply interested in a number of leased and auxiliary roads, Nebraska 1,634 4,716.89 3,082.89 some of which are operated under their own organizations. Dakota 400 4,458 21 4,058.21 During late years it has expanded its system through the Wyoming 593 910.72 317.72 Montana south-western and Pacific states, and also by an extension to 1,678.48 1,678.48 Chicago through the central group of northern states, with 10,414 25,070 21 14,656.21 extraordinary rapidity. In 1879 it operated 1,167 miles of In the group of south-western states the increase was ap- main line and branches. In the early part of 1888 it owned, proximately as follows:- leased, controlled, or was part owner of 7,374 miles of railway, Mileage at Mileage at end of 1879, end of 1887. Increase. classified as follows: Atchison system, 2,080.85; Southern Kan- Missouri 3,740 5,622.32 1,882 32 sas system, 935.50; Sonora system, 350.19; owned jointly (one- Arkansas 803 2,348 68 1,540.68 half mileage), 113.78; sundry lines owned entirely or controlled, Texas 2,591 8,350.27 5,759 27 including the Chicago, Santa Fe and California, 498.25; Chi- Kansas 3,103 8.189.40 5,086.40 cago, Kansas and Western (all in Kansas), 903.16; Gulf, Colorado Colorado 1,208 3,761.56 2,553.56 and Santa Fe, California Southern, California Central, and other New Mexico 118 1,590.96 1,472.96 Indian Territory roads, 2,974.83; Atlantic and Pacific, controlled jointly with the 275 930.57 655.57 St. Louis and San Francisco, 918.86. The principal portion of 11,843 30,793.76 18,950.76 the increased mileage was constructed after 1879. It represents In the group of Pacific states the increase was approximately numerous extensions in Kansas, leading on the west into Col- as follows:- orado and New Mexico, and thence through Arizona, by the Mileage at Mileage at end of 1879. end of 1857. Increase. Atlantic and Pacific, into southern California, with a branch Washington Territory 212 1,005.90 793.90 leading into north-western Mexico, and a close connection at Oregon 295 1,267.41 972.41 El Paso with the Mexican Central, while from eastern Kansas a California 2,209 3,654.76 1,445.76 line (the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe) was constructed that leads Nevada 720 958.18 238.18 through the Indian Territory and Texas to Galveston, Texas. Arizona 183 1,058.95 875.95 Utah 593 COMPANIES THAT CONSTRUCTED RAILWAYS IN TWO OF THE 1,144.97 551.97 Idaho Territory 196 865.28 669.28 GROUPS WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. Several companies constructed railways in two of the groups 4,408 9,955.45 5,547.45 west of the Mississippi. One of these was the Union Pacific, COMPANIES THAT CONSTRUCTED RAILWAYS IN THREE OF THE which greatly enlarged its mileage, partly by purchases or con- GROUPS. solidations, and partly by building, during the ninth decade. The gigantic scale on which important companies provided The average number of miles of road operated by its system enormous additions to mileage is illustrated by the fact that was 2,706.30 in 1880 and 4,548.13 in 1886. The reported length several of them had new construction advanced under their of its system in May, 1888, was 5,134.3 miles, subdivided as auspices in three of the groups. No single state or territory, follows: Nebraska division, 893.3: Wyoming division, 687.2; and not even single great combinations of states and territories, Kansas division, 1,209.0; Colorado division, 844.7; Idaho divi- afforded a sufficiently extensive field for their operations. sion, 1,019.4; Salt Lake and Western, 57.2; Montana Union, 61.0; The Northern Pacific, in building to the Pacific coast, Utah Central, 285.5; Utah and Nevada, 37.0. The branches or traversed the Pacific states, while it was constructing branches extensions constructed include lines located in Wyoming Terri- or connections in the north-western states, and fostering east- tory, Colorado, Utah, Montana, Nebraska, and Oregon. By the ern extensions in the group of central northern states. In 1880 construction of the Oregon Short Line, more than six hundred the average number of miles it operated was 722, and in 1886 miles in length, and a connection with the Oregon Railway and it was 2,718. The total length of all its lines June 30th, 1886, Navigation lines, it secured an outlet to the Pacific coast inde- was 2,808.31, and during 1886-87 additions of considerable pendent of that afforded by the Central Pacific, and by a com- significance were made to its system. In March, 1888, it had paratively short extension of a line it controls in south-western 2,170.4 miles of main line and 1,091.1 miles of leased lines in Utah another Pacific coast connection may be secured by a operation. The increase from 1880 to 1888 consisted chiefly of junction with the line of the Atlantic and Pacific. new mileage constructed during the ninth decade, in three Other companies extended their systems in more than one groups, and the opening of the principal portion of its main of the groups west of the Mississippi, but their operations will line, in 1883, was a leading railway event of that period. be more particularly referred to in connection with the new The Southern Pacific completed a line in 1887 which opened construction in the groups in which they made their principal up connections between northern California and southern Ore- additions to mileage. The list includes the Chicago, Milwaukee gon, and furnished a continuous rail route between Portland, and St. Paul, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, and the Oregon, and New Orleans. This line traverses three groupe, Missouri Pacific. the Pacific Coast, South-western and Gulf, and Mississippi NEW CONSTRUCTION IN THE NORTH-WESTERN STATES. Valley. The distance is 3,241 miles. A large portion of this The new construction in the north-western states consisted line, together with a number of branches and extensions, were largely of enormous additions made to the mileage of great constructed during the ninth decade, the road being extended systems radiating from Chicago, or St. Paul and Minneapolis. from south-eastern California through Arizona and New Their growth has been one of the marvels of modern railway Mexico, to El Paso, where a connection is made with Texas history, and at no period was their expansion more rapid than and Louisiana roads, leading to Galveston and New Orleans. in the ninth decade. Digitized by Google 356 NEW CONSTRUCTION WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. The length of the lines owned and operated by the Chicago, or extensions of the Minneapolis and St. Louis, and & number Milwaukee and St. Paul in February, 1880, was officially re- of comparatively short lines. ported to be 2,251 miles. The total number of miles of single The work of the decade has left a permanent impress upon track, main line, at the end of 1887 was 5,669.95. A large per- the north-western states, the approximate gains in railway centage of this increase of 3,418.95 miles consists of new lines, mileage from the end of 1879 to the end of 1887 being 8,507 located chiefly in the group of North-western states; but one miles in Iowa, 2,011 in Minnesota, 3,082 in Nebraska, 4,058 in important branch, the Kansas City extension, extends through Dakota, 217 in Wyoming, and 1,678 in Montana. The largest Missouri, while others were in Wisconsin. The mileage of this amount of building in any single state or territory in the group system is specially large in Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and appears to have been in Dakota. Its northern portion has Dakota. been supplied with an extension of the St. Paul, Minneapolis The Chicago and North-western in March, 1888, operated and Manitoba, and numerous branches of that road and the 4,101 miles of its roads and controlled 1,339 miles of the Chi- Northern Pacific, while its southern portion is traversed by cago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, 723 miles of the Fre- numerous branches of those roads and extensions of the Chi- mont, Elkhorn and Missouri Valley, 77 miles of Wyoming cago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, Chicago and North-western, and Central, and 107 miles of Sioux City and Pacific, the total other systems. Montana, which had no railways before 1880, owned and controlled being 6,347 miles. At the end of its is now traversed by the Northern Pacific and an extension of fiscal year, on May 31st, 1880, it owned and controlled 2,513 the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba, and reached by & miles. The increase of 8,834 miles, although composed partly branch of the Union Pacific. Nebraska was made the theatre of acquired lines that were completed before 1880, consists of a large amount of new construction by companies identified chiefly of lines constructed during the ninth decade, including with the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy system, and also by numerous branches and extensions, in the group of north- companies identified with the Chicago and North-western Rail- western states, One of the longest of the new lines is the way system. Considerable additions were made to the mileage Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri Valley, which extends to the of most of the great systems by which Iowa is traversed, and Black Hills. some important new roads were constructed. The length of lines operated by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy on January 1st, 1880, was 1,856 miles. By purchases, NEW CONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH-WESTERN STATES. consolidations, and new construction its system was greatly The particularly active theater of new construction was the extended during the ninth decade. In March, 1888, its system south-western states and territories. Various causes contributed included 2,063.03 miles in Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri; 2,738 to this result. One was the initiation of a serics of enterprises miles of the Burlington and Missouri River Railroad in No. which had northern, north-eastern, and north-western Mexico brasks; and it controlled interests in other companies operated as objective points, and the construction of connecting railway by their own organizations. These lines combined, reach Chi- links within the boundaries of Mexico, which were under the cago on the east, St. Paul on the north, St. Louis on the south, direction of American capitalists and managers. Others were Cheyenne, Denver, and more western points in Colorado on the growing importance of Kansas City as a traffic centre, and the west. The rapidity with which some of the extensions, the increasing disposition of a portion of the population of particularly those leading into Colorado and Minnesota were Colorado and other states to seek an outlet for surplus agri- constructed, and the effect of these extensions on pre-existing cultural products at gulf ports. There was also a growing railways attracted much attention. The new construction in desire to hasten railway development in the Indian Territory; 1887 consisted of 9 miles in Missouri, 439 in Nebraska, 36 in an increase of the commercial importance of the cattle trade, Kansas, 344 in Colorado, and 29 in Wyoming. which served as an incentive to some of the new construction; Another system greatly expanded during the ninth decade, movements in a variety of directions, some being towards New by new construction within the territory embraced in the Orleans, and others towards Kansas City, Galveston, or St. groups of north-western states, is that of the St. Paul, Minne- Louis; modifications of political, industrial, financial, and apolis and Manitoba. At the close of 1879 or early portion of speculative conditions, which had the general effect of redirect- 1880 it operated 667 miles. In March, 1888, it had in operation ing to the south-west energetic forces temporarily diverted 2,685.44 miles. This increase of more than 2,000 miles is made from that region by the civil war and succeeding events; and 8 up chiefly of new construction. The longest of the new lines belief that there were fewer natural obstacles to construction extends from eastern Dakota to western Montana, and work and operation of railways in many portions of the south-west upon it was advanced with extraordinary rapidity in 1886-87. than in more northern districts, in which it was necessary to The bulk of the new construction in the north-western encounter rugged mountains and inclement seasons. Aside group, during the ninth decade, was advanced mainly by from these considerations is the immense area embraced within parties identified with the systems named above, and the the south-western group, and the classification, as part of it, of Northern Pacific. There was, however, a considerable amount Kansas, in which state there was a very large amount of new of new work done by other parties, either for the development construction. of local interests, the creation of new systems, or.the increase One of the most important enterprises in the south-west, that of the mileage of other systems. The Chicago, Rock Island attracted attention during the early years of the ninth decade, and Pacific controls a considerable amount of mileage opened was the extension of the lines of the Texas and Pacific. In 1882 since 1879 in this group, but its most active theatre of expan- its Rio Grande division, 616 miles in length, was opened, and sion was in the south-western group. in the same year the New Orleans division, 874 miles, was com- One of the most important new systems opened in the group, pleted. The Southern Pacific, whose operations have already extending into adjacent groups, is the Chicago, St. Paul and been referred to, reached El Paso in 1882, making there a june- Kansas City Railway, formed by a consolidation of the road tion with the Texas and Pacific, and completing arrangements formerly bearing that name with the Minnesota and North- for the extension of its system into Texas, and subsequently to western. In the early part of 1888 the length of the consoli- New Orleans. Other important features of the new construc- dated lines was reported to be 827 miles, nearly all of which tion in Texas consist of extensions of the system of the Atchi- was constructed after 1879. son, Topeka and Santa Fe, which have already been briefly There was a considerable amount of new construction during discussed in references to the operations of that company. the decade on branches of the Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Soon after the completion of the Texas and Pacific it was tem- Northern, one of which, the Cedar Rapids, Iowa Falls and porarily attached to the Missouri Pacific system, to which, in North-western, had 430 miles of road opened in 1880, '81, '82, Texas and other portions of the south-west, especially Kansas, '84, '86. Other roads opened or extended during the decade were very large additions of mileage were made during the ninth the Duluth and Iron Range, leading northward from Duluth decade. While a number of them consisted of lines leased or to Tower, in Minnesota, 96 miles, opened in 1886; the Burling- consolidated, they also included much new construction, and ton and Western, 70.70 miles, opened in 1884; Des Moines, in general terms it may be said that the Missouri Pacific, the Osceola and Southern, 111.11 miles, opened in 1884; branches Southern Pacific, and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe were Digitized by Google NEW CONSTRUCTION WEST OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 357 three of the greatest railway builders in the south-western Worth, and from that point to Galveston, Texas, or to New group during the first eight years of the ninth decade. Of the Orleans, commenced active operations over the entire system in April, 1888. It forms a through route between Denver and MISSOURI PACIFIC EXTENSIONS AND BRANCHES cities of the gulf coast. Portions of the road were opened at it was reported that it had constructed in 1886 new lines located various periods since 1880. It was estimated that the length in the states of Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas, and of the through route between Denver and Galveston would be Texas. During the year ending December 81st, 1886, it had com- about 800 miles. pleted and put in operation 517 miles, and there was then The Denver and Rio Grande system, of Colorado, on January under construction unfinished 758 miles. The reported addi- 1st, 1880, consisted of 340 miles. Important extensions were tion to the Missouri Pacific system during 1887 was 2,137 completed during 1880, which, with additions completed at miles, exclusive of the Little Rock and Fort Smith, 169 miles, late periods, including the Denver and Rio Grande Western, acquired and operated as an independent property. made the length of the lines in operation in March, 1888, 1,684.7 One of the most important of the extensions of the Missouri miles. The western terminus of the Denver and Rio Grande Pacific system completed in 1887 entered eastern Colorado, extension is at Ogden, Utah, where a connection with the Cen- reaching Pueblo. Its other new lines were numerous, most of tral Pacific is made, and a new through route from the Missouri them consisting of short branches in Kansas and elsewhere. river to Ogden was formed during the ninth decade by this com- The Missouri Pacific system is one of the largest in the country. bination and a close connection on the east with the Chicago, In March, 1888, it operated 7,043 miles, classified under the fol- Burlington and Quincy system. In 1887 contracts were let for lowing heads: Missouri Pacific, 2,857 miles; St. Louis, Iron about 161 miles additional extensions of the Denver and Rio Mountain and Southern, 1,144; Fort Scott, Wichita and West- Grande system. ern, 306; Missouri, Kansas and Texas, 1,611; International and A new road opened in Colorado is the Colorado Midland. Great Northern, 825; Central Branch Union Pacific, 397; other One hundred miles from Colorado Springs westward were com- lines, 403 miles. Aside from the main lines of the leading pleted July 1st, 1887, and in March, 1888, it had in operation portions of the system, the mileage consists largely of roads 221 miles, extending to Glenwood Springs, exclusive of a branch, constructed after 1879. 17 miles in length, leading to Aspen. Another road that engaged extensively in new construction Other roads were constructed in the south-western group in the south-west at a comparatively recent period was the during the ninth decade, and numerous branches or extensions CHICAGO, ROCK ISLAND AND PACIFIC. of large systems were built, to which particular reference has not been made. By acquisition and construction it secured important lines leading through Missouri to the borders of Kansas, and exten- NEW CONSTRUCTION IN THE PACIFIC STATES. sive lines leading through that state, and southern Nebraska, were constructed by the Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska Railway A considerable portion of the new construction in the Pacific Company, which received substantial financial support from states, during the ninth decade, has already been incidentally the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific. The reported amount referred to, as it consisted of extensions of the Northern Pacific of track-laying, in connection with these enterprises, in 1887, to the Pacific coast, the construction of the Oregon Short Line was 656 miles, and additional construction, leading to Colorado by the Union Pacific, material additions in California and Ari- on the west, and through the Indian Territory on the south, zona, to the systems of the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, was anticipated at the end of that year. Topeka and Santa Fe, and the Denver and Rio Grande Western. The largest amount of new construction by any other single OTHER SOUTH-WESTERN SYSTEMS. company was probably completed by the Oregon Railway and Another system constructed throughout since 1879 is that of Navigation Company, which, from 1879 to September 1st, 1886, the St. Louis, Arkansas and Texas. Its-lines extend through added 675 miles to the length of its lines, chiefly in Oregon. north-eastern Texas, a small portion of north-western Louisiana, Much of this milenge forms the northern outlet of the Union from the south-western to the north-eastern portion of Arkan- Pacific system to the Pacific coast, from Huntington, the west- sas, and through the south-eastern portion of Missouri, and it ern terminus of the Oregon Short Line. was reported in April, 1888, that their aggregate length was Other new construction in Oregon embraced work on the then about 1,200 miles. following lines: Oregon Pacific, about 58 miles completed up The St. Louis and San Francisco system was materially en- to end of 1887, and about 105 miles then under construction. larged. At the end of 1879 its line of road consisted of 827 Portland and Willamette Valley, about 26 miles completed in miles from Pacific, Missouri, to Vinita, Indian Territory, and 1887. a branch from Pierce City, on main line, to Wichita, Kansas, In Washington Territory the new track laid in 1887 included 227 miles; total, 554 miles. In March, 1888, the company ope- 47 miles on the Spokane and Palouse, and 28 miles by the rated 1,446 miles, located in Indian Territory, Missouri, Texas, Seattle, Lake Shore and Eastern. and Kansas. The increase consists chiefly of new lines con- In California the new track laid during the ninth decade structed after 1879. included the following: 121 miles of extensions to the Atchi- In addition to these extensions, the St. Louis and San Fran- son, Topeka and Santa Fe system in 1887, in addition to other cisco united in January, 1880, with the Atchison, Topeka and extensions in preceding years, one of the most important of Santa Fe in a joint and successful effort to promote the con- which was the California and Southern, 210 miles completed struction of the Atlantic and Pacific Railway, which, by con- in 1885; Brodie and Benton, 36 miles completed in 1882; Colusa nection with the Southern Pacific, formed a new through route and Lake, 22 miles in 1885-86; Nevada and California, 31 miles to the Pacific coast. The total length of the lines owned and completed in 1882, 8 miles in 1887, and 47 miles then under leased by the Atlantic and Pacific on December 31st, 1886, was construction; Pacific Coast, 63.8 miles constructed in 1882, and 931.05 miles. 14 miles in 1887; San Joaquin and Sierra Nevada, 39.6 miles in A notable feature of the construction of the ninth decade 1885; San Pete, 33 miles in 1882; Sonoma Valley, 21.50 miles in was the exceptionally large amount of new mileage on roads 1882. On various branches of the Southern Pacific system, in leading to or from the gulf of Mexico. In addition to the addition to the construction of previous years, about 207 miles Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe, already referred to as part of the of track were laid in 1887, and it had then under construction Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe system, the San Antonio and about 158 miles. Aransas Pass had in operation in March, 1888, several hundred In Idaho, in addition to the branches constructed by the miles of main line, most of which had been completed in 1887. Union Pacific previous to 1887, the track laid during that year The Kansas City, Springfield and Memphis built 282 miles of included the following: Coeur d'Alene Railway and Navigation road in 1884, leading from Springfield, Missouri, to Memphis. Company, 19.5 miles, and 10 miles under construction; Idaho It forms part of a through line now extending from Kansas Central, 20 miles. City to Birmingham, Alabama, from which point a railway The additions to new mileage in Nevada included the follow- extension to the gulf of Mexico is projected. ing: Carson and Colorado, 299 miles, opened in 1881-82-88; A combination of roads leading from Denver City to Fort Nevada Central, 98.5 miles, opened in 1880. Digitized by Google 358 EXPANSION AND CONNECTION OF RAILWAY SYSTEMS. New construction in Arizona includes, in addition to the eral Belt, 36 miles of track laid in 1887; Maricopa and Phoe- mileage which forms part of the main lines of the Southern nix, 34.95 miles in 1887; Prescott and Arizona Central, 78 Pacific, and Atlantic and Pacific, the following: Arizona Min- miles in 1886. EXPANSION AND CONNECTION OF RAILWAY SYSTEMS. PARTLY on on account of the large amount of new construction One of the clauses of the interstate-commerce act will pre- by single organizations, especially west of the sumably prevent sundry obstructions that were occasionally Mississippi, and partly on account of numerous consolidations, created before its passage. It provides that "every common there was a remarkable increase in the mileage of many of carrier subject to the provisions of this act shall, according to the railway systems of the United States during the period their respective powers, afford all reasonable, proper, and equal from 1879 to 1888. Except in a few instances, in which there facilities for the interchange of traffic between their respective were special causes for disruptions, gains of varying significance lines, and for the receiving, forwarding, and delivery of passen- were universal among powerful and prosperous companies. gers and property to and from their several lines and those While this change was progressing nearly all the railway connecting therewith, and shall not discriminate in their rates companies engaged in the through movements of different re- and charges between such connecting lines; but this act shall gions increased the closeness of their connections, to an extent not be construed as requiring any such common carrier to give that made them, in the aggregate, one system in a fuller sense the use of its tracks or terminal facilities to another carrier cn- than at any former period. A tendency toward the removal of gaged in like business." obstacles to the free interchange of traffic continued to gain Making due allowance for the conditions to which the quali. strength for some years, and much was done during compara- fying clause cited above is applicable, and for a few compara- tively recent periods, by the practical abolition of nearly all tively short roads which are isolated, all the American railways exceptional gauges, and the virtual establishment of a uniform may be said, in an important sense, to be practically one system national standard of 4 feet 81 inches on many roads, and of for the transportation of persons and property between all sec- the interchangeable standard of 4 feet 9 inches on many other tions of the United States, and its efficiency is increased by the roads, to facilitate the convenient and economical interchange fact that it is composed of many minor systems, varying in the of cars and traffic. length of lines they operate and control from a few hundred to During the interval from 1880 to 1888 many of the narrow- more than seven thousand miles, each of which has powerful gauge roads were changed into standard-gauge lines, or a third. business incentives for the performance of its portion of a joint rail laid down, which supplied a standard-gauge track, and task in the best possible manner. nearly all the southern lines which formerly maintained a The annual report of the interstate-commerce commission, 5-foot gauge narrowed their tracks so as to make them con- dated December 1st, 1887, says: "The railroad mileage of the form to the standard gauge. United States, computed to the close of the fiscal year 1886, of The last-named change was effected chiefly during the months the companies respectively, was 133,606. The number of cor- of May and June, 1886, and the new standard generally adopted porations represented in this mileage was 1,425, but by the was 4 feet 9 inches, which is the standard used on the Pennsyl- consolidation or leasing of roads the number of corporations vania system. controlling and operating roads as carriers was reduced to 700. The list of roads that participated in the movement include It is estimated that 4,880 miles of road have been constructed the Atlantic Coast Line south of Wilmington, North Carolina; since the foregoing statistics were obtained, making a total Richmond and Danville; Norfolk and Western; East Tennessee, mileage at this time of 187,986. It is impossible to say with Virginia and Georgia; Louisville and Nashville; Nashville and entire accuracy what is the number of railroad companies sub- Chattanooga; Cincinnati Southern; Alabama Great Southern; ject to the provisions of the act, but it is believed that not less Western and Atlantic, and various other tributary or connect- than 1,200, operated by about 500 corporations as carriers, en- ing lines, that traverse districts south of the Ohio and Potomac, gage either regularly or at times in interstate commerce, 80 M and east of the Mississippi. The new order of things necessi- to make the act applicable." tated a change of locomotives and cars as well as of tracks, and In the early months of 1888 the length of main line of Ameri- the cost of the required movements was roughly estimated at can railways presumably consisted of an aggregate of about an average of about $150 per mile for 14,000 miles, or $2,100,000, 150,000 miles; and although there were then perhaps from 500 and on a number of lines more than half of the outlay was for to 700 companies engaged in conducting interstate transports- changes in the rolling stock. tion, a considerable number of these were controlled by central Several important roads traversing districts adjacent to those authorities of large systems, so that the number of systems was in which the standard gauge was adopted in 1886 had pre- much smaller than the number of operating companies. Each viously conformed to it. The Mobile and Ohio, for instance, of the large systems, in turn, formed one of a group of systems, completed its change of gauge in 1885, and the roads of the and these groups, combined, formed an entire system. Seaboard Air Line, and of the Chesapeake and Ohio system There is a considerable variation in the closeness of the ties were previously of the standard gauge. The change of 1886 by which all parts of the different railway systems are united. was, therefore, necessary to establish a uniform gauge among In some instances they are only linked together by the tie of the southern lines, as well as to make the standard prevailing common interest or mutually advantageous traffic arrange- in the Southern states conform to the gauge adopted in all ments. In others ownership of stock gives the central com- other portions of the country. The leading result of the change pany a controlling power. In others the bond of union is was indicated by the statement that, in consequence of it, after based chiefly on the fact that a given set of individuals own or June 2d, 1886, a passenger or freight car could leave Portland, control a majority interest in all the leading lines. In some Maine, or Portland, Oregon; San Francisco, Chicago, or any cases the principal company gains control of the roads in its prominent railway centre, and traverse without change of system by a variety of methods, holding some lines because trucks or bulk every mile of southern road leading to New their owners do not wish to operate them. and other roads by Orleans, Texas, or Florida. leases or ownership of a majority of stock. These and other Another set of new improvements which provided a material variations naturally result in occasional changes in the position increase of facilities for interchanging traffic at leading centres of some roads, which may belong to one system in one year was the construction of a number of belt railways, or roads and to another in the succeeding year, or be severed from old leading between different railway stations and depots after close connections by expiration of lease, bankruptcy, or other 1880. causes, and subsequently aim at establishing a new independent Digitized by Google RELATIVE RANK OF RAIL AND WATER CARRIERS. 359 system. The general tendency throughout all these changes is quently the tendencies towards such concentrations rather towards the expansion or increase of the mileage of all the increased than diminished, the length of the mileage con- important systems after they are once fairly established, but in trolled by nearly all the large systems of 1880-81 and the a few instances the opposite tendency has prevailed. volume of their transactions being materially increased; and Accurate data relating to the exact length of the lines con- some systems which were formerly of inconsiderable magni- nected with all the various systems at any given period has tude were expanded with wonderful rapidity. Prominent in- heretofore been unattainable, but enough is known to show stances of the last-named class are the Richmond and West that a considerable number of systems contain more than a Point Terminal, and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe thousand miles of road, some more than two thousand miles, systems. some more than three thousand miles, some more than four The boundaries of the various groups are partially indicated thousand miles, some more than five thousand miles, and a by the lists of companies belonging to the respective railway few, including the Pennsylvania, Missouri Pacific, and Atchi- confederations heretofore published. The important systems son, Topeka and Santa Fe, more than seven thousand miles. of each group or class of roads, compete with each other for The tendency towards consolidations, and an increase of the the through traffic they obtain, the systems of each group com- length of systems either by leases, purchase of a controlling peting for the largest attainable share of the systems in each interest, or new construction, was more stubbornly resisted in connecting group, and often for much of the traffic they move New England than in any other section; but even in that over comparatively short distances. quarter considerable additions have recently been made to the The result is to secure for the main body of the American length of old systems, and in all other quarters there have been people, and all their diversified interests, a perpetual contest few serious obstacles to notable expansions. between giant systems for the privilege of hauling persons and The magnitude of the operations of various systems in all descriptions of movable property, between all distant por- 1879-80 and a few years later has already been indicated by tions of the Union, and between many stations in compara- statements compiled from the census report on railways and tively close proximity. Whether men wish to travel or trade other sources, which showed that in 1879-80 forty-four corpora- between the Atlantic and Pacific, or lake and gulf ports, or be- tions conducted 80.4 per cent. of the whole freight traffic and tween many thousands of intermediate places, rival rail car- nearly 60 per cent. of the railway passenger business of the riers are always ready and anxious to serve them, always for a country, and that in 1881 more than 47 per cent. of the rail- remuneration which falls below old rail or water standards, way freight receipts were earned by thirteen systems. Subse- and often for exceedingly low rates or fares. RELATIVE RANK OF RAIL AND WATER CARRIERS. IT has heretofore been shown that in the progress of the ernmental outlays, some of which have been materially in- development of the transportation systems of the United creased during recent years. States a leading feature of the starting point was the manifest Much has been said of the importance and magnitude of impossibility of economically moving bulky freight over con- water systems of transportation, conducted on canals, the great siderable distances by land routes. Water channels only were oceanic, lake, and gulf boundaries of the Republic, and the navi- available for such purposes, and they continued to furnish the gable portions of its rivers. Appropriate measures for their principal reliance up to about the middle of the nineteenth improvement are commendable. But the aggregate length of century. After 1850, however, rail routes began to rise rapidly such routes forms a small percentage of the existing railway in relative importance with the swift progress of new construc- mileage, and one of the notable features of modern railway tion, and since that period there has scarcely been a serious development is the remarkable extent to which it has aimed interruption of this movement. It is a natural result of the at paralleling water lines, and supplementing or partially sup- large additions to railway mileage, and the possibility of ex- planting the water carriers who formerly monopolized im- tending railways everywhere, while the length of water routes portant classes of traffic of which a large percentage is now has not been materially increased, and cannot be, except by conducted over rail routes. There is scarcely an American enormous expenditures; of great reductions in railway rates, navigable river, canal, or coast line, at the present day, which and increase of the number and capacity of freight cars; of the is not closely paralleled by one or more railways, which com- steady continuance of railway operations at all seasons, except pete with the carriers who use the adjacent water channels, when they are briefly suspended by extraordinary blizzards and one of the features of the new construction since 1880 is a or unusual calamities, while the interior water channels of material increase of such rail competition, especially on the northern latitudes are closed during winter months, and low borders of the northern lakes, the Mississippi, the gulf of water is often an obstacle to movements on some of the south- Mexico, and the Pacific coast. ern rivers; and of numerous improvements in railway appli- It seems paradoxical to assert that a considerable percentage ances for passenger travel, which have greatly increased speed, of the internal commerce of the country is conducted on ex- comfort, and assurances of safety. ternal channels, but this is the fact, for, aside from the Cana- Generally speaking, in other countries an inflexible govern- dian railway lines which move freight between American cities, mental policy has been pursued in regard to financial outlays through their control of, or alliances with, connections in the for railways or artificial water-ways, all classes or none receiv- United States, many coast-wise movements of notable magni- ing aid from public treasuries, while in the United States many tude, between American ports, are made in American vessels systems have been tried at various epochs and different places, on the northern lakes, the Atlantic, the gulf of Mexico, and partly on account of numerous changes and diversities in the the Pacific coast. condition of various localities. Out of numerous experiments It would be difficult, if not impossible, to obtain reliable data a strong tendency was developed to place railways squarely on relating to the proportion that freight movements on all these the footing of commercial enterprises, in which their owners great natural water channels bear to the entire freight move- and creditors might make or lose money without affecting the ment of the country. There is no doubt of the magnitude of finances of any class of governments, and to subject them to an the shipments over water routes, but in the aggregate they fall increasing number of legal restrictions and antagonisms, while far below the total quantity moved by rail. The Chief of the another set of aids to transportation efficiency, consisting of Bureau of Statistics, in his first report on internal commerce, improvements of water-ways, road bridges, and ordinary high- published in 1877, estimated the value of the commodities ways, were to an increasing extent provided for solely by gov- transported on rail at $18,000,000,000, and said that "the value Digitized by Google 360 RELATIVE RANK OF RAIL AND WATER CARRIERS. of our internal commerce is about sixteen times the value of tons forwarded by raft, were received, and 86,170 tons shipped. our foreign commerce." He added that "if it were possible to From the Lower Mississippi 268,735 tons were received, and ascertain the value of the commerce between the different sec- 538,065 tons shipped. The traffic on the other rivers was as tions of the country, on the ocean and gulf, and on the lakes, follows: Illinois river-receipts, 78,560 tons; shipments, 7,125; rivers, and other avenues of transportation, we should probably Missouri river-receipts, 27,700; shipments, 14,580; Obio river- find that the total value of our internal commerce is at least receipts, 121,670; shipments, 19,085; Cumberland and Tennessee twenty-five times greater than the value of our foreign com- rivers-receipts, 23,815; shipments, 18,715; Red and Ouachita merce." This estimate appears to be to the effect that about rivers-shipments, 3,370 tons. 19 or nearly two-thirds of the internal commerce of the country At New Orleans changes similar to those reported at St. Louis was conducted on railways in 1876 or 1876-77. The proportion have occurred. A table showing the value of receipts, partly has presumably been materially increased since that period. estimated, in each commercial year from 1872-73 to 1886-87, Positive data relating to various interior water routes clearly shows that in 1872-73 such receipts were valued at $184,620,047, shows that on them rail movements have relatively been rapidly of which $144,168,477 were forwarded by river, and $44,452,477 advancing, during recent' years, every important class of rail by rail and canal. In 1886-87 the estimated value of receipts traffic showing large gains, while the magnitude of some of the was $164,028,664, of which $59,826,765 was forwarded by river, interior water route movements has been diminished. and $104,901,899 by rail and canal. A considerable amount of information bearing on the move- The following extracts from an interesting and instructive ments on the Mississippi and its tributaries, during recent years, article on the "Commerce of the Mississippi River from Mem- is furnished in a report on the commerce of the Mississippi and phis to the Gulf of Mexico," which forms part of the report of Ohio rivers, submitted by the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics of 1888, illustrate the to the Treasury Department of the United States on January modern tendencies: "There has been a material decline in the 30th, 1888, and published as a Government document. From river business of the Lower Mississippi during the last five it the following statistics are compiled:- years. This has been more in value than in tonnage. During this period there has been a falling off in the shipment of the OHIO RIVER TRADE. more valuable products and an increase in the handling of A detailed estimate of the value of commerce conducted, by heavy articles. The barge and floating tonnage has grown; the river, at all the cities, towns, and principal landings of the steamboat tonnage declined." A table of river receipts (not Ohio, in 1869 and 1886, shows that in the former year it was including rafts) and shipments in each year from 1880 to 1887 valued at $591,754,000, and in the latter year at $253,481,788, a shows that in 1880 they consisted of 2,959,250 tons, and in 1887 decline of more than one-half. At a few. towns there were of 2,473,072 tons. It is stated that "during the period the re- special causes for the diversion or diminution of trade or pro- ceipts by river at New Orleans show a falling off of 9 per cent., duction, but it is stated that "the apparent decline of river and in the shipments up stream of 23 per cent. The decline traffic at various points is not indicative of commercial decay varies greatly in the different lists of articles handled and re- of such communities. The almost omnipresent rail competi- ceived. There have been heavy losses in the provision trade tion is an element in the count that brings up commercial and in cotton by river. Sugar and rice show a decline; that is footings to several times more than the totals of water trans- a larger proportion of the crop is brought to market by the rail- portation for all points where the two run counter to each roads than formerly. Grain and breadstuffs have been fluc- other." tuating, dependent upon the railroad and ocean freight rates. The number of boats and tonnage registered at Ohio river On the other hand, there has been a large increase in the re- ports for the year 1886 was reported to be as follows: Passenger ceipts of coal and coke, stoves, lumber, and bulky articles." steamers, 158, with a tonnage of 47,924.13; tow-boats, 188, with Detailed references are made to the specific effect of various a tonnage of 84,946.56; saw-mill boats, 9, with a tonnage of railways and railway systems. It is stated that "of the seven 509.78; excursion and ferry boats, 50, with a tonnage of 6,230.52; lines centreing in New Orleans all compete with the river total, 405, with a tonnage of 89,610.99. route. The New Orleans and North-eastern is the least affected by this competition, although it is an air line from New Orleans MOVEMENTS ON THE MISSISSIPPI. to another river point, Cincinnati. The railroad busi- A number of details are published of the commerce of St. ness has steadily advanced since the war, and its advance has Louis, and the relative extent of rail and river transportation been largely at the expense of the steamboats. The to and from that city, during a considerable period. Its river advance has been steady and without a single set-back. In traffic includes movements on the Upper Mississippi, the Lower fourteen years the railroads have quadrupled their business, in Mississippi, the Illinois, the Missouri, the Ohio, the Cumber- six years doubled it." land, and Tennessee, 80 that it represents a large percentage of the trade of the greatest of interior river systems. St. Louis is, INCREASE OF THE MAGNITUDE OF RAILWAY LABORS. on the other hand, one of the most important of the interior While the amount of domestic traffic conducted on water railway centres, and much has been done during late years to channels has declined in some respects and increased in others, increase the importance of its railway connections. The results since 1880, important fluctuations from year to year being are shown in a series of tables. The number of tons of freight not uncommon, the growth of the business of many companies received and shipped in 1871 was 4,913,102, of which 1,654,899 and of the entire railway system has been rapid. Detailed sta- tons, or 33.68 per cent., was moved by river, and 4,913,102 tons, tistics in Poor's Manual show that the aggregate advance from or 66.22 per cent., was moved by rail. In 1887 the total num- 1882 to 1886 on all the railways of the United States was as ber of tons moved was 14,359,059, of which the number of tons follows: The number of passengers carried increased from moved by river was 1,503,105, or 10.46 per cent., and the rail 289,030,783 to 382,284,972. The passenger movement increased movement was 12,359,059 tons, or 89.53 per cent. The ten- from 7,483,059,934 to 9,659,698,294. The number of tons of dency towards an increase of the relative magnitude of the rail freight moved increased from 360,490,875 to 482,245,254. The movement, from year to year, was comparatively slow but freight movement increased from 39,302,209,245 to 52,802,070,529. uninterrupted, except from 1879 to 1880, from 1885 to 1886, The unfavorable influence of the period of depression, which and from 1886 to 1887. The lowest period reached in quantity diminished new construction, however, is reflected in the small and relative rank of river movements was in 1885, when the gain in the volume of freight movements from 1883 to 1884. number of tons moved by river was 1,013,240, or 8.81 per cent. There was a slight decrease in the number of tons moved, Statements of the St. Louis receipts and shipments by various and the advance in the freight movement was much below rivers during each month of 1887 show the following aggregates: the average standard, as it was only from 44,064,923,445 to From the Upper Mississippi 132,400 tons, exclusive of 218,165 44,725,207,677. Digitized by Google VARIOUS STYLES OF PASSENGER CARS. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google PERSONNEL OF RAILWAYS. B RIEF references have been made to a few of the prominent were soon found, at first among men trained as land survey individuals who rendered special services in connection and subsequently among the assistants of engineers of re with the establishment of some of the features of the trans- nized capacity, or graduates of home or foreign schools, incl portation systems of this country. A complete record of the ing a number of military officers who had been trained at V labors of all who were actively and usefully engaged in pro- Point. From small beginnings, there was a rapid expans moting great works of internal improvement would fill bulky in many directions, and after lines were finished, and el volumes. Without attempting such a task it seems desirable mous additions to mileage and traffic were made, there W that something should be said in reference to the classes of corresponding enlargement of the operating forces. men whose aid was necessary. In the progress of railway development one of the most First of all come the projectors who prepare public sentiment portant changes was a great increase in the number of I and aid in securing essential legislation or legal authority and employed, and in the extent to which a division of labor pecuniary support. At the outset the initial movements either diversification of talent and effort became necessary. o originated with, or were earnestly seconded by leading men of concomitants were steps to devise or improve systems of or the country and of each particular section. The newspaper press izing the forces of assistants, the arrangement of details rela rendered invaluable and often unrequited aid in securing to the general rules by which each class should be gover effective consideration for bright conceptions. An immense the increasing extent to which employés devoted specia amount of matter was written and printed and innumerable exclusive attention to particular tasks, and the formation public meetings were held before decisive steps could be taken various organizations of men engaged in sundry branches, B4 for the construction of many of the railways of this country. being intended to promote the efficiency of methods of As legislative action was originally essential, and as nearly all ducting transportation operations, while others were 1 the important early works were aided directly or indirectly by chiefly to advance the real or supposed personal interest governmental authorities, internal improvement questions their members. have at various periods entered freely into politics. Although The average number of railway employés of all grade parties have occasionally divided on a few of the issues raised, 1880, as stated in the census report, was 418,957, but a cor most of the disputes have related to details about which mem- tion in a foot note reduces it to 415,967. In that year bers of each of the leading organizations differed. Influential mileage operated was 87,782, and there was an average of 1 politicians have at many stages been in a position to materially less than five employés per mile of road operated. This a aid some corporations and to injure others, and a recognition age has since been materially increased, but if a correspon of this fact has often necessitated harmonious relations between ratio has been maintained, in the entire country, the ave partisan and corporate interests. Much has been said at various number of persons now employed (1888) is presumably f periods of attempts of companies to unduly influence legisla- 700,000 to 750,000. This estimate is exclusive of the men tion and legislators. There has probably been less ground for ployed in new construction, and in manufacturing things 1 serious accusations of this kind in the United States, in propor- by railway companies, that are not made in railway shops tion to mileage, than elsewhere. But even if this supposition cluding iron and other metals and materials, steel rails, I is correct, emergencies may have arisen in which there were motives, cars, car wheels, springs, &c. If both these cla reasons for believing that the prosperity of important enter- were added, the total in busy years would probably be al prises required the friendly action of representatives of the double the average number of persons annually employe people at any price; and practical action may sometimes have the operation of railways, or not far from one million a corresponded with this conclusion. half. A recent estimate places the number at about two It is a misfortune to any great industrial interest to be in a lions. In the matter of furnishing employment railways I position in which its revenues depend, to a considerable ex- second only to agriculture, and greatly exceed all other tent, upon the action of governments, and the most serious terests. difficulties of a number of railways have arisen from such The forces directly employed by railway companies in involvements. Laws of some kind, affecting their acquisition were classified as follows: General officers, 3,375; general o of a right of way, issue of securities to represent capital em- clerks, 8,655; stationmen, 63,380; trainmen-engineers, 18, ployed, relations with shippers and travelers, and various other conductors, 12,419; all others, 48,254; total, 79,650; shopm subjects, must be passed, and this necessity of legislation has machinists, 22,766; carpenters, 23,302; all others, 43,746; t often been made a pretext for the agitation of measures which 89,714; trackmen, 122,489; all other employés, 51,694; aggres would cripple corporations without benefiting the public. 418,957. The aggregate amount of the pay rolls was $195,350 Mainly for the reasons thus briefly stated, and formerly for which gave an average of $16,279,168 per month, or about more cogent ones, arising from the frequency with which gov- per month for each employé, including all classes. ernmental advances of lands, money, or bonds were at some The companies which in 1880 reported that they emplo periods made to railway companies, councilmen, mayors, legis- in railway service one thousand or more persons were as lators, governors, congressmen, senators, and presidents have lows:- at various periods exerted an important influence for or against In New England.-Boston and Albany, 4,656; Boston particular enterprises, and before the existing agencies of trans- Lowell, 1,107; Boston and Maine, 1,526; Central Vermont, 2 portation could assume their present shape it was necessary Eastern, of Massachusetts, 2,080; Fitchburg, 1,562; Maine that many a sturdy battle should be fought and won in council tral, 1,000; New York and New England, 1,870; New York, chambers and capitols. Haven and Hartford, 2,270; Old Colony, 2,120. Either before or after legal obstacles are overcome the ser- In group II, consisting of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, M vices of civil engineers must be procured, and on their wisdom gan, Indiana, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, and Distri and integrity 80 much depends that they can often make or Columbia.-Allegheny Valley, 1,511; Albany and Susqueha mar the fortunes of a difficult undertaking. Terrible disasters 1,500; Baltimore and Ohio, 14,619; Central of New Jersey, 5 and brilliant successes can each be traced to their decisions Chicago and Grand Trunk, 1,238; Cincinnati, Hamilton and influence. Dayton, 1,056; Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Chic When canal construction first commenced the native supply 1,227; Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and Indianapolis, 8 of trained civil engineers was so limited that it was considered Cleveland and Pittsburgh, 1,696; Columbus, Chicago and Ind necessary to send to Europe for an expert; but home recruits Central, 3,430; Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, 7,218; 46 362 SYSTEMS OF RAILWAY ORGANIZATION. and Pere Marquette, 1,008; Grand Rapids and Indiana, 1,124; Joseph, 1,149; Illinois Central, 4,610; Indianapolis and St. Louis, Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, 9,208; Lehigh Valley, 5,517; 1,469; Kansas City, St. Joseph and Council Bluffs, 1,384; Mis- Long Island, 1,877; Manhattan, 2,982; Marietta and Cincinnati, souri, Kansas and Texas, 2,022; Missouri Pacific, 2,500; St. 1,927; Michigan Central, 5,052; New York Central and Hudson Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern, 3,971; St. Louis and San River, 13,164; New York, Lake Erie and Western, 13,687; New Francisco, 1,750; St. Louis, Vandalia and Terre Haute, 1,508; York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, 4,410; Northern Central, 2,275; St. Paul, Minneapolis and Manitoba, 3,128; St. Paul and Sioux Ohio and Mississippi, 3,400; Pennsylvania, 26,397; Pennsylvania City, 1,045; Wabash, St. Louis and Pacific, 8,064; Winona and and New York Canal and Railroad Company, 1,000; Phila- St. Peter, 1,418; Wisconsin Central, 1,195. delphia and Reading, 11,381; Philadelphia, Wilmington and In group VI, containing Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, New Baltimore, 2,180; Pittsburgh, Cincinnati and St. Louis, 2,619; Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago, 7,959; Rensselaer and California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington.-Atchison, Topeks Saratoga, 1,416; Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburgh, 1,346; and Santa Fe, 5,695; Burlington and Missouri River (in No- Terre Haute and Indianapolis, 1,360. braska), 1,326; Central Pacific, 6,317; Houston and Texas Cen- In group III, embracing Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, tral, 2,400; International and Great Northern, 1,181; Kansas Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, Pacific, 2,069; Northern Pacific, 2,510; Texas and Pacific, 1,459, and South Carolina.-Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio (now part Union Pacific, 3,959. of the Norfolk and Western), 1,289; Central of Georgia, 1,537; Only a small proportion of the companies that reported to Chesapeake and Ohio, 2,687; Chicago, St. Louis and New Or- the census bureau employed more than 1,000 men. Ten of leans, 2,564; Louisville and Nashville, 4,277; Memphis and the companies that employed less than that number, employed Charleston, 1,036; Mobile and Ohio, 1,665; Nashville, Chatta- more than 900. Seven companies employed between 800 and nooga and St. Louis, 2,083; Richmond and Danville, 1,081; 900. Thirteen companies employed between 700 and 800. Six South Carolina, 1,250; Washington City, Virginia Midland and companies employed between 600 and 700. Twenty-four com- Great Southern, 1,010. panies employed between 500 and 600. Twenty-three comps- In group IV, containing Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Missouri, and nies employed between 400 and 500. Forty-three companies Minnesota.-Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Northern, 1,345; Chi- employed between 800 and 400. Thirty-nine companies em- cago and Alton, 8,900; Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, 12,587; ployed between 200 and 300. Eighty companies employed be- Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 10,824; Chicago and North- tween 100 and 200. Three hundred and fifty-four companies western, 8,557; Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, 6,930; Chicago, employed less than 100, and a large proportion of them em- St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, 1,106; Hannibal and St. ployed less than 50. SYSTEMS OF RAILWAY ORGANIZATION. IT is obvious that out of the great diversity in the number of in turn, subdivided under the direction of a general superin- persons employed by different railway companies, as well tendent. His principal officers were first, a superintendent of as other circumstances, differences have arisen in various mat- road, whose chief assistants were road masters, the employés ters relating to the organization of working forces. under their direction being section men; second, a superintend- ORGANIZATIONS OF SMALL ROADS. ent of machinery, whose chief aids were a foreman of a ma- chine shop in which machinists worked, a foreman of a black- As in the past, 80 in the present, there are some small roads smith shop and blacksmiths, a foreman of a car shop and which might have furnished the groundwork of the description carpenters, a foreman of a paint shop and painters, engineers of a humorous writer who credits a president with saying that (not on trains) and firemen, and car masters who directed he is the principal owner, and also "the board of directors, operations of oil men and cleaners; a general passenger agent treasurer, secretary, general manager, superintendent, pay- whose leading assistants were conductors and mail agents who master, track master, general passenger agent, general freight directed the labors of brakemen, engineers (on passenger agent, master mechanic, ticket agent, conductor, brakeman, trains), and ticket agents, station agents, express agents, and and boss. The engineer does his own firing, and runs the police; a general freight agent whose principal assistants were repair shop and round-house, all by himself." conductors who directed labors of brakemen and engineers on One writer of high railway standing, H. S. Haines, in refer- freight trains, freight station agents, weighers, gaugers, and ring to this subject, says: "There are those among us whose yard masters; a supply agent and a fuel agent, who each had memory goes back to the patriarchal stage of management, appropriate assistants. when most corporations owned not more than fifty or a hun- dred miles of track; when the treasurer sold tickets at the prin- GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION. cipal passenger station on the road, and the freight agent at A report made to the stockholders of the New York and Erie the same station was virtually the head of the transportation Railroad in 1856, by D. C. McCallum, stated that the following department; when no bill was paid except upon the order of general principles should be observed in arranging the organi- the president, and periodical reports and statistical statements zation of railway forces:- were unknown." In referring to a similar stage of develop- "First. A proper division of responsibilities. ment, Charles Francis Adams says he can easily remember Second. Sufficient power conferred to enable the same to be when the first railroads were organized in Massachusetts. "An fully carried out, that such responsibilities may be real in their apothecary was president of the Old Colony Railroad, which character. carried 250 passengers a week, considered something wonder- Third. The means of knowing whether such responsibilities ful forty years ago." are faithfully executed. ENLARGED SYSTEMS OF ORGANIZATION Fourth. Great promptness in the report of all derelictions of were necessitated by additions to mileage and the growth of duty, that evils may be at once corrected. business. Thirty years ago the model management of a first- Fifth. Such information to be obtained through a system of class road of that era was divided first into two grand depart- daily reports and checks that will not embarrass principal ments. One related to financial affairs and all accounts, and officers nor lessen their influence with their subordinates. was managed by the president, secretary, treasurer, attorney, Sixth. The adoption of a system, as a whole, which will not and directors. The other was the operating department, with only enable the general superintendent to detect errors imme- a commercial branch and a mechanical branch. They were, diately, but also point out the delinquent. Digitized by Google SYSTEMS OF RAILWAY ORGANIZATION. 363 A system of operations to be efficient and successful should official designated as general accounting officer are auditor, be such as to give to the principal and responsible head of the comptroller, general auditor, and local treasurer. running department a complete daily history of details in all The working forces are designated under the following heads: their minutise." General officers, clerks in general offices, road masters, section Such principles have been respected, to a considerable extent, foremen, day laborers, station agents, clerks at stations, other for the protection and benefit of companies, but as the magni- help at stations, conductors, other train men, yard, switch, and tude of operations increased various modifications or additions watchmen, master mechanics, shop foremen, mechanics, engi- were found desirable or necessary. neers, firemen, bridge carpenters, car-shop carpenters, other OF THE PRESENT LARGE RAILWAY ORGANIZATIONS employés. Charles Francis Adams, in addressing students of Harvard Under the head of station expenses reference is made to University, in March, 1886, said:- station agents, clerks, attendants, watchmen, laborers, switch- "In the modern railroad there are five departments. First tenders, baggage masters, yard masters, train dispatchers, is the financial department, which is the sinew of the whole and telegraph operators. Under the head of maintenance of body, its ways and means; second, the construction department, track reference is made to road masters, clerks, mechanics, of which the head is the chief engineer, who lays out the road; laborers, and watchmen. Under the head of motive power thirdly comes the operating department, with the superin- engineers, firemen, wipers, and shop foremen are enumerated. tendent at the head; fourth comes the commercial department, Under the head of administration and general expenses refer- looked after by the general traffic manager; and, then, fifth, ence is made to general officers, division superintendents, comes the legal department. The counsel for the company clerks, and attendants. looks after all legal papers, suits, &c., and has a vast amount A proposed form of reports of employés and salaries, to be of business to attend to. The duties of these departments are made to the interstate commission by all railway companies, as varied as those of the United States government, and the gives a list, leaving blanks for such additions as may be neces- heads constitute a sort of cabinet, and the pivot wheel around sary, which embraces the following titles: President, vice- which the whole machinery moves is the president. In the president, vice-president, secretary, treasurer, chief en- beginning of the building of railways $1,000,000 was deemed a gineer, general solicitor, assistant solicitor, comptroller, auditor, large capital for a railroad. The capital of the Union Pacific auditor, general manager, traffic manager, general freight is represented by $270,000,000 of securities of the forty or fifty agent, general passenger agent, general ticket agent, general roads which are combined in this general system. Its income baggage agent, general superintendent, division superintend- is $25,000,000 a year, and in profitable times reaches $100,000 a ents, road masters. assistants to executive officers. General day. It employs 12,000 men, and has a monthly pay-roll of offices: clerks; stenographers. Station agents; station agents' $800,000; 12,000 cars are run by 550 locomotives; 25,000 tons of clerks; station agents' helpers; baggagemen, stations; baggage- steel rails are used in replacing worn-out rails, and 2,000,000 men, train; conductors, passenger trains; conductors, freight ties are used in keeping the road-bed in condition. If you trains; brakemen, passenger trains; brakemen, freight trains. compare this with the United States government, the affairs of engineers, passenger trains; engineers, freight trains; firemen. the latter during the first fifty years of its existence were trifling. passenger trains; firemen, freight trains; train dispatchers; ope- Yet this is only one system, and there are five more by the side rators; mechanics, state various classes; laborers, state various of which-for example, the Pennsylvania-the Union Pacific classes. is insignificant. If this is the growth of forty years, what will A detailed list of the classes of officers and operatives of be that of sixty or eighty years. I confess that I am unable to railway companies contains 334 names, by which they are forecast it. This great principle of consolidation and aggrega- designated. It embraces distinctive titles for different classes tion, like the principles of gravitation, has as yet but begun to of agents, clerks, conductors, foremen, inspectors, porters, su- develop its results." perintendents, watchmen, &c. H. S. Haines, in discussing the same subject, says: "The ex- GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN RAILWAY ORGANIZATIONS. perience of half a century has developed a form of organization which has been generally accepted as the pattern of efficient The lists of leading officials of various large roads show that management. It is based upon a recognition of the several there are sundry variations in the titles given to some classes purposes which the organization is expected to fulfill. That of officers, and detailed statements would presumably furnish is, first, the road which forms the line of communication, evidence of differences in a number of particulars, including the whose maintenance is in charge of the roadway department. extent to which companies have found it desirable to employ Then there is the movement of the vehicles in which freight important officers and large clerical forces for the performance and passengers are carried, which service is performed by the of special duties, such as keeping track of car movements, transportation department, and the maintenance of these tickets, &c. Some of the western roads have large land depart- vehicles by the car department, and of the motors by the ments, for which there is no equivalent on eastern lines. Some locomotive department, or, these two departments may be of the latter, in turn, have large interests in coal lands or valu- operated jointly as the machinery department. Then are the able real estate they do not intend to sell, which require the somewhat complex duties involved in soliciting and handling supervision of important officials. the business of the traffic department, which may be divided There are sundry changes made from time to time in organi- between the general freight agency and the general passenger zations. One of the modern tendencies is to increase the agency. These are the principal operating departments, but number of vice-presidents, 80 that such officers may be placed the organization must also include a fiscal agency under the in special charge of one or more of the grand divisions of treasurer, a department of audit and statistics, a purchasing railway labor. Such changes have doubtless been desirable, in agency and perhaps a technical bureau, and a legal depart- a number of cases, for the purpose of relieving the presidents ment. With a general superintendent or a general manager, of companies, and their principal assistants, from a portion of assisted by division superintendents and agents, the plan here the arduous labors and heavy responsibilities thrust upon them. given is the recognized type of a modern railroad organiza- It is almost inevitable that presidents of important roads should tion, apart from what belongs to it as a legal corporation." be overworked. if they are deeply impressed with a desire to fully perform their allotted tasks, and if they endeavor to keep GOVERNMENTAL METHODS OF CLASSIFYING RAILWAY OFFICIALS. a close supervision over all departments. As the heads of A Government report on Pacific railroads classifies officers companies they usually have greater freedom of choice in re- of the lines aided by the United States under the following gard to the range of their actual labors, from day to day, than heads: President, vice-president, secretary, treasurer, general other officials. They are frequently able and industrious men. executive officer, general accounting officer. The distinctive They may do too much, by exercising such jealous scrutiny title of the general executive officer in a majority of cases is that heads of departments have not sufficient freedom to secure general manager, but in some instances he is called general the best results, or they may do too little. superintendent, in others superintendent, in others traffic No general description of the various railway departments manager, and in others manager. The various titles of the would be fully applicable in all respects to all lines. A sketch Digitized by Google resents the prevailing methods. It says that the departments are needed, and is generally responsible for the safe and speedy are "the accounting, sometimes presided over by a comp- movement of passengers and freight. He is assisted by train troller, who may report either to the general manager or the masters, whose duties vary on many lines, but they are gene- president; the traffic department, which may have for its head rally immediately under the direction of the superintendent of a traffic manager, assisted by general freight agents and gen- transportation. eral passenger agents; the operating, in charge of a general The traffic department is really the commercial department superintendent. The accounting department is the one in It is divided between a general freight agent and a general pas which all accounts are kept, and the auditor, who usually assists senger agent, both of whom report to and receive their instruc- the comptroller, is responsible to the general manager, who tions from a traffic manager, or, where there is no traffic man receives an impression copy of each 'way bill,' which shows ager, from the general manager. The general freight agent the name of the shipper, the point of shipment, the name of has charge of the fixing of rates for transportation of freight, consignee, the destination, the marks, and the weight and and under his supervision soliciting agents and traveling agents freight charges on each consignment carried over the road. watch the movement of traffic, and secure to the road such of This way bill he scrutinizes carefully, and sees that the charges it as can be controlled. All reclamations for loss, damage, of are in accordance with the rates announced by the general overcharge on freight while in transit are adjudged by him. freight agent. If they are found correct he makes from them The general passenger agent supervises the passenger traffic numerous records, crediting agents or connecting railroads, in the same manner that the general freight agent provides for and charging others. The ticket agents send him either daily, the freight business, it being his duty to see that his railroad is weekly, or monthly reports of their sales, which are checked properly and sufficiently advertised; that it is represented im- with the tickets forwarded to him by conductors when taken partially in the ticket offices of all connecting lines, and 10 up on trains. supervise the printing and supplying of such tickets to the The operating department is one of the most important on agents of his line as the needs of his patrons demand These a railroad, as the success of the whole depends on its efficiency. officers of the freight and passenger departments have their The general superintendent is assisted by a superintendent of hands full, as do all others in charge of departments. roadway, a superintendent of machinery, and a superintendent There is a chief clerk who is supposed to do a little of every- of transportation. The superintendent of roadway has charge thing from answering the telephone to discussing a knotty of all tracks, and usually all bridges and buildings pertaining problem of policy toward some refractory competitor or con- to the track department; although some roads provide a sepa- nection with his superior, 80 as to carry out that gentleman's rate officer who looks after bridges alone. The superintendent ideas. of roadway is assisted by road masters who have charge of As a rule the heads of departments are young men, and the divisions, varying according to physical features of the track. demands on the brains and strength of these officers are 80 These road masters direct all work performed on their divisions severe that they seldom die in the service from old age. They by section foremen and track men. The superintendent of are well though not extravagantly paid, the salary varying machinery has charge of all locomotives and is responsible for according to the size of the road. The clerks in the depart- the performance of proper service. He also has charge of ments are usually men of ability, and are generally well in- enginemen, firemen, and machinists. formed. Each is fitted by natural talents, experience, and The superintendent of transportation has charge of the education for some particular kind of work, and is not sup- movement of trains over the line, appoints conductors, brake- posed to know much of the duties performed by other men." RAILWAY PRESIDENTS. VARIATIONS in the scope of the labors actually performed dominance is not equally probable. Good and bad results by the railway presidents of the United States have been have been attained under the administration of presidents with accompanied with and perhaps partly caused by noticeable each important class of antecedents. But extensive experi- differences in their individual characters, acquirements, and ence has strengthened the belief that the chances of success antecedents. Generally speaking, in recent years, the tendency are improved by the selection of men who possess in a high has been strongly towards a requirement that they should pos- degree recognized forms of railway ability and experience. sess an extensive railway experience. In different instances Shrewd observers, noted for their familiarity with the inside it was acquired in various branches of railway affairs, the pre- workings of railway organizations, think the practical course liminary labors being either in legal, financial, engineering, pursued by presidents is often influenced greatly by their ante constructing, or operating departments. A considerable num- cedent training, sometimes to an injurious extent, and that ber of presidents have been chosen chiefly on account of the this is one of the tendencies that should be guarded against by favorable influence they could presumably exercise either in boards of directors or other influences. This theory is to the commercial, banking, or investing circles, with little regard to effect that the special training in financial, engineering, or ope- their actual knowledge of the complicated details of railway rating departments may create a proclivity to display too grest movements. Others have virtually elected themselves by their an interest in the department of which most is known, and too control of stock or influence with stockholders. Others have little in other departments. been selected as presidents solely on account of skill displayed Whatever the antecedent training or acquirements of & rail- in the management of one or more branches of practical way president may be, he can usually, if he chooses, exercise railway affairs, and possession of recognized executive ability. positive influence over all the affairs of his own company, and The office is one of great importance, and the stockholders materially affect sundry other companies with which it con- of different companies have acted in some instances on the nects or competes, 80 that his characteristics may be a matter theory that they neither desired nor expected the president to of considerable consequence. For these and other reasons be the active head of all departments, looking to him chiefly there is, perhaps, no single class of men who have left a deeper as a financial leader, while in other cases presidents have been impress upon the transportation systems of the United States chosen in the expectation that they would exercise intelligent than railway presidents. Their personal convictions, exertions, supervision over all classes of operations. In the one case, the alliances, and antagonisms have exerted an important influence instincts of a thoroughly trained railroad man are likely to in creating the existing condition of affairs. exercise a controlling influence, and in the other, such pre- Like other rulers they have differed in conceptions of duty. which freedom of action by their principal assistants in com- porary absence of any of its managers. paratively trivial affairs is permitted. The division superin- Leading traits of distinguished dead railway presidents are tendent of an important railway was invited by the corre- briefly described in the following extracts from sketches of their sponding official on a connecting line to visit him and pass careers:- over a portion of the road under his superintendence for the Of John W. Garrett it was said that "the principles which purpose of comparing views in regard to sundry roadway im- he laid down for the management of the road were strict provements. The reply was: "I will be glad to do so, if the economy in the working of the line, no sinecures, close atten- president of the road will grant me permission." Then this tion to the purchasing department, intelligence and invention colloquy occurred: "Must you ask him?" "Certainly; I in the machinery, prompt payments to all having transactions would incur risk of dismissal if I did not. Wouldn't you, have with the company, and, in short, a practical transfer of the to get permission to go over my line with me?" "Gracious, system of a merchant's counting room to the office of the rail- no, my only danger would come from asking my president for way president. He resolved to examine every subject and it; he would think that if I hadn't sense enough to decide such account in person." a matter for myself, it might soon be necessary to look out for Of William H. Vanderbilt it was reported that one of his my successor." This incident illustrates differences in systems striking characteristics "was his willingness to receive candid of management, the leading idea in one case being to give opinions from his advisers. He often said that he had the ample freedom in details to subordinates, but to hold them greatest difficulty in obtaining the views of his friends and strictly responsible for results; while in the other case the business associates, many of whom followed the policy of weight of responsibility is substantially thrust upon the presi- watching him closely to see if they could catch from the ex- dent, as his explicit permission is required for trifling, as well pression of his face the drift of his mind, and then would go as important innovations, and a large portion of his time is with it. He would often say, 'I know perfectly well that I consumed in attempts to decide sundry questions which he can have not got all the knowledge needed in deciding many im- scarcely be expected to understand as well as some of his sub- portant questions, and even when I have it, my judgment is ordinates. not infallible. I know that I don't like to be crossed, and that Extraordinary emergencies occasionally arise in railway affairs sometimes I am irritable-I can't help that-but when I ask a which can best be met by wise and efficient action on the part man for his opinion I want it, and not what he thinks will of the president, and some of the most creditable and remark- coincide with my views." able of the labors of such officials have been in connection One of the sketches of Commodore Vanderbilt stated that his with such exigencies, on account of their possession of great policy in reference "to his railroad property was: 1. To get executive talent. If it is combined with power to reach wise full control of the road. 2. Improve it in every possible way, conclusions, or ability to obtain such information and advice and put it under first-class management. 3. Make it a paying as are useful aids in forming a correct judgment, on critical or institution." doubtful questions, the results are usually satisfactory. Sketches of Thomas A. Scott deservedly give him great It is supposed, in some quarters, that the general workings credit for extraordinary executive ability, and one writer states of American railway organizations centralize power to too great that his 'peculiar strength in all emergencies lay in the rapid- an extent. H. Haines, in discussing this subject, says: "The ity with which he reached a conclusion. Hardly would a case tendency is toward the concentration of authority in one man. be stated but his reply was ready, and so accurate was his The effect is a sort of congestion at the periphery, of which he judgment and intuitive his perception that he rarely erred. is the centre. Everything in the direction of progress and Work thus became easy to him, and problems that perplexed reform must be initiated by the head of the management. others were as playthings to his trained powers. He thus The motion in that direction is not uniform; it is spasmodic. transacted an almost incredible amount of business with per- Men ordinarily move in grooves-in the line of least resistance. fect ease, and when worn out he had the rare faculty of drop- Perhaps it is as well that they do. Those who have to manage ping asleep instantly and snatching the needed rest with the them have only to prepare the grooves, and they can then minimum loss of time." know where to find those whose duty it is to move in them. An appreciative sketch of J. Edgar Thomson says that notice- But there may be too much of this. It is not well for all but able traits in his "character were reticence and taciturnity. one man in an organization to be kept in grooves. It is not Devoting all his life and his great natural abilities to the well for the heads of departments to be confined to registering cultivation of one set of ideas, his accumulation of professional and executing the edicts of the responsible manager of the rail- information was enormous. This vast knowledge made him road property. If this course be pursued, then the official head exceedingly cautious and careful,-conservative in his ideas will be taxed beyond his individual capacity, and the machine and generally slow to execute. But when his conclusions were will not be at its maximum state of efficiency. The reached, and the emergency required it, he became grandly principal part which the head of a great system should retain enterprising, and permitted no obstacle to stand in the way of for himself is not the originating of ideas nor the institution of success. His thoughts and opinions were rarely made known, reforms, but the co-ordination of the efforts of those who are while he displayed infinite patience in listening to the views, responsible to him, 80 that 'all may be parts of one resplendent desires, hopes, fears, and plans of others. Actions spoke for him whole." -not words. He absorbed the knowledge of others, weighed, These remarks were made in connection with the advocacy considered, and digested it thoroughly, and reached conclusions of an advisory board to the general manager, providing for a by cool, methodical reasoning. When convinced, he knew no free expression of the views of minor officials, but they may hesitancy or doubt. The determination was as fixed as the also be applicable, in some instances, to presidents when they laws of nature, and success appeared to come as a result of his are the real heads of great systems. Whatever may be the faith. His conception of the future of American railroads nature of the details of organization, the central power should seems now almost supernatural. For twenty years he marked not be overburdened with routine daily labors, and all con- out and reiterated in his annual reports the plan of the Penn- cerned should heed the warnings given by premature deaths sylvania Railroad Company, and he never deviated from that of prominent overworked railway officials. The machine plan,-pursuing it persistently, patiently, and faithfully, until should be 80 arranged that, like the government of the United it was fully accomplished." GENERAL OFFICE LABORS. BOARDS OF DIRECTORS. number of accounts of many descriptions must be revised, and EVERY mailway. company has a board of directors or a board conveniently arranged, or tabulated, 80 that statements and The latter title is adopted in few instances. statistics throwing a flood of light on any important branch of It perhaps represents more correctly than the former the func- road operations can be conveniently obtained, and checks tions theoretically exercised, as they include action on every established in reference to all classes of receipts and expend- important new proceeding; the declaration of dividends; the itures. issue of new securities; either the appointment of important In improvement of methods and increase of available force officials, including the president, or the ratification of im- for accomplishing such objects notable advances have occurred. portant appointments made by the president or other high Some of the large companies have auditors at the head of each officials; the construction of new lines, or other works of con- of the three departments of freight receipts and disbursements sequence. Their nominal position is somewhat analogous to passenger receipts, and general disbursements; and each of that of a legislative body of a political government, as they are these auditors requires a large number of assistants. A similar always elected by the shareholders, and are supposed to act as condition of things exists in reference to the operations of other their immediate representatives, while the work of the railway classes of officials in general offices to such an extent that raf- is performed or supervised by officials and employés of many way accounting has become one of the most important branches grades. The extent to which boards of directors or managers of railway service. do manage railway operations or control the policy and move- Some roads classify their officials and assistants under five ments of great lines, varies materially. The actual state of heads, one of which is the accounting department; others com- affairs differs widely in different companies. In some quarters bine the accounting department with the treasury department there has been a strong tendency to dwarf the real powers and others intrust a large share of the duties belonging to 12 diminish the actual labors of directors, while in other instances accounting department to officials under the direction & the opposite tendency has prevailed. Much depends upon the heads of an operating department. There may or may not be character of the men who hold the respective positions, and the special causes for such diversities as exist. Some companies extent to which they are interested, pecuniarily or otherwise, presumably attach more importance than others to a thorough in the enormous labors performed and intricate questions de- discharge of various duties, and there are also great differences manding solution. Developments from time to time show that in the amount of labor to be performed of any kind by account- there are some boards of directors powerful enough to enforce ing departments, arising from differences in volume of traffic. a change of presidents and other officials, and that, on the As railway operations expand, one of the directions in which other hand, there are some presidents who can make im- a notable increase of checks becomes necessary is in reference portant changes in their boards when they wish to do 80. The to passenger fares. Originally there was no such thing as real ruling power is in the hands of those who control the tickets, and the changes made from the starting point, at which majority of the stock at the annual elections, and such control numerous stations are established, where tickets can be per- usually carries with it ability to determine questions relating chased, are multitudinous. Under some of the most thorough to the quarters in which authority is vested. Struggles involv- of the modern systems the tickets are traced through all their ing vital issues on this subject are not common, but they are ramifications, and safeguards are thus provided against pecu's sufficiently numerous to admonish all concerned of the possi- tion on the part of conductors which were formerly unattain- bility of other contests, and to remind shareholders of their able. In the single matter of preventing a railway company possession of legal rights which are sometimes not wisely exer- from being defrauded of portions of its revenue from passenge" cised. It is generally considered desirable by the parties deeply traffic great advances have been made in some instances. and interested in the affairs of each company, of all shades of opin- the experience of a number of lines has shown the necessity of ion on particular issues, to avoid acrimonious public contests, comprehensive action on this subject. Formerly railway com- and for this and other reasons railway elections usually, but panies were, in regard to passenger receipts, largely at the not invariably, result in "the re-election of the old board" mercy of their conductors, and while many of them were and until the death of one or more of its members necessitates a are honest men, there were some to whom the remarks are change. applicable which appeared a few years ago in the following The great magnitude of some of the existing railway systems sketch in the Indianapolis News:- has rendered it impossible that the members of boards could RAILWAY CONDUCTORS. be personally and continuously familiar with the districts traversed, and in a number of cases the residences of a large "The old-time railroad conductor, of which no pure type proportion of directors of companies are in financial centres, remains at this day, was one of the nabobs of the earth. To where new supplies of capital are obtained, distant from any him life was a balmy, gentle summer's day. His income was part of their lines. Close supervision of active operations must, determined by the limit of his desire. He was one of those therefore, in such cases be intrusted to officials in immediate officials rarely to be met with who could find no legitimate charge, and it is a reasonable assumption that among the great complaint over the size of his earnings, inasmuch as he fixed lines of this country the progress of development has been them himself. Before tickets came into general use upon the towards an increase of the duties, powers, and responsibilities railroads, all money of course passed through the conductors of the trained railway officials except in matters that are strictly fingers. He was practically the railroad company 80 far as of a financial nature, and even in them on some lines. passenger receipts were concerned. He received the money. and no man knew how much he received. He declared din- ACCOUNTING AND TREASURY DEPARTMENTS. dends, large or small, and paid over the company's per cent Of the total reported number of employés of all railway and no one could say him nay. He was paid as a matter companies in the United States in 1880, 3,375, or nearly one per formality, a certain salary. Just why this was done it is diff- cent., were designated general officers, and 8,655, or more than cult to see, unless it was designed by the company thus two per cent., were general office clerks. The labors of the make him think he was considered honest and flatter him latter are as necessary to the efficient performance of the duties thereby into a more favorable division of receipts. The of the directors and executive heads as the exertions of the conductor grew rich, and retired to spend the remainder of clerks in the departments at Washington are to members of days in the enjoyment of his wealth. the Cabinet and President of the United States. An immense The ticket system was designed to cut off the conductor's Digitized by GENERAL OFFICE LABORS. 367 revenue and turn it into the treasury of the company. Its one of their number, in an article he contributed to the Bee adoption was, perhaps, to a certain extent, successful. But Line Gazette a few years ago:- while it did not leave the conductor 80 many opportunities to "Give us a chance to see what the small station agent has to turn an honest penny, it made him more vigilant and greedy say for himself. in regard to those opportunities that were left. Many men He gets up in the morning before daylight to attend to the who travel regularly over certain lines establish an acquaint- local freight. When it comes along the freight is unloaded ance with the conductors and discover their plan of operations. anywhere within a mile from the freight house, and the agent, With such the conductors often divide the spoils by taking less who has nothing else to do, lugs it in alone. Then, perchance, than the regular fare, thus making it to the interest of such there is a car to go, and then the train men dance, and say he men not to purchase tickets. Instances of this method of has been holding that particular car for over a week, and swear mutual division and silence sometimes extend over many they will get laid out if they take it. The local gone, and years. The conductor will pass through the train, greet the freight all in freight house, he goes home to breakfast in a familiar acquaintance, while the f. a. drops, perhaps, half the tolerable state of humor. Returning to the station at 7 A. M., regular fare into his hand, and it is sufficient. Once this he finds several lady passengers waiting for the 9 o'clock train. arrangement begun, and the conductor, were he disposed to No chance to sweep up and clean until that comes. Pretty become honest, dares not do 80. Usually with persons he does soon they commence to bother him just as he is making out not know he will take out the book for registering fares, which his reports, and he has to explain why children fifteen years of he is required to carry, and, with a great show, seem to register age cannot ride for half fare, or some such point. Before that a fare, though the paper over which his pencil seems to pass, is done with some one comes banging around for a box of may be innocent of blot or blemish. The conductors who are freight, and will not be satisfied until the agent has shown him thus 'crooked,' running on the same road, will usually have an every box in the freight house, and has promised to telegraph understanding with one another as to what percentage of and find out where his box is being held. He then returns to money collected shall be retained. This is necessary in order office, and the train dispatcher wants to know if he is laying that one man may not uniformly report larger receipts than off, and why don't he answer his call. If he tries to explain, others, and thus give the thing away. It is proverbial that if dispatcher thinks he is impudent, and says he will see the an honest conductor gets on a road where a majority or all of superintendent about it, and if the agent don't try to explain, them are dishonest he will find his place very uncomfortable, he will get reported for not doing so. Then, when dispatcher and is likely to be the victim of some plot that will result in is sending special order, passenger comes to ticket window, and his discharge. Thus certain roads are known to have dis- wants to know how soon the train will come, and if it is on honest conductors throughout, while on others all seem to be time. At last, train is nearly due, when in comes a man who honest. An honest man going on the road where the con- has five or ten dollars to send by express, and who, after spoil- ductors are generally dishonest often feels that he must do as ing three or four envelopes, finally gets one to suit him, and they do as a matter of self-defence, and comes in time to look then wants agent to count money for him. He expects to upon it as legitimate. send a barrel of potatoes to Michigan in the fall, and wants to Various devices are adopted by the railroads to prevent the know how much it will cost, and if the agent cannot get a conductors from stealing, but none as yet have been entirely lower rate if he ships three or four barrels. Then the train successful, and if any man will offer one that will fill the bill comes, and before he can get his baggage and express off and the railroad companies will rise up and call him blessed. The on the conductor and engineer are calling for their order, and plan of announcing that an extra per cent. would be charged he is rushed to the office to get it. passengers who failed to purchase tickets worked well enough The train gone, he commences to sweep out and clean up; with people who did not travel much, and did not know the no sooner has he finished sweeping three or four rooms and a wicked ways of the world, but it failed to reach the old hands, long platform, than there are some cars to be moved; he gets who knew the ropes. Spotters are sometimes employed, and his pinch bar and shoves and pinches for the next thirty min- certain roads seem to make it a rule to discharge their whole utes, and finally gets back to office in time to find out that force of conductors every few months. Some roads now re- somebody has had a Western Union message and has been quire the conductor to give for every cash fare a receipt, which calling him all morning, and has requested the dispatcher to in printed terms informs the passenger that if all was not right stir the agent up a little. The agent very likely feels stirred, he may secure such state of affairs by taking the trouble to but has to be resigned and quiet when told that a new man address Mr. Soandso, the general passenger agent. He is re- will take his place if he don't stay in the office all day and quested to preserve this receipt. He generally throws it on attend to business better. Dinner time comes at all hours, the floor or out of the window." and some times would not come at all if the agent did not While it would be unjust to accept as literally correct all the steal off to dinner, snatch a bite and rush back just in time to above statements, so far as they affect an entire class of men have another racket from the dispatcher. If a freight train who embrace many worthy citizens among their number, the gets laid out twenty minutes at a small station, the conductor extract helps to indicate one of many directions in which a gets wild and swears at the agent for not getting special orders thorough system of accounting and watchful supervision is after the dispatcher has given him '9.' He walks out of the necessary or desirable. office in disgust and gets as far as the freight house, when he Of railway conductors, as a class, including freight con- finds something new. Some one has left a hay-rack full of ductors, it should be remembered that they worthily fill im- household goods strewed all over the freight floor. Pretty soon portant and highly responsible positions, as they direct or another load comes, and finally, about dark, a lady comes control train movements, the other parties engaged in them round and wants her goods shipped by the first train. It is being subject to their orders. supper time. The passenger train is due in thirty minutes. He has to sell tickets, check baggage, get the United States STATION AGENTS. mails, finish up his reports, and then go out in the freight One of the most numerous classes of railway employés is house, and, after tugging and straining himself on cook stoves, station agents. It is necessary that all their operations should bureaus, boxes and barrels and things of every description, be carefully supervised, as they are the recipients of the prin- loosely packed, poorly nailed, and liable to come apart at any cipal portion of railway revenue. It occasionally, but rarely, time, he finds that he has thirty minutes left to eat his supper, happens that notices of defalcations of employés of this class bill the freight, make out the releases, and help the poor are published. Ordinarily their receipts are forwarded and woman mark her goods and nail her boxes and barrels over. accounted for with commendable regularity. A considerable Then he gets his parting instructions to handle her goods very number of them receive large sums, but many others are carefully and to tell the train men to do the same. Along located at such unimportant places that it is necessary, as a comes the local two hours late, pitch dark and raining; the matter of economy, that they should perform a variety of conductor sees the platform full of freight, and may be he is duties to earn a living salary. The following picture of the civil. Finally the freight is loaded and the cars all switched, day's labors and annoyances of the latter class was drawn by and then he finds out that the dispatcher wanted to get the Digitized by Google agreement commercial products and much of the other THE F And x, s you day alter day. Every RRA, from the head is of the American people pass over railway lines. it - is liss nas a pick 26 him, and even the trakemen rwear if of the freight transported annually representing MI in A OC hand 5, open 2 switch every time a train wants is of a number of billines of dollars, and as vs? == issa 2 ring The Lices department is 50 better. It generally mist strictly account for everything received. MIL Face 2 err... commission on ticket tain as part of agent salary. amount of efficiens clerical service, rendered = TA men around ice vi..age, who do mest of ice traveling, want with appropriate rules and regulations is a :.. agen: are them in everything, and then they stand in Aride from all such matters, the road itse! IDS = W.: :-- condacter, and don't need is buy tickets I have a at an enormous expense, and consideratie dozen - gae on a train at ODE time, and may be I and OGE tito, showing the exact nature and magnitude is = 144 is ::- crowd. home will DOB boy a ticket because labors performed, and the precise cos of ice agen: von: truet them be it, and others think it very kylish the best attainable data relating to the Segree I is [a] Life none! is W.A. conductor. Excursions, fairs. circus. economy exercised in each department and :? the and each genera. I send the agent a complimentary ticket, but officials and employee. they know WE., that i.e can LETER 8th off to use it. He is The treasury department proper of great its period up from daylight ontil I P. M., and liable is get called current receipts and expenses, and the daties :: is the of at any 07.1 ring the right. Thus you have him-station charged with in connection with the issue d LAW agent. hazzage listed agent. freight agent, express agent, the custody of stock transfer books, cten has 13 m.a.. carrer, exiteman, and. finally, operator. His salary runs amount of responsible labor to perform. In 11 let 1. from $1, v, 50 141 month, and be is expected to be always panies where such duties are specially examing a: or % accommodating. and ready to give way for a it seems appropriate that they should be separated in BEW mas. if 5.0 ca... for promotion, after working four or five accounting departments. years at was 2 place. If any one thinks it's a pienic, I would Other important general office duties relate 2 the advise him v, try it for a short time." of records in connection with real estate purchased THERE ARE NUMEROUS QUARTERS to time, the movements of cars, and sundry are the in which the protection of the rights and interests of a railway is stated of an old New Hampshire milroad report 1 company. which can be derived from a thorough system of braced an enumeration of every tool owned by it accounting, is highly useful and important. The sphere of This was going to a ridiculous length in cne directs operations extends over many fields, in which large outlays was much better than to permit the wanton and are made or large receipts obtained. Freight departments are neglect of all such matters that has occurred in scame -: more important, in the magnitude of total revenue and com- instances. TRAFFIC DEPARTMENTS. THE labore performed in general offices have an important ral agents and commercial agents; passenger, embrace: to a large portion of the work connected with the traffic agent, a number of traveling passenger agents. traffic departments of railways, although much of their busi- agents whose fields of operation extend over large design- news is necessarily transacted at sundry points on or near por- sections of the country, and district passenger agents be tions of their lines, or at other places remote from the central embracing general agents for particular sections. ONE office. agents, a contracting agent, live stock agents, and The moving of all the freight and passengers that are now traveling agents; emigration, embracing a commerce C. moved on American railways, with the degree of safety and traveling emigration agent, and traveling emigration agenz certainty that has been attained, at the prevailing low rate of Other companies which do not extensively advertise is average charges, is the greatest task ever performed by any agents or business representatives in service at points distant combination of agencies, and the traffic departments deserve a from their lines nevertheless employ them presumably to the liberal share of the credit of the wonderful achievements that extent to which their services are considered advantageous. are constantly being repeated. Details of all extensive traffic departments are under the The sphere of the operations of important lines is extensive. direction of two general heads, one being designated the E. In addition to the work constantly progressing on their own eral passenger and ticket agent, or general passenger sgent, roads, which requires watchful supervision, they are often and the other the general freight agent, or general freight obliged to pay much attention to matters that may affect their traffic agent. Some important companies have an officer who prosperity that are transpiring or may transpire at numerous presumably outranks those named above, styled a general distant traffic centres. In general terms it may be said that traffic manager, or a traffic manager, or a freight traffic man- every important company has a business representative sta- ager, and some of the companies on which the amount of tioned in or traveling through every region of the United business is not specially extensive have an official designated States in which a considerable amount of traffic might be traffic manager, or general freight and passenger agent, who diverted to or from its lines. It was not by accident or neglect has immediate charge of both branches of the traffic depart- of any available method for attracting freight or passengers ment. On the large systems each of the two great divisions of that the present routes of through business were established; railway traffic has several important officials, whose head- and competition is at all times sufficiently active to render con- quarters are usually in the general office or in the city in which tinuous efforts necessary to retain or increase the portion or it is located, including an assistant general passenger and ticket percentage of traffic that is perpetually being contended for by agent, or assistant general passenger agent, and general bag rival organizations. gage agent, in the passenger department, and one or more So much importance is attached to business originating off prominent assistants to the general freight agent. the lines operated that a number of companies extensively ad- The division of traffic into the two classes of passenger and vertise lists of agents engaged in soliciting or directing it who freight business runs throughout sundry ramifications of rail- are located in or traveling through widely-distant regions. way affairs, as it is not only requisite that two classes of officials One prominent road classifies its general and traveling agents should be employed, but that different classes of cars should under four heads, viz.: passenger and freight, embracing gene- be used, and in modern practice there are usually two classes oogle : R ) Flat Car. Flat Car, with Stakes. Gondola Car. Hopper-bottom Gondola Car. Iron-hopper Coal Car. Tank Car or Oil Car. H A Stock Car. Box Car. VARIOUS STYLES OF FREIGHT CARS. 1"D e Digitized by Google TRAFFIC DEPARTMENTS. 369 of locomotives, enginemen, and brakemen. Endeavors are also same would be apt to find himself in a disagreeable predica- made to apportion operating expenses, including the cost of ment before some pool commissioner, state railroad commis- maintenance of way, as closely as possible between the outlays sioner, or other association arbitrator." required to transport passengers on the one hand, and freight Vivid pictures have been drawn of the character of the labors on the other. performed by general freight agents. If they were confined to The traffic of large systems might also be divided into two the arrangement and printing of tariffs, and the supervision of other classes, one consisting of the business which apparently details relating to current transactions, they would be suffi- comes unsought, or without any special new efforts being made ciently onerous. But numerous complicated questions affecting to attract or secure it except those arising from sufficient relations with connecting or rival lines frequently demand accommodations and ordinary advertising, and the other con- much attention, and agents are obliged to act promptly on an sisting of business obtained in sharp competition with rival immense number of applications for special rates, or particular lines, or by offering special inducements for the temporary or concessions, which are pressed with all the earnestness and permanent increase of local passenger or freight movements. artfulness that energetic business men can employ. Much has Much has been done and is constantly being done in all been said of the unscrupulousness of corporations, but if the these directions. Many of these labors were wise and judicious; other side of the story representing the nature of the demands some of them were unwise and injudicious, and any general made by individuals and communities could be fully presented, remark that might be hazarded on this subject should perhaps it might lead to the conclusion that there is a greater necessity be to the effect that efforts to develop local traffic have more for protecting railway corporations against ruinous aggressions, frequently fallen short of a proper standard than efforts to than for exceptional legislation to protect the public against secure a share of competitive traffic. The home market is apt "unjust discrimination." to be the best market for railways as well as other producers. The general passenger agent also has many applications to It is doubtful if any American railway company has ever en- consider and dispose of, such as letters asking for special rates joyed a large measure of continuous prosperity which did not for excursionists of all classes, who wish to go to numerous develop or serve extensive interests located along its lines or places, and to travel for less than the regular rates on sundry at its terminal points, and it is certain that much money has occasions. The routine duties are highly important, and it been lost in carrying competitive traffic at unremunerative frequently requires a considerable amount of wisdom and prac- rates. At the same time, first-class local service can scarcely tical knowledge to decide doubtful questions, and to enable a be rendered to all the inhabitants of regions traversed by company to fully improve its opportunities without being sub- lengthy lines unless they are thoroughly equipped for and jected to unnecessary expense. engaged in competitive traffic, because it is generally neces- One of the departments connected with passenger traffic, the sary that a number of important local industries and interests handling of baggage, has been systematized on American rail- should have at least equal chances with the producers of com- ways to an extent that renders the facilities afforded for its safe peting regions. For these and other reasons the ideal man- keeping and delivery far superior to the arrangements of for- agement of the traffic departments of great railways involves eign roads, and this creditable result has only been attained by the solution of some of the most complicated problems that an immense amount of careful attention, watchful supervision, ever puzzled mankind, and their intricacies have been greatly and clerical labor. increased by the pressure of competition, harassing legislation, and sharp transitions from booming eras to periods of indus- BAGGAGE HANDLERS-THE CHECKING SYSTEM. trial and commercial depression. The following sketch of some of the labors of baggage hand- There are presumably important variations in the actual lers and of the checking system is condensed from a descrip- amount of power exercised by traffic managers, general pas- tion which appeared in the Philadelphia Times:- senger agents, and general freight agents, but all such offi- "Standing in a railroad centre, where steaming engines rush cials usually have a large amount of business to direct. An into the station with trembling haste, one may observe the indication of its magnitude is furnished by the following state- trunk smasher at his work, and stand in wonderment that he ment made in the St. Louis Globe-Democrat, shortly after the executes his task 80 skillfully, and yet with such little damage. strike of 1885, on the Missouri Pacific system: "Very few peo- A breathless span of time is allotted him to hand down his pile ple have any conception of the vast amount of correspondence of trunks, and to the minute the work is done. All around which comes into the various traffic departments of a railroad. him is the roar of a shifting, steaming world, embarking and When the late strike was inaugurated on the south-western disembarking in exciting speed, and the only man that stands system, it was thought advisable to keep an accurate record of cool at his place in the midst of this seething Babylon is the the number of letters received each day at the general passen- expert baggage master. ger and ticket office at St. Louis, in order to determine what To be a trunk handler one must be an expert. None but effect, if any, the strike had on the passenger business. Com- men of peculiar fitness are stationed at the great railroad ex- mencing with the 9th of March and ending with April 9th, changes. A greenhorn can at once be detected. He tackles there were received through the general post office 3,903 letters, a trunk with bungling awkwardness, he rolls it with puffing and by train mail 10,939, an average of 530 per day, not in- labor, falls over it, and tilts and drops it a score of times. To cluding Sundays. From April 10th to May 10th, the general watch an expert unloading a train you will observe how his post office delivered 3,896 letters, and the train mail amounted one hand rests upon one corner and the other upon the side. to 10,823 letters, a daily average, excluding Sundays, of 566. He lands the trunk upon the floor, never upon any corner, This does not include telegrams, newspapers, or pamphlets and always on the full end. The corner is the wrecking point even advertising matter. When it is remembered that this only of an iron-clad. He most dexterously hurries it to one side covers the letters received by one department, and that it takes with the ease of a toy, and hurls another after it with the grace two clerks several hours each day to open and distribute the and pose of a ball player. He always prefers a large trunk to mail, some idea of the vast machinery it requires to manage a small one; it is better to handle. The wrecking is never done and operate 5,000 miles of railway can be formed. A few years by an expert who handles hundreds of trunks at the great con- ago, before the organization of 80 many pools and traffic asso- fluences of railroads. It is done by the small fries of the least ciations, and when the railway systems of the country were work, and particularly by the inexperienced hands of road comparatively small, the correspondence of passenger and expresses. freight departments was easy to handle, as it was not a general A baggage master is alert and very jealous of his record. He rule to keep copies of all letters and telegrams sent out, but to makes no claim to the title of 'trunk smasher,' he rather re- trust more to memory. In many cases ordinary requests for pudiates it as a slur on his calling. Besides every damage is rates or information were answered by simply turning down chalked against him, and a second default jeopardizes his one corner of the letter, making the proper notation in pencil position. thereon, and returning it to the sender. That is all changed He decidedly is king among checks. They are mysterious now, and a railroad official who would send out rates or in- hieroglyphics, those brass plates as they hang dangling by formation without carefully keeping a letter-press copy of the leathern thongs in his office. They are mute intelligences that 47 Digitized by Google 370 LEGAL DEPARTMENTS. will cling to the handle of any pretentious trunk and chaperon senses or half-guess what in his nervous excitement he desires. him to the end of the nation with unerring precision of the That a trunk breaks is often the fault of the trunk itself. It is way and through intricate manœuverings of exchanges. There packed to an explosion and is not strapped. That a trunk is is the 'shell check,' that will safely steer the luggage as far as lost is rather the fault of the excited traveler, who is indefinite the Vandalia line goes-to Indianapolis. Then the 'joint in his destination or who may jostle his goods to the wrong checks,' that vacillate between the Pennsylvania and the New order. The baggage master is pains-taking-he checks for York, West Shore and Buffalo railroads. The 'reversible records of goods at both ends and keeps an account in his own check' is a curiosity. It takes baggage out to a certain desti- office. If a trunk is lost the 'tracer' is sent out. It may be a nation, reverses, and takes it back again. The 'local check' is chase of weeks until the stray goods are ferreted out. It is a used on any road the given company operates, and guides its piece of detective work and admits of skill and natural shrewd. charge with triplicates. The most universally used check is ness, this hunting after a trunk that has lost its bearings. the 'Thomas holder.' It goes over the Philadelphia and Read- The baggage master politely checks your trunk and says ing Railroad, and is a favorite of steamboats. There are checks nothing unless it be overweight. He will allow you 150 pounds of all shapes-round, square, oval, and even of Maltese-cross for a full ticket and 75 pounds for a half ticket. It is simply cut. They are sober facts in trunk travel, and 80 must the 20 cents per hundred pounds in excess to a given distance. If checking master be. When the tide of an excited multitude you quietly pay you will save yourself unnecessary dispute. is upon him, bellowing and rushing around his unguarded The trunk smasher has his rights, and if you observe him at post, he must be cool and make no mistakes. It often 80 hap- his work of tossing trunks you must admit that he makes good pens that he must lead some flurried traveler to his sober use of them." LEGAL DEPARTMENTS. [VERY important railway has a general counsel, general volved in particular cases are distorted to an extent that would solicitor, general attorney, or solicitor, who usually has be ruinous to struggling companies if they were not defended by talented assistants in the central office, and a corps of leading able counsel. There is little doubt that gross injustice is fre- lawyers, residing in the districts traversed, regularly engaged quently submitted to because such submission involves less to conduct such cases as may require attention in sundry loss than trials controlled by what Marshall M. Kirkman styles courts. Various roads respectively designate the central legal "an unwritten law of the land that leads the juryman to cast officials as general counsel, general solicitor, and assistant his verdict for his neighbor whenever a conflict occurs between general solicitors; general solicitor and an assistant general him and a railway company." solicitor; general counsel and assistant general counsel; general There has been a material change in the policy pursued by solicitor and chief counsel; general counsel; solicitor; general some important corporations within a comparatively recent attorney; general counsel and general attorney; general counsel period. For stubborn resistance to nearly all classes of claims, and counsel; chief attorney; general counsel; a general attor- an earnest desire to promptly meet and pay without litigation ney for each of several important districts; a general claim all reasonably just demands has been substituted. There is agent and assistant general claim agent. little doubt that the latter course is commendable, and that the Whatever may be the special titles or plan of organization interests of powerful companies are promoted by the manifesta- adopted, there is comparatively little difference in the leading tion of a desire to deal justly with real sufferers, combined with characteristics of several classes of important legal labors that a firm resistance to fraudulent claims and determined efforts must be performed, although the variations in their details are to prevent the establishment of legal principles or precedents as numerous as the complexities of financial management, the that would be specially damaging to railway interests. One of scope of corporate ambition, the vagaries of legislative railway the features of railway organization which is gaining import- reformers, the conflicts of railway laws, the perversities of ance is the departments specially charged with duties con- juries, and the extortionate fancies of men who claim damages nected with claims, some of the agents being styled general for loss of real or personal property, or physical injuries. claim agents, and others freight claim agents. The extent to The leading counsel acts as the adviser of the president and which they are closely connected with legal departments pre- board of directors in important matters that demand considera- sumably varies in different corporations. tion, and gives judicious opinions in reference to the bearing The current proceedings in many of the courts of the country of laws and decisions upon such schemes as may be proposed, show that a large portion of their time is occupied with the or work that may be progressing, or means for obtaining consideration of suits in which railway companies are defend- financial aid, such as a new mortgage, &c. He is also gen- ants, and it is not uncommon for one company to be indulging erally expected to advocate the interests of the company in in the luxury of litigation against another. Scarcely a week prominent cases that are to be argued before the higher courts, passes that a peculiarly outrageous verdict or decision is not to draw up important contracts or other papers, and to ap- rendered in some locality, and the aggregate amount of in- pear as a defender of railway rights before legislative or con- justice inflicted in this way, and in the passage of unjust laws gressional committees when specially dangerous new aggres- by legislative bodies, or the issue of unjust edicts by railway sions are under consideration. commissions, probably exceeds the amount of legalized in- These classes of duties are to a considerable extent distinct justice inflicted upon all other American interests. from an immense mass of current business arising from claims Despite zealous efforts to adjust disputes amicably, and to of various descriptions, such as those based on land damages; promptly pay every description of just claims, an immense the destruction of live stock; the burning of buildings, fences, amount of railway litigation is usually progressing. The gen- or crops by fires caused by the sparks of a locomotive; the in- eral counsel of an important road, who was noted for his fliction of injuries upon individuals at grade crossings or other anxiety to avoid appeals to the courts as far as possible, stated points on railway lines; the loss of baggage or portions of freight before a legislative committee that within a year nearly four shipped; personal injuries inflicted on employés or passengers hundred suits had been brought against the company he rep- by railway accidents; and sundry other incidents. resented, and that about nineteen hundred suits in which it To decide what the laws bearing on certain classes of railway was concerned were then pending, many of the latter being operations really are is often a difficult task, on account of the old cases. multiplicity of loosely-worded statutes and conflicting judicial The services of sagacious counsel are necessary in each stage opinions. And when the laws are known or fixed, the facts in- of development of a railway, from the initiatory steps, in which Digitized by Google OPERATING DEPARTMENTS. 371 papers must be drawn up, or arguments made to secure a charter advantages of the railroad are appreciated and its value ad- or obtain a right of way, through all grades of legislative and mitted. popular friendship or hostility, up to and through the period The third epoch then slowly emerges. Its early progress is when the volume of daily traffic has gained stupendous pro- slow; it then approaches with accelerated speed. The public portions, and incidentally furnished the basis for legal entangle- learns that the road is not run for its exclusive benefit, but ments of corresponding variety and magnitude. Every step of that the company also expects to make some money out of it. railway progress is paved with lawsuits and requirements of The discovery is made that the railroad is not a purely philan- law-makers. thropic enterprise. The boundless benefits, including increased The nature of the changes of popular proclivities, which fre- values, steady markets, means of rapid communication, the quently bring with them corresponding variations in the prosperity of the country, have become seasoned and thread- specially pressing duties of legal departments, are forcibly de- bare facts; they have lost their novelty; they are old; they seem scribed in the following article, written a few years ago, which, as if they had always been, like the beauties of nature. although it is peculiarly applicable to the lines running through Then a hostile feeling arises. People who had formerly rid- new agricultural regions, depicts manifestations in nearly all den by stage coach at the rate of 60 miles a day, and paid from localities:- 6 to 10 cents a mile, complain that the railroads, which run THREE EPOCHS OF RAILROADS. 600 miles in 24 hours, do not make fast enough time, and that "The first is the formation epoch. The people of a section 4 cents a mile is extortion. Those who used to draw wheat 40 want a railroad. Everybody wants it. There is no division of miles to market, and sell it for 50 cents a bushel, complain of sentiment. Public meetings are held, and the enthusiasm is the cost of transportation, though they sell their wheat for one only surpassed by the unanimity of sentiment. Every variety dollar a bushel at a distance of 40 rods from their granaries. of local aid is voted, and the right of way is freely given. No Complaint is made that railroad officers give free passes and sacrifice is considered too great; eternal frienship is pledged to free rides, and everybody who cannot get one becomes an its interests; the company, the corporation, the monopoly, is enemy of the road for that reason. In the end hostile orders regarded as an unseen but benignant power. are formed. The grangers arise in their wrathful might. De- The second epoch is like the first. It is the construction structive legislation, like the Potter laws, is enacted. The epoch. The road is being built. Town sites are selected. public faith, guaranteed to the railroad in its inception, is Country villages bristle with activity and life. The whole broken; a blow is aimed at the general prosperity; credit is country shows signs of prosperity. Money is paid out in every impaired; capital is scared, and withdraws its supplies from direction for labor, teams, provisions, supplies, ties, everything the channels of commerce and industry; disaster and collapse which enters into the construction of the road. Especially the ensue; the railroad company goes into bankruptcy, and the price of land advances. Farms increase 40, 50, 500 per cent. property into the hands of a receiver, and the paralysis of in value. Farmers put in big crops, as they will find a market hard times settles down upon every enterprise of trade, of at their doors. The road is at length completed. The rejoicing labor, and investment. is general. The first train is welcomed as an army of deliver- This is not a fancy sketch. It is drawn on the hard lines of ance by a people in bondage. Everybody feels good. It is true facts and experience. It has lessons also which may well 'be also that everybody's expectations have been realized. All the heeded and be a guide for the future." OPERATING DEPARTMENTS. are considerable variations in the details of railway Useful plans for avoiding such discrepancies by a thorough organizations when the scope of their operations is sub- interchange of opinion and discussion among operating officers stantially similar; and other changes result from differences in have been devised. labors performed. One of the most important of the latter All large companies have a chief engineer, whose duties vary class arises from the establishment of construction depart- materially with the magnitude of improvements and exten- ments by some companies which are generally building new sions, but he is frequently subject to the directions of the head lines of varying length, or erecting new bridges, stations, and of the operating department, and in a few companies acts in terminal facilities, or improving their roads to a notable extent that capacity, being at once the chief engineer and general by adding new tracks or straightening old ones. When the superintendent. amount of new construction and improvements is particularly The current work of railways, aside from the direction of large the duties and responsibilities of this department are financial matters heretofore referred to, is performed by the specially onerous, and much may depend upon its discretion operating department, and its head usually governs all classes and efficiency. A large proportion of the railway building of of officials and employés engaged in active duties connected recent years was conducted under the direction of established with the manufacture of transportation, whether they keep the lines, and urgent necessities for extensive improvements of permanent way in proper order, or participate in train move- old roads were developed. But the creation of construction ments, or aid in securing or giving due attention to freight or departments is an exceptional proceeding; and they are a dis- passenger traffic. tinct feature in only a small minority of the existing compa- In ordinary dealings, as travelers and transporters, the gen- nies. Even in some cases in which a considerable amount of eral public rarely comes in direct contact with any class of new work is progressing it is under the general charge of employés who are not part of the operating department. These officers identified with the operating departments. men and the property under their immediate charge are, for There are differences of considerable magnitude in the spirit all practical purposes, apparently the railway. The other im- that prevails on different lines, which grow out of the relative portant features of organization are unseen, notwithstanding degree of importance attached to the temporary or protracted the great extent to which their influence is or may be exercised, attainment of satisfactory financial results, at the risk of a as a controlling power, and as a guardian of the capital which serious deterioration in condition of road-bed or rolling stock. called the railway into existence, provides means for its im- Where the best intentions prevail it is often found exceedingly provement, and asks, but often in vain, for a legitimate share difficult, if not impossible, to subdivide the gross amounts avail- of the profits of railway labors. able for current expenditures, 80 as to make due provision for The duties of operating departments steadily increase with all important requirements, and to prevent a relative excess of the growth of traffic, the increase of the speed of fast trains, outlays in some quarters and damaging deficiencies in others. and of the number of trains run at varying degrees of speed. Digitized by Google 372 OPERATING DEPARTMENTS. On the early lines of this country, and on a considerable por- promotions have been more frequent among men who com. tion of the existing mileage on which the amount of business menced their railway labors in positions connected with en. is only sufficient to need the movement of a few trains each gineering, train-movement, or telegraphic departments, and way daily, the requirements are comparatively simple. But to first gained considerable prominence as division superin- portions of a number of American roads the following descrip- tendents. tion of leading features of an important English line is, with The unit of the operating department is a division. How. slight variations, substantially applicable: "The traffic consists ever large a system or lengthy a line may be, it is formed of & of varying elements. There are express and mail passenger number of divisions, each distinct in important respects from trains running at a speed of 45 miles an hour, and even more any other, and each having appurtenances similar to those in some cases; others at a somewhat less speed; stopping trains, possessed by others, however widely they may differ in detail. calling at every station, and running at a rate of from 20 to 25 Each has its family of officials and employés, and usually its miles an hour; local suburban trains, running for short dis- own shops for repairing cars and locomotives, and appliances tances at a fairly high rate of speed, chiefly for residential pur- for removing wrecks, and rendering damaged portions of the poses; express goods trains between the larger towns, attaining permanent way passable as quickly as possible after it has suf- a speed of 20 or 25 miles an hour; slow, stopping goods trains, fered exceptional injuries. In modern practice the persons for serving smaller towns and villages; and, finally, the heavy employed on each division of important roads frequently in- coal trains running out of the great colliery districts to every clude skillful civil engineers, whose duties consist principally centre of population. All these trains, heavy and light, fast in supervising labors intended to keep the permanent way in and slow, some stopping at the stations and others dashing proper order, as well as all the classes of active working rail- through them at high rates of speed, have to be accommodated way forces needed to move trains. to a great extent upon the same line of rails, yet to keep their The list of employés connected with the transportation de- time and fulfill their appointed functions-and, briefly, this is partment of an important road, as described in its published the great problem which railway management has to solve. rules, include men designated as follows:- Such a service cannot be carried on under all circumstances— Enginemen, firemen, brakemen, passenger conductors, pas- whether by night or day, in fogs, in snow storms, in wind or senger brakemen, freight conductors, freight brakemen. rain, and under all other adverse conditions-without entailing Train masters and assistants, depot masters, yard dispatchers, hardships and dangers upon the men engaged in the working." yard clerks, road firemen of engines. Whether the amount of business is large or small, an Station agents, telegraph operators, foremen of road repairs, effective organization must be maintained, men qualified to switchmen, road and bridge watchmen, general baggage agent, perform each of a number of distinct duties must be ever station baggage agents, baggage masters, division operators, ready to discharge their allotted tasks faithfully and fear- telegraph operators (under the direction of the division ope- lessly, and strict discipline must be maintained, especially rator), line repairmen, track repairmen. among trainmen, and all other classes closely connected with Master mechanics and foremen of machine and car shops, train movements. It is as necessary in a railway working force shop clerks, foreman of car inspectors, car inspectors, keepers as in an army that the men who undertake to do certain things of road and coal stations, supervisors, switchmen, switch watch- should obey orders, and be held to a rigid responsibility. Care- men, general foreman of maintenance-of-way mechanics, in- lessness, inattention, neglect, or unskillful service are fruitful cluding carpenters, masons, and painters; road and bridge causes of the accidents that are painfully frequent, despite the switchmen, night watchmen, switch tenders. best efforts to ward off dangers arising from delinquencies of The jurisdiction of the general manager usually extends over employés; and in the absence of incessant efforts, by the ap- all the units of organization, somewhat in the manner in which propriate officials, to compel due attention to proper rules, by the authority of a general extends over the regiments of & reprimanding or punishing offenders by fines, penalties, tem- brigade, each of which has its distinct existence under the porary suspension from duty, reduction of rank or pay, or direction of a colonel and his subordinate officials. Details dismissal, the employés on some roads would become sadly vary, but the characteristics of some organizations are repre- demoralized. The art of managing men, 80 as to secure their sented by the following statement of the officials of the several hearty co-operation, or to extract from them the full measure lines of the Plant system, who were organized as an advisory of efficient service, and to 80 distribute the various elements of board of its general manager, viz.: Superintendents, assistant the working force as to render it available for appropriate pur- superintendents, chief or consulting engineers, comptrollers, poses in the highest attainable degree, is an indispensable re- treasurers, masters of roadway or road masters, masters of quisite in a successful general manager, general superintendent, machinery, masters of transportation, general freight agents, or division superintendent. No other qualities he may possess general ticket or passenger agents, purchasing agents, auditors, would compensate for a material defect in this particular. assistant general counsel. Another enumeration of the general The importance of this quality of being able to manage men operating officers designates them as follows: General manager, effectively probably accounts for a considerable variety in the chief engineer, solicitor, general passenger or ticket agent, gen- antecedents of those who have risen through subordinate grades eral freight agent, purchasing agent, division superintendents, to become division superintendents, and subsequently general auditor, local treasurer. superintendents or general managers. It is stated that in Eng- Each class of employés has its duties defined, generally in an land it is no unusual thing for a station master, by reason of explícit manner, but one of the important directions of pro- special aptitude, to rise to the position of division superin- gress has been towards an increase of precision in sundry rules tendent or even general manager. In this country notable and regulations, especially those relating to train movements. Digitized by Google LABORS ON RAILWAY TRACKS. 373 LABORS ON RAILWAY TRACKS. tracks 80 complete in all their churn. rails cut into good oak ties, and it is no uncommon little or nothing is left to desire. But thing, even on our best roads, to see the ties of one section they form only a small proportion of the existing mileage, and badly cut in by the flange of the rail, while the adjoining sec- usually even the lines which contain gems of constructive rail- tions, with the same general condition of road-bed, ballast, and way art have not hitherto been able to command sufficient material, are almost entirely free from the evils mentioned. means to bring all divisions and sections fully up to such This, I am satisfied, is largely attributable to the difference in standards as they wish to establish, except in characteristics tamping. On the division of road under my charge we have necessary to promote safety. The work of keeping roads in used the tamping bar entirely for surfacing and leveling track, proper repair, intermingled with such betterments from time and, while the results were gratifying, there remained much to time as financial conditions will permit, goes on incessantly, room for improvement. The commendable desire of foremen with wide variations in the expenditures per mile for such pur- to go over the entire section, coupled with a lack of calculation poses. In regard to track labors instructive remarks were to ascertain the daily performance necessary to attain that made a few years ago by Benjamin Reece, then chief engineer end, even with good, ambitious, conscientious men, often leads of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, west of Toledo, in to less thoroughness of work than I deem essential to a proper a paper read before the American Society of Civil Engineers, and economical maintenance of way. I found, almost inva- from which the following statements are extracted:- riably, that our active but slower-going foreman, in the seem- ing amount of work performed, had the best and most endur- SECTION FOREMEN AND TRACKMEN. ing track. I have a number of cases in my mind, but one so "Inventors have taxed their ingenuity and have devised and marked that I will mention it. The section in question is one tested many forms of fastenings to improve our joints; engi- of the hardest to maintain on the line, having many curves and neers and engineering societies have devoted themselves to the a continuous heavy grade. The sections east and west were of discovery of some economic plan of preserving ties and timber the same general character, but in a less degree. The three from decay; railroads have kept careful and elaborate record of sections had what one would call good section foremen, and the life of rails; mechanical tests and chemical analysis have yet the section of which I speak, although the hardest to main- been made to determine the composition best adapted for our tain, was always in better condition than the other two. I use; while this important factor in the maintenance of way, the could tell it upon the train the minute the car crossed the sec- section foreman, how little we have studied him, and yet upon tion line by a firmness and stability which was quite marked his shoulders largely rests the work of properly caring for this in comparison. In fall and spring this section was invariably material, which every branch of our profession has contributed in better condition and repair than its neighbors. An investi- its full share of scientific research and experience to perfect. gation showed that, in his summer work, while equally ener- It is largely with a view of impressing upon the mind of the getic, the foreman did not get over more than three-fourths foreman his personal responsibility and individual accounta- the ground worked in a day on the adjoining sections, which bility for the condition of his section, that I discontinued the led me to believe more thorough work was done. I have seen use of extra gangs in the making of ordinary track repairs. good, energetic, faithful foremen fail because they tried to get Prior to making the change the extra gang was charged with over too much ground." being the author of all the ills from which the section suffered, and, although the extra gang was thus made the scapegoat, it THE NIGHT WATCHMAN OR TRACK WALKER. was not without some shadow of justice. An extra gang fore- A few years ago a Pittsburgh journal published a sketch of man has no interest in the section upon which he is engaged, the labors of a night track walker who had been on duty for excepting to complete the work laid out for him, which he thirty-two years on a section of the Pennsylvania Railroad frequently does with more reference to speed than thorough- near Pittsburgh, but who had been transferred to a less labor- ness. Particularly is this the case when the points at which ious position a short time before he gave the following brief the men are working afford poor or expensive living accom- sketch of his protracted labors:- modation for the men. "It was in 1853," he tells the writer, while sitting in his little This tendency to a want of thoroughness In making repairs parlor, "that I first went on duty as a track walker. The Penn- to track, although more marked, is not confined to extra gang sylvania road had been built. In those days there waren't foremen. The importance of strict thoroughness is not under- 80 many trains as there are now," and the old man gave a quiet stood or appreciated by nine-tenths of the section foremen, and chuckle. "There was but one track. Well, I had a section of I may say, three-fourths of the road masters of the country. track two and a half miles long to look after, and I made two In nothing do these men need to be 80 fully drilled as in the trips a night. Then they began putting down more tracks and importance of thorough and conscientious track work, particu- I had more work to do. Yes, it is pretty hard work to walk larly in tamping, to stand the service to which our tracks are the traok. When they used to put down iron rails I had lots subjected. To track foremen the condition of the track is of trouble with them. You see when there would once come largely a matter of appearance to the eye, and too frequently a cold snap, the rails would break sometimes. Whole pieces they are led into hurried styles of work, covering too much would fly out. I remember one night several years ago, while ground in a day, often impelled by a desire to make a better going up the track, I heard a sound like a musket shot. I showing; they are content to shovel tamp, or if bars are used knew what the trouble was. The night express was just about the work is not well done, and though the tracks may be very due, and I hurried along as lively as I could. It was a dread- pleasant to look at, a few weeks' traffic destroys the surface line fully cold night. Well, up the track a distance I came across and level, and the same track must again receive attention. the trouble. Fully a yard off one of the rails had been broken Much of our defective track is due to careless and insuf- by the frost and the piece had been thrown by the explosion, ficient tamping. In all cases where the track is being surfaced dear knows where! I had just time to hurry down the track I require the tamping bar to be used. Insufficient bar tamp- and signal the express to stop. If 1 had missed seeing that ing is almost invariably followed by general instability of the broken piece, I don't know just what would have happened, track, which, even while in fair level and surface, can readily but the express would have gone down over the hill. I re- be noticed while riding over it. As might be expected, the member another time, during the coldest weather I ever saw surface and level are soon destroyed, the spikes pull, ties in all those years, of finding three broken rails in one night. Digitized by Google caused a wreck." "Did you have any narrow escapes your- trains had been stopped. They had yanked one of the cars self?" "I did one time. If I hadn't jumped down over an on jack-screws, as if to run trucks under it, and then get it out embankment the limited express would have knocked me of the way. It looked as if we were going to stay until night over. I felt it strike my coat-tails, but the spring I made saved and we began to think about finding a steamboat or buggy If me. But I always kept my ears open, and though often I got something to get on to New York, when all at once an engine sleepy on my walk, I never relaxed my vigilance. Sometimes, and wrecking car heaved in sight. Before the engine bad on hot summer nights, I would have to bathe my face in water come to 8 stop we could hear the road master's voice ring 00: to keep myself awake. No, there was never a wreck on my giving his orders before he had seen the situation. He seemed walk caused by any trouble with the track. But sometimes I to be as familiar with everything on the spot as if he had beer made discoveries just in the nick of time to save a wreck." there all night. There was an engine off at some distance, to doing nothing. He called out to the engineer to come up and CLEARING AWAY RAILWAY WRECKS. make fast to the buried locomotive. In half a minute the As disasters will occasionally happen, in spite of all the pains engine was attached and pulling to get the other out of the that may be taken, and as they are sometimes caused by gross hole, and at the second effort the great mass of iron came up neglect, it is desirable that effective means should be provided sullenly, and was hauled out of the road. 'Pass that rope ore for the prompt removal of all obstructions. The following the top of that car and make fast to that tree yonder. he crid description of a representative labor of this kind, which has It was done. 'Now five hundred of you lay hold of that mpe had many counterparts, was forwarded to a western journal he shouted. The entire little army, under the inspiration by its New York correspondent:- that voice, laid hold of the rope, using the tree for a purchase "A gentleman tells me that he has seen one of the most and they pulled the car across the track square out of the was extraordinary pieces of executive dispatch in his life. 'I was by main strength. 'Come on here with that engine,' he cried coming down the Hudson River road,' he said, 'two or three again, 'and make fast to this truck.' With another tremendous days ago, when the train was stopped by a wreck near Hudson. pull the whole thing came out of the ground like a tree by the A freight train had been thrown off the track. The engine was roots, and was rushed off. 'Now start that first train,' cried lying imbedded in a hole, one car was lying across the track, the man. In less than two minutes from the time of his arriva another had lost its trucks and was flat on the track, and the what looked to be a week's job was out of the way, and the tender of the locomotive was also deeply imbedded. We had passengers went on." TRAIN MOVEMENTS. W are frequently told that a railway is a public highway many trains at various speeds upon a single roadway, is and in one sense this statement is quite correct. We operation of great complexity. There must be not only sh. are also informed that an operating railway company is a ful enginemen, firemen, conductors, and brakemen, but de common carrier. This is also true. But before the days of patchers, signalmen, and telegraph operators-in short, the railways operated under present systems, although there was an entire organization is more complex and extensive than 5% abundance of highways, and a large number of common car- ever combined for any other peaceful business pursuit. riers, there was no such thing as a combination of the owner- To manufacture transportation at the rate that work is per ship or control of a superior highway, with the control of the formed daily in the vicinity of large cities, with hundreds movements of all the vehicles passing over it, and it is only such outcoming and incoming trains, so regularly and safely the a combination and the use of superior vehicles and motive an accident to a passenger or the loss of baggage is 8 NP power that has made the swift modern passenger trains and occurrence, is a feat that gives to the organization which per heavy freight trains possibilities. The railway companies that forms it a character widely different from that of the 11. send them daily and hourly on their errands are something ditionary highway owner or common carrier. The railways more than owners or lessees of highways and common carriers. the great employer of men, money, and machinery, and Lr They are manufacturers of transportation, and the moving train link by which it makes the connection with the public is the product of labors infinitely more varied, exacting, in- THE TRAIN. tricate, complicated, and expensive than those undertaken by REQUIREMENTS OF RAILWAY TRAIN SERVICE any other class of manufacturers. The headquarters of divisions of important railways are great The following description of the qualities considered desirable workshops, where various grades of mechanical talent are mar- or necessary in men employed in railway train service WA. shaled under a master mechanic and a master car builder, and given by division superintendent A. M. Richards, of the Chicag aside from these shops, there are central shops, frequently of and Alton Railway, to a railroad reporter of a western journal:- great magnitude, where much new construction, including loco- "Every man in railway train service acquires a nerve 15- motives and cars, is ordinarily progressing, in addition to an executive force and obedience that is worked into his very - immense amount of repairing. All the great old standard trades by the character of his employment. He is a true soldie: applicable to transportation have been subdivided into numer- He believes that he knows his own duty and can and will do: ous branches, and the railways are liberal patrons of them all. and he expects the same of every man above or below birth One of the greatest of modern changes arises from the extent The unforgiven sin in railroading is incompetency. If at to which such subdivisions have been carried. It would be stitutional, or often shown, no penance or prayers will sare hard to say how many departments of industry are now repre- unlucky possessor's head. Incompetency in railroading is 1: sented by labors that could formerly have been performed, if intolerable defect, and can offer no excuses. Regarding at all, only by a blacksmith. It is estimated that American Chicago and Alton train men, Mr. Richards ranks them big railways use at least half the iron produced in the country, in every respect. A comparatively modern thing required and the country now produces in busy years about five times railroading is total abstinence. In former times a little indu- as much iron as the whole world produced before the dawn of gence in the social bowl was winked at. But whisky has been the present century. Aside from this use of iron, and the found a foe of railroading. It has caused the loss of a good constant employment of skillful mechanics and assistants of many lives and much money. Railroad managers have numerous grades, including a large force necessary to keep learned that a man who drinks is dangerous. Hence if the permanent way in proper condition, the running of indulges even off duty he is discharged. If he is on duty Digitized by Google TRAIN MOVEMENTS. 375 night and then stays up during the day time he is likewise place which he thinks it can reach without difficulty, and he bounced for not going to bed. He may be warned once of his directs the opposing train to proceed to the same place and faults, but a repetition costs him his job. Railroads must there pass the other train, and in that manner the trains are have not only clear brains but well-rested bodies. It wants enabled to pass each other without any delay to either. His every man at his best. Formerly the 'hail fellow well met' great responsibility consists in that he may have a dozen other man was likely to rise in authority in railroading. This is no trains in his charge at the same time, and in directing one longer true. Conviviality is frowned upon everywhere in the train to go beyond its usual place to meet another he may service. Urbanity is expected of all, but debauchery permitted neglect to give an order to the second train, and in such an in none. event a collision would probably ensue, much property be The railroads employ no green man after he is 40. It is destroyed, and probably lives be lost. considered then that he is too old to be taught the business. It will readily be seen that the slightest mistake of a train Every applicant is required to sign a statement showing where dispatcher might cause serious results, and in this respect his he worked for three years last past. Railroad men wear out responsibility is probably greater than that of any other indi- faster than others, but are well paid and kept by the road that vidual under whose charge the public are placed. A pilot on employs them to old age if their powers do not fail and 80 im- a vessel may lose his reckoning, but the fact soon becomes pair their usefulness. Good eyesight is especially required and apparent to others, and his capacity for mischief is thereby good hearing is very important. Railroading has become a lessened. Other railway employés may neglect their duties, great profession or trade and a sure one. To men of broad and rush headlong into danger, but their associates generally ability it offers fine opportunities to rise to good positions of realize the situation before any unfortunate results ensue; but excellent salaries. Managing officials' salaries on good roads the slightest behest of the train dispatcher must be obeyed run from $2,000 per year up. But Darwin's theory of the without question, even though to do 80 would jeopardise the 'survival of the fittest' finds inexorable sway here, and only lives of those receiving the orders, though, of course, until an men gifted for their respective duties go up to higher positions, accident results the train men are ignorant of the fact that while if only mediocre a man cannot even enter the lower they have been given wrong directions. ranks. The railroad service employs essentially picked men Instances of oversight of dispatchers are extremely rare, throughout. Mr. Richards says that nearly all managers and much less than of neglect of conductors and engineers to ad- chiefs of departments are men who rose in the service with no here to the orders given to them, and while they perform their training prior to entering it. But he expects the time will onerous duties almost entirely unknown to the people whose come when special railroad training schools will be founded lives they have in their control, and, therefore, never receive and eventually recognized by railroad managers as efficient the meed of praise due them, travelers ought at least be made aids in laying the foundations of successful railroad careers. acquainted with their duties, and the important part they play The trade or profession as such he expects to take higher and in the rapid and safe movement of passengers." yet higher rank and thinks the grade of efficiency required is likely to rise gradually till the service has attained human LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS. perfection." There is no class of railway employés in whom a deeper in- TRAIN DISPATCHERS. terest has been manifested by the public, or upon whose skill, There are a number of classes of employés at work on the discretion, and fidelity, as displayed from day to day and hour lines of railway companies, particularly those on which many to hour, more depends, than the men variously styled engine- trains are moved, and extra precautions to secure safety thereby men, engineers, engine drivers, locomotive engineers, locomo- rendered necessary. Increase of traffic usually leads to a great tive runners, and train runners. In the selection and manage- increase of the importance of the responsibilities of signalmen, ment of such important assistants, and their assignment to telegraph operators, and train dispatchers, as errors or omissions different duties, it is necessary that good judgment should be on their part may be attended with damaging or fatal results. exercised; and it is still more necessary that in conducting The following sketch of the labors of the train dispatcher was their labors they should display the peculiar combinations of published in the Philadelphia Times:- mental and physical qualities which secure the best results. "His position in the railway service is unique. Were all As a rule all engineers undergo a protracted preliminary trains running on time, and provided for on the periodical training as locomotive firemen, and a large number of the fire- time table issued by the company, he would have no duties to men begin their railway careers as brakemen, a position from perform; but trains will get delayed, and occasions will arise which advances are made in several directions, the most com- requiring extra trains, or trains without any specified time or mon being either towards promotion as a fireman or as a con- rights, to be run over the road, and then his services are neces- ductor. Systematic training for service as a locomotive engi- sary to avoid hours of delay. gineer usually forms part of the labors of firemen, and it is All trains on railroads are divided in classes, according to generally preceded by a considerable amount of incidental their importance, generally two, passenger and freight; and all preliminary training, either as a brakemen or as an assistant trains of one class running in a specified direction have the in cleaning engines. Labors of the latter class precede an right of road, or need keep no lookout for trains of the same appointment as fireman in England. or a lower class running in the opposite direction. Thus it is In all countries protracted experience and numerous proofs assumed that on a certain railroad trains running eastward of capacity in running freight trains precede advancement to have the right of way over trains running westward. Then an the position of engineer of a passenger locomotive. Progress east-bound passenger train can run the whole length of the is comparatively slow. There is much to be learned thoroughly. road in entire disregard of all trains. Another passenger train Formerly a large amount of knowledge in regard to the con- going west need only look out for the east-bound passenger struction of the locomotive was considered necessary, but now train, while the freight trains must keep out of the way of the chief requisite is a thorough mastery of the art of running both passenger trains and of the freight train which is running a locomotive. This includes, in addition to all that must be in the direction prescribed as having the right of road. known of the details of the machine, and the manner in which Every one understands that all trains are chartered or have a it must be handled to obtain desired results, a thorough know- time given for passing each station, which time can in no in- ledge of the road to be traversed, the meaning of signals, the stance be anticipated, and hence all train men know where all regulation of brakes, variations in grades, defects in track and other trains ought to be at any particular moment, if on time; their probable effect, the art of being on time, and sundry but as trains frequently and generally get late the train of in- other matters. Ability to control the machine must be com- ferior class must have its movement expedited by some ex- bined with self-control, and an avoidance of excitability in traneous cause or it may be delayed for hours awaiting a train the presence of actual or prospective danger. The working that may have been wrecked or has been kept back for some capacity of the best of engineers is quickly weakened or de- other of many causes. Then the duties of the train dispatcher stroyed if they become nervous or fidgety. One authority says are of importance. He will probably give an order to the de- they "are neither born nor made; they grow." Another says layed train by telegraph directing it not to go beyond a certain "they are not made; they are born, and unless nature designed Digitized by Google 376 TRAIN MOVEMENTS. them for engineers a lifetime devoted to training will not make The following account of an experience in a collision was them experts. Nature makes the engineer, and he is fitted for attributed, by a correspondent of the Philadelphia Times, to an his duty by training." engineer:- One of the descriptions of their current labors, which origin- "I ran into a freight train just as I rounded a curve on the ally appeared in the Public Ledger, says:- mountain side, going west. An assistant superintendent was "To secure safety the engineer sits upon the right side of his aboard and he was urging me to make a siding where a freight engine, in such a position as to command a clear view of the was expected. The train was running at the rate of thirty-five road, having within his reach the lever for starting or stopping miles an hour. The engineer of the freight train expected us the engine, the cord attached to steam whistle, the rod lead- and he was running slow and had reversed. I had just time to ing to the sand box, because the sanding of the track when shut off steam and jump. The fireman jumped also and landed sudden stoppages are needed in times of threatened disaster is thirty feet away in a field. I landed on the other side and was an important adjunct; the lever of the pump, to keep the boiler struck by flying splinters and badly cut in the head, which laid properly supplied with water, and, what is of equal importance, me up two weeks. The collision was terrific. Eighteen freight the small lever which applies power to all the brakes of the pas- cars and the coaches of my train were piled on top of each senger train at the same moment. Now one would think, with other. The wreck was a terrible one. The baggage master on all these various levers, cords, and rods, the engineer would my train was killed and several passengers were badly hurt. not possibly have time to keep a good lookout and attend to The engineer and fireman of the freight train escaped by them, but he does, and 80 quietly and with such system that jumping. My engine was so badly broken up that she could a stranger on the engine would scarcely notice that he had not be repaired and was cut up for old iron. Never want to touched any of them. But watch closely, and it will be seen go through such a scene again. It was like a flash of lightning that while the train is moving at the rate of forty or fifty miles and I knew nothing." an hour the water cocks are tried to see how the water stands in the boiler, and perhaps the next thing necessary will be the CONDUCTORS AND BRAKEMEN. starting of the pump, and while doing this a sign tells the All train movements usually require the services of a con- engineer that he is approaching a country road at grade or a station, and he must, therefore, sound the whistle. If the fire- ductor and brakemen, in addition to the locomotive engineer man be a new man, he has to be watched, and often directed and fireman. The position of the conductor involves special responsibility, as he is generally in charge of the train, and it when to put coal on, but if well acquainted with the business, is usually his duty to report to the division superintendent in- he gives the engineer but little trouble in this respect. So sys- subordination, neglect, or misconduct on the part of any other tematic is the work of the engineer, and 80 well does he know employé engaged in a train movement. The duties of brake the capacity of the engine and the various grades of the road, men subject them to more numerous dangers, and they are that it is scarcely necessary for him to look at the clock in his more frequently injured or killed, than any other class of rail- cab to ascertain if he is on time. If he starts on time, but is way operatives. Peril attends the coupling of cars, rapid move afterwards delayed at the stations, he knows exactly the places ments from the top of one freight car to another while a train of the road where he expects to make up the loss, and keep is in motion, and various other tasks. up his reputation for always coming in on time. The engineer who is always getting in late does not gain many friends, and DANGERS OF TRAIN MOVEMENTS. cannot expect to hold first-class positions very long. The running of trains in daylight is not attended with near Neglect of duty on the part of either of the four classes of 80 much danger as at night, as the engineers can see at a great men engaged in running trains, as well as failure to perform distance, and, therefore, avoid or prevent accidents from ob- allotted tasks on the part of a number of other classes, including structions, but at night there is constant anxiety, and the signal men, switchmen, tolegraph operators, and train dis- utmost vigilance is necessary. The head-light on the locomo- patchers, and also numerous kinds of defects in permanent tive is of more value to those who are walking upon the track, way or rolling stock, may at any moment cause a railway or about to cross it, than it is to the engineer. A tie laid across accident. It is only by careful attention to a large number of the track, or a cow or man walking upon it, would be seen, but details that the ground-work can be furnished of a reasonable unless the man or cow got off they would certainly be struck, prospect of the avoidance of serious disasters. That they OCCA- because when a train is moving at the rate of thirty or forty sionally occur is less surprising than that the number is not miles an hour it would pass over at least one-fourth of the dis- larger. To run numerous trains at a high rate of speed is to tance in view from the time of the discovery before the brake subject to a severe test the reliability of numerous persons and could be fully applied; but the speed would be very much less- appliances, and it is almost inevitable that weak spots should ened, and though the engine might be thrown from the track, be occasionally developed either in men, materials, or ma- the engineer and firemen would have time to escape in many chinery. Methods of guarding against them or of warding off cases by jumping from the train. Nearly every engineer who particular perils, and of diminishing the destructiveness of has been in the service for many years can relate many tales disasters, have been the subject of anxious deliberations ever of wreck and narrow escapes from death or severe injuries, but since railway operations commenced; and despite the multi- still they are not deterred from continuing the same business, plicity of inventions no mechanical safeguard can furnish & but their vigilance is rodoubled to prevent future mishaps." substitute for careful, well-trained, and skillful employés. The An English writer, in discussing their labors, says: "Consider faithful services of such men are not only necessary to secure the operation of climbing and descending a 'summit' or de- train movements but also to make them reasonably safe. The scending and then climbing R 'valley.' At these times the necessity of strictly enforcing appropriate rules and regulations, driver's hand is never off the lever. In the course of a few and administering rebukes or punishments corresponding to miles he will, perhaps, make fifty imperceptible changes in each definite offence that has caused disasters, or is likely to the speed of the train-accelerating it or diminishing it so cause them, if repeated, is, therefore, obvious; and it would not steadily that not a passenger notices what is being done. That be surprising if something like a perpetual court-martial was is the perfection of engine driving. This is the climax of the progressing at the division headquarters of some of the rail- driver's skill, and he attains it coincidentally with the full de- ways of the country. Independent of all other aids to safety a velopment of those qualities which he has unconsciously notable improvement in the train rules adopted by many lines trained within himself, and which are all governed by an over- is one of the results of protracted labors of the General Time mastering sense of duty." Convention. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google we To cou nish The - y); b uI p hom: ana ased gener erson Lo 3. ames Thica "hom nifor y the dopt B ple The 'ime truct abors efore ble - "labo nove ne IT ot in ervic D ac The nent nd g 1 pu ne ge be a race, esire duio Pro I que ems ) ab raffic ortal over etwe ach ould atere the J iatio as a aryin istin artic owar heir acres nd t e N E o Digitized by Google 380 RAILWAY ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS When a train is being pushed by an engine (except when railroads in the United States and Canada, read before the shifting and making up trains in yards) a flagman must be British Scientific Association, at their meeting in Canada, in stationed in a conspicuous position on the front of the leading August, 1884, by W. K. Muir:- car, 80 as to perceive the first sign of danger and immediately "Suppose that we have properly equipped trains, and some- signal the engineman. thing to run with, and a suitable track to run upon, and trusty A train starting from a station, or leaving a junction, when a men in charge of the train; that would mean for a passenger train of the same class running in the same direction is over- train, bodies of coaches and windows thoroughly cleaned, 0116 due, will proceed on its own time and rights, and the overdue side of axle boxes and running gear scrubbed with a brush and train will run as provided in rule - or -. lye solution, and all oil and grease cut off; the running gear A train which is delayed, and falls back on the time of and air brakes known to be reliable, the bell-rope properly another train of the same class, does not lose its rights. strung from the engine cab to the end platform of the rear Regular trains twelve hours or more behind their schedule coach and tested to see that it is O. K.; the cars internally time lose all their rights. scrupulously clean, water coolers filled with fresh ice water, A train overtaking another train of the same or superior lamps trimmed, good ventilation, the temperature moderate, a class, disabled 80 that it cannot move, will run around it, assuming thermometer suspended in the middle of the car to guide in the rights and taking the orders of the disabled train, to the regulating the temperature, the trainmen neat, clean, perfectly next telegraph office which is open, where it will report to the sober and in uniform, the baggageman in his car and the con- superintendent. The disabled train will assume the rights of ductor (who is responsible for the working of his train, and the the last train passing it, till the next telegraph office is reached. tickets or fares and comfort of his passengers) know that every. Work trains will be run as extras under special orders, and thing about his train is right, as regards signals, two red and will be assigned working limits. two white fiags, two red and two white and his own lamps, and Great care must be exercised by the trainmen of a train ap- the tail and side lamps, axe, saw, and hammer in each coach, proaching a station where any train is receiving or discharging and in his tool box in the baggage car a wrench, waste, oil, wick, passengers. detonating signals, dope, the proper signals on the front of the Enginemen must observe trains on the opposite track, and locomotive, neither he nor his men smoking on duty and all if they are running too closely together call attention to the fact. alert and attentive to train work and passengers and baggage. No person will be permitted to ride on an engine except the Know before he starts from the telegraph office about trains engineman, fireman, and other designated employés, in the dis- due and their position. charge of their duties, without a written order from the proper On the journey one brakeman should always be about upon authority. the rear car, the other on the front end of the train near the Conductors will be held responsible for the proper adjust- baggage car, and the conductor, upon nearing stations at which ment of the switches used by them and their trainmen, except he means to stop, somewhere between the baggage car and the where switch tenders are stationed. middle of the train, and when he does stop, and before he starts, Whoever opens a switch shall remain at it until it is closed, his men can tell him by signal or voice whether everything unless relieved by some other competent employé. right front and rear. When there is more than one train to use a switch it must The freight-train men should know that the running gear not be left open unless one of the trainmen of the following of their cars is apparently right 80 far as they can see, the train is at the switch and takes charge of it. coupling links and pins of cars safe, no bolts dropped through Accidents, detention of trains, failure in supply of water or the draw-bars and used for ordinary pins, their caboose or con- fuel, or defects in the track or bridges, must be promptly re- ductor's car neat, clean, and comfortable, with their kit of ported by telegraph to the superintendent. lamp, torpedo, and flag signals complete, spare links and pins, No train shall leave a station without a signal from its con- a crowbar, a set of portable frogs, a tail rope, two torches, ductor. chains, axe, saw, and wrench, supply of dope, or common Conductors and enginemen will be held equally responsible brown soap and wood ashes, waste and oil. for the violation of any of the rules governing the safety of If the train has a passenger coach, and is running as a mixed their trains, and they must take every precaution for the protection train, there should be a bell rope strung from cab of engine of their trains, even if not provided for by the rules. through open cleats on the roof of the freight cars to the rear In all cases of doubt and uncertainly, take the safe course and platform of the coach. The caboose car should have side run no risks. brackets for tail signals. PREPARATIONS FOR TRAIN MOVEMENTS. The trainmen should be seen by the yard master before they leave, and he should know positively that they are sober, fresh, Each train movement, however short, may be attended with and well rested, one brakeman on front to operate from that disasters that will leave an indelible impression upon the minds end, the conductor and other brakeman on the rear end of the of the trainmen engaged in it, or possibly cause death. Pre- train." cautions for safety and comfort are always in order. One of Of the labors of train dispatchers and various classes of rail- the best descriptions we have seen of the course pursued in way employés whose movements affect train movements he connection with such matters, is contained in the following ex- forcibly says: "The essence of this whole operation means tract from a paper on the working of traffic upon single-track eternal vigilance in each and all of the departments." RAILWAY ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS. IN addition to the bodies of various classes of railway officials which performs analogous service in regard to regulations re- or employés hitherto mentioned there are a number of lating to baggage, is the National Association of General Bag- others. One of the oldest is the National Association of General gage Agents. These two bodies have done much to promote Passenger and Ticket Agents. At its meetings, held twice a the creation of the convenient existing arrangements for year, in spring and fall, various matters relating to the arrange- through travel and the safe custody and prompt delivery of ment of tickets, combinations of tickets providing for through baggage. travel, and passenger fares and routes are discussed, and the Meetings of railway accounting officers, for important special action of numerous companies on such subjects usually corre- purposes connected with their duties, held in 1887-88, led to sponds with the conclusions it reaches. Another organization, proposition that a permanent association of such officers should Digitized by Google RAILWAY ASSOCIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONS. 381 be formed. Its purposes, as defined in a circular to railway various descriptions, to which contributions are made by com- companies, issued May 30th, 1888, by a committee, are "the panies as well as the prospective or actual recipients of moneys better organization and conduct of accounts and the securing appropriated, and this is one of the directions in which an to carriers of the advantages that may be expected to follow improvement may reasonably be anticipated in all matters the interchange of ideas between their representatives. Among that have a bearing upon the probability of averting strikes, other specific benefits, it is believed that an association will and securing reliable continuous service. assist in securing more equitable means of determining balances The utility of the various classes of associations of railway between carriers and greater promptness in the payment of the officials and employés naturally depends greatly upon the same; that it will be the means of securing uniformity in the scope of their duties. The fact that such organizations have adjustment of joint accounts; that it will secure more prompt materially increased in number and influence during late settlement of claims between carriers; that it will aid in break- years is one of the features of development which may gradu- ing up the credit system at competing points; that it will be ally gain great importance. The proceedings of the bodies the means of improving present methods of adjusting balances which are cordially supported by a large number of important at junctions where freight is rebilled; that, through its efforts, railway companies have already led to the attainment of some greater uniformity will be attained in the governmental returns highly important ends, a number of which have been described, required of railroads; that the free discussion and comparison and eventually they will presumably do much to promote a it will engender will greatly enlarge the experience and under- practical federation of all the steam railway companies of the standing of those who belong to it, and thus be the means of continent for the attainment of sundry useful purposes. If securing more nearly perfect methods of accounting; and the interstate-commerce act had legalized money pools, in- finally, that it will greatly benefit carriers in directions not pos- stead of prohibiting them, the various traffic associations sible to mention here, or likely to be attained, except through would probably have done more to prevent undue discrimina- the aid of an association. And, as national boundary lines tion against persons and localities than positive legislation is have no existence in the accounts of carriers, the committee likely to accomplish, and they may promote a number of de- are clearly of the opinion that the value of the association will sirable ends, even if they are shorn of the powers that would be greatly enhanced by making it general in its scope. Also most materially enhance their utility. that it shall embrace steamship and other transportation com- panies having joint traffic relations of an intimate nature with UTILITY OF EFFECTIVE METHODS OF ORGANIZING RAILWAY FORCES. railways." All railways that participate in interstate commerce are sub- Of the purposes of the Car Accountants' Association, a cir- ject to the requirements of the interstate act, and the super- cular issued by its officers in 1886 said:- vision of the interstate commission; the probabilities of con- "The object of this association is for the improvement of car gressional action on miscellaneous matters relating to railways accounts, and the promotion and advancement of car service have been increased by important initial steps in that direction; in general. Recognizing the fact that 'in unity there is thirty-eight state legislatures and twenty-two state railway com- strength,' in 1876 8 small band of car accountants organized missions have afforded abundant evidence of a disposition to an association, with Mr. H. T. Curd, of the Louisville and embrace all convenient opportunities for displaying their Nashville Railroad, as chairman, and Mr. F. L. Luce, of the wisdom in the regulation of numerous classes of railway affairs; Chicago and North-western Railway, as secretary. The associa- a considerable portion of the business of federal, state, district, tion has steadily grown in numbers, as well as in favor, until it and county courts usually consists of the trial of railway cases, counts three-fourths of the roads and lines in the United States many of which represent unjust or extortionate claims against and Canada as its members. The good effects of this associa- companies; hordes of speculators are continually occupied in tion have been felt everywhere. Car records have been sim- adroit efforts to boom or depress American railway securities; plified, a perfect system of car tracing has been introduced, a vast army of shippers is constantly endeavoring to secure the enabling some roads to do away with lost-car agents, and last, lowest attainable rates; countless travelers are patronizing, but not least, a uniform rate of car mileage has been agreed criticising, or condemning railway lines; and there is no class upon which bids fair to give universal satisfaction. At our of intelligence to which wider publicity is given than news of annual meetings a member of the association has the advan- accidents to passenger trains. There certainly seems to be no tage of comparing his forms and of hearing expressed the lack in the number of agencies for detecting railway faults or practical experiences of car accountants from all portions of deficiencies; but the excess in quantity is more noticeable than the United States and Canada. Certain important topics for superiority in quality. discussion are arranged for by a committee before the annual To combat the formidable antagonistic and dangerous ele- meeting, and each member furnished with a copy, so that each ments which must be confronted by American railways it is can get the opinion of the manager of his road. Any member, desirable that the best attainable forms of organization should however, has the right to introduce any subject bearing upon be universally adopted. There are notable differences in exist- car accounts during the meeting of the association." ing methods, and it can scarcely be doubted that some of the There are associations of railroad superintendents, of train systems are better than others, even if due allowances are made dispatchers, of yard masters, of road masters, of railroad water for all the differences in circumstances that affect such affairs. superintendents, of railway chemists, of claim agents, of rail- The general subject has presumably not received, in all quar- way telegraph superintendents, of railway conductors, of rail- ters, as much attention as its importance deserves. It may be way station agents, of locomotive engineers, of firemen, of a matter of much greater consequence than appears upon the switchmen, and of several other classes of employés, and also surface how and where power and responsibility are reposed. railway clubs in several cities, in some of which there are in- As a rule they should go hand in hand, that is to say, any class teresting and instructive discussions of questions relating to of officials who are made responsible for the discharge of certain the mechanical departments of railways. duties should have sufficient power to ensure their proper per- The aims of a few of the bodies named above are chiefly the formance. In applying this principle difficulties arise from vari- accomplishment of personal objects, such as the establishment ous causes which lead to conflicting decisions. One of the most of insurance funds, and creation of methods for securing con- distinguished railway accounting officers of the country (M. M. cert of action in matters relating to pay, grievances, or strikes. Kirkman) announced a few years ago that $300,000,000 of railway Relief funds, and elaborate systems for creating and distribut- revenue had been collected under bissupervision without the loss ing them, have been established by some railway companies, of a single dollar, and this remarkable success was attributed to acting in concert with their employés. One of the most promi- the fact that power to enforce rigid compliance with the rules nent of the latter class of organizations is identified with a large necessary to secure prompt remittances had been exercised by portion of the Pennsy system, and another with the Balti- the department entrusted with the collection of revenue, in con- more and Ohio. tradistinction to systems under which laxity in making returns The general subject of the relations of companies with their had been condoned. This statement illustrates one of various employés may be materially affected, in a manner advan- directions in which it is not improbable that some companies tageous to both parties, by the establishment of relief funds of might find it advantageous to modify existing arrangements. Digitized by Google authority an address delivered at a convention of train dis- next in charge of the transportation department, who is gen- patchers a few years ago said: "The stockholders in the first erally the chief train dispatcher or train master." Sundry place surrender their control to a board of directors; the board qualifications of such a system relating to particular duties or of directors surrender it to the president; the president to the responsibilities of special classes of employés may in some in- general manager; the general manager to division superin- stances be found desirable. ECONOMIC EFFECT OF ADVANCES FROM THE TRAIL TO THE T-RAIL. O N the tremendous difference in the available results of the be a fraction more than 18, equivalent to walking 1,800 miles. use of horse-power, or its great successor, the locomotive, If he walks 30 miles in a day on the return trips, 60 days would on roads of various classes, and on the fact that the world now be consumed by them, and the time required for moving one has railways while formerly they did not exist, more than upon ton of coal from the Schuylkill mines to Philadelphia, if the anything else, rests the edifice of modern civilization. time for returning for each load is included, would be a little To secure to a considerable extent the benefits that may be more than 231 days. derived from the higher classes of roads it is necessary that Such movements are necessarily so expensive that in prac- there should be a triumphant struggle with many gigantic tice they were rarely made, even during savage or colonial adverse forces of nature, and also with subtle obstructive traits eras, except over very short routes. The usual method of of mankind. transporting heavy and comparatively cheap articles over long The real meaning of the existing state of transportation distances, and indeed the only method for making such move- facilities, so far as they apply to freight movements, can per- ments at a cost which did not exceed values at the point haps be best shown by reference to the task of moving one ton of consumption, was formerly by water routes, and it is only one mile. That is the unit of many of the calculations and since the advanced railway era made lengthy land movements statistics bearing on this subject. Your ton of freight is a mile of cheap products possible that a new order of things, deeply distant from the place where it would be useful to you. How affecting all persons and interests has been established. shall it be removed? If there is nothing to facilitate the ope- But navigable water routes do not extend to all parts of the ration but your own stout arms, and your individual capacity earth, and even under the most favorable circumstances land as a burden-bearer, and you have no route better than an In- movements must, to some extent, be intermingled with water dian trail, and no vehicle, you will be fortunate and more movements. The Indian system, and the system prevailing skillful or effective than the mass of mankind, if you can move in this country during all the colonial era, and the first third that ton one mile in less time than a day and a half, exclusive of the present century, was founded on the use of water routes of the time occupied in returning to the point of departure for all bulky and lengthy movements, intermingled with the after you have deposited the largest load you can advan- resort to land carriage to such a limited extent that it was tageously carry. Elaborate theoretical investigations and at best but little more than "making a portage," of various numerous practical experiments have demonstrated that when lengths, or transferring property from one water route to sturdy men are employed as burden-bearers, the greatest another. attainable amount of work is secured when they are loaded As civilization advances, and numerous immigrants estab- with 119 pounds, which well-trained men commonly carry lish themselves in inland districts, the necessity of mitigating eleven miles in one day, thus making a movement equivalent the horrors of the portage system is developed. Then roads to the transportation of 1,309 pounds one mile in one day, and are constructed; at first very poor ones, scarcely passable for 1,963 pounds, or not. quite a net ton, in a day and a half. If vehicles at any season, and often impassable, but roads on men carry a heavier load they will not move over 80 great a which horses or other beasts of burden can be used to carry distance, and if they carry a lighter load they will lose more in loads. This stage was very protracted in many portions of quantity transported than they will gain in rapidity of move- this country during colonial periods, and for some years later. ment. It follows that the money compensation for human What a horse can carry on his back often depends largely on labor, unaided, in attempting to carry through freight in com- the condition of roads, and especially on whether they are com- petition with the average railway charges of the present day, paratively level or mountainous, abounding in steep grades. would represent an average sum of less than two-thirds of a On roads of the latter class the loads formerly common were cent per day, even if loads in both directions were provided, about 200 pounds, while on level roads they approached and and probably less than a half a cent per day if there was no occasionally exceeded 400 pounds. back loading. If we suppose that horses can carry from 300 to 400 pounds, There are other results which may be worthy of attention, say 350 pounds, on their backs over long journeys, on roads and perhaps one of the simplest ways of illustrating them is to interspersed with hills and dales in the usual proportion. and indicate the difference in cost, or time and labor, by various that they can continuously travel 20 miles per day, the result transportation methods, of the movement of anthracite coal would be the equivalent of a movement of 7,000 pounds one from the Schuylkill mines to Philadelphia for a distance, in mile in one day, a labor which would be worth, in competition round figures, of 100 miles. with the average charges for all the freight railway movements Suppose that, for any reason, the head of a family was obliged of a recent year in this country, about 31 cents. As horses to carry the coal upon his back from the mines to that city, could not be expected to make such movements without and that his effective work was up to the average standard of human superintendence, and as it was usual in organised moving 1,309 pounds one mile in one day, how long would it pack-horse transportation systems to have one man to take take him to move one ton 100 miles? If we suppose the ton charge of every ten or fifteen horses, some allowance should to be a gross ton of 2,240 pounds, then the movement for 100 be made for such supervision. If we add to the work of fifteen miles is equal to moving 224,000 pounds one mile. To make horses the labor of one man, the combined result of a day's such a movement at the rate of 1,809 pounds in one day would operations is equivalent to the movement of 105,000 pounds. require a little more than 171 working days, if no allowance is At this rate, one man and fifteen horses, could make a move- made for return journeys. But return journeys must be made, ment equivalent to the transportation of a ton of coal from the and as he carries only 119 pounds, the number of them would Schuylkill mines to Philadelphia in a little more than two days, ECONOMIC EFFECT OF ADVANCES FROM THE TRAIL TO THE T-RAIL. 383 if no allowance is made for return trips; but if they are reck- ive force of a mule on that line and a team of four horses on oned the time required would probably be between three and a crude turnpike, moving only 27 tons one mile in a day was four days. It is obvious that communities obliged to depend very great; the work of four mules on the railway being 228 upon pack-horses for exchanges of merchandise would buy tons moved one mile in one day, or more than eight times the and sell very few bulky articles. It is stated that in 1784 the work of the corresponding number of horses on the turnpike. cost of transportation, by pack-horses, from Philadelphia to Some of the early horse railways were much better. On one Erie, was $249 a ton-a movement that has since been made of them the usual movement of one horse was equivalent to by rail for a small fraction of this sum. the movement of 240 tons one mile one day. The difference The next step is the construction of common or country between the work of a horse on comparatively superior early roads. Much may depend upon the character of the vehicles railways, and the work of a mule on the Mauch Chunk Rail- used, and still more, perhaps, upon the extent to which the way, is represented by the difference between 57 tons and 240 road is improved. In interior Pennsylvania it was stated some tons, moved one mile one day, or, in other words, the effective years ago in a report of the canal commissioners that on ordi- force of a horse on a railway was more than quadrupled by nary poor and hilly country roads, a team moved one ton of improvements in early railway construction. freight 12 miles in one day, and that in the next stage of de- Similar differences were subsequently developed in the capa- velopment, represented by the inferior turnpikes, the team city of steam railways, arising partly from improvements in moved 1} tons 18 miles per day-the gain or increase being locomotives but primarily from improvements in permanent from the equivalent of 12 tons moved one mile to 27 tons way, inasmuch as the tracks of the first crude railways of this moved one mile, an increase of 125 per cent., which was the country were generally found to be too fragile to permit free reported benefit in Pennsylvania, of the substitution of turn- movements of early locomotives which only weighed from six pikes for common roads. The teams referred to were four- to seven tons; and such movements as are now made daily horse teams, each of which usually had a driver, and the by heavy trains, if they had been at all possible, would soon weights drawn, of course, included the wagon on which freight have annihilated the superstructure of a number of the early was loaded. To secure the benefits of the turnpike, tolls were lines. exacted which frequently exceeded the sums per ton per mile The movements already described, as applied to the ton of now charged by railway companies for the entire movement of coal to be moved one hundred miles, or from the Schuylkill such freight. On the first of American turnpikes leading be- mines to Philadelphia, briefly show about all that could be tween Philadelphia and Columbia, these tolls were at an early done to economize such movements before railways strong period at the rate of 1.35 cents per ton per mile. Omitting enough to support heavy locomotives were constructed, and consideration of tolls, and looking only to results achieved on before such locomotives were used. Let us recapitulate the the turnpike, we have, as the product of the work of one man results:- and four horses, in one day, the equivalent of a movement of 1. To move one gross ton of coal 100 miles by a human bur- 27 tons one mile, which is worth, according to the average den bearer would require 231 days of labor. modern railway standard, about 27 centa! 2. To move one gross ton of coal 100 miles on a pack horse The business of moving freight in Conestoga wagons was, of would probably require his services for a little more than 50 course, never conducted at anything like such rates in this days, if allowance is made for return trips. country. The sums actually paid on various routes have 8. To make the movement over a rough country road would already been stated. require the use of a team and four horses for a little more than If we apply four-horse-team facilities to the movement of 8 days, and on a turnpike road for a little less than 4 days, if eoal to Philadelphia from the Schuylkill region, the result would no allowance is made for a return trip; but with such allow- be that a ton could be taken there, over rough country roads, ance the time would be materially increased. in a little more than eight days, and an equivalent amount of 4. On a crude railway, like the early Mauch Chunk coal work could be done on a turnpike in a little less than four road, a horse or mule could move 57 tons one mile one day. days. At the rate of 20 cents per ton per mile it would cost Such labors would be equivalent to carrying one ton of coal $20 to move a ton of coal from the Schuylkill mines to Phila- 100 miles in about 11 days. delphia. The movement of one of the first wagon loads taken 5. If a superior railway for the use of horse power could be there in a wagon did cost $28. used and the appliances brought up to what was formerly con- The charges actually paid for land movements, as indicated sidered a high standard for such works, and movements equiv- by the statements already made, were so high that the surplus alent to 240 tons one mile in one day were made, the result commercial value of many classes of cheap products now would be the performance of labor equal to the movement of moved over lengthy overland routes was entirely consumed a ton of coal from Schuylkill mines to Philadelphia in less before they reached the point of consumption, or reduced to than half a day. such small figures that there was no incentive to surplus pro- Then, with a horse railway of a high class, one horse, under whether duction in many districts. Several results followed: First, that such human guidance as might be found necessary, would, in the gross amount of production was infinitesimal in compari- less than half a day, perform a labor which would require 231 son with the production of the present day, making due allow- days of the work of a man as a burden bearer. ances for difference in population; second, that a large propor- On all important railways there has been a rapid advance tion of those who endeavored to create surplus supplies were during late years, in the weight of locomotives, of trains, and rom 300b: obliged to perform more toilsome and persistent manual labor the amount of freight carried. It is difficult to say what can than is now common among men engaged in similar pursuits; be or is now accomplished. It is known that years ago trains and third, that expedients were adopted for reducing the bulk containing from 500 to 700 tons of freight commenced pass- and weight of surplus products, such as transforming cereals ing over great lines, daily, sometimes over distances of 100 into whisky, for instance, which are now unnecessary. miles per day, and occasionally over double that distance. A When we consider that the best results attained in Pennsyl- movement of 500 tons for a distance of 200 miles in one day, ight raw vania, by turnpike roads, in connection with the overland means the equivalent of 100,000 tons moved one mile in one freight movements of considerable length, was 80 expensive day, and this is not a difficult feat. At present a number of or unproductive, that the commercial product of four horses, existing locomotives are capable of drawing more than 2,000 a Conestoga wagon, and a driver, was, according to modern tons on a level railway. standards, worth only 27 cents per day, we begin to see what a Trains carrying an aggregate weight of 1,500 tons, including vital element of progress was furnished by the railways. It is the weight of the engine and cars, are now not uncommon; only by great improvements on the early lines, however, that and some trains are run over favorable grades which carry add to : the present condition of affairs has been produced. 1,500 tons of freight. That seems to be about the capacity mbined The effective force of a mule on the Mauch Chunk Railway, which was, in 1885, regarded as something beyond a usual the early coal road of Pennsylvania, was equal to the transpor- standard, and yet attainable. The weight of standard freigb+ tation of a little more than 57 tons one mile in one day. This trains running from Mifflin to Harrisburg, on the Midd" ofstmer was a very crude railway; but the difference between the effect- sion of the Pennsylvania Railroad, in 1885, was littlemants Digitized by Google LESSONS OF TRANSPORTATION DEVELOPMENT. 385 of the capital applied to creating and operating lines which the volume of corresponding movements in former times, and immensely benefited the persons served has been unremuner- the freight and passenger business of hundreds of lines has ative. There are various causes for such losses, but 80 far as increased, from year to year, with wonderful rapidity, a they are attributable to unwise or defective legislation, past result that could only be achieved by rendering useful and errors should be avoided and amends made for wrong-doing. desirable service to many millions of persons. The bulk of One of the great needs of the time is that the public conscience this service is performed by incorporated companies, whose should be quickened in regard to the relations between gov- principal incentive to exertion is a desire to secure remunera- ernments and owners of railway property, and especially in tion for the capital represented by their stock and bonds. reference to legislation relating to the capitalization of railway Failure to obtain given sums renders them unable to pay companies and the regulation of railway rates. their just debts or to make adequate returns to their stock- Seventh. Whatever may be done for the improvement of holders, and imposes on them perils of bankruptcy, which are waterways or the construction of artificial water routes, they often seriously felt by owners and creditors as well as the com- can only provide for a small portion of the requirements of munities served; and when such disasters are unusually nume- the American people, and navigable rivers and canals must rous they injuriously affect the entire industrial and financial always have limited mileage and scope of possible utility, in system of the country. comparison with the railway lines now existing. Twelfth. Wherever the railway goes it is accompanied with Eighth. No results have been 80 satisfactory as those se- three other things of great importance. They are the mail, cured from the operation of solvent and prosperous rail- telegraph, and express. Immense districts have been supplied ways, by an ample corps of reliable and skillful officials with these pioneers and adjuncts of civilization, commerce, and and well-trained employés. Impecuniosity or lack of avail- intelligence by the extension of railways. The huge masses able means to promptly provide the necessary or desirable of mail matter and enormous editions of daily newspapers improvements of permanent way and rolling stock, lead to the forwarded could not be moved with the rapidity necessary to infliction of privations or injuries, in the nature of imperfect meet current requirements by any other agencies than those facili or accommodations, damaging delays, and terrible which now perform this task. The express system has grown accidients. It is, therefore, the interest of that portion of the up with railway expansion, from small beginnings into stu- public which is not directly concerned as investors, as well as pendous proportions. of the holders of securities, that railway operations should be Thirteenth. That the general welfare would be promoted by attended with a reasonable degree of financial success. keeping railways on a commercial footing can scarcely be Ninth. Experience has indicated, in connection with the doubted. An assumption of governmental control of railways operation of the gigantic railway systems which now conduct accompanied with the assumption of pecuniary responsibility a large proportion of the transportation movements of the for the result of their operation would be a hazardous experi- United States, that there is greater danger of their bankruptcy, ment, and those who wish to maintain the solvency and free- and of the wasteful and unnecessary duplication of lines, than dom of the Republic may well contemplate it with horror. The of systematic overcharging. Competition has been 80 much greatest real danger of such a perilous resort comes from in- encouraged by a variety of causes, that manifest evils have justice practiced by American governments in their relations grown out of its excesses, and while the people of many sec- to railways. tions are likely to enjoy all the benefits that can arise from it, Fourteenth. Ample opportunities have been afforded of there are a number of directions in which protection from its judging of the actual results in the past, and probable results injurious outgrowths is desirable. in the future, of reliance for transportation facilities upon the Tenth. While few things are more useful and beneficial governmental action which has provided common roads, im- than the construction of a railway where it is really needed, proved rivers and harbors, and built a few canals and railways; few things are more wasteful or a more prolific source of and upon the action of incorporated companies which furnished widespread misfortunes than the construction of unnecessary nearly all the turnpikes, canals, and railways. The differ- lines, or roads for which there is not sufficient use to render ence between the condition of the country if governmental them remunerative within a reasonable time after they are efforts alone had been made, and that now existing, may be finished. more readily imagined than described. The wisest thing Eleventh. Railways represent the first effort to combine the governments have ever done in connection with this subject functions of owners of extensive highways with the duties of was to authorize companies to make and operate the steel common carriers. The labors involved in both these capacities rivers of internal commerce; and the wisest thing they can do have been performed in a manner 80 far superior to pre-exist- in the future is to judiciously blend an avoidance of officious ing methods, in economy and effectiveness, that the total intermeddling with an honest discharge of their legitimate amount of transportation now conducted immensely exceeds duties to railway investors, travelers, and transporters. 49 THE END. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google INDEX OF RAILWAYS. 387 INDEX OF RAILWAYS. ADD-BEL BEL-CAR CAR-CHI CHI-COL Bellaire and South-western, 213. Carolina Central, 116, 141, 144, 217, 276, Chicago, Clinton and Western, 218. A. Bellefonte and Snowshoe. 142. 353. Chicago, Clinton, Dubuque and Minne- Addison, 212. Belleplain, 75. Carson and Colorado, 350, 357. sota, 218, 223. Adirondack, 174, 213. Believille and Eldorado, 218. Carthage and Burlington, 177. Chicago, Cincinnati and Louisville, 142, Adrian and Toledo, 100. Belleville and Southern Illinois, 177, 218. Carthage, Watertown and Sackett's 174. Alabama and Tennessee Coal and Iron Bell's Gap, 213. 248. Harbor, 213. Chicago, Detroit and Canada Grand Company, 353. Belvidere-Delaware, 142, 174, 213. Cascade, 177. Trunk Junction, 142, 174. Alabama Central, 144, 176, 217. Bennington and Gastenburg, 212. Catasauqua and Fogelsville, 142, 174, 213, Chicago, Iowa and Dakota, 277. 878. Alabama Great Southern, 176, 181, 217, Bennington and Rutland, 142. 276. Chicago, lowa and Nebraska, 144. 223, 276, 358. Berkeley Branch, 220. Catawissa, 142, 174, 213. Chicago, Kansas and Nebraska, 357. Alatamaha and Brunswick, 74. Berkshire, 115. Catawissa and Williamsport, 87. Chicago, Kansas and Western, 355. Albany and Schenectady, 127, 131. Berlin, 213. Catskill and Canajoharie, 74. Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, 141, Albany and Susquehanna, 174, 180, 283, Berlin Branch, 213. Cayuga and Susquehanna, 75. 144, 177, 181, 183, 197, 219, 223, 231, 242, 361. Bingham Cañon and Camp Floyd, 220. Cazenovia, Canastota and De Ruyter, 242, 243, 244, 247, 275, 277, 278, 3'7, Albany and Vermont, 142. Birmingham and Gloucester, 95. 213. 344, 350, 351, 352, 355. 362. Albany and West Stockbridge, 159. Black Diamond Coal Mining, 177. Cedar Falls and Minnesota, 177, 218. Chicago, Pekin and South-wes ern, 219. Albemarle and Raleigh, 276, 353. Black River and Morristown, 213. Cedar Rapids and Missouri River, 177, Chicago, Rockford and Northern, 219. Alvia, Knoxville and Des Moines, 218. Blairstown, 213 181, 218. Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, 141, Alexandria and Frederickst urg, 217. Blossburg and Corning, 77. Cedar Rapids, Iowa Falls and North- 144, 158, 177, 181, 183, 186, 189, 197, Alexandria and Washington, 144. 183. Blue Ridge, 144, 159. western, 356. 198, 203, 219, 224, 226, 242, 243, 244. Alexandria, London and Hampshire, 183. Blue Spring, Orange City and Atlantic, Celina, Van Wert and State Line Exten- 247, 275, 277, 278, 317, 340, 351, 355, Allegan and South-eastern, 353. sion, 213. 350, 362. Allegheny Portage, 75, 77, 78, 80, 87, 90, Boone County and Booneville, 177. Central, 75. Chicago, Saginaw and Canada, 213. 125, 159. (See Portage.) Booneville, St. Louis and Southern, 177. Central and Montgomery, 226. Chicago, Santa Fe and California, 355- Allegheny alley, 142, 174, 180, 213, 223, Boston and Albany, 75, 79. 80, 101, 107, Central Branch Union Pacific, 177, 181, Chicago, St. Louis and Pittsburgh, 274. 242, 274, 276, 350, 361. 1.5, 117, 118, 142, 159, 182, 231, 242, 226, 357. 275, 277, 317. 377. Allentown, 213. 244, 247, 248, 274, 275, 317, 319, 331, Central lowa, 177, 218, 223, 277, 278. Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans, Alliance and Lake Erie, 213. 339, 344, 361. Central Military Tract, 197. 116, 142, 144, 217, 223, 242, 243, 316. Amador branch, 220. Boston and Lowell, 74, 75, 76, 80, 86, 95, Central, of Georgia, 274, 276, 317, 362, 362. American Central, 218. 103, 108, 110, 115, 127, 131, 142, 174, 377. Chicago, St. Paul and Kansas City, 277, Americus, Preston and Lumpkin, 353- 182, 188, 208, 212, 248, 275. Central, of Minnesota, 218. 278, 351, 350. Anderson, Lebanon and St. Louis, 213. Boston and Maine, 75, 115, 127, 131, 182, Central, of New Jersey, 118, 142, 150, Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Annapolis and Elk Ridge, 80, 116, 119. 188, 212, 248, 275, 3'7, 361. 153. 174. 185, 195, 196, 208, 213, 228, Omaha, 177, 219, 224, 226, 275, 277, Anniston and Atlantic, 353. Boston and New York Air Line, 212. 242, 273, 276, 301. 278, 351, 35ª. 356, 362. Arkansas Midland, 220. Boston and Providence, 74, 76. 81, 86, 95, Central, of South Carolina, 353. Chippewa Falls and Western, 219. Aroostook River, 212. 200, 108, 110, 115, 127, 131, 182, 248, Central Ohio, 142. Cincinnati and Baltimore, 213. Ashburnham, 212. 275. Central Pacific, 167, 177. 179, 220, 224, Cincinnati and Eastern, 213. Ashley river, 217. Boston and Worcester, 76, 86, 99, 100, 226, 242, 243. 244, 250, 277. 317, 319, Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley, 143. Ashtabula and Pittsburgh, 213, 223. 105, 127, 131, 134. 182. 342, 355, 36a. 213, 276. Ashuclot, 142. Boston, Barre and Gardner, 212. Central Railroad and Banking Company Cincinnati and Portsmouth, 214. Asheville and Spartanburg. 353. Boston, Clinton, Fitchburg and New of Georgia, 81, 100, 144. 353- Cincinnati and Springfield, 214. Atchison and Nebraska, 220, 224. Bedford, 75, 115, 142, 174, 212. Central Vermont, 115, 142, 242, 274, 275, Cincinnati and Westwood, 214. Atchison, Colorado and Pacific. 220, 224. Boston, Concord and Montreal, 115, 142, 316, 317, 361. Cincionati, Cumberland Gapand Charles- Atchison, Jewell County and Western, 212. Champaign, Havana and Western, 218, ton, 176. 220. Boston, Hoosac Tunnel and Western, 223. Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton, 142, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, 177, 220, 213, 274, 276. Champlain and St. Lawrence, 142. 154, 183, 274, 275, 276, 277, 301. 224, 226, 242, 244, 277, 3'7, 3.7, 342, Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn, 75, 212, Charleston and Hamburg, 71, 72, 73. 78, Cincinnati, Hamilton and Indianapolis, 349, 350, 351, 352, 355, 350, 357, 359, 275. 81, 96, 100, 101, 103, 107. 143, 174. 302. Boston, Winthrop and Point Shirley, 212. Charleston and Savannah, 256, 274, 276. Cincinnati, La Fayette and Chicago, 219 Atlanta and Charlotte Air Line, 217, 223. Bowling Green, 213. Charleston, Cincinnati and Chicago, 353- Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis and Atlantic and Danville, 353. Bradford, Bordell and Kinzua, 276. Charlotteburgh and Green Lake, 213. Chicago, 143, 175, 274, 275. 276, 277, Atlantic and Great Western, 180, 183, Bradford, Eldred and Cuba, 276. Charlotte, Columbia and Augusta, 141, 361. 186, 206, 248, 297. Breakwater and Frankford, 213. 144, 176, 181. 274, 276. Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Atlantic and North Carolina, 144. Bridgeport, 131. Charlton, Des Moines and Southern, 218. Pacific, 274, 276, 330. Atlantic and Pacific, 220, 277, 349, 350, Brighthope, 116, 144, 176. Chartiers, 213. Cincinnati, Richmond and Chicago, 143. 352, 355, 357, 358. Brinkley and Cotton Plant, 220. Chateugay, 213. Cincinnati, Richmond and Fort Wayne, Atlantic and St. Lawrence, 115, 117, i30, Brodie and Benton, 357. Chatfi:Id, 218. 214. 141, 142. Brookfield Coal, 174. Chattanooga and Knoxville, 183. Cincinnati, Rockport and South-western, Atlantic and West Point, 144, 274, 276. Brooklyn and Montauk, 174, 213. Chemung, 116. 214. Atlantic Avenue, 75. Brooklyn and Rockaway Beach, 174, 213. Cheraw and Chester, 217, 276. Cincinnati, Sandusky and Cleveland, 116. Atlantic Coast Line, 358. Brooklyn, Bath and Coney Island, 174. Cheraw and Darlington, 144, 276. Cincinnati, Selma and Mobile, 276. Atlantic, Gulf and West Indian, 141, 144, Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island, Cheraw and Salisbury, 276. Cincinnati Southern, 217, 223, 358. 176. 213. Cherokee Iron, 217. Cincinnati, Van Wert and Michigan, 276. Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio, 141, 144, Brunswick and Albany, 217, 223. Cherry Valley, 218. Cincinnati, Wabush and Michigan, 214, 362. Brunswick and Chilicothe, 218. Cherry Valley, Sharon and Albany, 213. 223. 276. Atlantic, Tennessee and Ohio, 176. Brunswick and Western, 276. Chesapeake and Nashville, 353. Cincinnati, Washington and Baltimore, Attica and Buffalo, 127, 131. Bucksport and Bangor, 212. Chesapeake and Ohio, 141, 144, 159, 176; 274. 275, 276. Attleborough Branch, 212. Buffalo and Erie, 189. 217, 223, 242, 358, 362. City Point and Army, 183. Auburn and Rochester, 127, 131. Buffalo and Erie Basin, 213. Cheshire, 115, 275, 316. Clarinda and St. Louis, 219. Auburn and Syracuse, 127, 131. Buffalo and Niagara Falls, 100, 127, 131. Chester, 174. Clarksburg, Weston and Glenville, 217. Augusta and Sandersville, 353- Buffalo and New York, 158. Chester and Delaware River, 213. Clayton and Theresa, 214. Augusta and Savannah, 274. Buffalo and South-western, 213. Chester and Lenoir, 76, 144, 217, 276. Cleveland, Akron and Columbus, 274, Aurora Branch, 197. Buffalo, Bradford and Pittsburgh, 174. Chester Creek, 174. 276. Avon, Geneseo and Mount Morris, 142. Buffalo, Corning and New York, 298. Chester Valley, 142. Cleveland and Dalton, 183. Arizona Mineral Belt, 358. Buffalo Creek, 213. Chestnut Hill, 142. Cleveland and Erie, 189. Buffalo, New York and Erie, 142. B. Chicago and Alton, 141, 144, 177, 198, 209, Cleveland and Mahoning Valley, 143, Buffalo, New York and Philadelphia, 218, 223, 242, 244, 247, 274, 275, 277, 175, 214. Bachman Valley (of Maryland), 213. 174, 213, 223, 248, 274, 276, 349. 352. 317. 3'9, 302, 374. Cleveland and Marietta, 214, 276. Bachman Valley (of Pennsylvania), 213. Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh, 276. Chicago and Atlantic, 274, 276, 277, 349, Cleveland and Pittsburgh, 141, 143, 162, Baid Eagle Valley, 174. 180. Buffalo, Pittsburgh and Western, 349. 352. 208, 231, 242, 316, 301. Baltimore and Hanover, 213. Burlington and Lamoille, 212, 275. Chicago and Aurora, 197. Cleveland and Toledo, 165, 223. Baltimore and Ohio, 71, 74, 75, 77. 79, 80, Burlington and Missouri River, 197, 229, Chicago and Block Coal, 213. Cleveland and Wellsville, 119. 83, 87, 94, 95. 100, 101, 103, 105, 106, 224, 226, 277, 350, 356, 362. Chicago and Canada Southern, 213. Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati, 108, 109, 110, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, Burlington and North-western, 218, 277, Chicago and Dakota, 219. 116, 151, 165, 183. 125, 127, 128, 135, 136, 141, 142, 150, 278. Chicago and Eastern Illinois, 177, 219, Cleveland, Columbus, Cincinnati and 152, 153, 158, 159, 100, 161. 179, 183, Burlington and South western, 218, 223. 276, 277. Indianapolis, 141, 143, 242, 244, 274, 185, 189, 191, 202, 205, 208, 213, 223, Burlington and Western, 277, 278, 356. Chicago and Grand Trunk, 213, 223, 274, 275, 270, 316, 3'7, 377. 361. 241, 242, 244, 254, 265, 274, 275. 270, Burlington, Cedar Rapids and Northern, 275, 276. 361. Cleveland, Lorain and Wheeling, 276. 280, 283, 295, 305, 317, 328, 340, 350, 218, 223, 277, 278, 350, 356, 362. Chicago and lowa, 219. Cleveland, Mount Vernon and Dela- 351, 352, 301, 381. Baltimore and Philadelphia, 276. C. Chicago and Milwaukee, 144, 151, 207, ware, 143, 214, 276. 208. Cleveland, Painesville and Ashtabula, Baltimore and Potomac, 213, 223. Cairo and St. Louis, 218, 223. Chicago and Pacific, 219. 151, 214. Baltimore and Susquehanna, 74, 77, 80, Cairo and Vincennes, 218, 223. Chicago and North-western, 116, 141, Cleveland, Tuscarawas Valley and 94, 131, 148, 158. Caledonia, Mississippi and Western, 218. 144, 177, 181, 183, 186, 197. 203, 207, Wheeling, 214, 223. Baltimore and Washington, 74. 80, 108, California and Oregon, 350. 208, 209, 219, 224, 226, 228, 230, 231, Clinton and Port Hudson, 76, 100, 120, 110, 119, 120, 128, 131, 130, 150. (See California and Southern, 357. 242, 243, 244, 247, 260, 275, 277, 278, 145. Washington Branch. California Central, 355. 317, 350, 35', 352, 356, 362, 381. Clinton, Bloomington and North-eastern, Baltimore, Ohio and Chicago, 213, 223. California Northern, 177. Chicago and Rock River, 219. 219. Baltimore Short Line, 213. California Pacific, 220, 224. Chicago and Springfield, 219, 224. Clove Branch, 175. Bangor and Katahdin Iron Works Rail- California Southern, 355- Chicago and Tomah, 219. Coeur d' Alene Railway and Navigation, way, 275. Camden and Amboy, 74, 76, 79, 86, 94, Chicago and West Michigan, 213, 223, 357. Bangor and Piscatauqua, 174, 212, 275. 101, 102, 103, 106, 109, 118, 131, 134, 828, 274, 276, 350. Colchester, 212. Barclay Coal Company, 142. 136, 150, 163, 207, 256 Chicago and Rock Island, 151, 158, 165, Colebrookdale, 175. Bardstown Branch, 258, 353- Camden and Atlantic, 276. 208. College Hill, 214. Bath, 74. Camden and Burlington County, 174. Chicago, Bellevue, Cascade and West- Colorado Central, 220, 224. Bath and Hammondsport, 213. Camden, Gloucester and Mount Eph- ern, 218. Colorado Central (of Wyoming), 220. Baton Rouge, Grosse Tete and Opelou- raim, 213. Chicago, Burlington and Kansas City, Colorado Midland, 357. sas, 177. Canada and Atlantic, 142, 275. 277, 278. Columbia, 74, 75. Bay and Coast, 220. Canada and Great Western, 158. Chicago, Burlington and Northern, 277, Columbia and Greenville, 274, 276. Bay de Noquet and Marquette, 207. Canada Southern, 213, 242. 278, 352. Columbia and Philadelphia, 104, 110, 125, Beaver Meadow. 77. 85, 135, 150, 195, 207. Canadian Pacific, 305, 352, 354. Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, 120, 150, 156, 157. Bedford and Bridgeport, 213, 223. Canton, Aberdeen and Nashville, 353- 141, 144, 151, 165, 177, 181, 183, 186, Columbia and Port Deposit, 175, 214. Bedford, Springville, Owensburg and Cape Fear and Yadkin Valley, 144, 176, 197, 206, 207, 208, 218, 223, 226, 228, Columbus and Cincinnati Midland, 276. Bloomfield, 213. 217, 353. 231, 242, 243, 244, 247. 260, 275, 277, Columbus and Hocking Valley, 175. 214. Beech Creek, 352. Carbon and Otter Creek Valley, 213. 278, 317, 330, 344, 35% 352, 350, 357. Columbus and Maysville, 214. Belfast and Moosehead Lake, 212. Carbondale and Shawneetown, 218. 360, 377. Columbus and Rome, 217, 353- Digitized by Google 388 INDEX OF RAILWAYS. COL-EAS EAS-GRA GRA Columbus and Toledo, 814. East St. Louis and Carondelet, 219. Grand Gulf and P Columbus and Xenia, 116, 120, 128. 151. East St. Louis Connecting, 219. 144. Columbus, Chicago and Indiana Central, East Tennessee and Western North Grand Haven, 214. 141, 143, 175, 180, 185, 228, 242, 244, Carolina, 353. Grand Rapids and I 361. East Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia, 223, 226, 274, 27' Columbus, Hocking Valley and Toledo, 141, 144, 274, 276, 317, 349, 358. Grand Rapids, N. 276. Eastern Counties, 157. Shore, 214. Columbus, Kinkora and Springfield, 214. Eastern Kentucky, 176, 217. Grand River Valley. Columbus, Springfield and Cincinnati, Eastern (of Massachusetts), 75, 76, 115, Grand Tower Mit 143. 214. 127, 131, 142, 150, 174, 182, 212, 248, and Transporta' Columbus, Washington and Cincinnati, 256, 275, 301. Grand Trunk of C., 214. Eastern (of New Hampshire), 115. 142, 199, 207, 21 Colusa and Lake, 357. Eastern Ohio, 214. 276, 352. Commercial, 100. Eastern Shore, 80, 175. Grayville and Matt Connecticut Central, 212. Easton and Amboy, 214. Great Northern, 1. Connecticut River, 212, 248, 275. Eatonton Branch, 144, 274. Great Western, 1. Connecticut Valley, 212. Ebensburg and Cresson, 175. Great Western (o' Connecticut Western, 212. Edgewood, 214. 256. Concord, 116, 127, 13', 142, 174, 275, 316. Eel River, 214. Great Western (of Concord and Claremont, 116, 142, SI2. Elberton, 217, 276. Green Bay and M Concord and Portsmouth, 142, 174. Elgin and State Line, 144. Green Bay, Wine Concord, Manchester and Lawrence, 256. Elizabethtown and Somerville, 100. Greenbush and I Connecticut and Passumpsic River, 116, Elizabethtown, Lexingto and Big Greene, 214. 142, 174, 316. Sandy, 217. Green Lick, 214 Connecting, 175, 180, 189, 208. Elk and Chatauqua, 221. Greenville and Connotton Valley, 214, 350. Elkridge and Annapolis, 100. Greenville, Cob Corning, Cowanesque and Antrim, 75. Elmira and Williamsport, 75, 78, 143. 217. 175, 214, 249. Elmira, Cortland and Western, 270. Greenwich and Cornwall, 143, 214. Elmira, Jefferson and Canandaigua, 143. Grinnell and M Cornwall and Lebanon, 276. Elmira State Line, 214. Gulf, Colorado Corpus Christi, San Diego and Rio Emlenton, Shipperville and Clarion, 214. 355,357 Grande, 220, 226. Emmettsburg, 214. Gulf, Wester Council Bluffs and St. Louis, 2'9. Erie (see New York, Lake Erie and 221. Covington, Columbus and Black Hills, Western). 221. Erie and Genesee Valley, 214. Covington and Macon, 353. Erie and International, 214. Hackensack Cowley, Summer and Fort Smith, 221. Erie and Pittsburgh, 175, 180, 189, 249. Hannibal Creston and Northern, 219. Erlanger System, 353- 197, 202, Crooked Creek, 219. Eureka and Palisade, 221. 277, Crown Point Iron Company, 214. European and North American, 174, 207, Hannibal 1. Crystal City, 219. 212, as6. Hanover Cumberland and Maurice River, 214. Evansville and Terre Haute, 143, 175, Hanover 1 Cumberland and Ohio, 217 214, 274, 276. Hanover I Cumberland and Pennsylvania, 116, 143, Evansville, Terre Haute and Chicago, burg, 175, 316. 214. Harlem Cumberland Valley, 75, 77, 78, 80, 95, Evergresn, 214. Harlem 100, 119, 150, 276. Experimental, 81. Harlen Hartford D. F. Hartfor Dakota Central, 221. Fairland, Franklin and Martinsville, 143, Harris Dallas and Wichita, 231. Harr. Danbury and Norwalk, 142, 212, 275. 175. Danvers, 142. Fall Brook Coal Company, 143, 876. Danville Branch, 75. Fall River, 131, 212. Danville, Olney and Ohio River, 210. Fall River, Warren and Providence, 174. Harr. Hart Danville and South-western, 219, 224. Fayette County, 143. Ferro Monte, 214. Ha Dayton and Michigan, 143. Dayton and South-eastern, 214, 224. Fitchburg, 115, 131, 142, 161, 242, 274, Ha. H., Dayton and Union, 143, 276. 275, 301. Dayton and Western, 143. Flemington, 143. Dayton, Xenia and Belpre, 143. Fliot and Pere Marquette, 175, 214, 223, H. H. Delaware, 143, 175. 226, 276, 358, 36a. Delaware and Bound Brook, 214. Florence Branch, 214 Delaware and Chesapeake, 175, 214. Florence, Eldorado and Walnut Valey, 221. Delaware and Hudson, 71, 72. 175, 180, 182, 194, 195, 214, 273, 276. Florida Central, 144. Delaware Bay and Cape May, 214. Florida Midland, 353- Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, Florida Southern, 353- 141, 143, 159, 161, 18a, 194, 195, 190, Flushing, North Shore and Central, 143, 175, 214. 207, 208, 214. 228, 242, 248, 273, 274, 270, 283, 310, 3'9, 349, 352, 368. Fond du Lac, Amboy and Peoria, 219. Delaware River, 214. Foxburg, St. Petersburg and Clarion, 214 Delaware Western, 214. Fort Dodge and Fort Ridgely, 214. Dent and Phelps, 210. Fort Madison and North-western, Denver and Boulder Valley, S21. Fort Scott, South-eastern and Memp: 921. Denver and Rio Grande, 221, 224, 277, Fort Scott, Wichita and Western, 37 350, 357: Denver and Rio Grande Wes'ern, 277, Fort Wayne and Jackson, 175, 214. Fort Wayne, Cincinnati and Loui 350, 357. Denver, South Park and Pacific, 221, 224. 276. Des Moines, Ade' and Western, 219. Fort Wayne, Muncle and Cincinnati 214. Des Moines and Fort Dodge, 177, 219, 226, 277, 278. Fort Worth and Denver City, 349 Des Moines and Knoxville, 219. Framingham and Lowell, 212. Des Moines and Minneapolis, 219. Frankford and Holmesburg, 214. Des Moines, Osceola and Southern, 278, Frankfort and Kokoma, 214. 356. Franklin, 214. Detroit and Bay City, 214, saz. Frederick and Pennsylvania I. Detroit and Milwaukee, 120, 256. 223 Detroit and Pontiac, 100. Freehold and Jamesburg As Detroit and Ypsilanti, 100. 143. 175, 214. Detro t, Bay City and Alpena, 352. Freehold and New York, 214. Detroit, Grand Haven and Milwaukee, Freeport Line, 197. Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri 75, 116, 143, 214, 274, 276. Detroit, Hillsdale and South-western, 177, 221, 277, 351, 356. Funda, Johnstown and Glove 214. Detroit, Mackinac and Marquette, 276. G. Detroit, Lansing and Northern, 175, 214, 223, 274, 276. Galena and Chicago, 151, Detroit, Monroe and Toledo, 143. Galena and Wisconsin, 210 Dexter and Newport, 174. Galveston and Camargo Isburg and Mechanicsburg, 214. 226 Dixon, Peoria and Hannibal, 219. Galveston, Harrisburg and Dixon and Quincy, 219. 221, 224, 277 Dom Pedro 11, 3'9. Galveston, Houston and Dorchester and Delaware, 175. 1871), 221. Dorchester and Milton, 115. Garnerville, 214. Dover and Winnipiseogee, 115, 142. Gaston and Raleigh, Dubuque and Dakota, 219. Geneva and Lyons, 214 Dubuque and Sioux City, 144, 177. Geneva, Ithaca and Dubuque, Platteville and Milwaukee, Georgetow 221. 177, 219. Georgetow and We Dubuque South-western, 177. Georgia Central. 107, Duck River Valley, 217. Georgia Midland and Duluth and Iron Range, 35⁶. Georgia Pacific, Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic, 35', Georgia Railroad 352. 76, 81, 86. Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley and Pitts- 131, 134, 144, burgh, 214. 249, 276. Georgia Southern Dunleith and Dubuque Bridge, 177. Gettysburg and E. Glasgow, 217 Glasgow and Soull East Albany and Cincinnati, 217. Glasgow Branch East and West, of Alabama, 353- Glendale and East East Brandy wine and Waynesburg, 175, Glen Falls, 214. Gloversville and East Broad Top, 214. Golden, Boulder East Line and Red River, 221, 226. Golden and Sourly East Mahanoy, 175, 194. Goshen and De East Pennsylvania, 143. Grafton Centre Digitized by Google INDEX OF RAILWAYS. 389 LON-MIS MIS-NEW NEW-OLD OLE-PIT Long Island, 75, 85, 86, 100, 116, 131, 143, Mississippi and Missouri, 158. Newport and Cincinnati Bridge, 218. Olean, Bradford and Warren (in New 175, SIS, 250, 362. Mississippi and Tennessee, 144, 176, 256, Newport and Wickford, 212, 875. York), 216. Long View and Sabine Valley, 231. 296. Newport News and Mississippi Valley, Olean, Bradford and Warren (in Penn- Longwood Valley, 215. Mississippi River Bridge, $19. 353. sylvania). 216. Los Angeles and Independence, 321. Mississippi Valley and Ship Island, 217. Newry, 175. Omaha, Niobrara and Black Hills, 21. Los Angeles and San Diego, 221. Missisquol, 212, 275. Newtown and Flushing, 215. Omaha and Northern Nebraska, 221. Louisiana and Missouri River, 219, 224. Missisquoi and Clyde River, 212. New York and Canada, 143. 175, 215, Omaha and Republican Valley, 221. Louisville and Frankfort, 120. Missouri, Iowa and Nebraska, 219, 224, 223. Omaha and South-western, 221, 226. Louisville and Nashville, 141, 144, 196, 278. New York and Coney Island, 215. Orange and Alexandria, 179, 183. 181, 205, 207, 217, 923, 242, 243, 256, Missouri, Kansas and Texas, s19, 221, New York and Erie (See New York, Orange Belt. 353. 258,259, 260, 274, 275, 276, 278, 317, 224, a26, 242, 349, 357. 36a. Lake Erie and Western). Oregon and California, 177, 221, 224, 226, 349, 353, 358, 362, 377, 381. Missouri Pacific, 145, 177, 181, s19, 242, New York and Flushing, 143. 350. Louisville and Wadley, 217. 243. 265, 275, 277, 37, 349. 351, 355. New York and Fort Lee, 175. Oregon Central, 221. Louisville Bridge, 217. 350, 357, 359. 360, 309, 377. New York and Greenwood Lake, 215. Oregon Railway and Navigation, 177, Louisville, Cincinnati and Charleston, Missouri River, 177. New York and Harlem, 75. 81, 87, 101, 877, 350, 355, 357. 8r, 107, 120. Mobile and Alabama Grand Trunk, 218. 116, 118, 131, 143. 159. 18a, 215. Oregon Short Line, 277. 350, 355, 357. Louisville, Cincinnati and Lexington, Mobile and Birmingham, 353- New York and Long Branch, 215. Oregon Transcontinental, 350. 116. 144, 176, 243. Mobile and Cedar Point, 100. New York and Manhattan Beach, 215. Oregon Pacific, 357- Louisville, Evansville and St. Louis, 276, Mobile and Girard, 144, 176, 218, 226, New York and New England, 115, 141, Oshkosh and Mississippi River, 219. 350. 274. 142, 159, 174, 212, 248, 274, 275, 317, Oswego and Rome, 176. Louisville, Harrod's Creek and West- Mobile and Montgomery, 176, 181, 183, 351, 301. Oswego and Syracuse, 116. port, 217. 218, 274. New York and New Haven 250. Ottawa, Oswego and Fox River Valley, Louisville, New Albany and Chicago, Mobile and North-western, 218. New York and Oswego Midland, ss8. 219. Owensborough and Nashville, 176. 120, 143. 215, 274, 275, 276, 277, 350 Mobile and Ohio, 117, 129, 142, 144, 176, New York and Philadelphia, 301. Louisville, New Orleans and Texas, 876, 181, 218, 226, 276, 317. 358, 362. New York and Rockaway, 215. Oxford, 75. Mohawk and Hudson, 74, 76, 94, 108, New York and Sea Beach, SIS. Oxford and Henderson, 353. 350. Louisville Railway Transfer, 217. 110. 111. New York, Bay Ridge and Jamaica, P. Lowell and Andover, 212. Moline and South-eastern, 219. 215. Lykens Valley, 75. 116, 175, 194. Monadnock, 212. New York, Boston and Mon'real, 215. Pacific Coast, 357- Lyndale, 219. Monroe Railroad and Banking Com- New York, Boston and Providence, 116. Pacific Railroads, 181, 182, 250, 251, 363. pany, 100. New York Central (See New York Paducah and Flizabethtown, 218, 203. M. Mont Alto, 215. Central and Hudson River). Painesville and Youngstown, 216. Macon and Brunswick, 176, 181 Montana Central, 97. New York Central and Hudson River, Pinesville, Canton and Bridgeport, 216. Macon and Western, 130, 131. Monterey, 221. 75. 76, 78, 116, 117, 118, 123, 127, 141, Palouse Branch, 350. Madison and Indianapolis, 85, 100, 120, Montgomery and Erie, 175. 143. 152, 153, 154, 157, 158, 165, 166, Pan Handle, 328, 337- 128, 131. Montgomery and Eufala, 176, 218, 274. 175, 182, 185, 186, 188, 189, 191, 192, Parker and Karns City, 916. Mad River and Lake Erie, 98, 151. Montgomery and Florida, 353. 208, 215, 228, 240, 242, 244, 247, 254, Parkersburg Branch. 144. Mahoning Coal, 215. Montrose, 876. #57, 262, 265, 274, 270, s80, 283, 195, Passaic and Delaware, =16. Maine Central, 115. 141, 142, 174, 212, 875, Morgan's Louisiana and Texas, 145, 220. $97, 307, 317, 319, 321, 322, 330, 331, Passumpsic, 275 3'7, 361. Montgomery and West Point, 120. 340, 350, 352, 362. Paterson and Hudson River, 75. Manchester, 75. Montour. 215. New York Central and Niagara River, Paterson and Ramapo, 116. Montpelier and Well's River, 212. 215. Paterson, Newark and New York, 176. Manchester and Keene, 212. Manchester and Lawrence, 115. Montpelier and White River, 212. New York, Chicago and St. Louis, 274, Paulding and Cecil, 216. Manchester and North Weare, 142. Montreal and Champlain, 256. 275, 276, 277, 317, 358, 377. Pawtuxet Valley, 212. Montrose, 215. New York Elevated, 215. Peachbottom, 176, 316. Manhattan, 362. Maple River, 210. Morris and Essex, 73, 100, 116, 118, 119, New York, Housatonic and Northern, Pemberton and Hightstown, 176. Maricopa and Phoenix, 358. 143. 150, 215, 228, 236, 175. 212. Pemberton and Seashore, 216. Moshassuck, 212. New York, Lackawanna and Western, Peninsula, 218. Marietta and Cincinnati, 141, 143, 16: Pennsburgh and Harrisville, 218. 175. 242, 362. Mount Carbon, 75, 194. 349 352. Marietta and North Georgia, 217, 353- Mount Carbon and Port Carbon, 116, New York, Lake Erie and Western, 76, Pennsylvania, 78. 83, 87, 116, 117, 110, Marine, 215. 194. 80, 99, 111, 113. 116, 117, 1:8, 119, 124, 125, 130, 134, 141, 143. 145. 146, Marion and McPherson, 221. Mount Holly, Lumberton and Medford, 124, 127, 131, 133, 134, 14", 143, 150, 150, 152, 153, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 175. 152, 153, 157, 158, 159, 162, 164, 166, 162, 105, 166, 176, 178, 180, 182, 183, Marquette, Houghton and Ontonagon, Mount Hope Mineral, 175. 175, 182, 183, 185, 186, 189, 190, 191, 185, 186, 189, 190, 191, 195, 196, 199, 143, 175, 215. Martha's Vineyard, 212. Mount Pleasant and Broad Ford, 215. 192, 196, 200, 202, 207, 208, 210, 28, 202, 203, 205, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, Martinsburg and Potomac, 217. Mount Sterling Coal Road, 218. 231, 242, 843, 244, 247, 248, 254, 263, 216, 228, 231, 241, 243, 243, 244, 245, Maryport and Carlisle, яоб. Mount Washington, 212. 274, 176, 280, 295, 297, 303, 305, 310, 247, 248, 249, 252, 253. 254. 250, 257. Marysville and Blue Valley, 221. Muncy Creek, 215. 316, 317, 318, 310, 325, 344, 352, 36a. 260, 262, 265, 273, 274, 276, 280, 283, Muskegon River and Rose Lake, 215. New York, New Haven and Hartford, Masillon and Cleveland, 175. 295, s96, 297, 301, 300, 306, 307, 3rr. 75. 116, 142, 150, 174, 182, 218, 248, Mauch Chunk, 71, 75, 101, 108, 110, 383. 315, 3'7, 3'9. 320, 32r, 323, 324, 3*5, N. May's Landing and Egg Harbor City, 257, 274, 275. 317, 257, 361. 330, 330. 337, 344, 345. 349, 352, 359, New York, Ontario and Western, 175, 302, 33, 305, 37°, 373, 377, 381, 383. 215. Narragansett Pier, 212, 275. 180, 215, 223, 276. Pennsylvania (in Maryland). 216. Maysville and Lexington, 144, 217. Nashua, Acton and Boston, SI2. New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, 175, Pennsylvania and New York Canal Rail- McKean and Buffalo, 215. Nashua and Lowell, 75. 76, 131. 180, are, 242, 840, 274, 275, 276, 283, road, 176, 180, 216, 248, 362. Meherrin Valley, 353- Nashville and Chattanooga, 183, 210, 316, 36a. Pennsylvania Coal, 176. Memphis and Charleston, 141, 144, 179. 358. New York, Philadelphia and Norfolk, Pen: sylvania Company, 274, 276, 337, 183, 202, 274. 276, 362. Nashville and Clarksville, 183. 350, 352. 350. Memphis and Little Rock, 177, 220, 26, Nashville and Decatur, 144, 258. New York, Providence and Boston, 75, Pennsylvania Schuylkill Valley, 35ª. 350. Nashville and Florence, 353- 142, 275. Pensacola, 176. Memphis, Kansas and Texas, 921. Nashville and Kentucky, 256. New York, Susquehanna and Western, Pensacola and Atlantic, 349, 353- Memphis Line, 258. Nashville and North-western, 183. 876, 349. Pensacola and Mobile, 218. Memphis, Paducah and Northern, 217, Nashville and Tuscaloosa, 218. New York, West Shore and Buffalo, 381, Pensacola and Perdido, 176. 223. Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis, 188, 349, 350, 35', 370. Pensacola and Selma, 218. Mendocino, 921. 141, 144, 176, 181, 218, 243, 274, 276, Niagara Bridge and Canandaigua, 143. Peoples, 216. Menominee River, 215. 302. Nickel Plate Line, 349, 352. Peoria and Bureau Valley, 145. Metropolitan Elevated, 215. Nashville, Decatur and Stevenson, 183. Norfolk and Petersburg, 183. Peoria and Hannibal, 219. Mexican Gulf, 120. Natchez, Jackson and Columbus, 353, Norfolk and Ocean View, 218. Peoria and Springfield, 219. Mexican, Oriental, Interoceanic and In- 218. Norfolk and Virginia Beach, 353. Peoria, Decatur and Evansville, 219, 224, ternational, 349. Natchez, Red River and Texas, 25. Norfolk and Western, 141, 274, $76, 351, 274, 275, 276. Michigan Air Line, 175, 215, 223. Naugatuck, 115, 207, 212, 875. 358, 353, 358. Peoria, Pekin and Jacksonville, 145, 177. Michigan and Ohio, 276, 350. Nebraska, 221, 224. Norfolk Southern, 353- Perkiomen, 176, 216. Michigan Central, 75, 111, 120, 121, 125, Nebraska City, Sidney and North-east- Norfolk Terminal, 353- Perth Amboy and Woodbridge, 196. 128, 129, 130, 131. 143, 151, 165, 183, ern, 219. North Brookfield, 212. Peterborough, 212. 207, 208, 209, 228, 231, 242, 244, 246, Nesquehoning Valley, 215. North Carolina, 116, 144, 274, 276. Peterborough and Hillsborough, 212. 247. 252, 260, 274, 275. 276, 277, 316, Nevada and California, 357. North Cross Road 100. 317, 337, 362. Nevada Central, 357. Petersburg, 76, 102, 107, 108, 110, 179, North-eastern, 276. 276. Michigan City and Indianapolis, 215. Nevada County, 221. North-eastern (of Georgia), 218, 276. Petersburg and Roanoke, 75. Michigan, Midland and Canada, 215. Newark and Bloomfield, 143. North-eastern (of South Carolina), 144. Philadelphia and Atlantic City, 216, 276. Michigan Southern, 120, 131, 165, 186, Newark and Delaware City, 215. North-east Pennsylvania, $16. Philadelphia and Baltimore Central, 143, 189. 207, 208. Newark and Hudson, 215. Northern, 131. 176. Middleburg and Schoharie, 175. Newark, Somerset and Straitsville, 215. Northern Adirondack, 275. Philadelphia and Columbia, 77. 78, 80, Middlesex Central, 212. New Brunswick, 275. Northern Central, 75. 77, 78, 79, 80, 94, 8a. 83, 86, 88, 89, go, 94. 96, 97. 100, Middletown and Crawford, 215. Newburgh and New York, 175. 110, 143, 153, 185, 196, 202, 208, 94% 102, 108. 109, 103, 104. (See Colum- Middletown, Unionville and Water Gap, Newburgh, Dutchess and Connecticut, 248, 270, 302. bia and Philadelphia.) 175. 175. Northern Central Michigan, $16. Philadelphia and Erie, 141, 143, 152, 176, Midland North Carolina, 276. Newburyport, 142. Northern Coal and Iron, 176. 180, 185, 189, 206, 247- Midland (of England). 231. Newburyport City, 212. Northern Cross, 126. Philadelphia and Reading, 75. 77. 85, 86, Midland (of New Jersey), 215. New Canaan, 174. Northern (of California), 221, 994. 87, 88, 89, 100, 103, 110, 119, 128, 131, Mifflin and Centre County, 175. New Castle and Beaver Valley, 175. Northern (of New Hampshire), 116. 134, 141, 143. 150, 159, 166, 176, 180, Mill Creek, 75. New Castle and Franklin, 215. Northern (of New Jersey), 143, 207. 182, 186, 194. 105, 190, 206, 208, 210, Mill Creek and Mine Hill, 75. 143, 194. New Castle and Frenchtown, 74, 77. 80, Northern Ogdensburg, 256. 211, 216, 228, 231, 242, 244, 248, 273, Milford and Woonsocket, 174. 275. 86, 104, 105, 119. Northern Pacific, 167, 21, 282, 924, 226, 276, 208, 307. 310, 316, 317. 323, 331, Millstone and New Brunswick, 143. New Castle Railroad and Mining, 175. 228, 229, 250, "77, 317, 319, 323, 342, 350, 302, 370. (See Reading.) Milnburg and Lake Pontchartrain, 120. New Egypt and Farmingdale, 215. 350, 351, 352, 355, 356, 357, 302. Philadelphia and Trenton, 75. 77, 78, 79. Milton and Sutherlin, 217. New Haven, 207. North Pacific Coast, 221. 100, 119, 131, 189. Milwaukee and Lake и innebago, 350. New Haven and Derby, 212, 275. North Pennsylvania, 143, 210, 216, 248. Philadelphia, Germantown and Norris- Milwaukee and Northern, 219, 224, 277. New Haven and Hartford, 207. North-western North Carolina, 218. town, 75. 77, 78, 94, 96, 100, 102, 105, Milwaukee and Prairie du Chien, 120, New Haven and Northampton, 115, 142, North-western Ohio, 216. 119, 131, 150. 208. 174. 212, 275. North-western Union, 219. Philadelphia, Newtown and New York, Milwaukee ard St. Paul, 228, a3r. New Haven and Springfield, 131. Norway Branch, 212. 216. Milwaukee Cement, 219. New Jersey, 81, 98, 100, 150. Norwich and Worcester, 116, 131, 142, Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore, Milwaukee, Lake Shore and Western, New Jersey and New York, 215. 275. 75, 77, 78, 86, 95, 100, 105, 113, 119, 219, 224, 277, 350, 352 New Jersey Southern, 175. Nyack and Northern. $16. 123, 128, 131, 143, 150, 161, 170, 183, Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven, 75, 85, New London Northern, 115, 142, 174, O. 188, 189, 202, 208, 256, 274, 276, 310, 116, 143. 150, 194. 275: 330, 362. Mineral Point, 144. New Mexico and Southern Pacific, 221, Ogden Mine, 176. Pickering, 216. Mineral Range, 215. 224. Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain, 143. Piedmont, 17th, 274. Minneapolis and Duluth, 219. New Orleans and Carrollton, 120. 275, 276. Pinconning, 216. Minneapolis and Pacific, 278, 35% New Orleans and Gulf, 353- Ogdensburg and Morristown, 216. Pine Grove, 75. Minneapolis and St. Louis, 219, 224, 277, New Orleans and Mississippi Valley, Ohio and Mississippi, 141, 143. 151, 153, Pine Hill, 218. 278, 350, 351, 356. 349. 207, 208, 216, 223, 228, 242, 274, 275, Pine River Valley and Stevens Point, Minneapolis, Sault Ste Marie and Atlan- New Orleans and Nashville, 100. 270, 317, 362. 920. tic, 351, 352. New Oricans and North-eastern, 276, Ohio and Pennsylvania, 119, 126. Pioche and Bullionville, 221. Minnesota and lowa Southern, 219. 349, 353, 360. Ohio Central, 216, 350. Pittsburgh, 177. Minnesota and North-western, 277, 278, New Orle and Pontchartrain, 74. 85. Ohio River, 276. Pittsburgh and Castle Shannon, 216. 356. New Orleans and Selma, 218. Ohio Southern, 876. Pittsburgh and Connellsville, 143, 16, Minnesota Central, 350. New Orleans, Jackson and Great North- Oil City and Ridgway, 216. 223. 249 r76. Minnesota Midland, 219. ern, 179. Oil Creek and Allegheny River, 249. Pittsburgh and Dannemora, 216. Minnesota Valey, 219. New Orleans, Mobile and Texas, 176, Old Colony, 116, 131, 142, 174, 180, 182, Pittsburgh and Lake Erie 216, $74, 276. Mississippi, 100. 181. 212, 248, 875, 297, 317, 301, 36a. Pittsburgh and Steubenville, 119. Digitized by Google 392 GENERAL INDEX. CAR-CED CEN-COM COM-COS COU-CUR Carev, Henry C.; railway rates in 1853, Central Iowa Traffic Association, 877. incessant continuance of. 272, 273: on canals, 46 to 49; 166. Central northern states; increase of rail- how competitive business was trans- on early railways, 46; Carman, G. L: chairman Eau Claire way mileage in, from 1880 to 1887, acted in 1876, 278; movement between Cincinnati and and Chippewa Falls, Central lowa 348; result of violations of agreements, 279: seaboard cities in 1833 and 1834, 48; Traffic, Sioux City, Marshalltown Increase of railway mileage in 1887, 358. injurious effects of reckless, 279: on early canals and early railways, 49: and Iowa, Minnesota and Dakota Central Traffic Association, 274, 273. how the public is injured, 279: effect of canals in reducing, 51: Associations, 277, 278. Central Transportation Company: sleep- how confederations endeavored to cure drawing one ton one mile at d derent Carriages, 54. 57, 59: ing-car operations in 1863, 208. the evils of unregulated, 280; rates of acclivity and different speeds Carriage-making industries, 59- Chairs, railway, 156, 157. rule for adjusting rates between com- by stage-coach and wagon in Eng. Carondelet canal, 41. "Chalking his hat, origin of, 63. petitive points, 280. land, in 1831, 60; Cars; of the early lines, 100; Chambers, William: American railw~~ Commissioners, rallway; establishment extensive road movements in the springs, necessity for, 100; conductors of the sixth decade in various states, 239, 265, 266; United States in stages and wagons, Baltimore and Ohio improvements, Champlain Canal, 53. their proceedings, 267, 269; 60; 100; Chandler, F.; member board of arbitra- new method of organizing, 269; contrast between cost of railway and eight-wheeled, first, 101; tion of Western Association of Gen- commutation tickets, 256, 257. stage and wagon movements oa barrel-shaped, 101; eral Passenger and Ticket Agents, Concord coach, 63. plains, 60: freight, limited capacity of, 101; $78. Conductors, railway; of the sixth de- stage fare between Philadelphia and two-story, 101; Chanute, O.: heavy locomotives, 318; cade, 153: Baltimore in 1788, 61; first passenger on Camden and Amboy, interchangeability of parts of locomo- num of in 1880, 361; omnibus, cab, and gurney movements, 102; tives, 325. ske'ch of old-time, 366, 367; 64; miscellaneous devices, 102; Chesupeake and Delaware Canal, 43. 51, duties of, 376. time, speed, and cost of passenger move- on Portage Railroad, 102; 53, 168. Conestoga t-ams and wagons, 55. ments by various methods in 1839 sleeping, 102: Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, 41, 43. 52, Confederations; of railways, 107; old Tioga eight-wheeled, 102; 71, 80, 108, 168. practical effects of, 278. fares authorized by southern legisla- heating, arrangements for, 103; Chevalier, Monsieur; statement of the Consolidation locomotives, 206, 3'9, 320. tures in 1840, 107, 108; lighting, devices for, 103; objects of public works progressing Consolidations of connecting railway fares on various railways in 1837, 108; seats, 103; in 1838, 78 lines, 185; freight movements by canal, railway, with sails, 103; Chicago and Ohio river pool, 277. effect on public interests, 186, 187: and turnpi c in 1831, 108; tread-mill horse power, 103; Chicago Railroad Association, 277. financial effects, 187; tolls and freight charges on various standard passenger in 1856, 162; Childs, O. W.; sleeping cars in 1863, on rival lines in preventing competi- railways in 1837, 1840, and previous improvements considered especially de- 208, sog. tion, 188; periods, 110; sirable in 1856, 162; Chilled wheels, 343. number of from 1870 to 1887, 358; railway freight charges in New York freight cars in 1855, 163; Clarke, Thomas C.; American iron rail- diverse conditions of, 358. and Michigan in 1838, 111; capacity and mode of constructing way bridges, 308, 303; Constitution (of United States): provi- possibilities of a material reduction in eight-wheeled freight cars in 1835, design for Kinzua viaduct, 305. sions relating to appropriations for average radway charges, 124: 163; Clark, S. H. H.; member executive com- internal improvements, 168, 169. on railways and ordinary highways in improvements of during the seventh de- mittee Texas Traffic Asso intion, 277. Construction of in New 1854, 129; cade, 207. so9; Classification of freight, 282, 283. England states, 75. 185, 116, 351; on Pennsylvania railroad in 1848, 130; increase of number, 208; Classification of trains, 379. in Middle and Western states, 75, 116, railway and canal freight charges in number of on leading lines in 1865. 20°; Civil engineers; scarcity of during early 35% 352; 1845, 1848, 1849, and 1850, 130, 132; average weight and capacity of, about stages of capal and railway develop- in southern states, 75, 116, 353: passenger fares on numerous railways 1869. so8; ment, 82: in south-western states, 75. 1 6, 355, in 1848 and 1850, 131, 132: early sleeping, 208, sog; their railway labors, 361. 357: on Pacific coast steamers in 1890, 138; Pullman sleeping, 209; Clinton, DeWitt, zealous support of Erie in north-western states, 116, 355, 356; movement of a barrel of flour from Buf- Westinghouse air brake, 209; canal, 42. in central northern states, 358; falo to Albany in 1852, 165; increase in price of passenger, SIO; Clinton, Fulton and Lyons Association, in Pacific states, 355. 357: do. from Ogdensburg to Boston in Iron-plated military, 211; 277. west of the Mississippi, 354, 355: 1852, 165: kind used for transportation of wounded Clinton, General James; artificial freshet, in groups cast of the Missi-sippi, 35% "lowest rates" in sixth decade, 166; soldiers, 211; 42; in various sections, 71, 73. 76, 115, 140, average fares in New York and Massa- repairs of, 314: advocacy of Erie canal, 42. 174, 180, 211, 222, 347. 351, 354; chusetts in 1855, 166; defects of wheels, 314; Coal: anthracite combination, 273; different plans of on early lines 82; average rates of the trunk lines and defects of axles, 315; cars, so8, 335; estimates of cost of Philadelphia and their western connections from 1855 defects of mounting wheels on axles, facilities for handling, 310; Columbia, E3: to 1859, 166; 315; transportation of, 11; cost of original, 157; freight charges on wheat from Chicago other defects, 315. in arks, 13; state aid, 125; to New York from 1868 to 1872, 191; improvements of, 332: anthracite, use of, 135. experience of Illinois, 195, 126; low live-stock rates, 191; maintenance and construction of, 332; Coast survey, 173. estimated cost of New York and Erie west-bound rail rates New York to car builders and car-building establish- Coastwise steamship and steamboat in 1835, 127; Chicago, from 1862 to 1870, 19t, 192; ments, 332; lines, soo, 291. magnitude of extensions from 1850 to charges allowed by the Potter law of Increase of varieties of, 3ª3; Cochran, G. G; member east-bound end of 1859, 140; Wisconsin in 1875. a31; passenger, 323: classification committee, 874. new roads east of the Alleghanies, 140, rates on grain moved by barge lines on baggage, mail and express, 333: Cochran, Mordecai; contractor on Na- 141; the in 1880, 240; used in operation and construction, hf tional Road, 31. east and west trunk-line extensions, average fares and freight receipts in wrecking, 334: 50° Cockran, George G.; freight classifica- 141; 1880, 241, 243. 244: freight, 334; ton, 283. foundation of great western systems, freight earnings and rates of east and heater, refrigerator, fruit, and stock, 334: Coke cars, 335. 141; west trunk lines during a protracted milk and grain, 335; Colby, Mr.; locomotive performances, Trans-Mississippi, Gulf State, and Pa- period, 244, 247: coal, coke, and tank or oil, 335: 331. cific, 141; bids for wagon freighting for United lumber, logging, flat, gondola, and tip, Cole, C. L.; member east-bound classifi- speculative, 146, 147, 148; States Government in 1883, 245: 335: cation committee, 274. financial conditions in 1885, 151; average freight rates on railways of box, 335, 336; Collins, Edward K.; steamship line, a86, unnecessary duplication of lines, 155; Ohio from 1869 to 188, 245: increase of the capacity of freight, 336; 288 changes in permanent way, 156; average rates on western trunk-line 60,000-pound box freight, 337: Colorado-Utah Association, 275. bridge-building progress, 158; connections during a protracted pe- Increased size of passenger, 337; Commerce: conditions under which it tunnels, 159; riod, 246; details of construction, 337: was conducted between southern from 1860 to 1869 in United States, reductions in rates between Indianapo- premiums for car appliances offered by Ohio and New Orleans by early set- 174 to 178; lis and New \ ork city, 246; the Chicago Railway Exposition. tiers, 14; in various sections, 180; east-bound rates from St. Louis in 188a, 338; difficulty of conducting when transpor- profits of, 182; 246; notable improvements in construction, tation facilities are deplorably defi- increase of cost caused by civil war, reductions in rates on granger roads, 338; cient, 19: soo, 210; 247: material and labor required to build a advance guard of American internal, detailed estimates for a given line in rates on New England roads, 248; box car, 338; 21; 1860 and 1865, 210; rates on anthracite and bituminous material and labor required to build a basis and amount of in 1840, 109; all lines built in United States from coal roads, 248; standard passenger car in 1870, 338; number of persons employed in 1840, 1870 to 1879, #11; Southern railway rates, 249: portions specially liable to wear and 109; variations in amount of, in different rates established by law and a railway tear, 339: why extensive movements were years of the seventh decade, 222; commission in Missouri on special master car-builders' standards, 340; checked when public works were salient features of, as3; classes, ago; the battle of the brakes, 340; contro led by states, 111, "3; financial methods, 224; fares and rates on Pacific railroads, ago; necessity of continuous train brakes the busis of western traffic from 1850 to land grant aid, 226, 227: on the Southern Pacific, 251; on passenger trains, 341; 1860, 153; causes of extensive, from 1880 to 1887, relation between through and local Westinghouse automatic brake, 348: tonnage of American railroads in 1860, 348; rates, 251 to 254: qualities a continuous brake should 165; special features of the, from 1880 to during railway wars, 151, =5a; possess, 341; traffic of the trunk lines and their 1887, 349 to 351: live-stock tr.ffic, #51; automatic freight train brakes, 342; western connections from 1855 to system of rapid track-laying, 354; comparative statement of local freight tests of, in :886 and 1887, 242; 1859, 166; Continuous train brakes, 340, 341. rates on trunk lines, #54: wheels and axlet, 343: east-bound movement of wheat and Cooke Locomotive and Machine Com- passenger fares, #55: chil ed wheels, 343: flour from Chicago f.om 1863 to 1870, pany, 316, fares on sundry lines in 1805, 256; description of, &c., 343, 344: 191: Cooley. L. E.; improvement of the Mis- suburban traffic on commutation tick- specifications and to is of car wheels, classification of articles carried by rall- souri and other western rivers, 237, ets, 236, #57; 344: ways of the United States in 1880, 238. cost of movements to railway compa- steel-tired car wheels, 344: 242; Cooley, Thomas M.; relations between nies, #58 to 261; recor. $ of mileage of, 344: reduction of rates on railways engaged railways and the public, 271; items of cost, 259; report of Master Car Builders' Asso- in moving freight between the west- Interstate Commerce Commissioner, circumstances affecting, 259, 26:: clation on, 344; ern states and the Atlantic seaboard, 284. moving freight from Butfalo to New axles, 344; 244 to 247; Cool, John W.; engineman on fast loco- York before and after Erie Canal tests of passenger axles, 345; influence of railways on the grain and motive run, 321. was opened, 261; master car-builders' standard, 345: provision trade, 261, a6e; Corduroy mads, 26. reduction in rates of trunk-lines from journal bearing, journal box, and ped- effect of steamship progress in increas- Cost of transportation: in arks, 12: 1855 to 1870, a62; estal, 345; ing, a89; on the Ohio and Mississippi and by ocean steamship rates in 1877, So, ago; hot boxes, 345: value of merchandise imported into and land routes in 1814, 14; lake freight charges, age; details of car trucks, 346; exported from the United States on western rivers in 1790, 16: rates of western river transportation truck springs, 347: from 1858 to 1886 inclusive, 289; reduction of, effected by barges, 17; from 1856 to 1872 and other periods, names of parts of car truck, 346, 347: basis of the increase of exports, 289. on Mississippi river steamboats before *93 294; the development of the truck, 347: Companies, railway; reported number of 18tg, 18; lake freights from 1861 to 1878. 204. Carter, Theo. H.; arbitrator Southern in :888, 358; of pack-horse movements, 21; Couch, J. J.; labor-saving machine for Railway and Steamship Association, names of numerous (see Index of Rail- on inferior roads, 27; drilling rocks, 160. 274. ways). in northern and north-western states, Cramp, Mr.; steamship constructi a86, Carts, 54: Mexican, 54, 55- Competition, of rallways; for through 27; 287. Car wheels; chiled won, 101; traffic, 152; in the United States in 1852, 28; Crawford, R. L: freight classification, establishments for making in 1860, 163; advantageous position of western ship- in Wisconsin in 1875, 28; 283. mode of testing, 344; pers, 152; wagon movements in southern and Credit Mobilier, 224 steel-tired, 344. efforts of merchants to follow emi- south-western states, 28; Crude railways; product of labors on, Car trucks; springs, 346; grating customers, 152; in Texas, about 1856, a8; 383. names of parts of, :46, 347; "ruinous," 152, 153; wagon movements on the plains, $8; Cross-ties, $97. development of, 347. for through passenger traffic, 153: fares on stage-coach line running be- Culverts, 301, 302. Car wheels and axles, 343. the stimulation and encouragement of, tween Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, Curd, H. T.: Car Accountants' Associa- Cast-iron railway chairs, 83, 84, 86. 240, 241; 33: tion, 381. Catlin, George; Indian method of making relations between through and local on the National Road, 34: Curtin, A. G.; coal mining and trans- the portage, 25. rates, 251; bridge tolls, 30; porting combinations, 194: Cattle cars, so8. reductions of rates during railway wars, land carriage in Pennsylvania in 1791, Curtis, George Ticknor; public highway Cedar Rapids Association, 277. 851; 42; theories applicable to railways, ge. Digitized by Google GENERAL INDEX. 393 DAN-EXP FAI-GEI GEN-HEA HEM-LAK D. F. General baggage agents; National Asso- Hempstead, C. T: president New York Danforth Locomotive Works, 228. Faithorn, J. N.: commissioner North- clation of, 380. and Boston All-rail and Sound Lines Daniels, George H.: assistant commis- western Freight, Western Traffic, General freight agents, 364, 369. Association, 275. sioner passenger department Central Cedar Rapids, Clinton, Fulton and General managers, of radways, 365, 372. Hennepin Canal, 23. #38. Traffic Association, 274, 275: Lyons, and Davenport, Rock Island, General officers, of railways; number of Hewitt, Hon. Abram S.; extract from chairman east-bound passenger com- and Moline Associations, 277. in 1880, 361. address at celebration of opening of mittee, 275. Fairman, Charles; competition between General office railway clerks; number of Brooklyn bridge, 37 Davenport, Rock Island and Moline As- steamboats, barge lines and railways, in 1880, 361. Hibbard, H. W.; member east-bound sociation, 277. 293. General passenger and ticket agents, 364, classification committee, 274. Davis, W. E.: president Chicago Rail- Fares (see Costof Transportation); regu- 368, 369; Hill, E. B.; manager New England Rail- road Association, 277. lation of, 107: National Association of, 380. way Clearing House Association, Decapod locomotive, 319. on numerous railways, 131, 132: rules governing train service; 275. De Gerstner, Chevalier; description of steadiness of, 256. ral Time Convention, 377; Hill, Edgar; member east-bound classifi- American rairways in operation in Farmington and Hampshire canal, 46. unitorm train rules, 377: cation committee, 274. 1840, 77. Fast freight lines; non-co-operative, 192; standard time, 378; Hinckley, Isaac; railway consolidations, Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, 41, 195. co-operative, 192; signal rules, 378; 188. Delaware and Hudson Canal, 48, 71, general effects of, 193: signals, 378; Hinckley Locomotive Works, 316, 324. 80, 93, 108, 195, 248. relative merits and demerits of the co- train signals, 378; Hobert, J. W.; member executive com- Delaware and Raritan Canal, 49. 51, 52, operative and non-co-operative sys- whistle signals, 378; mittee New England Railway Clear- 53. 76. 77. 79, 131, 136. tems, 193. bell-cord signals, 378; ing House A ssociation, 275. Depew, H. L.; joint agent St. Louis Fast runs of locomotives; on New York lamp signals, 379: Holley, A. L.; steel rails and rail pat- committee Central Traffic Associa- Central, 321: train rules, 379: terns, 208, 299. tion, 275. on the New York, West Shore and classification of trains, 379: Holliday. Ben stage-coach lines, no, 64. Dickens, Charles: journey over the planes Buffalo, 321; preparations for train movements, 380; Hoosac Tunnel, 159, 160. of the Allegheny Portage Railroad, on the Pennsylvania, 322. Gibson and Linn; historic trip of in 1776, Horner, B. F.: member executive com- g Fee, Charles S.: president St. Paul and 10. mittee Western Association of Gen- western steamboats in 1840, 115. Minneapolis Passenger Association, Gilbert, Davies; mechanical advantages eral Passenger and Ticket Agents, Dickson Manufacturing Company, 316; 278. of wheels and springs, 58. 278. Dillingham, C.: member executive com- Felton, S. M: early coal-burning loco- Gill, C. E.; member east-bound classifi- Horse; power of on different classes of mittee Texas Traffic Association, 277. motives, 161. cation committee, 274. roads, 37, 38. Directors, of railway companies, 366. Fernie, John, 329: fire boxes, construc- Gondola cars, 335, 336. Hot boxes, 345. Discriminating tolls on New York ca- tion of, 326, 327. Goodman, Samuel: vice-president Mid- Howe, M. G.: member executive com- nais, 47. Fink, Albert: percentage tables showing dle States Freight Traffic Associa- mittee Texas Traffic Association, Discriminations against individuals, 281, relations between rates to and from tion, 276. 277. 282. numerous points, 254; Gorham, C. D.; train service, 377. Hughes, E. T.; general agent Southern Discrimination, "unjust," 231. cost of railway transportation, 258, #59; Governmental aid to internal improve- Railway a: d Steamship Association, Dismal Swamp Canal, 41. trunk-line commissioner, 274: ments; construction of the National 274. Ditches, 297. how competitive transportation busi- Road, 31; Hutchinson, A. C.; member executive Dividend-payers of 1855, 151. ness was formerly transacted, 278; state debts created to promote con- committee Texas Traffic Association, Doyle, P. C.: chairman Buffalo Railway result of violations of railway agree- struction of railways and canals, 79, 277. Passenger Association, 276. ments, 279: 80, 81; Drake, Mr.: effect of land-grant railways causes of frequent failures of railway effects of state aid, 8r, 125, 126; I. in hastening settlements, 227. confererations, 283, s84. subscriptions or bonds of towns, cities, Illinois and Michigan Canal, 53- Drainage of railroads, 296, 297 iron railway bridges, 302. or states to promote railway con- Inclined planes; on Portage Railroad, go; Drinker, H. S.; work on tunneling, 87, Fisher, S. B; improvement of roads struction, 151; journey over Portage Railroad, 90; 159. leading from railway stations, 39, 40 improvement of national waterways, method of operation, 91; Dripps, Isaac; improvements on im- Fitch, John: efforts to: construct steam- 168; first ascent by locomotive, 91. ported English locomot ves, 94. boats, &c., 15, 16; constitutional questions, 168, 169: Indian: system of transportation, 5; Dudley, P. H.; dynagraph car, 334. misfortunes of, as a transporter, 16; light-houses, light-ships, and buoys, 169; the Pathfinder, 5: Durham boat, 10, 13. estimates of the cost of up-river move- light-houses and lighting apparatus, canoes and modes of construction, 5, Durham, Robert; first builder of Dur- ments, 16. 172; 6,7; ham boats, 13. Flanders, D. J.: chairman Boston pas- coast survey, 173: land movements, 7. 18; Dynagraph car, 334- senger committee, 275. congressional action, *33: burden strap, 7: Flat-boat men; trips of from Pittsburgh river and harbor improvements, 233; method of carrying disabled persons, 7: E. to New Orleans, 11, 12. western river improvements, 235: sledges and snow shoes, 7: Eastern Stage Company, 6r. Flat-boats, 10; mode of conducting early effects of governmental policy upon use of horses, 8, 18; trade on, 11. transportation facilities, 385. travail, 8, 21; Eau Claire and Chippewa Falls Associa- Flat cars, 335, 336. Grain and provision trade; influence of labors as burden bearers, 19: tion, 277 Ferries; establishment of early, 34: railways on, 261; trails, 24. Economic results (see Cost of Transpor- tation); of the primitive water meth- charges authorized, 34, 35: Grain cars, 208, 335- Indiana canals, 52. advances in ferry systems, 35: Grain elevators, 309, 310. Industrial products; quantity of, in 1840, ods, 14, 15; internal revenue taxes paid on in 1865 Granger legislation; causes that produced 109. early steamboat freight charges, 18; of road improvements, 27; and 1866, 185. it, 229, 232; terlocking of switches and signals, 300. of turnpikes, 29; Fleming & Sons; locomotive manufactu- nature of demands, 230; In -nal improvements; promotion of, 70; rers, 316. story of a granger, 230; Pennsylvania Society for 70; relation between carts and wagons, 56; Fleming, William; secretary passenger specific grievances and remedies, 231; constitutional questions involved in ex- of early railway operations in reduction department of trunk-line commission, unjust discrimination and the long and penditures by United States govern- in price of commodities and increase in value of real estate, 106, 107; 274. short haul, 231, 232; ment, 168, 169. Flying machines, 56, 57. results of stringent rate regulations, Internal navigation; reported number of increase of national wealth from 1850 to Folsom, A. A.; president New England 267, 269. persons engaged in, in 1850, 122. 1860, 154, 155: the railroad not always a philosopher's Clearing house Association, 275. Granger roads; reductions of rates on, International Navigation Company, 280. Fordyce, S. W.; member executive com- 247. Interstate Commerce act; passage of, stone, 155; mittee Texas Traffic Associat on, Granite sills and blocks, 8a, 83, 84. 284; of substitution of heavy for light loco- Grant, Captain John; early cars, 101. motives, 320; Fowle, J. W.; improved rock drilling one of the effects of, 358; of advances from the trail to the T-rail, machine, 160. Grant, Charles H.; secretary Chicago report of Interstate Commission, 358. Fowler Steel Car Wheel Company, 344. Railroad Association, 277. Iowa, Minnesota and Dakota Associa- 382. Edge rail; first use in England. 68; Franklin, Benjamin; improving up-river Grant Locomotive Company, 316. tion, 278. craft, 15: Grate area of locomotives, 326, 327. Iowa Railway Passenger Association, significance as a forerunner of modern connection with the Braddock expedi- Greeley, Horace: passenger movement 277. railways, 67; kind used on Philadelphia and Colum- tion, 20; on Erie Canal, 50. Iron bridges, 158. bia Railroad, 83: services as colonial Postmaster-Gen- Grosvenor, W. M differences in the Iron ore pool, 276. rates per ton per mile between long substituted for iron plates on South eral, 24: Iron-working machinery, 314. Carolina Railroad, 85; letter on early canal projects, 41,42. and short movements, 258. Frazer, R. M.; chairman east-bound Gurney movement, 64. J. difficulty of keeping in proper position, classification committee, 274. Guthrie, J. C.: commissioner Middle Jervis, John B.: sends Horatio Allen to 104. Freedom of contract and laws of trade, States Lumber Association, 276. England to investigate locomotives, Eight-wheeled cars; first in United 271. Guilford, N.; commissioner freight de- 72. States, 101, 102. Elevators; construction of in seventh de- Freeman, Milo S.; auditor Southern partment of Trunk-line Commission, Johann, Jacob; safety steam-gaugestand, cade, 211; Railway and Steamship Association, 274; 329. 274. freight classification, 283. Johnson, O. L.; secretary New York and grain, 309; Free-pass system; origin of, on stage- Boston All-Rail and Sound Line As- in Chicago, capacity, table, 309; H. coach lines, 63. sociation, 275. Erie, 309; Free railroad systems, 224, 225. Haas, Solomon: traffic manager Asso- Dows stores, Brooklyn, 310. Journal-bearing, 345- Ellet, Charles, Jr.; plans for wire sus- Freight; charges over and under, Ellet, ciated Railways of Virginia and the Journal box, 345. 112; Carolinas, 876. Juniata Canal, 125. pension bridge, 37: J. Edgar Thomson, prophetic view, Haines, H. S.; railway organizations, railroads of 1840, 8: 363: K. III; pamphiet on laws of trade relating to theories on hich freight tariffs traffic, early. lack of, 105: tendency toward concentration of au- Kansas General Passenger and Ticket traffic Camden and Amboy, 106; thority, 305. should be framed, 112, 113. Agents' Association, 277. distinguished from toll, Ellet, 113; Hall, Captain Basil; primitive method of Elliott, R. S.; packet-boat movements Keel-boats, 13, 14, 15. handling of, 310; crossing rivers, 25; on Pennsylvania Canal, 50. Kenny, Thomas L: description of trip Ely, Theodore N.; locomotives, 325, 33r. increase of movement on railways from corduroy roads, 2C; on Erie Canal in 1826, 50. 1880 to 1886, 360. effect of Erie Canal, 45- Kingsbury, F. H president New Eng- Emery, Isaiah S.; chairman New York Freight cars, 103, 163, 334: Hampden Canal, 46. land General Ticket and Passenger State Passenger Association, 276. Emigration; western movement about Freight tariffs; theories relating to them, Hand, B. E.; secretary Chicago and Agents' Association, 276; 1832, 111, 112. 112, 113. (See Cost of Transporta- Ohio River Pool, 277. freight classification, 283. tion). Hanna, J. N.; packet-boats on Pennsyl- Kingsbury, J. A., Ore Pool agent, 276. Employes of railways; antecedents of trainmen of early lines, 106; Fruit cars, 335. vania Canal, 50. Kinyon, William, 338. Fry, Howard; design of locomotive, 321. Hannegan, J. E.; secretary Iowa Rail- Kinzua viaduct, 305. reported number of in 1850, 122; increase in number of from 1850 to Fulton, Robert; advocacy of Erie canal way Passenger Association, 277: Kirkman, M. M.; jurymen in railway in 1814, 15; secretary Western Association of Gen- cases. 370: 1860, 140; puts steamboating on a firm basis, 17: eral Passenger and Ticket Agents, collection of railway revenue, 38. number of in 1880, 361. Erie canal, 41, 44, 45, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, statement of cost of turnpike move- 278. Knight, Jonathan; National Road and ments in 1807, 33: Harahan, J. T.; train service, 377. cost of movements on, 34: 71, 76, 79. 111, 113, 117, 118, 120, 123, his ferry-boat inventions, 35: Harbor improvements; utility of, #34, cost of transportation on canals, 48; 127, 130, 137, 141, 152, 155, 165, 191, prediction in 1811 that carriages would 235. advocacy of railways, 49; 192, 238. Erie and Ohio canal, 112. be drawn over the Allegheny moun- Harlan & Hollingsworth, steamship con- method of constructing Columbia and tains by steam engines, 67; struction, s87. Philadelphia Railroad, 83: Evans, Oliver; demonstration of the practicability of steamboats and Freight tariff proposed in 1790 for a canal Harrisburg Car Manufacturing Com- inclined planes, go; extending from Philadelphia to Pitts- pany, 347. recommends use of springs on burthen steam carriages in 1804, 17, 64, 65. burgh, 112. Hayden, Mr.: relation between east- cars, 100; Evener system, 873. Everett, Edward; colonial land routes, Frogs, railway, 156, 158, 300. bound and west-bound rates, 283. economical ratio of weight between a Hayes, J. D.; relation between through car and its load, 101; 94. G. and local rates, 853. on comparative merits of railways and Everhart, Mr.: river and harbor bills, Hazard, George S.; effect of Erie Canal canals, 109. 234. Garrett, John W.; system of manage- in reducing cost of the transports- Knight, M.; member east-bound classi- Excursion tickets, 257. ment, 365. tion of flour, 51. fication committee, 274. Extension smoke boxes, 328. Gauges; battle of the, 136; Head-lights of locomotives; substitute Express companies; internal revenue standard, 358. for and early, 105. L. taxes paid in 1865, 1866, and 1867, Geiger, R. M.; member east-bound clas- Heater cars, 334. Lake traffic; development of, 120, 121: 184, 185. sification committee, 274. Heating cars; primitive methods, 103. steam tonnage in 1851, 121; 50 Digitized by Google 394 GENERAL INDEX. LAM-LOC LOC-MAC MAC-MID MID-NOR population of lake and western river head-lights, substitutes for, 105; Machine tools, 164, 3'3; Middle States Freight Traffic Associa- cities in 1850, 122. steam power vs. horse power, 105: kind used in United States Govern- tion, a76. Lamp signals, 379. Slaymaker's bull, 105; ment military railway shops in 1864, Middle States Lumber Association, 276. Land-grant railways; bill passed in 1850, enginemen, early, 100; 211. Midgley, J. W.; commissioner South- 129; improvements in, 134; Machinists, railway; number of in 1880, western, Colorado-Utah and Pacific rapid construction and number of acres passenger, increased speed, 134; 361. Coast Railway Associations, 275. granted, 225; freight, increased capacity, 134: Mackay, A.; member east-bound classi- Milk cars, 335. mileage of, and effect in hastening set- link motion, 134, 135: fication committee, 274. Miller, Robert; 60,000-pound box freight tiements, 226, 227. anthracite coal-burning difficulties, 135: Maclaine, George: secretary Texas Traf- car, 321. Land-route movements (see Railways); up-grade labors over hill on east side fic Association, 277. Mills, Edward; steamship line, 286. by Indians, 5,7, 8; of Kingwood tunnel, 159; Macneil, John; estimate of cost of stage Miltimore Elastic Steel Wheel Company, primitive, by European immigrants, 18; early coal-burning devices and experi- and wagon movements in England, 344. pack-horse or horse-back era, 19: ments, 161; 60. Milton Steel Car Wheel Company, 344. common or country roads, 22; Dimpfel's boiler, 161, 162; Magers, George: constructs a short rail- Miner, Charles; early canals, 45. defective American roads, 24: the Webster, a successful coal burner, road in Virginia about 1811, 69. Minot, Charles; use of the telegraph as common road improvements, 26; 162; Mail boats; line of, established in 1794, an aid to railway operations, 164. economic effect of road improvements, increase of weight and capacity, 162; 14. Mississippi river; freight movements on, 27: ten-wheeled engines, 162; Mall coaches in England from 1750 to 1763, 261; commencement of the turnpike and works in the United States in 1860, 23. navigation of, references to by George bridge era, 29; 163: Mallory, George B.; grain elevators, 310. Washington, 43: characteristics of turnpike development, increase of size and capacity during the Management of railways; consolidation trade movements on arrested by c.vil 31: seventh decade, 206; of connecting lines, 185; war, 178; cost of transportation on turnpikes, 33: Consolidation and Mogul engines, 206; fast freight lines, 192; improvement of, 233, 235, #39: ferries and bridges, 34: steel tires, 206; railway confederations or pooling ar- plans of commission, 236; importance of public road Improve- steel fire boxes, flues, and boilers, 207; rangements, 272; tributaries of, 237: ments, 38; price of in 1864 and 1865, 210; practical effects of confederations, 278; bridges over, 158, 159, 204, ROS, 305; methods of road construction, 40; repairs cf. 315; personnel of railways, 361; movements on, from 1871 to 1887, 360. improvement of vehicles used on roads, improvements in, 316; systems of railway organization, 362; Missouri railways; freight rates on spe- 54: superiority of American, 316: railway presidents, 304: cial classes established by law and freight and passenger wagons, light list of manufacturing establishments in general office labors, 366; railway commissions, 250. vehicles, 56; 1887, 316; traffic departments, 368; Mitchell, Alexander; Strong locomotive, springs and other Improvements, 58; railway companies that construct, 316, legal departments, 370; 383. transportation of passengers in stages, 317: operating departments, 37% Mogul locomotives, 206, 319, 320. 60, 61, 62: increase in number of, 317: labors on railway tracks, 373: Monongaheia navigation, 53. rivalry between land and water routes, increase of classes of, 317, 318; train movements, 374: Moore, E. D.: general agent South- 111; freight, increased size and capacity, general rules governing train service, western Railway Association, 275. effect and extent of reductions of cost 318; 377: Mordecal, Gratz; terminal facilities, 307. of railroad transportation, 129; "El Gobenador," 319: railway associations and organizations, Morris Canal, 53. miscellaneous transportation develop- Mogul and Consolidation, 319: 380. Morris, Robert; president of canal com- ments, 166; average train-load in 1875, 1880 and Manchester Locomotive Works, 163, 316. panies, 42, 44. economic effect of advances from the 1885, 319: Marcy, Captain; on pack-animal move- Morrison, William R.; Interstate-com- trail to the T-rail, 382. typical, relative power of, 320; ments, 21: merce commissioner, 284. Langdon & Shepherd, American railway economic effect of substitution of heavy on wagons suitable for movements on Motive power and cars; early locomo- constructors, 354. for light, 320; plains, 29. tives, 93: Latrobe, B. H.; Broad Tree and other passenger, increased speed, 320; Marshaltown Association, 277. notable improvements of the locomo- tunnels on Baltimore and Ohio, 160: records of average daily performances, Mason Machine Company, 316. tive, 98; early steamboat experiments, 17. 321; Master Car-Builders' Association, 207, care of the early lines, 100; Lauder, J. N.; high-pressure locomo- fast run on the New York, West 336, 339, 340, 342, 344, 347. novel incidents on early railways, 103: tives, 326. Shore and Buffalo, 321; Master Car-Builders' standards, 340. improvements in locomotives, 134: Lazarus, J. S.; vice-president Western fast run on the New York Central, Matthews, David; on speed of passen- improvements of locomotives and cars, Association of General Passenger 321; ger trains in 1839, 107. 161; and Ticket Agents, 278. locomotives made at Altoona. Bald- McAdam, John, London; system of road improvements of locomotives, 206; Leavitt, E. D., Jr; Strong locomotive, win, Reading, Rogers, Rhode Island construction, 40. improvements of cars, 207: 323. and Lehigh Valley shops, 321; McCabe, D. T.; member east-bound miscellaneous mechanical peculiarities Legal departments of railways, 370. fast passenger locomotives, 321; classification committee, 274. and advances, 209; Legislation, railway; false principles of, standard passenger locomotives on McCallum, D. C.; general principles of improvements in locomotives, 316; 270. New York Central, 322; railway organization, 362. increased size and capacity of freight Lehigh Coal and Navigation Canal, 42, smoke-preventing devices, 322; McCarty, O. P.; chairman Kansas Gen- locomotives, 318; 53. 108, 195. Standard Pennsylvania Railroad, Class eral Passenger and Ticket Agents' increased speed of passenger locomo- Lehigh Valley shops, 321, 323. K, passenger engines, 322, 323; Association, 277. tives, 380; Lewis and Clarke; time consumed in anthracite-burning engines, Class P, McCrea, James; uniform train signals, improvements in details of locomotive going and returning from the Missis- for fast passenger trains on the New 377. construction, 324: sippi to the mouth of the Columbia, York division, 323: McCay, J. T. R.: member east-bound steam-generating and steam controll. 29. high speed Wootten engines, 323; classification committee, 274: ing functions, 326; Lewis, Enoch: effect of hostile military Strong locomotive, 323; freight classification, 283. general locomotive improvements, 329. movements on Pennsylvania Rail- Mogul locomotives, 323; McKibben, Thomas A.; describes short Improvements of cars, 332; road in June, 1863, 178. improvements in details of locomotive railway built in Virginia about 1811, increase of varieties of cars, 333: Lieper, Thomas: employs John Thom- construction, 324; 69. freight cars, 334: son to construct a short railroad in multiplicity of details, 324; McKnight, C. H.; secretary Central increase of the capacity of freight cars, 1809, 69. detailed statement of cost of one Class Traffic Association, 275. 336; Lighting cars; primitive methods, 103. C bituminous. 324; Mehaffy, Andrew: report on speed of details of car construction, 337: Light-houses, light-ships, a n d buoys; interchangeability of the parts of, 325; railway passenger trains in 1837, 107. the battle of the brakes, 340; early light-honses, 169; on Erie Railway in 1874, 325; Merrill, A. F.; member board of arbitra- car wheels and axles, 343: expansion of the light-house system, reduction in cost of maintenance of, tion of Western Association of Gen- details of car trucks, 346. 170; from 1870 to 1881, 325: eral Passenger and Ticket Agents, Mount Savage Locomotive Works, 316, location of districts in 1885, 170, 171, consolidation, 325: 278. 172: steam-generating and steam-controlling Methods of construction; physical char- Muir, 327. W. K.: preparations for train move- light-houses and lighting apparatus, functions, 326; acteristics of early railways, 8s; ments, 380. 172. changes in metals used for various pur- early rails, sills, and stone blocks, 83; Multan, Captain; report on construction Light vehicles, 57. poses, 326; tunnels and bridges, 87; of a national wagon road, 29. Lima Machine Works 316. increase of boiler pressure, 396; inclined planes, 90; Linville, Jacob H.; iron railway bridges, construction of fire-boxes, grate area, viaducts on early railways, 103; N. 302. ash pans, 326; physical progress during the fifth de- Little, A. L.: construction of National size, arrangement, and number of cade, 132; Neal, David A.; causes of railway bank- Road, 31. boller flues or tubes, 327: bridges, new inventions and gauges, ruptcy, 196. Live-stock yards, 310 and 311. boiler construction, points of agree- 135; Newell, John; causes of the granger agi- Live-stock traffic, 251, 273. ment among American railway mas- changes in permanent way, 156; tation, 839. Livingston, Robert R.; connection with ter mechanics, 327, 328; bridge-building progress, 158; New England; construction of railways Fulton in construction of steamboats, extension smoke boxes, 328; construction of railway tunnels, 159; in, from 1830 to 1839, 75: 17. miscellaneous improvements, 329; shops and telegraphic service, 163; construction of railways in, from 1840 Lloyd, Captain Thomas; advocacy of valves and valve gear, 329; substitution of steel rails for hon rails, to 1850, 115: canoes as preferable to batteaux, in bad water, bad fuel, poor firing, and 198; railway mileage in operation at end of 1758, neglect of boilers, 329; production of American steel rails, 900; 1850, 116; Lobdell Car Wheel Company, 143. general improvements, 329; bridge construction, 202; statistics of railway operations In 1855, Lobdell, Mr.: chilled car wheels, 343. strength, simplicity, and ornamenta- bridging the Ohio, Mississippi, and 150; Locomotives; model of English sent to tion, 329: Missouri, 903; construction of railways in, from 1860 United States in 1825, 70: substitution of steel for iron in parts of, miscellaneous mechanical peculiarities to 1869, 174, 180; first American work of a practical one, 329; and advances, 209; do. from 1870 to 1879, 212, #13: 71,72; running "first in, first out," or with improvements of physical condition of increase of railway mileage in, from number in use in various states in 1839 two or more crews, 330: railways, 295: :880 to 1887, 347: and 1840, 77: exceptional locomotive service, 330; conditions of road-bed, ag6; increase of railway mileage in, from 1883 light, on early roads, 8a: cost of repairs, 330; rail-joints and rails, 298; to 1885, 350; vs. stationary engines, go: performances, 330; switches and signals, 299: increase of railway mileage in, in 1887, first ascent of inclined plane by, 91; number built by nineteen private firms bridges and culverts, 301; 35%. pioneer American, 93; from 1880 to 1887, 332. notable new bridges, 305; New England canals, 48, 49. early, 93, 94, 96; Locomotive engineers, 301, 375, 376. stations and terminal facilities, 306; New England General Ticket and Pas- English, imported, 93; Locomotive steel tires, 206, 207. grain elevators, 309; senger Agents' Association, 276. "Planet" engine, 93: Logging cars, 335- facilities hauling coal, live stock, New England Railroad Club, 344. English, defects of, 94; Long, Stephen H.; description of ark &c., 310 New England Railway Clearing-house "Cooper," 94; building and navigation of the Ohio, railway shops, 312. Association, 875. export of 95; 12. Middle and western states; construction New England railways; reduction of pioneer works, 95; Lottery: authorized to provide funds for of railways in, from 1830 to 1839, 75: rates on, 248. Long & Norris, 95: constructing a bridge, 36; construction of railways in, from 1840 New Jersey canals, 49. Baldwin, 96; schemes for providi g funds to con- to 1850, 116; New York and Boston All-Rall and Rogers', 98; struct Union Canal and other inter- railway mileage in operation at end of Sound Lines Association, 273. patents, 96, 99; nal improvements, 44, 45: 1850, 117; New York canals, 52, 53, 191, *33. early, on Columbia and Philadelphia, to improve and shorten roads of New statistics of railway operations in 1855, New York Locomotive Works, 316. 96; Jersey, 57. 150; New York State Passenger Association, various manufacturers, 97: Lumber cars, 335- construction of rallways in, from 1860 276. shops, Parkesburg, 97: Long and short haul, 231, 232; to 1869, 174, 175, 170, 180; Niagara Bridge, 158. safety chains, connecting tender with, legitimate causes of differences in do. from 1870 to 1879, 213, 214, 215, North Pacific Iron Works, 316. 97: rates per ton per mile, 852; 216, 217. North-western and South-western states: sand-boxes, 97; why short hauls sometimes cost more Middle and Western States Freight As- increase of railway mileage in, from Phineas Davis, 97; than longer ones, 253. sociation, 276. 1880 to 1887, 348; English, Mr. Hollingsworth's opinion Louisville and Portland Canal, 238. Middlesex Canal, 41, 45. increase of railway mileage in, in 1887, of, 98; Lowell, R. T. S.; auditor Burlington- Middle states; increase of railway mile- 351. notable improvements, 98; Wabash Traffic Association, 277. age in, from 1880 to 1887, 348; North-western Freight Association, 277. spark-arresters, 98; Luce, F. L.; Car Accountants' Associa- increase of railway mileage in, from North-western states; construction of increase of capacity of, 99; tion, 381. 1883 to 1885, 350; railways in, from 1840 to 1850, 116; possibilities in 1840, 99: M. increase of railway mileage In, from construction of railways in, from 1860 Baldwin, in use in 1840, 100; Machine drills; invention of, 100. 1880 to 1887, 351, 358. to 1869, 177, 181; Digitized by Google GENERAL INDEX. 395 NOR-PER PER-RAI RAI RAI construction of railways in, from 1870 changes in, 156; Railway companies: names of roads re- state aid in promoting construction, 79. to 1879. 218, $19, $20. from strap rails to edge rails, 156; ferred to under new or old corporate 80, 81; North- or granger roads, 196. from edge rails to T-rail, 156; or popular titles (See Index of Rail- physical characteristics, Sa; Nourse. J. P.; president lowa Railway defective frogs and inferior T-rails, 156; ways). portage, 83; Passenger Association, 177: switches and frogs, 156. Railway construction; from 1825 to 1830, tunnels and bridges, 87; member executive committee Western Personnel of railways; projectors, legis- 71; Inclined planes, go; Association of General Passenger lative advocates, and antagonists, from 1830 to 1840, 73: as public highways (theories on. 91. and Ticket Agents, 278. 361: progress in various sections, 7⁶: G2: civil engineers, 361: from 1840 to 1850, 115. necessity of effective operative regula- O. average number of employés in 1880, from 1850 to 1859, 140; tions, ge: Ogden, James R.; commissioner Asso- 361; from 1860 to 1869, 174: early locomotives, 93: ciate Roads of Kentucky, Tennessee, estimated number of in 1888, 361: in various sections, 180; original defects of early lines, 103; and Alabama, 176. number of each class in 1880, ,61; from 1870 to 1879. 211: opposition encountered, 103; Ohio canals, 5', 53. 155. number of employed by va lous rail- characteristics of the new mileage, 222; tracks, defects of. 104; Ohio packet-boats; advertisement of in ways of New England and the Mid- from 1880 to 1887. 347: edge rail, difficulties with, 104; 1794. 14. die states, in 1880, 301; in groups east of the Mississippi, 35'; how operated before telegraphs, 104: Ohio railways; reduction of average amount of pay-rolls in 1880, 361; west of the Mississippi, 354. signals, primitive, 104; freight rates on, from 1869 to 188t, systems of organization, 362, 364; Railway financiering and financial re- defective brake power, 105; 245- presidents, 364, 365; sults; early methods of obtaining impecuniosity, 105: Ohio river trade, 360. general office labors, 366, 368; capital, 79: freight traffic, lack of, 105: Old Colony Railroad, згб. traffic departments, 368, 370; state aid, 79, 81; employés from stage routes, 106; Olmstead. Frederick Law: stern-wheel legal departments, 370, 371; demoralizing effects of state manage- economic results, 100; steainboats running on western and operating departments, 371, 372: ment, 79: effect upon real estate, 106; southern rivers about 1856, 138. labors on railway tracks, 373: early lines in Massachuset's, New speed an d cost of early passenger Omnibus and cab, 64. train movements, 374, 376; York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Vir- movements, 107; Operating departments, 364, 371, 372. requirements of train service, 374; gioia, North Carolina, South Caro- horse power, 108; Organization, of rail companies; utility of effective methods of organi- lina, Georgia, and south-western and versus canal, 108; small roads, 362; zing railway forces, 381. western states, 80, 8: load drawn by a horse, 109; enlarged systems, 36a; Pierson, S. F.; commissioner passenger state debts in 1842, 8t; cost of early freight movements, 109; general principles, 360; department of trunk-line commis- operation or construction of railways conflict with water carriers, 113; existing large combinations, 363: sion, 274; in Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary- construction from 1840 to 1850, 115, classifications of railway officials, 363; vice-chairman New York State Passen- land, Virginia, North and South 116; characteristics of modern, 363; ger Association, 276; Carolinas, Georgia, Gulf states, and reported mileage in each state at end accounting departments, 304, 366; regulation of competitive passenger interior western states, 119, 120; of 1850, 117; operating departments, 364: traffic, 283. cost of completed and progressing rail- Pacific road surveys, 117; traffic departments, 364, 368; Pirogue, 14. roads at end of 1850, 124; connections between the Atlantic coast legal departments, 370, 37% Pitcairn, Robert; train service, 377: increase of bonded indebtedness, 124; and the Mississippi valley, 117: Ornamentation of locomotives, 329, 330. Pittsburgh Locomotive and Car Works, state aid and ownership, 125: construction in New England states Orr, William: secretary east-bound clas- 316. experience of Illinois, 125, 126; during the fifth decade, 118; sification committee, 274: Plank roads, 166, 167. financial results of operation of rail- in New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- secretary Middle and Western States Pooling arrangements, 272. ways of various sections in 1850, vania, Delaware, Maryland, South- Freight Traffic Association, 276. Pope, T. L.; block system, 300, 301. 126, 129; ern, Gulf and in terior western Osborn, J. M.; chairman Middle and Popular complaints against railways; panics, first railway, and supposed cause states at end of 1850, 118, 119. 120; Western States Freight Traffic Asso- investigations by United States Senate, of, 145. 146, 147: reported number of "railroad men" in clation, .76. 203; "wild-cat" financiering, 147; 1850. 122: Osmond, Edward, 322. New York legislative investigation, financial methods in 1859, 148; postal service in 1848 and 1849. 123: Overland pony express, 167, 168. 263: free railroad laws, 148; commencement of serious rivalry with Oxford and Cumberland Canal, 45. anti-monopoly organizations, 264; statistics of 1855, 149; water routes, 123: railway riots of 1877, 265. capital stock, how it was "paid in," apparent arenas of usefulness in 1830, P. Porteous, John: member east-bound clas- 151; 124: Packet boat, 14. sification committee, 274. relation between stock and debt, 151; anticipated reduction in average freight Packard, Mr.; variety of car appliances, Portage, significance of, 25, 382. dividend-payers of 1855, 158; charges, 124: 340. Porter, H. K & Co.; locomotive works, watered stock, 151; financiering, 124; Pack horse: era of, 19: 316, 327. bond capital, 151; cost of completed and progressing at used in the Braddock expedition, 20; Postal routes; colonial, 24; census statistics of 1860, showing mile- end of 1851, 124: trade over the Allegheny mountains, length of and modes in which service age and cost of the railways of each transition toward an increase of bonded 20; was conducted in 1848 and 1849, 123; state in 1850 and 1860, 151; indebtedness, 124; more modern movements, 21; do. in 1850 and 1860, 166. effects of the civil war, 178; financial results of operations in 1850, pack animals in mountains, 21; Powers, Virgil; general commissioner estimate of cost and mileage of lines in 126, 128; movements in England, in 1739, 23; Southern Railway and Steamship each state and territory in 1865, 1866, effect on agricultural products of re- enterprises, #4; Association, 274. and 1869, 184; duction from ordinary highway to result of their labors, 382, 383. Presidents of railways; importance of of- operations of the trunk lines in 1860, railway rates, 129; Pacific Coast Association, 275. fice, 364: 1865. and 1870, 189: increase of value of land, 130: Pacific railways; survey of routes, 167; antecedent training. 364: operations of the anthracite coal roads, rates and fares on numerous roads in construction of, 122: leading traits of distinguished, 365. 194; 1845 and 1850, 130, 131, 132; rates, fares, and receipts, 250; Pullman Car Company, 332, 344. north-western or granger roads, 196; improvements of locomotives, 134; freight movements on, 251. Pullman, George M.: sleeping cars, 209. methods of procuring capital for con- defective permanent way, 135; Pacific states and territories; construction Pusey & Jones, steamship construction, struction in 1870, 1872, 1880, and bridges, new Inventions, and gauges, of railways in, from 1860 to 180), 177, 287. 1882, 224: 135, 136; 178, 181; Quincy, Josiah: stage journey fr o m free railroad systems, 224: rail carriers take the lead of water do. from 1870 to 1879, 220, 221, 222; Philadelphia to Washington in 1826, land grants, 225: carriers, 140; increase of railway mileage in, from 61. panic of September, 1873, 227; construction, 1850 to 1859. 140; 1880 to 1887, 348; notable decline in stocks, 228; new, east of Alleghenies, 140; increase of railway mileage in, in 1887, R. mileage, capital, earnings, and divi- east and west trunk lines, 141; 35%. dends in each year from 1871 to 1880, great western systems, foundation, 141: Paige Car Wheel Company, 344. Rafting lumber and timber, 13. 241; trans-Mississippi, Gulf state, Pacific, Paine, Thomas; invention of iron bridge, Rail and water carriers; relative rank of freight earnings and expenses of east 141: 36. at various periods, 359, 360: and west trunk lines during a pro- first railway panics, 145: Palmer, Thomas; inventor of bridge, 36, proportion of water-channel move- tracted period, 244 and 245: construction, speculative, 146; 37. ments to entire freight movement, do. western trunk-line connections, construction, financial methods, 147: Parker, George W uniform train sig- 3,9, 360; 246; free laws, 148; nais, 377: Ohio river trade in 186g and 1886, 360; gross earnings of granger roads, 247: statistics of 1855, 149; Parkesburg shops, 164. movements on the Mississippi from receipts, rates, and fares of Pacific rail- indebtedness, 149, 150; Passenger cars, 162, 163, 208, 255, 333, 1871 to 1887, 360; roads, 250; statistics, 1860, 151; 337. 338. increase of magnitude of railway labors number of miles of railway operated, financial results reported in 1885, 151; Passenger movements; of the canals, 50; from 1882 to 1886, 360. capital and funded debt, and divi- census statistics of 1860, showing mile- on the Pennsylvania main line, 50; Rail-joints; improvements of, 157, 158, dends paid from 1872 to 1881, 261; age and cost of construction in each on the Erie Canal, 50; 296, 297. cost and expenses of all railroads of the state in 1850 and 1860, 151: packet boats, 50; Rails fish-belly, 68: United States in 1880, 295: competition for through traffic, 152: of stage-coach lines, 33, 60, 6x, 62, 63, kind used on early railways, 82, 86; systems of capitalization, 348; increase of national and agricultural 64: origin of the T-rail, 85, 86; mileage, cost of roads, capital stock, wealth, caused by railways, from omnibus, cab, and gurney, 64: wooden, 85: and funded debt, from 1880 to 1886, 1850 to 1860, 154, 155; speed and cost of lengthy journeys by flat-iron bars or plates, extent to which inclusive, 350; the railroad not always a philosopher's railways, steamboats, stages, sleighs, they were used in 1839, 85; Railway riots of 1877, 265. stone, 155; canal boats, sailing vessels, and pri- substitution of T-rail, 86; Railways; relation to canals, 49, 108; changes in permanent way, 156; vate conveyances, in 1839, 107: U, or bridge, 87: effect of, on number of carriages and substitution of T-rails for edge rails, speed of passenger trains on various establishment of American rail works, wagons, 59: 150; lines in 1837 and 1839, 107; 132: contrast between cost of movements defective frogs and inferior T-rails, 156; fares on numerous railways in 1848 and where first heavy iron and T-rails were on, and cost of movements in stages switches and frogs, 156; 1850, 131, 132: made in United States, 132, 133: and wagons on plains, 60; passenger stations, 157; competition for through passenger traf- utility of American rail mills, 133: early American projects, 64: imperfections of early American lines, fic, 153. gradual increase in length of rails, 133; colliery and quarry, 68; 157: passenger cars, 162, 163, 208, 255, 333, substitution of T-rails for edge rails, gradual improvement in primitive Eng- improvements of rail joints, 157: 337, 338. 156; lish, 68; bridge-building progress, 158; stations: establishment of, 157: defective T-rails, 156, 157; first American, 69; bridging Niagara and the Mississippi, sleeping cars, 208, 2c9; American rail mills, 158; Quincy, 69; 158; rates and accommodations, 255; substitution of steel rails , 5 iron rails, knowledge of, in 1825, 70; Rock Island bridge, 158; improvements in service, 255; 198, 295; progress from 1825 to 1830, 7% tunnels completed before 1850, and traffic, a frequent source of loss, '55; capacity of iron rail mills in 1865, 193: short railways as feeders of canals, 78: lengthy tunnels commenced in pe- passenger pools, 283; Sir Henry Bessemer's description of first in the Schuylkill region, 71: riod from 1850 to 1860, 159; increase of movement on railways, early trials of Bessemer steel rails, Mauch Chunk, 71, 72: inherent dangers, difficulties, and anx- from 1880 to 1886, 360. 198; Delaware and Hudson, 72; jeties of tunneling, 160; Pay car, 334. American recognition of the utility of first locomotive service, 72; invention of machine drills, 160; Pay-rolls, railway: amount of in 1880, steel rails, 199: Charleston and Hamburg or South improvements of locomotives and cars, 301. results of experiments on the Pennsyl- Carolina, 72; 161; Peckham Paper Car Wheel Company, vania Railroad, 199; construction from 1830 to 1840, 73, 75, a successful coal-burning locomotive, 344. iron and steel rails on the Erie Rail- 76; 161, 162; Pedestal of cars, 345. way, 200: completed or progressing in 1836, 74, increase of weight and capacity of Icco- Pennsylvania canals, 41, 45. first steel rails manufactured in the 75: motives, 162; Pennsylvania Canal Company, 53. United States, 200; table of miles constructed, 75, 76: tonnage of American in 1860, 165; Pennsylvania state cana s, 48, 52, organization of the early American early New England and New York rates in the sixth decade, 165; Penn, William: reference to project for steel-rail industries, 250, 251; lines, 76; postal routes in 1850 and 1860, 166; an artificial junction between waters progress in American steel-rail working, Camden and Amboy, 76; surveys of proposed routes for Pacific of the Susquehanna and Schuylkill, 201; New Jersey lines, 70; railways, 167; 41. production, importation, consumption, Delaware and Maryland lines, 77: construction of, from 1860 to 1869, 174, Performances of locomotives, 31. and price, from 1860 to 1880, 201; Pennsylvania, southern, and western 175, 170, 177. 178; Percentage tables, 254. 281. miles of track laid with steel in 1880, lines, 77: effects of the civil war, 178; Perkins, Colonel T. H.; advances funds 201; lines in southern and western states, armed attacks on, 178, 179: to construct Quincy Railroad, 69. changes in price of, from 1860 to 1869, 78; vital questions engeadered, 179: Permanent way; diversities, 85: 210; general results up to 1840, 78; operations from 1860 to 1870, 181; defects, 82, 135. rail patterns, 298, 299. early financiering, 79: dividends of the seventh decade, 182, Digitized by Google 396 GENERAL INDEX. RAI RAI-RID RIP-SAN SAN-STA misfortunes of southern, 183; notable advances in all vital matters, Ripley, J. T.; commissioner Burlington classes of roads and power of horses, breakers ahead, 183; 295; and Wabash Traffic Association, 277. 37. estimates of mileage and cost in 1865. reduction in the cost of rail move- Risdon Iron and Locomotive Works, and where good roads will pay, 38. 1866, and 1869, 184; ments, 295; 316. Sandboxes; of locomotives, 97. relative rank of railways among trans- condition of road-bed, 296; River and harbor improvements; Dela- Sargent, Homer E.: railway rates, 252. portation agencies in 1865, 1866, and specification for a perfect subdivision, ware Breakwater, 233; Schenectady Locome tive Works, 316. 1867, 184, 185; 206, 297: removal of snags, 233, 234: Schlacks, H.; locomotive performances, internal revenue taxes paid in 1865, general direction of road-bed improve- aggregate appropriations, 234: 331. 1866, and 1867, 184, 185; ments, 997; superintendence,a34; Schoonmaker, Augustus: interstate-com- consolidation of connecting lines, 185; rail-joints and ralls, 298, 299: criticism of bills, 234: merce commissioner, 284. connection at traffic centres, 188; switches and signals, 299, 300; notable harbor improvements, 235: Schuylkil and -usquehanna canal, 42. operations of the trunk lines, 189; bridges and culverts, 301; western river improvements, 235; Schuylkill Canal, 53. 77, 78, 113. 123, 194, contests for control of desirable con- wooden bridges, 302; the Mississippi, 236; 195. nections, 190; iron railway bridges, 302, 303, 304; the Missouri, 237; Scott, Thomas A.; notable personal competition with water routes for notable new bridges, 305, 300; general system, 237. traits, 365. through east-bound movements of stations and terminal facilities, зоб, 307, River improvements; authorized in Penn- Screven, John: arbitrator Southern Rail- breadstuffs, 191; 308, 309; sylvania, 44: way and Steamship Association, 274. through rates in 1868, 1869, 1871, and grain elevators, 309, 310; of Mississippi, Missouri, and other Seats: of early cars, 103. 1872, 191; facilities for handling coal and live western rivers, 235, 236, 237, 238. Section foremen, 373. fast freight lines, 192: stock, 310, 311; River routes; extent of western about Sellers, Morris; locomotive performances, operations of the anthracite coal roads, railway shops, 312, 313, 314, 315, згб; 1850, 121, 122; 331. 194; improvements in locomotives, 316; steam tonnage of, in 1842 and 1851, Setchel, J. N.; extension smoke boxes, north-western or granger roads, 196; increased size and capacity of freight 122; 328. substitution of steel rails for iron rails, locomotives, 318; increase of business on, from 1840 to Shaw, Charles L.: Chicago comm ttee 198; increased speed of passenger, 320; 1850, 123. Central Traffic Association. 275. bridge construction, 202; increase of freight and passenger move- Rivers; primitive method of crossing, 25. Sheldon, L. A.; member executive com- bridging the Ohio, Mississippi, and ment on, from 1880 to 1886, 360; Roach, Mr.; steamship construction, 287. mittee Texas Traffic Association, Missouri, 203; personnel of, 361; Road-bed; condition of, a96; 277. conflict of rail and river interests, 203; number of employés of, in 1880, 361; improvements, 297; Shepard, O. M.; member executive com- improvements of locomotives, 200; estimated number of employés in 1888, crossings, 297. mittee New England Railway Clear- improvements of cars during the sev- 36s; Roads; common or country, 22; ing-house Association, 275 enth decade, 207, 208, 209; amount of pay-rolls in 1880, 361; early colonial laws, 22; Shinn, William P.; increased efficiency sleeping cars, 208, 209; number of persons employed by vari- contrast between colonial and Roman of rallways, 330, 336. the Westinghouse air brake, 200; ous companies in 1880, 301; road systems, 22; Ship building: amount of in 1769, 9. increase of the cost of railway con- systems of organization, 362; modifications of colonial systems, 22; Shopmen, railway; number of in 1880, struction, supplies, and operating ex- presidents, 304: variations in condition in different dist- 36r. penses during the seventh decade, general office labors, 366; ricts, 23; Shops, railway, 135, 164, 210, 211, 312. 209, 210; traffic departments, 368; bad roads in the old wor'd as well as Sibley, E. B.; arbitrator Southern Rail- shops of United States Government for legal departments, 370; the new world, 23; way and Steamship Association, 274. military railroads in 1864, 210; three epochs of railroads, 371; defective American, 24, 25; Sidings, 297. characteristics of the new lines con- labors on railway tracks, 373: Indian trails, 24; Signal rules, 378. structed from 1870 to 1879, 222; train movements, 374; land routes between seaboard cities in Signals, 104, 105, 300, 378. number of miles in each state on June general rules governing train service, the eighteenth century, 24; Signal stations, 21. 30th, 1880, 224; 377: land routes between New England and Silence, Lew; conductor on fast train, financial methods, 224; associations and organizations, 380; Canada in 1754, 24: 322. free railroad systems, 223, 224; economic effect of advances from the colonial postal routes, 24; Sills, 83, 84. misfortunes, 225; trail to the T-ral 1, 382; the blazed trace, 25; Sinclair, Angus; performar.ce of locomo- land grants, 225; work done by railways in 1885 and of 1800, in Virginia and elsewhere, #5; tives, 331. panic of September, 1873, 227, 228, 229: 1886, 384; present lack of good roads, 25: Sindall, Charles A.; secretary Southern granger legislation, railway commis- results of operation of solvent, 385; primitive methods of crossing rivers, Railway and Steamship Association, sions, 229; state ownership and control, 385. 25: 274. new systems of regulation, 238; Railway shops, 135, 164, SIO, 211; common road improvements, 26; Sioux City Association, 277. the beginning of a new era, 240; importance of labors in, 312; corduroy, 26; Slaughter, Mercer: commissioner South- stimulating and encouraging competi- comminations of facilities for construc- systems of repairing, 26; ern Passenger Association, 276. tion, 240; tion and repairs, 312; economic effects of improvements, 27: Sleds, 54, 56. magnitude of operations, 241; machine tools and appliances, 313; road opened by United States Govern- Sleepers, 85, 86. classification of freight carried in 1880, iron-working machinery, 314; ment from the Columbia to the Mis- Sleeping cars, 208, 200. 242; wood-working machinery, 314; souri river, 29; Sloan, William S.; freight classification, freight movement of prominent sys- work done in, 314: turnpike and bridge era, ag: 283. tems, 242, #43; departments for testing materials, 3'5. characteristics of turnpike develop- Smith, George W.: Delaware and Hud- reductions of rates, 243: Railway systems; expansion and con- ment, 31; son Railway, 73. freight earnings and expenses of trunk nection of, 358, 359: ferries and bridges, 34: Smith, John; his exploring fleet, 9. lines, 244, 245; magnitude and result of their opera- importance of public road improve- Snags, removal of, 233. reduction of rates on Ohio railways, tions, 359. ments, 38; Smith, M. H.; chairman board of con- 245; Railway wars; how they injure the pub- what a horse can drag on, 38, 39; trol of Associate Roads of Kentucky, do. on western trunk-line connections, lic, 279, s80. where good roads will pay, 38; Tennessee, and Alabama, 276. 246; Rail works; establishment of, 132, 133; legal provisions for improved roads, 39; Smith, Shaler: iron railway bridges, 302. reductions of rates on various classes increase of their production, 201. radiating from railway stations, 39; Snags: removal of, *33. of roads, 248; Rates, railway: (see Cost of Transporta- methods of construction, 40; Snake-heads, 85. relation between through and local tion); in sixth decade, 165; McAdam system, 40; Snow-shoes; description of, 7. rates, 251; reduction in live stock, &c., 191; Telford system, 40, 41; Snow, W. W.; patterns of brake-shoes, reduction of rates during railway wars, reductions of, on various classes of use of heavy steam rollers, 41; 340. 251; roads, 243 to 249; improvement of vehicles used on, 54: Snyder, Colonel: shoeing pack-horses how low a railway rate may fall, 251; relation between through and local, lottery scheme to improve New Jersey and crooking or bending fron, 21. legitimate causes of differences between 251; roads, 57: Snyder, W.; member executive commit- the rates per ton per mile applied to reductions during railway wars, 152; combined effect of improvement of tee Texas Traffic Association, 977. long and short movements, 252; Real estate; increase in value caused by roads and vehicles, 59; Snow, W. W.; steel-tired car wheels, methods of regulating rates between early railways in Georgia and South condition of, in western New York, in 344. numerous competing points, 254; Carolina and elsewhere, 106, 107, 1824, 6a; Southern Passenger Association, 276. passenger rates and accommodations, 130. cost of transportation on, 129; Southern Rai way and Steamship Asso- 255: Relations between railways and the pub- product of labors on, 383. ciation, 274. cost of transportation to railway com- lic; railways and public highways, 91; Roanoke Machine Works, 316. Southern railways; reduction of rates, panies, 258, 259, 260, 261; economic results of early railways, 106; Roberts, George B.; long and short-haul 249. detailed statements of items of cost, cost of early freight movements, 109; movements, 253; Southern states; construction of railways 259, 260; effect and extent of reductions of cost Roberts, Solomon W.; description of in, from 1830 to 1839, 75: circumstances affecting cost, 259, 261; of overland transportation, 129; method of constructing Portage construction of railways m, from 1840 influence on the grain and provision competition for through traffic, 152; railroad, 83: to 1850, 116; trade, 261; increase of national wealth, 154; of Conemaugh viaduct, 88; railway mileage in operation at end of popular complaints, 260; tonnage and rates in the sixth decade, of inclined planes, 90; 1850, 117; riots of 1877, 265; 165: of public highway theories applied to statistics of railway operations in 1855. regulation by law and commissions, 265; granger legislation, railway commis- railways, 91, ga; 150; false principles of railway regulation, sions, 229; causes of success of railways of New construction of railways in, from 1860 270; leading influences of the eighth de- England, 126, 127; to 1869, 176, 180; not tax gatherers, s70; cade, 240; account of attempt to cast rails at misfortunes of railways increased by as producers, 270; reductions of railway rates, #43; Mauch Chunk in 1826, 132: civil war, 178, 179, 183: freedom of contract and laws of trade, freight reductions on various classes of tonnage tax, 105. construction of railways in, from 1870 271; roads, 248; Roberts, W. Milnor; first locomotive to 1879, 217, 218; logic of transportation development, relation between through and local ascent of an inclined plane, 91; increase of railway mileage in, f.om 272; rates, 251; search for locomotive builders in 1836, 1880 to 1887, 348; confederations or pooling arrange- passenger rates and accommodations, 95. increase of raiiway mileage in, from ments, 272; 255: Robinson, John M.; member advisory 1883 to 1885, 350; anthracite coal combination, 273: cost of railway transportation, 858; board Associated Railways of Vir- increase of railway mileage in, in 1887, evener system applied to live stock and influence of railways on the grain and ginia and the Carolinas, 276 35% petroleum, 273; provision trade, 201; Rock Island bridge, 158, 159. South-western Railway Association, 275. Southern Railway and Steamship As- popular complaints against railways, Rockwell, C. H.; member board of arbi- South-western states; construction of sociation, 274: 263; tration of Western Association of railways in, from 1830 to 1839, 75: trunk-line commission and Central ra lway regulation by law and com- General Passenger and Ticket construction of railways in, from 1840 Traffic Association, 274: missions, 265; Agents, 278. to 1850, 116; practical effects of confederations, 278; false principles of railway legislation, Rockwell, P. A : secretary St. Paul and ra iway mileage in operation at end of diversity of powers and systems, 278; 270; Minneapolis Passenger Association, 1850, 117; how competitive business was trans- railways as producers, 270; 278. construction of railways in, from 1860 acted in 1876, 278; economic effect of advances from the Roebling, John A.; celebrated wire sus- to 1869, 177: result of violations of agreements, 279: trail to the T-rail, 382; pension bridge designer and con- do. do., from 1870 to 1879, 230. how the public is injured by railway lessons of transportation development, structor, 37, 158. Spaulding, Eugene C.: material and wars, 279: 384; (see Cost of Transportation). Roebling, Washington A.; skillful con- labor required to build a box car, 338 how confederations endeavored to cure Reece, Benjamin; section foremen and structor of wire suspension bridges, Springs, G. B.; member east-bound clas- the evils of regulated competition, trackmen, 373. 37. sification committee. 274. 280; Reeside, James; heavy mail contractor, Rogers Locomotive Works, 134, 135, 316. Springs; seats set on, 56; unjust discriminations against locali- 61. Rogers, William; train service, 377. improvements of, 57, 58; ties, 280; Reeside, Slaymaker & Co.; proprietors Rucker, D. H.; statement of rates paid use of steel, 58; rules for adjusting rates between com- of stage-coach line, 61, 62. by United States for wagon trans- development of a necessity for, on petitive points, 280; Refrigerator cars, 334, 335- portation on the plains, 28. cars, 100; classification of freight, 282; Rhode Island Locomotive Works, 316. Rumsey, James; steamboat experiments, value of American manufactures of, in passenger pools, 283; Richards, A. M.; requirements of rail- 15, 16. 1860, 163; causes of frequent failures or temporary way train service, 374. 375. Russell, William H.; overland pony ex- used in car construction, 346, 347. disruptions of confederations, 283, Richardson, L. D.; commissioner Chi- press, 167. Stage coaches; "flying machines, 56: 284; cago and Ohio River Pool, 277. 8. running to and from Boston, 60, relation between steamship lines and Richmond, Mr.: transportation in barges between Philadelphis and Baltimore, railway lines, 289; on the lakes, 291, 292. Saint Mary's Falls canal, 53. 61; improvements of physical condition, Riddle, H.; iron and steel rails on Erie Sanborn, Professor; experiments in on Cumberland road, 6e; 995: railway in winter of 1867-68, 200. tended to ascertain effect of different primitive western, 63; Digitized by Google GENERAL INDEX. 397 STA-STE STE-TOW TRA-TUR TUR-WAT Concord, 63. a substitute for the proposed Erie Track goods and tools, sg8. Lancaster and Susquehanna, sg: Stage-coach lines; running between Phil- Canal in 1819, and subsequent en- Trackmen, railway, 361, 373' tolls authorized on, s9, 30, 32: adelphia and Pittsburgh, 33: deavors to promote railway construc- track walkers, 373, 374. extension of, in Middle and Eastern running between numerous points in tion in 1815, 1819, 1820, and 1823, 66, Track-laying: system of rapid, 354- states, 29: United States, 60 to 64; 67. Track, railway; defects of, 103; progress of, in Pennsylvania, 29: internal revenue taxes paid by, in 1863, Stevens, Francis B letter relating to in- goods and tools, 298. utility of, and inferior methods of con- 1866, and 1867, 184, 185. vention of T-rail, 86. Traffic departments, 364. struction, 31; Stage drivers, 63. Stevens, Mr.; high-pressure locomotives, Trail; economic effect of advances from, of New York, 31; Stage wagons, 56, 57. 326. 382. the National Road. 31, 33. 34; Standard guage; change of numerous Stevenson, David: American corduroy Train despatchers, 375: modern use of, for light travel, 30; lines to, in 1886 and 1887, 358; roads, 26. Trainmen; number of in 1880, 361; advantages of convexity, 32; result of change on southern roads, &c., Stevens, Robert L; invention of the qualities they should possess, 374, 375, turnpike financiering, 32: 358; T-rail, 85, 86. 380. old-time teamsters, 32: estimated cost of, 358. St. Louis bridge, 205. Train movements; preparations for, 380 old stage-coach lines, 33: Standard time, 378. St. Mary's Falls Canal, a38. Train loads, 383, 384. cost of transportation on, 33; Standard track: specifications for on Stock cars, 335. Train rules, 379. gain in the effective force of horses, 33: perfect subdivision, 296, 297. Stockton, Commodore R. F.; demorali- Train service; requirements of, 374: free, in Ohio, 39; Stanford, Hon. Leland; rates on the zing effects of Internal improvements general rules governing, 377; passenger movements on, 57, 60. Southern Pacific, 250, 251. by states, 79. 80; train signals, 378. Turn-table, 164. State management; of railways and introduction of the screw propeller, Tramways, 68. Two-story cars, 101. canals, 110, 111, 112, 113: 1,6, 284. Transcontinental Association, 277. Tyler, Sir Henry W.: railway rates St. Clair Flats Canal. 238. Stocks, railway: fluctuations of, 228; Transportation: Indian system of, 5: during cras of sharp competition, Stationmen; number of, in 1880, 36s; stock watering, 263. of coal from Pittsburgh to New Or- 252. station agents, 367. Stone blocks, 83. leans, II; Stations, 306, 309. Stone, H. B: train service, 377. cost of when arks were used, 12; U. Steamboats; early unsuccessful experi- Stourbridge Lion; first locomotive to cost of by river and land routes in 1814, Underhill, A. B.; locomotives, 326, 331. ments, 15; perform actual service, 72. 15; Uniform train signals, 377: plans for improving up-river craft, 15: St. Paul and Minneapolis Passenger As- cost of on western rivers in 1790, 16; Union Canal, 41, 44. 45, 46, 47. Fitch and Rumsey steamboats, 16; sociation, 278. reduction of freight charges effected by Union depots or stations, 189. early successful operations, 17; Streams; primitive modes of crossing, 34. barges, 17: United States Rolling Stock Company, famous machine moved by steam on Street railways, 166, 167. freight charges on Mississippi river 332. land and in water by Oliver Evens, Strickland, William; sent to England in steamboats before 1819, 18; Unjust discrimination, 231, 233, 280. in 1804, 17: 1825 by Pennsyl Ivania Society for the pack-horse or horse-back era, 19: Robert Fulton puts steamboating on a Promotion of Internal I m e- V. cost of pack-horse movements, 11: firm basis, 17; ments, to procure information about regular pack-horse enterprises, 24; Valves and valve gearing, 329- first important trip of the Clermont, railways and locomotives, 70: cost of, on Inferior roads, 27; Vanderbilt, Commodore; railroad policy, 17, 18; his report, and model of a locomotive, cost of, in northern and north-western 365. first run on western waters, 18; 70, 71. states, 27: Vanderbilt, William H.; personal char- extract from log-book of a trip on a Stringers, 85. in the United States in 1852, 27: acteristics, 365. western steamboat in 1817, 18; Strohm, Hon. John; Conestoga teams, cost of, in Wisconsin in 1875, 27: Vehicles; improvement of, 54: early freight charges, 18; 55. cost of wagon movements in southern carts and wagons, 54: progress of, from 1807 to 1830, 73: Strong locomotive, 321, 323. and south-western states, 28; sleds, 54, 56; in service along the Atlantic coast in Stroudley, William; locomotives, 327. cost of, in Texas, about 1856, 28: relative abundance of wagons in Penn- 1820, 73. 74; Suburban traffic, 256, 257. cost of wagon movements on the sylvania in 1755 and 1780, 55: built for service on western rivers from Susquehanna and Tide-water Canals, So. plains, 28; Conestoga teams and wagons, 55: 1814 to 1830, 74: Swank, James M.; account of establish- commencement of the turnpike and freight and passenger wagons, 56; development from 1830 to 1841, 114; ment of early American r il works, bridge era, 29: light, 56. 57: tonnage in different states in 1838, 114; 132, 133. economic effect of turnpikes, 29: stage wagon movements between Phil- high pressure, 114; Switches, railway. 156, 158, *97, 300. relative advantages of turnpikes and adelphia and New York in 1732, description of western, in 1833, by Levi Systems of transportation; Indian, 5, 6, canals, 39; 1765, and 1766, 56, 57: Woodbury, 114; 7: cost of, on turnpikes, 33, 34: flying machines, 57: description of western, in 1840, by railway, expansion and connection of, cost of land carriage in Pennsylvania scarcity of light, 57: Charles Dickens, 115: 358, 359. in 1791, 42; passenger movements on early turn- on the Atlantic coast, in 1832 and 1836, T. cost of, on early canals and railways, pikes, 57: 115; 46; the use of steel springs, 58; tonnage of western rivers in 1842 and Taft, Judge; cost of stage movements, cost of canal transportation, 47, 48, 49; mechanical advantages of wheels, 58; 1851, 122; 60. cost of movements between Cincinnati miscellaneous improvements, 58; tonnage of the lakes in 1851, 122; Talmage, A. A.; uniform train signals, and seaboard cities in 1833 and 1834, changes in American, 58; postal service in 1849, 123; 377; 48; the deacon's one-horse shay, 58; tonnage from 1841 to 1850, and from tamping, 373- relative utility of early canals and early variety fine carriages, 59: 1851 to 1860, 136; Tank or oil cars, 335- railways, 49; combined effect of improvement of tonnage inspected from 1855 to 1860, Taunton Locomotive Works, 316. early canal movements, 51; roads and vehicles, 59: 136; Taylor, Hon. Robert S.; plans for im- relative magnitude of the American cost of movements by stage-coach and construction on the New England proving the navigation of the Mis canal system in 1845, 52; wagon at different rates of speed, coast, and Atlantic and Gulf waters, sissippi river, 236. great elements of advancement in, 54: and on different classes of roads, to; 136; Team boats, 15. movements on turnpikes and lewgthy cost of extensive road movements in screw propeller, 136, 137: Teamsters; old-time, description of, 31, roads, 60 to 64; United States, 60; increase of size and splendor of East- 32. prominent features of development in descriptions of carriages and coaches ern river steamboats, 137; Telegraph; first use as an aid to railway 1850, 123, 124; used by stage lines, 60, 61, 62, 63; building on the northern lakes, 138; operations, 164. effect and extent of reductions of cost Concord coach, 61, 63; building on the western rivers from Telford system of road construction, 40, of overland, 129; primitive western stage coach, 63; 1841 to 1860, 138; 41. tonnage of American railroads in 1860, omnibus, cab, and gurney movements, stern-wheel, on western and southern Temple, C. W.; joint agent Cincinnati 165: 64; rivers, 138; committee Central Traffic Associa- railway rates in the sixth decade, 165: omnibus lines, 64. improved method of inspection, 138; tion, 275. traffic and rates of the trunk lines and Verbryck, Mr.; variety of car appliances, losses by collisions, fires, and snags, Terminal charges, 252, 253. their western connections from 1855 340. 138; Terminal facilities; increase of, 306; to 1859, 166; Viaducts, 87, 305. on the Pacific coast, 138; cost of, 307; suspension of trade movement on Mis- Vining, E. P.; commissioner Western postal routes in 1850 and 1860, 166; special ends served, 307: sissippi caused by civil war, 178; Trunk-Line Association, 277. Internal revenue taxes paid in 1865, effect on a road's capacity, 308; competition between rail and water Virginia canals, 52. 1866, and 1867, 184, 185: railway yards, 308; carriers for through east-bound move- Virginia Iron Works, 316. decline of steamboating on the Missis- grain elevators, 309, 310; ments of breadstuffs, 191; sippi, 239: coal handling, 310; classification of freight carried on rail- W. steamboat lines, ago, 291; live-stock yards and abattoirs, 310, 311; ways of the United States in 1880, Wade, K. H.: train service, 377- merchant steam tonnage and traffic in miscellaneous freight, 311: 242; Wagner Car Company, 333- 1880, 291; testing machines, 315, 316; reductions of railway rates, 243: Wagons; Conestoga, 55: western river movements, 292, 294, Texas Traffic Association, 277. practical effects of confederations, 278; in Pennsylvania, 55: 360. Thomas, E. B.; member advisory board results of violations of railway agree- light, scarcity of, 57: Steamships; trans-Atlantic navigation, Associated Railways of Virginia and ments and railway wars, 279: steel springs in, 58; 137: the Carolinas, 276; ideal system of, 281, 282; and carts, 54. 56; Atlantic coast lines, 137: uniform train signals and train service, railways as manufacturers of, 374: movement on the plains, 55; California trade, 139; 377. a science, 384: between New York and Philadelphia, the first war steamer, 285; Thomas Steel-Tired Wheel Company, lessons of its development, 384, 385: 56; the first commercial Steamship, 285: 344. (See Cost of Transportation). southern, 56. development in England, 285; Thomson, J. Edgar; presents to Dela- Travail. 8, 21. Waite, C. A.; secretary New England American progress in construction, ware County (Pennsylvania) Insti- Treadmill horse-power cars, 103. General Ticket and Passenger 286; tute of Science map of short railway Treasury departments, 366, 368. Agents' Association, 276. the American line, 286; constructed by his father in 1809, 69; Truman, Benjamin; railway shops of Waldo, J.: commissioner Texas Traffic service in 1805, 287: opinions announced in 1840 relating to military railroads in 1864, 210. Association, 277. relative growth of steam tonnage in the superiority of railways over canals, Trunk lines; operations of in 1860, 1865, Walker, Aldace F.; interstate-commerce United States and Great Britain, 111: and 1870. 189; commissioner, 284. 287, #88; "ruinous competition" of railways in length of, freight earnings and expenses, Wall, E. B.; capacity of cars, 337. mechanical advances and increase of 1854 and 1855, 112: and average rates during a series of Walters, H.; member advisory board As- efficiency, 288; a large freight business at low rates, years, 244, 245; sociated Railways of Virginia and the concentration of steam power, 288; 157; average rates on their western connec- Carolinas, 276; size of ocean steamships, 288; invites proposals for freight locomo- tions, 246; train service, 377. establishment of new lines; the Inter- tives of 50,000 pounds weight, 162; commission, 274. Ward, W. S.; member east-bour d classi- national Navigation Company, 289; contest for control of Pittsburgh, Fort Tunnels: earliest railway, 87; fication committee, 274. effect of steamship progress in increas- Wayne, and Chicago, 190; cost of Black Rock, 87; Washburn Car Wheel Company, 344. ing foreign commerce, 289; experimental trials of steel rails, 199: railway completed before 1850, 159: Washburn Cast-Steel Car Wheel Com- relation between steamship lines and notable personal characteristics, 305. lengthy, commenced in period from pany, 344. rallway lines, 289; Thomson, John; constructs a short rail- 1850 to 1860, 159; Washington, George: Rumsey's boat- ocean steamship rates, 290; road in 1809. 69. cost of, 159; model exhibited to, 16; steamships in coasting trade, 290; Thurman, Hon. A. G.; E. B. Wash- incidental features. 159; stockholder in Dismal Swamp Canal, coastwise steamship and steamboat burne and Thomas M. Cooley: inherent dangers, difficult'es, and anxie- 41; lines, 290; Injuries inflicted on the public and le- ties of tunneling, 160; labors in promoting canal construction, merchant steam tonnage and traffic in gitimate business interests by railway Broad Tree tunnel, 160; 43: 1880, 291; wars, 279, 280. American system of block-timber arch- his coach, 57. improvements in coastwise steamers, Thurston, Professor R. H; testing ma- ing, 161; Water routes; use of by Indians, 5. 6, 7: 291; chines, 315, 316. estimates of cost of excavations, wall- first European settlements, 8; lake transportation service, 291. Tickets; commutation an d excursion, ing, and arching in 1860 and 1865, navigation of interior, 9: Steam rollers; use of in road making, 41. 256, 257. 210. arks and rafts, 12; Steam tonnage, merchant, 291. Tip cars, 335, 336. Turner, Newton R.; secretary Middle ascending navigation, 13: Sted; substitution of for from in various Tires, steel, 200. States Freight Traffic Association, unsuccessful early steamboat experi- parts of locomotives, 206, 329. Tonnage tax, 165, 190. 276. ments, 15; Steel-tired car wheels, 344. Tow-boats, 202. Turner, W. H: member executive com- early successful steamboat operations, Stephenson, John; early tram cars, 101. Townsend, H. C.; member executive mittee New England Railway Clear- 17: Stevens, A. J: heavy locomotives, 319. committee Western Association of house Association, 275. early canal projects, 41; Stevens, Colonel John Cox; successful General Passenger and Ticket Turnpikes; first in England, 23; early history of American canals, 42; steamboat experiments, 17. Agents, 278. commencement of in United States, ag: early canal financiering, 43: Stevens, John; advocacy of a railway as Tows, 292. Philadelphia and Lancaster, ag; effect of completion of Erie Canal, 45: Digitized by Google 398 GENERAL INDEX. WAT WEB-WES WHE-WIT WOO-ZIM cost of canal transportation, 47; improvement of the Missouri, 237; Wheatley, W. W.; fast locomotive run, Woodbury, Levi; trip down the Missis- natural chain of water channels, 50; utility of water-way Improvements. 239' 321. sippi in 1833, 11; passenger traffic of the canals, 50; decline of steamboating on the Missis- Wheels, railway; American contrasted improved Ohio keel boats, 14, 15: utility of the canals, 51; sippi, 239, 240: with English, 329. magnitude of American canal systems, causes of canal failures, 52; steamship development, 284: Whipple, Squire; iron-bridge inventor 52; rivalry between land and water routes, steamships in coasting trade and steam- and constructor, 37: western steamboats in 1833. 114. III; boats, 290; iron railway bridges, 302. readiness and ability of private capital progress of steamboat development merchant steam tonnage and traffic in Whistler, George W., Jr; report in 1849 to construct remunerative internal from 1830 to 1841, 114; 1880, 293; on methods to insure substitution of improvements, 10. importance of inter or water routes in proportion of movement on water chan- coal-burning for wood-burning loco- Wooden rail bridges; objection- 1850, 120; nels to entire freight movement, 359, motives, 135; able features of, 202; statistical position of the competing 360; whistle signals, 378. number of, &c., 302. systems, 122; limitations of, 382, 385. White, Josiah; inventor of bear-traplock, Woodruff Car Company, 333- increase of traffic on, from 1840 to 18jo, Webber, Mr.; testing car wheels, 344: 42; Wood-working machinery, 314. 123; Weeks, Edson J.; secretary New York construction of early canal, 45: Wootten, John E.; locomotives, 323, progress of steam navigation from 1840 State Passenger Associati n, 276; estimate of cost of transportation on 331. to 1860, 136; secretary Buffalo Railway Passenger Lehigh Canal, 48; Wootten locomotive, 327. Atlantic coast improvements of water Association 276. reasons for preferring canals to rail- Worcester, Edwin D.; railway consoli- craft, 139, 140; Weeks, N. E.: secretary Boston Passen- ways, 108. dations, 187. improvement of national, 168: ger Committee, 275. Whitney, A.; cost of carly steamboat Working cars, 334. constitutional questions involved, 168, Welland Canal, 120, 152, 153. movements on the Missouri, 294. Wrecks, on railways: clearing away, 374. 169; Wellington, A. M.; railway yards in Buf- Whittaker, John; president Middle Wright, Benjamin A.: relative cost of light-houses, light-sh ps, and buoys, 169; falo, 308; States Freight Traffic Association, railway and canal movements in light-houses and lighting apparatus, 172; repairs of cars and locomotives, 315. 876. 1831, 108; the Coast Survey, 173: Wells, Mr. R.; locomotives, 327. Wight, C. S.; freight classification, 283. estimate of cost of New York and suspension of trade movements on the Wernwag, Louis; wooden-bridge builder, Wilder, Mr.; locomotives and cars, 327, Erie, 127. Mississippi caused by civil war, 178; 36, 37. 337. Wright, Carroll D.: work done by rall- competition between rail and water Western Association of General Passen- Wilson, W. Hasell; internal improve- ways of the United States in 1885, routes for through east-bound move- ger and Ticket Agents, 278. ments of Pennsylvania. 61, 62; and 1886, 384. ments of breadstuffs, 191; Western states and territories; incr-ase Philadelphia and Columbia Railway, Wright, Augustus W.; pioneer railway relative decline of canal movements in of railway mileage in, from 1883 to 82, 81, 84; construction In Illinois, 128. state of New York, 192; 1885, 350. cost of Black Rock Tunnel, 87; Wyoming Valley Manufacturing Com- conflict of rail and river interests, 203; Western States Passenger Association, bridges and viaducts on the Philadel- pany, 316. recommendations of Windom commi:- 277. phia and Columbia Rsilroad, 88: Y. tee in 1874, 233: Western Traffic Association, 877. toll on the Columbia and Philadelphia river and harbor improvements, #33; Western Trunk- Association, 277. Railway, 110. Yards, of railways, 308, 309. western river improvements, 235: Westinghouse Air brake, 340, 341. Winans, Ross: improvements of cars, plans for improving the navigation of Westinghouse automatic brake. 341. 100, 101. z. the Mississippi, 236; Westinghouse, H. H.; brake improve- Witmer, Abraham: legislative grant of Zimmer, J. C.; auditor Texas Traffic its tributaries, 2,7; ments, 34a. right to bridge the Conestoga, 29. Association, 277. Digitized by Google Digitized by Google Google Digitized by STANFORD UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES STANFORD AUXILIARY LIBRARY STANFORD, CALIFORNIA 94305-6004 (415) 723-9201 All books may be recalled after 7 days DATE DUE EP &2002 6 2002 AUG SEPS 2003 2002 Digitized by Google

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Development of Transportation Systems in the United States, J.L. Ringwalt, 1888

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