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Ronald Reagan Presidential Library
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Collection: Blackwell, Morton: Files
Folder Title: Nuclear Freeze (9 of 16)
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Groups Aiding
THE WHITE HOUSE
Candidates Who
WASHINGTON
Favor A-Freeze
Date: 7/28/82
Associated Press
Liberal political fund-raising
groups say they expect to amass
TO:
Morton
more than $2 million to give to con-
gressional candidates who support a
nuclear weapons freeze and to use to
FROM: WAYNE H. VALIS wayne
defeat those who oppose the idea.
In addition, 14 House members
have scheduled a news conference
today to announce the formation of
For your information
the Nuclear Freeze Political Action
Committee, whose organizers speak
Per our conversation
of raising $1 million through rock 'n'
roll concerts and mail solicitations.
Other:
One of the groups, the Council for
a Livable World, already has deliv-
I hope the najies'
ered $221,500 to 12 Senate candi-
dates, The funds were solicited from
a mailing list of 60,000 people who
activities will me
had previously given money in the
interest of ending the arms race.
than be offset by
The council's two chief benefici-
aries are Rep. Toby Moffett (D-
Conn.) who got $28,000, and Rep.
our trooss.
Millicent Fenwick (R-N.J.) who got
$26,500. Both are nuclear freeze ad-
vocates making bids for Senate seats
in the November election.
The council expects to raise $400,-
000 for Senate candidates and $250,-
000 for House candidates who sup-
port a nuclear freeze.
The groups will watch forthcom-
ing congressional roll calls to identify
their friends. A House vote on the
freeze proposal is expected late this
month. Freeze proponents hope the
Senate also will be compelled to take
a stand.
Records of the Federal Election
Commission give these tentative to-
tals for the amounts given the pro-
freeze candidates who have gotten
the most money:
Moffett, $35,200; Fenwick, $26,
500; George McDaniel, a Democrat
challenging Sen. Malcolm Wallop
(R-Wyo.), $25,000; Sen. Howard
M.Metzenbaum (D-Ohio), $23,900;
"Ted Wilson, a Democrat challenging
Sen. Orrin G. Hatch (R-Utah), $23,-
500; Sen. Paul S, Sarbanes (D-Md.),
$23,200; Sen. George J. Mitchell (D-
Maine), $23,000; Sen. Donald W.
Riegle Jr. (D-Mich.), $17,300; Sen.
Jim Sasser (D-Tenn.), $14,600;
David Levinson, a Democrat chal-
lenging Sen. William V. Roth Jr. (R-
Del.), $11,300; and Sen. John H.
Chafee (R-R.I.), $11,000.
THE
90p
FALKLANDS
CRISIS
by Tom Arms
THE HISTORY,
GEOGRAPHY,
POLITICS &
INVASION
COMPLETE
OF THE
WITH MAPS,
FALKLAND
DIAGRAMS &
ISLANDS
DETAILS OF
THE ARMED
FORCES OF
ARGENTINA & THE
BRITISH TASK FORCE
IN THE SOUTH
ATLANTIC
FULL COLOUR ONEVERY PAGE
"We are a
democratic
Government of a
free people, and
one which is not
prepared to
compromise that
democracy and that
liberty which the
British Falkland
standers regard
as
the
birthright
Our pmacy
backed by'stre gth
and we have the
resolve to
hat
strength if
necessary." Mrs
Margar Thatcher
"It is not an
invasion but the
recovery of
territory which is
ours The
Argentine
Government had no
alternative other
than to do what has
been done The
three commanders-
in-chief have only
interpreted the
sentiment of the
Argentine people
which has been
suppressed for 150
years and is now
visible in the
streets." General
Leopoldo Galtieri
The Coalition for Peace
Through Security
Fourth Floor
27/31 Whitehall
London SW1A 2BX
Tel.: 01-839 3951
RITAIN and
Argentina are set for
war. The immediate
Malvinas or Falklands? 4
cause: the title deeds to
We're British 9
the Falkland Islands -
Diplomacy 11
Chronology 15
200 windswept islands
Battle Plan 16
set 8,000 miles away in
Countdown 19
Invasion 22
the isolated South
The Yanks 25
Atlantic. Home for 1,800
Counting the Cost 29
hardy and, until now,
Editor: Tom Arms
Pictures Editor:
almost forgotten British
Terry Hewett
subjects.
Design Editor:
George Snow
Are they worth it?
Sub-Editors:
Steve Mann &
Thousands of lives and
Sally Payne
Lay-out: Phoebe Creswell-
billions of pounds could
Evans, Nicky Reehal
Diagrams: Duncan Mill &
be lost. New and
Mavis Ross
dangerous global
Map: Dave Ritchie
Editorial assistant:
relations could emerge,
Wendy Kassabian
Editorial consultants:
threatening the delicate
Harriet Cohen, Eileen
Alley, Stuart Birch,
international balance of
Defence Correspondent
Thomson Regional
power
Newspapers
The following pages
Acknowledgements for
unravel the claims and
photographs and-assistance
to: Ministry of Defence
counter-claims, and
Jane's ighting Ships
British Aerospace, French
explain the passions and
Embassy (Landon), ID
Cunard Shipping, P&O
unresolved negotiations
Shipping, Falkland Islands
which stretch from the
Committee, Daily Tele-
graph Magazine, Observer,
dawn of colonialism to a
Press Association, Camera
Press, BBC Hulton Picture
twentieth century naval
Library, UPI, French
Maritime Museum, Royal
showdown.
Institute of International
Affairs, and International
British prestige is at
Institute for Strategic
stake in the South
Affairs.
Atlantic. That prestige is
Published by H. Bunch
Associates Ltd., 14 Rath-
a vital if intangible asset
bone Place, London W1P
1DE Copyright 1982
in the complex web of
Felden Productions and
political and trading
Tom Arms. Nothing may
be reproduced, in whole or
links upon which Britain
in part, without the writ-
ten consent of the copy-
depends. To ignore
right holders. All rights
reserved. Printed by Chase
Argentina's blatant
Web Offset, St Austell,
Cornwall. Distributed by
aggression would have
Moore-Harness.
severe and lasting
THE AUTHOR: Tom
repercussions.
Arms is an American,
educated in Britain and the
The weeks and months
United States, His first job
in journalism was in
ahead will be tense.
Washington DC. In 1975
he became the youngest
British diplomats will
Diplomatic Correspondent
work hard to minimise
in Britain when he joined
the London office of
the damage. The Royal
Thomson Regional
Newspapers, the largest
Navy will, if necessary,
newspaper group in the
UK, He is now a freelance
fight.
foreign affairs writer.
ABOVE: Malvinas or Falklands? HMS Invin-
cible steams south to make sure that the
1,800 islanders and not the invading Argen-
Chapter1.
tinians decide.
I
T WAS a nasty way to discover a new
land - separated from the rest of the
MALVINAS OR
fleet, lost in fog and buffeted by gales
and high seas.
It was a relief when the lookout spotted
the safe haven of islands on 14 August 1592.
The ship was the Desire. The captain was
FALKLANDS?
John Davis of Arctic fame. Both were
English. From this first recorded sighting
stems Britain's claim to the islands. But
ownership, as the world is now discovering,
4
is a bit more complicated than a simple
'Came, Saw and Claimed' business.
For two short years the islands in the
South Atlantic bore the name of their
discoverer - Davis' Southern Isles. Then
another Englishman, Sir Richard Hawkins,
arrived on the scene. He was a good
monarchist so he named the islands after the
first Queen Elizabeth's virginity. And
because he had a vain streak, he stuck his
own name on the title, too - Hawkins'
Maiden Land.
Sir Richard's travels strengthened the
English claim to the islands, but that claim
suffered a blow when the Dutch explorer
Sebald de Weert sailed past and dubbed
them the Sebald Islands.
But neither the Dutchman, Sir Richard
nor Captain Davis landed on the islands.
That was left to yet another Englishman,
John Strong, who in 1690 sailed up the
sound which separated the two main islands.
He named the dividing water 'Falkland
Sound', after the then First Lord of the
Admiralty, and British map makers later
extended the name to the islands.
Enter the French - great explorers and
great colonisers. In 1701 they lodged their
claim to the islands with a sighting by the
ABOVE: The first recorded sighting of the Falkland Islands was by Captain John Davis aboard
French navigator Gouin de Beauchene and
the Desire in 1592. His ship's historian John Jane wrote: The ninth wee had a sore storme, so
then again in 1711 with a ship commanded by
that we were constrained to hull, for our sailes were not to indure any force. The 14th wee
were driven in among certain isles never before discovered by any known relation, lying fiftie
Sieur Brignon. This ship, the Incarnation,
leagues or better from the shore east and northerly from the Streights [Straights of Magellan]
had set sail from St Malo in Brittany, and so,
in which place, unless it hed pleased God of his wonderful mercie to have ceased the winds, wee
to commemorate the links with the folks
must of necessitie have perished.'
back home, the French dubbed the islands
'Iles Malouines'. Roughly translated, this
means the islands of the people of St Malo.
Sebaldes
The Spanish for the same name is Islas
Malvinas, the name on the Argentinian
maps of today.
The Dutch decided against becoming
involved in a struggle for the motley
collection of 200 windswept, treeless and
uninhabited islands in the distant South
Atlantic. They left it to the British and
French, who were at that time busily fighting
over the crumbling Spanish Empire.
In the first half of the 18th century neither
YYY
one of the two great European naval powers
was ready to rush off to the South Atlantic
and consolidate their claim. Finally, the
0000
French moved.
Antoine Louis de Bougainville was a
young patriotic nobleman who was angered
at the way the British had booted the French
CARTE DES
out of Canada. So in 1763 he decided to steal
ISLES MALOUINES
a march on the British by colonising the
Nammées
Falkland Islands at the other end of the
Isles Falkland
A Luu card l'établissement Francous
Western Hemisphere.
Espagnele
He sank his family fortune into the
scheme and, with the blessing of the French
ABOVE: Conflicting claims to the Falkland
court, set sail. He landed on the easternmost
Islands go back a long way, as this 18th
century map from the French Maritime
of the two main islands and with the help of
Museum shows. Both the French and the
28 settlers went about establishing a colony.
British claimed the islands, and this is
In those days nothing spurred the British
reflected in the nomenclature used by the
on faster than a march-stealing operation by
map makers.
the French. They sailed off post-haste to the
On top is the French name, 'Isles
South Atlantic and the first batch of Britons,
Malouines', and underneath in smaller letters
under Captain John Byron - affectionately
they recognise the conflicting English claim
known to his crew as Foulweather Jack -
by mentioning 'Nommees par les Anglois -
Isles Falkland'.
landed just in the New Year in 1765 on the
When the Spanish bought the islands from
westernmost of the two islands.
the French they kept the French name in the
He was joined the following year by three
Spanish language: 'Islas Malvinas' - the name
British ships under the command of Captain
on Argentinian maps of today.
John McBride. So there they sat; the French
LEFT: Viscount Falkland - the islands bear
on the eastern half and the British on the
his name.
western half, and both laying claim to the
his rights to the islands to Spain for the then
whole lot.
princely sum of £25,000.
Into this stand-off marched the Spanish,
So now it was the Spanish and English
claiming quite simply that the islands
staring at each other across Falkland Sound.
belonged to neither Britain nor France. They
and they had ceased to have anything to do
England was emerging as a global naval
were Spanish by virtue of the 1494 Treaty of
with Roman pronouncements a long time
power. The islands were ideal as a staging
Tordesillas with which the Pope divided the
before.
post for the fleet or as a springboard into the
world between Spain and Portugal. Britain
The French were none too pleased,
Spanish Empire. Spain needed the islands to
quite simply threw the claim out of court as
either. But de Bougainville saw a chance for
prevent just that.
inadmissible. It was a Papist-inspired treaty
a quick turnover on his investment and sold
The Spanish moved first, and in 1769
5
Aires and reported the outrage against
American property to the US Navy corvette,
the Lexington, which set out forrevenge. The
island settlement was attacked and sacked.
The guns were spiked and buildings burned.
And, to add insult to injury, the American
commander declared the Falkland Islands
free of all government as he sailed away.
Into this fusion in 1830 sailed back the
British aboard HM sloop Clio and under the
command of Capt James Onslow. He re-
asserted Britain's claim to the Falklands and
ordered what was left of the Argentinian
community off the islands. The Argen-
tinians had little choice. They had been left
defenceless by the American attack. They
departed, protesting loudly as they went.
Still on the island were some settlers and
convict labourers. The labourers wanted to
leave and, in 1833, led by an ex-convict
named Rivero, they rebelled against the
island authorities in a bid to return to the
mainland. They killed two leading islanders
and then fled to the hinterland where they
were eventually captured. Rivero has
ABOVE: British Antarctic explorer Lord Shackleton was buried on the Falkland Islands and
become a folk hero in Argentina, and when
this monument raised to his memory. The family maintained strong links with the islands and
Argentinian troops landed in 1982 they were
the present Lord Shackleton wrote a recent economic survey of the Falklands.
quick to change the name of the capital from
threw the British garrison and settlers off the
Port Stanley to Puerto Rivero.
islands. The situation was tense. London
After 1830 the Argentinians were simply
newspapers and Parliamentary speeches
not in a position to do anything about their
were full of British honour and integrity,
claim to the islands. To begin with, the
invasions in time of peace and weak claims to
British virtually took control of Argentina's
sovereignty. Britain and Spain prepared to
foreign policy for the next 100 years. Much
go to war over the Falkland Islands.
of that foreign policy involved trying to hold
The French saved the day by refusing to
onto Paraguay, Bolivia and Uruguay with a
support the Spanish. Forced to compromise,
series of disastrous wars.
the two sides agreed to disagree. The British
Around 1870 the stability which Argen-
re-established their garrison on the eastern
tina needed began to materialise, and with it
island and the Spanish stayed on the western
came the immigrants. The Argentine rivalled
island. And both continued to lay claim to
the United States as a boom haven for
the whole lot.
Europeans seeking a new life in a new world.
This time the British did not stay long. In
Between 1857 and 1937 three and a half
1774 defence cuts forced them to pull the
million Europeans emigrated to Argentina.
garrison out of the Falkland Islands. But
The major contributions to this flow were
garrison commander Stephen Clayton left
Italy with 44 per cent and Spain with 31 per
behind a lead plaque claiming the islands for
cent. But they also came from France,
Britain.
ABOVE: In 1771 Britain and Spain prepared
Poland, Russia and Germany.
to go to war over the Falkland Islands. The
A year later the Spanish sailed across the
thought appalled Samuel Johnson, who wrote
By 1914 the foreign-born population was
sound, destroyed the crumbling British
ridiculing the prospect of war for 'the empty
30 per cent of the total, and in large cities
garrison and shipped the plaque to Buenos
sound of an ancient title to a Magellanic rock,
foreigners outnumbered natives by two to
Aires. In 1806 the plaque was found by
an island thrown aside from human use,
one. The Indians fled to neighbouring
British troops who controlled the city for a
stormy in winter, barren in summer, an island
countries, leaving only 100,000 behind; and
few weeks and returned to London.
which not even the southern savages have
the Negro population, which in 1800 had
By now the Spanish Empire was falling
dignified with habitation, where a garrison
been more than 10 per cent of the total,
fast. In 1810 rebellion on the mainland
must be kept in a state that contemplates
disappeared altogether.
with envy the exiles of Siberia, of which the
forced the withdrawal of the garrison and
The new immigrants retained strong links
expense will be perpetual and the use only
the islands returned to their natural state
occasional, a nest of smugglers in peace, in
with the motherland. Spanish was the
- uninhabited by all but penguins, seals and
war a refuge of future buccaneers.
national language, but if it was spoken it was
the giant sea elephants.
One of the main results of the rebellion in
South America was the independent United
Provinces of the Rio de la Plata forerunner
of modern day Argentina. When Spain left,
the new government in Buenos Aires laid
claim to all the lands under the former
Spanish vice-royalty of the same name.
These included not only the Falkland Islands
but also present-day Bolivia, Paraguay,
Uruguay and parts of Chile.
In 1820, in Buenos Aires, responsibility
for the Falkland Islands was given to a
prominent businessman, Louis Vernet, who
set off to colonise the deserted islands.
London protested but at the time did
nothing.
But greed led to the downfall of Vernet
and Argentinian sovereignty of the islands.
Vernet appointed himself Governor and
decreed a monopoly for himself in the
lucrative seal trade. The Americans, no great
respecters of monopolies, ignored the decree
and in 1829 the Argentinians seized the worst
offender, John Davison, and impounded his
ship, the Harriet.
ABOVE: Port Stanley, capital of the Falkland Islands, on a good day. Wind speeds of up to 70
Davison escaped from jail in Buenos
miles an hour are common, and snowfalls have been recorded in every month of the year.
6
JUAN AND EVA
class family. He rose through the military
role in the Argentinians' claim to the Falkland
ranks, and a spell as Military Attache in Rome
Islands.
Juan Domingo Peron and his wife Eva. For
in the 1930s exposed him to Fascism at its
Peron was overthrown in 1955 by demo-
better or for worse they created the modern
height.
cratically minded officers. But from exile in
Argentina. Together they for the first time
His own ideology borrowed from the
Spain he remained the strongest influence on
created a nation out of a polyglot immigrant
extreme nationalism of Mussolini and Hitler
his native country. Successive rulers tried in
community.
but also took some of the elements of social-
vain to quash his supporters in the Peronist
Evita, first a dancer, then an actress, then
ism from Stalin. He managed to completely
Party and to deal with the legacy of economic
a mistress, finally became the First Lady of
win over the Argentinian working class and
and political chaos that he left them.
Argentina. She became the idol of the masses
gained the support of both the far left and the
In 1973 Juan Peron returned to power,
and her place in the hearts and minds of her
far right. Peron's race to industrialise and his
but died only a year later, leaving his third
countrymen was ensured by an early death
grandiose public projects left Argentina with
wife in the Presidential Palace. She was over-
which enshrined her in perpetual youth.
an economic legacy from which it is still
thrown two years later by the military junta
Juan Peron was the son of a lower middle
reeling, and his extreme nationalism played a
which runs Argentina today.
7
and his even more charismatic actress-
turned-mistress-turned wife, Eva.
Together they tapped the until-then-
undiscovered national psyche of Argentina.
To do it they combined ideology with a
personality cult. The cult was Eva, whose
tragically early death enshrined her in
perpetual youth. The ideology embraced
both the far left and far right behind a policy
of rabid nationalism, disastrously expensive
state intervention, pellmell industrialisation,
nationalisation and social welfare; all
designed to win the support of the working
class immigrant.
This policy brought Peron into direct
conflict with the British bankers and indus-
trialists who controlled the Argentinian
economy. So Peron turned on the British.
They became the scapegoat for Argentina's
ills and, along with the expanding United
States, were portrayed as the main obstacle
to Argentinian greatness.
Peron revived with a vengeance Argen-
tina's never-relinquished claim to the
Falkland Islands. Argentinian maps and
ABOVE: The Falkland Islands' huge penguin population is what most impressed John Strong
history books were redrawn and rewritten so
when he made the first recorded landing in 1690. He wrote: The inhabitants, such as they
that British pink was erased from the islands,
were, were exceedingly numerous. The penguins (a bird larger than a duck) gave us the first
which were designated Argentinian and
reception. Being mustered in infinite numbers on a rock, upon some of our men landing, they
named Islas Malvinas. Argentinian children
stood, viewed and then seemed to salute them with a great many graceful bows, with the same
were raised in the belief that the islands
gestures, equally expressing their curiosity and good breeding. As for other creatures, there
were eagles, hawks, which tho' they had long wings, suffered themselves to be taken up by our
belonged to them and that 'Los Ingleses' had
men. The island, if it were not destitute of wood, would make a noble plantation.'
stolen them.
The claim to the Falkland Islands became
an integral part of the national identity and
pride which Peron had created. Corruption,
maladministration and a crumbling
economy led to the Peron's overthrow in
1955. But before he left, his sabre-rattling
over the Falklands had at least forced Britain
to offer to take the dispute to the Inter-
national Court of Justice at The Hague.
Even from exile in Spain, Peron remain-
ed the dominant influence in Argentinian
politics. His successors were judged by their
success or, as was the case, repeated failure
to fill his shoes and massage the Argentinian
pride and ego created by Peron.
In 1972 Peron returned in triumph to
Argentina and within the year he was back in
the President's Palace. One of the first things
the general did on his return to power was
reassert the Argentinian claim to the
Falkland Islands and he underscored this by
insisting that all travellers to the islands have
an Argentinian permit.
But, by now, Peron was an old man. He
died in 1974 at the age of 78, leaving his third
ABOVE: A research base on the Dependency of South Georgia. Eight thousand miles away, the
wife, 43-year-old Maria Estela Martinez de
symbols of home look a shade strange out of their usual setting.
Peron, in charge. She was weak and unable
to control a crumbling economy and
with a strong Italian, French or other accent.
was mixed. They were respected but not
Peronist guerrillas split between the far left
At the pinnacle of this social pyramid of
loved. They were envied and imitated, but
and right. Death squads roamed the streets
immigrants sat the British. There weren't
also resented for their power, money,
many of them, but they were among the first
of Buenos Aires. Inflation peaked at 500 per
influence and arrogance.
Into this polyglot, British-dominated,
cent a year. There were calls for her
and they had the money.
resignation or impeachment. Finally, in 1976
The London banks controlled the Argen-
immigrant community in search of its own
Maria Peron was overthrown in a military
tine economy. Argentina may have been
national identity stepped in 1946 the
independent, but it was effectively part of
charismatic General Juan Domingo Peron
coup led by General Roberto Videla.
the sprawling British Empire. Its navy was
commanded by an Irishman. Its railways
were laid, run and owned by Englishmen.
Polo, tennis, football and rugby became the
national pastimes.
And of all the communities the British
were the most closed and arrogant. They
opened their Harrods in Buenos Aires, sent
their children to English schools and sat in
over-stuffed chairs at their Hurlingham
Club.
British habits and mannerisms became
the habits and mannerisms of rich Argen-
tinians - whatever their origins. Thus arose
the joke definition of an Argentinian as an
Italian who speaks Spanish and thinks he is
English.
The reaction of other Argentinians to the
Anglo-Argentinians and the British as whole
ABOVE: Port Stanley at the height of the British Empire - busy and prosperous.
8
Chapter 2.
WE'REBRITISH
ABOVE: British law with all its trappings personifies the islanders' Britishness as the magistrate sits under the Royal Coat of Arms flanked by
portraits of the Queen and Prince Philip.
T
HE FALKLAND ISLANDS are no
'Island in the Sun' paradise. They
bear a closer resemblance to the
Scottish moors or Outer Hebrides than the
Garden of Eden.
The most dominant feature is the wind. It
never stops blowing. It averages 17 mph and
there are at least four gales a month. The
climate is cold all year round. The ther-
mometer has never climbed above 79 degrees
Fahrenheit and snowfalls have been
recorded in every month.
There are virtually no trees. The wind
demolishes anything that grows above grass
level. Careful nurturing by dedicated British
gardeners did manage to create one small
wood near the Governor's residence, only to
have it used as cover by invading
Argentinians.
The settlers found the islands unin-
habited and almost empty of animal life.
There were lots of seals, penguins and the
rare sea elephant which grows to up to 15 feet
in length. There was also a species of fox.
But almost all of the 200 windswept
islands, covering 4,700 square miles -
ABOVE: British marines in training on the Falkland Islands. But when the Argentinians arrived
roughly the size of Northern Ireland - have
the thin blue line of 79 men was no match for an overwhelming invasion of 1,000.
one major resource: good thick grass. It was
with settlers to look after them. By 1880 wool
from home and controlled by London
ideal for the cattle brought by the French. So
had replaced leather and dominated the
businessmen, the islands never had a chance
good that by the time the British took over
islands' economy from then onwards.
to develop properly. But they had their
the original few hundred head had increased
The Falkland Islands Company con-
moments of glory. In 1914 the islands were
to an estimated 100,000 wild beasts. The
tinues. It owns about half of the land, and
the scene of Britain's brilliant naval victory
export of their hides was the first big, and
islanders complain that the company's
over the German fleet and in World War II
lucrative, trade for the British settlers.
refusal to diversify, invest or experiment has
they were a valuable naval base during the
In 1851 the islands were virtually bought
created the stagnant economy which in turn
Battle of the River Plate.
by a group of British businessmen who
helped create conditions which led the
But the fortunes of the islands were too
formed the Falkland Islands Company.
Argentinians to think they could get away
closely tied to those of the mother country.
That grass looked good for sheep and they
with an invasion.
In the latter part of the nineteenth century
exported them to the South Atlantic, along
Dominated by wool prices, 8,000 miles
and first part of this century, the islands and
9
LEFT: These London taxis were the official
transport for departed Governor Rex Hunt.
between. The hospital has only 27 beds, and
the level of schooling has dropped
dramatically.
There are only 12 miles of paved roads.
Travel is by one of two government-owned
planes or boat. Since a 1971 Anglo-
Argentine agreement the main physical link
with the outside world has been a weekly air
service operated by the Argentinian air force
through Argentina.
Half of the population live in the 'Camp'
- the isolated farms and settlements of the
hinterland. Not surprisingly, ham radios are
thick on the ground. When the Argentinians
261
invaded these radios were the islanders' only
link with the outside world, until they were
discovered and banned.
The other half of the population live in
Port Stanley. There are a few tradesmen, but
mainly administrators and scientists. The
civil servants administer not only the
Falkland Islands but also their dependencies
and British Antarctica.
the Empire rode together at the crest of the
It may be asked why these 1,800 souls
wave. British ships regularly used Port
have repeatedly stated their determination to
Stanley, and a whaling station was set up on
stay British. There is no doubt that they
the dependency of the South Georgia Islands
have. Every time a British minister has
800 miles away.
arrived to try to persuade them to do other-
The population peaked in 1931 at 2,400.
wise they have greeted him with Union Jacks
Over the years the links with the outside
and shouted down any suggestions of closer
world have gradually eroded and with them
links with Argentina.
have gone the people - frightened of their
To start with, 98 per cent of the islanders
growing physical isolation, the clamour in
are of British stock. They talk, act, walk,
Argentina for their land and what they see as
dress and look British. Some of them may be
disinterest by businessmen and politicians in
sixth generation islanders, but to meet them
distant motherland.
you would think they came from your typical
Life is not easy on the Falkland Islands of
English town.
the 'eighties. The normal twentieth century
In school they are taught British history.
accessories of life that we take for granted
They are taught that Britain is their home as
are non-existent. There is radio, but no
clearly as Argentinian children are taught
television, and films are old and few and far
that the Islas Malvinas belong to them.
There are other reasons for their wanting
LEFT: They may be 8,000 miles from the
to stay out of the Argentinian orbit. There is
UK, but the 1,800 Falkland Islanders battle
no crime, no unemployment, no inflation
against the often hostile climate to preserve
and a democratic government in the
traditional British values. Here's a display
Falkland Islands. In Argentina inflation,
that would not be out of place in any English
crime and unemployment figures are among
suburban garden. BELOW: The lighthouse at
the entrance to Port Stanley harbour marks
the world's highest, and the government is
the landing point of the invading Argentinian
far from democratic.
forces.
Chapter3.
DIPLOMACY
B
RITAIN DOES not want the Falkland
Islands. They are an anachronism
from a now embarrassing colonial
past. But at the same time, successive British
governments have become wedded to the
concept of self-determination for the
citizens of their departing colonies.
That means it is up to the people of each
land in the once far-flung British Empire to
decide for themselves whether they want to
stay British, become independent or join
forces with another country.
To do otherwise could set off a series of
bloody land grabs right round the world.
Guatemala, for instance, claims Belize.
Spain is after Gibraltar, China is waiting for
Hong Kong, and there is of course, the Irish
problem. There are also the innumerable
small Caribbean islands which could fall
prey to their larger neighbours and some
French possessions which could suffer the
same fate.
Each of these small conflicts could very
quickly attract one of the Super Powers; this
in turn would drag in the other Super Power,
and then a 19th century colonial anachron-
ism would become a twentieth century
nightmare.
Most of the British colonies opted for in-
dependence. The exceptions are those small
territories who are too tiny to develop their
own economy or to defend themselves. They
cling to the protection of the British Navy,
especially if, as in the case of the Falkland
Islands, a big neighbour wants to swallow
them up.
The problem for these colonies is that the
British Navy is not as big and powerful as it
once was. The British economy couldn't
afford to keep it that way. And the trend is
down, not up. In the South Atlantic, for
instance, Britain's last naval presence, the
survey ship HMS Endurance, was due to be
withdrawn this year. Notice of her with-
drawal almost certainly encouraged the
ABOVE: United Nations support for Britain
is the strongest diplomatic card she has. It has
Argentinian invasion.
led to other countries giving their full backing
So, since 1965 the Falklands policy of
to the UK or, in the case of Latin America,
successive British governments has been to
weakening support for Argentina. The
gradually improve the links between the
Security Council voted 10-1 in favour of the
islands and the Argentine. What Whitehall
British resolution calling for a withdrawal of
hopes to see emerge from improved links is a
Argentinian forces from the Falkland Islands
bit hazy. Perhaps Argentina and the
and a peaceful solution to the crisis. Only
Panama voted against. It had no veto. China,
Falkland Islanders would become friendly
Spain and the Soviet Union abstained.
enough for the islanders to agree to a
ABOVE: James Callaghan ordered the British
sovereignty swap.
work.
fleet to the South Atlantic in 1977 when
But there are other possibilities - a
The Anglo-Argentine talks on the future
Argentina appeared to threaten invasion of
condominium, a lease-back plan, an EEC-
of the Falkland Islands were conducted
the Falkland Islands. The Argentinians backed
down. Labour Party leaders claim that if Mrs
type arrangement, or maybe something
under the umbrella of a 1965 United Nations
Thatcher had acted sooner then General
totally new and different. But British
resolution calling for negotiations and a
Galtieri would have scrapped his 1982
officials and ministers are convinced that
peaceful solution to the problem. Seventeen
invasion plans in the face of British deter-
any solution must have the support of the
years followed with the islanders refusing to
mination.
people concerned. If it doesn't, it won't
consider swapping their Union Jack for the
11
so at some point in the future, nor had it
completely discouraged the Argentinians
from thinking that eventually they would
regain Las Islas Malvinas.
Then in October 1975 the Foreign Office
announced the British Government was
dispatching former Labour Minister Lord
Shackleton to the island to conduct an
economic survey. The Argentinians pro-
tested. To them this was a sign that the
British would never relinquish sovereignty
over the islands. You do not, they argued,
spend money on developing land which you
intend to give away.
The Argentinians refused to let Shackle-
ton and his scientists fly through Argentina
to the islands. So Lord Shackleton went by
ship direct from Britain to the islands. The
Argentinians interpreted this as a breach of
the 1971 agreement and booted out the
82
British Ambassador Derek Ashe. Anglo-
AL7
Argentine relations grew tense.
In a display of force the Argentinians sent
a navy tank landing ship to Port Stanley in
January 1976 to unload 50 engineers and
equipment to extend the air strip. It was a
legitimate exercise, but the size and military
nature of the workforce was a clear signal to
London that Argentina was prepared to use
force.
Then, on 4 February 1976, the Argen-
ABOVE: The charismatic Juan Peron returned to Argentina from long exile in 1972. The
tinian destroyer Almirante Storni fired a
following year his hand-picked candidate Dr Hector Campora was elected President. Six weeks
shot across the bow of the British research
later he resigned to make way for his leader Juan Peron. But just over a year later Peron died,
ship Shackleton just 80 miles south of the
leaving behind a country in turmoil.
islands. The destroyer tried to arrest the
Shackleton, claiming it was looking for oil in
'Argentinian waters'. The Shackleton,
which was on a UN research mission, fled to
the safety of Port Stanley, ignoring Argen-
tinian orders to sail to Tierra del Fuego.
But the biggest move of all missed the
headlines. In December 1976, 50 Argentinian
'scientists' landed on the otherwise unin-
habited island of Southern Thule, 1,200
miles away from Port Stanley but part of the
South Sandwich Islands which are a
dependency of the Falkland Islands.
Britain protested - but kept the protest
quiet. The Argentinians refused to with-
draw. Southern Thule, claimed Buenos
Aires, was an 'integral part of Argentina'.
Combined with the other incidents, the
occupation of Southern Thule pointed to an
invasion of the Falkland Islands. If Britain
let the scientists stay on Southern Thule then
the Argentinian claim to that island and
others in the region was implicitly recognised
ABOVE: Maria Peron, the third wife of Juan Peron. She was catapulted into the Presidency
in 1974 on Juan Peron's death. The general had hoped to turn his third wife into a second
Evita, but she was unable to cope with the violence, inflation and palace power struggles. In
1976 she was overthrown by a military coup.
blue and white banner of Argentina and the
a permanent one. There were also improve-
impatient Argentinians refusing to talk
ments in postal, cable and telex communica-
about anything but total Argentinian
tions between the islands and Argentina and
sovereignty over the Islas Malvinas - and
the islanders were made to carry Argentinian
regularly threatening to use force to get it.
identity cards whenever leaving the islands.
Successive British ministers preached to
The British hoped that this breakthrough
immovable opinion on both sides of the
would lead to the conditions for a final
virtues of a gradual and progressive slide
solution. But to do this they needed a less
together. In July 1971 there was a break-
threatening Argentina and more willing
through in this direction when British and
islanders.
Argentinian officials initialled an agreement
In Argentina Peron returned to power in
establishing regular air and sea links between
a country torn by economic and political
Argentina and the Falkland Islands.
contradictions. More than ever Argentina
Before this, links between the islands and
needed an issue to unite the people and divert
the outside world centred on a monthly boat
their attention from internal problems. The
run by the Falkland Islands Company
islands were that issue. Argentina became
between Port Stanley and Montevideo in
more threatening and as a result the Falkland
Uruguay. This was cancelled. The main link
Islanders became less willing.
became the once-weekly, Argentinian-
At this stage Britain blundered. Up till
operated air service.
1975 it had never promised Argentina that
ABOVE: Lord Shackleton. His report on the
The Argentinians were responsible for
Whitehall would hand over sovereignty to
Falkland Islands pointed to possible big
building a temporary airstrip and the British
the islands. But neither had it refused to do
money from oil and fish.
12
BONANZA?
cillary services that follow the oil industry
waters around the British Isles.
around the world.
But even more interesting is a tiny, high-
There was also the problem of the weather
protein creature called the krill. Lord Shackle-
The Falkland Islands could be sitting in the
and sea conditions in the South Atlantic. It is
ton reckoned that this crustacean would
middle of an offshore oil bonanza. American
rougher around the Falkland Islands than it is
become the food of the future. Others think
geologists reckon that black gold reserves in
in the North Sea, and special technology
so, too. The Russians, East Europeans,
the surrounding waters could be 20 times
would have to be developed to reach the oil.
Japanese and Germans are already catching it
those of the North Sea.
Some American diplomats believe that the
in large quantities.
The Shackleton Report on the islands'
Argentinians' main reason for invading the
Most of their krill-catching trawlers are
economic prospects refused to put a figure
islands is oil. This seems unlikely, not only
working in the South Atlantic around the
on the oil prospects. That could only be
because the oil would be difficult and expen-
Falkland Islands. Before the Falkland crisis
done after test drilling. The Report did
sive to tap, but also because the Argentinians
began a record 170 Russian and East Euro-
admit, however, that the geological for-
are already getting enough oil from wells
pean trawlers were krill-fishing in the region.
mations were right for huge oil deposits
closer to the mainland.
The Shackleton Report estimated that there
around the islands.
Of more immediate interest to the Argen-
were as many krill in the region around the
The Report also pointed to problems.
tinians and the islanders are the possibilities
Falklands as in the rest of the world's oceans
First of all, cooperation was needed with
for a major fishing industry. The Shackleton
put together.
Argentina for technology, servicing facilities,
Report estimated that there are as many blue
refineries, pipelines and a whole host of an-
whiting around the Falklands as are in all the
13
F103
ABOVE: A British warship steams south with waves breaking over its deck. The seas it will face are some of the roughest in the world.
and Buenos Aires could take it as a signal to
siderably. They started looking forward to
move into Port Stanley.
oil terminals, refineries, shipping, fish
The then Prime Minister James Callaghan
processing plants and a host of ancillary
dispatched the fleet to the South Atlantic.
services that would bring the Falkland
But he did it secretly and the Argentinians
Islands to life.
were able to withdraw the scientists without
There was one problem. Lord
any loss of face. The Labour Party claims
Shackleton made it clear that the islands
that if Mrs Thatcher and Lord Carrington
could not develop without the cooperation
had done the same thing when the Argen-
of Argentina. The equipment and back-up
tinian navy landed scrap metal merchants on
services for oil exploration and exploitation
South Georgia than the Argentinians would
would have to come from Argentina. The
never have invaded the Falkland Islands.
same with any future fish industry.
The threatened invasion of 1976-77
And as long as there was uncertainty over
stemmed from the British decision to
the sovereignty of the islands none of these
examine the economic prospects of the
resources could be exploited. No fishing
Falklands Islands. And what glorious
company would dare start fishing for fear of
prospects they were, too. The Shackleton
being stopped by the Argentinian navy and
Report that came out of the survey indicated
no oil company would think of drilling
that Britain was sitting on a potential jackpot
around the islands for fear of having their oil
in the South Atlantic.
rig attacked by Argentina.
To start with, there was a good chance of
So, armed with the Shackleton Report,
oil in the area. A US Geological Survey had
Mr Edward Rowlands, the Foreign Office
reckoned that the offshore oil deposits in the
Minister responsible for Britain's affairs in
ABOVE: Foreign Office Minister Ted
region could be as much as 20 times those of
Latin America, set off in February 1977 for
Rowlands in 1977 tried to persuade the Argen-
the North Sea, and most of it was to be found
Buenos Aires and Port Stanley.
tinians to join forces in developing the Falk-
around the Falkland Islands and the waters
In Buenos Aires he met Foreign Minister
lands, The Argentinians refused to consider it
between the islands and the Argentinian
Captain Gualter Allara for talks in 'a
until they were given the deeds to the land.
mainland.
The islanders refused to become Argentinian.
constructive atmosphere'. But the
Lord Shackleton played down the figures
Argentinian made it clear there could be no
and time and time again British officials and
in the American report. Predictions like that
talk of joint economic development of the
ministers were told that if Britain handed the
could not accurately be made without some
islands or the seas around them until Britain
Falklands over to Argentina it would help to
preliminary drilling tests. But he agreed that
ceded sovereignty to Argentina.
create the right atmosphere for improved
the geological formations were right for big
And in Port Stanley the flag-waving
trade links throughout Latin America.
oil deposits.
islanders left Mr Rowlands in no doubt of
Britain's new Minister of State for Latin
Then there was the question of fish. Lord
their determination to stay British.
American Affairs, Richard Luce, tried again
Shackleton reckoned that there were as
Talks appeared to have reached an
for a breakthrough. He dredged up an old
many blue whiting in the seas around the
impasse when the Conservatives won the
idea, refined it a bit and took it to talks in
Falkland Islands as are found in all UK
1979 general election. Mrs Thatcher's
New York in 1981.
waters. But Lord Shackleton was particu-
government seemed more determined to
The idea was a leaseback proposal.
larly interested in a tiny high-protein shrimp-
achieve a breakthrough.
Under this plan Britain would cede
like creature called the krill. The Japanese,
Boosting trade was a major element in
sovereignty to the Argentinians but would
Russians and Germans were already
her foreign policy and Latin America was a
then lease back the right to administer the
catching krill in large quantities, and Lord
major target area. But the Falkland Islands
islands for a certain number of years 99 was
Shackleton believed that this was the food of
held up the improved trade links that the
the figure most often mentioned.
the future and that there were more krill in
Government wanted - not only in
The islanders would remain British
the South Atlantic than in the rest of the
Argentina, but in the rest of Latin America,
subjects and at the end of the lease period the
world put together.
too.
Falkland Islands would be completely
The Shackleton Report brightened up the
Virtually every Latin American country
Argentinian. Both the islanders and the
economic prospects of the islanders con-
recognised Argentina's claim to the islands,
Argentinians rejected the proposal.
14
CHRONOLOGY
October 1975: Britain announces forth-
coming Shackleton Survey on Falkland
Islands economic prospects. Argentina
objects, expels British Ambassador.
February 1976: Argentinian destroyer fires
shot across bows of British survey ship
the Shackleton.
March 1976: Maria Peron overthrown by
military.
December 1976-May 1977: Fifty Argen-
tinian scientists land on Falklands depen-
dency of South Thule and refuse to leave.
British fleet secretly ordered to South
Atlantic. Argentinians quietly leave.
1977: Shackleton Report says Falkland
Islands waters rich in fish and possibly
oil, but Argentinian cooperation needed
to exploit resources.
February 1977: Foreign Office Minister Ted
Rowlands attends talks in Buenos Aires.
Told that there can be no economic CO-
operation unless Britain cedes sovereignty
to Falkland Islands; but islanders insist
on remaining British.
March 1981: Foreign Office Minister Richard
Luce offers lease-back arrangement:
sovereignty ceded back to Argentina but
leased to Britain for 99 years. Argentina
August 1592: English navigator John Davis
1943: General Peron comes to power.
and islanders reject this.
discovers Falkland Islands.
1955: Britain offers to take dispute over
December 1981: General Leopoldo Fortunatao
1594: Second sighting by another Englishman,
sovereignty of the islands to International
Galtieri comes to power in bloodless
Sir Richard Hawkins.
Court of Justice. Peron is overthrown.
palace coup, and starts diplomatic spade-
1600: The Dutch navigator Sebald de Weert
1965: UN calls for Anglo-Argentine talks on
work for invasion of Falkland Islands.
becomes the third man to spot the islands.
dispute over Falkland Islands.
January 1982: Argentinian columnist writes
Holland never pressed its claim.
1966: Talks start.
of invasion plans.
1690: The first landing on the islands, by an
1968: Islanders form Falkland Islands Emer-
15 March 1982: Argentinian Navy lands scrap-
English crew led by John Strong.
gency Committee to lobby against British
metal merchants on Falklands dependency
1701: The French explorer Gouin de Beau-
handover of the islands to Argentina.
of South Georgia. When HMS Endurance
chene lands and stakes a rival claim for
1971: Anglo-Argentine agreement on im-
orders them to leave they refuse to go.
France.
proved links between islands and Argen-
30 March 1982: Lord Carrington warns that
1763: French settlers arrive under leadership
tina.
Britain will defend the islands.
of Antoine Louis de Bougainville.
1973: Peron returns to power.
8.30am, 2 April 1982: Argentina invades the
1765-66: British troops arrive and order off
1974: Peron dies and his third wife Maria
Falkland Islands. Three hours later
the French. Spain claims the islands as
takes over. Argentina racked by guerrilla
Governor Rex Hunt orders the 79 British
part of its South American Empire.
wars and roaring inflation.
marines to surrender.
1767: de Bougainville sells his claim to the
islands to Spain for £25,000.
1771: Britain and Spain prepare for war over
Falkland Islands. It is averted at the last
minute.
1774: Defence cuts force withdrawal of
British garrison, but a plaque is left behind
claiming the islands for King George III.
1810: Spanish garrison withdrawn because of
rebellion in South America.
1816: United Provinces of Rio de la Plata -
forerunner of modern-day Argentina -
founded.
1816-70: Argentinian Civil War and wars with
neighbours.
1820: Argentina claims it has inherited
sovereignty of the islands from Spain and
establishes a settlement.
1830: Americans attack settlement in revenge
for arrest of American ship. In the con-
fusion that follows, the British under
Captain James Onslow reclaim the islands
and order off the Argentinians.
1851: Falkland Islands Company formed.
1857: Three and a half million Europeans
start emigrating to Argentina. Britain
becomes the dominant power in the
country.
1895: Juan Domingo Peron born.
15
ARGENTINA
BATTLE
3A-69 corvettes
4 diesel-powered
submarines
SPY AND
COMMUNICATIONS
BRAZIL
1 aircraft carrier (The 25th of May)
MISSI
SATELLITES
EXETI
FROM
1 cruiser (General Belgrano)
CHILE
ENTRE RIOS
14 light helicopters
URUGUAY
LIMIT OF ARGENT THE MAY
2 Type 42 destroyers
MENDOZA
BUENOS
AIRES
+
TANDIL (Main
2 Fletcher Type
SAN LUIS
fighter base)
destroyers
+
MAR DEL
1 Gearing Type destroyer
PUERTO
+
PLATA
BELGRANO
(Submarine base)
9 Canberra
(Main naval base)
long-range bombers
ARGENTINA
3 Sumner Type destroyers
TRELEW
ARGENTINE AR ZONE
COMODORO
+
RIVADAVIA
68 Skyhawk bombers
FALKLAND ISLAI
43 Miraga fighters
KKKKKKKK
ELECTRONIC>
RIO GALLEGOS
kkkkkkkk
S
WARFARE TO JAM
BRITISH WAR 2
25 armed
KKKKKKKK
ARGENTINE
helicopters
10,000 troops on Falkland Islands (plus
COMMUNICATIONS
TIERRA
tanks, armoured cars, mortar
DEL FUEGO
emplacements and shore batteries)
1,000 troops
on South Georgia
KKK
+
USHUAIA
Not illustrated:
150,000 troops on mainland
HARRIER
VTOL supersonic strike planes. Arms include
Sidewinder & Harpoon missiles, Aden cannons,
electronic warfare pods and cameras,
Strika range 290 miles.
Broadsword, Brilliant frigates with Exocet
and Seawolf missiles, Mk 46 torpedoes,
INVINCIBLE
Lynx helicopter with Mk44
torpedoes.
R12
friga
BROADSWORD
Hermes and Invincible each carry
8 Harriers and 9 Sea Kings.
Ski jump doubles Harrier payload.
ANTELOPE
Defence includes Seacat and Sea
HERMES
Dart missiles.
F170
PLAN
BRITAIN
4 nuclear submarines
2 Type 22 destroyers
ASCENSION
DESTROYER
ISLAND
SAILS
2 aircraft carriers
EARLY WARNING PLANES
(Hermes and Invincible)
BELIZE
MONITOR SEA,AIR
AND LAND MOVEMENTS
3 Nimrod early
warning planes
2 assault ships
BASED PLANES
NUCLEAR
SUBMARINES
SAIL SOUTH FROM
NATO AREA AND
3 Type 21 frigates
START BLOCKADE
3 Type 42 destroyers
BEFORE ARRIVAL
OF MAIN FLEET
2 County class destroyers
32 Sea Harrier VTOL strike planes
Lynx helicopters
DS
PART OF
18 Sea King helicopters
2 Type 12 frigates
MAIN TASK
FORCE JOINS
AAAA
Additional ships
Civil ships:
not illustrated:
2 troop/hospital ships
BLOCKADE
(Canberra and Uganda)
AAAA
Royal Fleet Auxiliaries:
2 roll-on, roll-off ships
ANLEY
4 tankers
1 maintenance ship
2 fleet replenishment
1 freshwater ship
NE
AAAA
ships
3 salvage tugs
1 stores support ship
4 deep water trawlers
5,000 marines
5 landing and logistics
(used as minesweepers)
(estimated total, exact
ships
10 tankers
figure military secret)
POSSIBLE LANDING
USING AMPHIBIOUS CRAFT
ANTRIM
AND HELICOPTERS
LEITH
+
S. GEORGIA
SEA KING
Plymouth and Yarmouth frigates
with Seacat missiles and
Carry homing torpedoes
Wasp helicopter with
torpedoes.
telope, Alacrity and Arrow
Sheffield, Exeter, Coventry,
PL YMOUTH
with Exocet and Seacat missiles,
Glasgow destroyers with Sea Dart,
Mk 46 torpedoes.
Mk 46 torpedoes and
Lynx helicopters.
Lynx helicopters with
Sea Skua missiles
Fearless amphibious assault ship
and Mk 44
with 400 marines, 8 landing
torpedoes.
craft, 15 tanks plus trucks.
Superb, Sceptre,
Spartan, Splendid
Includes Seacat missiles
nuclear-powered
and Bofors guns.
subs with Tigerfish
SUPERB
torpedoes,
SHEFFIELD
FEARLESS
080
ARGENTINA BATTLE PLAN
MISSILES - ROYAL NAVY ONLY
The first task has already been achieved:
invasion and occupation of the Falkland
Islands and South Georgia Islands. The
next task is to entrench the troops there
SEAWOLF
with tanks, armoured vehicles, mortar
Surface to air, close range
emplacements and shore batteries so
that they will be difficult to move.
Air superiority must be maintained
so that supplies and reinforcements can
be flown from the mainland to the air-
SEASLUG
port at Port Stanley.
Argentinian transport planes have
Anti-ship,
been flying into Port Stanley to move
anti-aircraft, range 24 miles
as many supplies as possible before the
British fleet arrives so that the troops on
the islands can withstand a long siege.
BOTH NAVIES
At sea, most of the strategy will
concentrate on protecting the aircraft
carrier The 25th of May so that Argen-
SEACAT
tinian strike aircraft can be kept within
range of the British Armada. Strategy
Anti-aircraft, range 3 miles
will centre on maintaining supply lines
to troops on the Falkland Islands.
SIDEWINDER
BRITISH BATTLE PLANS
Air to air, range 2 miles
Also carried by Argentine fighters
The Royal Navy must sever the supply
lines from the Argentinian mainland to
the Falkland Islands. To achieve this,
SEA DART
superiority must be won in the air and
Anti-aircraft, range 24 miles
at sea.
The British forces will probably first
try to establish a beachhead on one of
the other islands in the region. South
EXOCET
Georgia has most often been mentioned.
Anti-ship, range 20 miles
There are an estimated 500 Argentinian
troops there.
Once established with a base, addi-
tional supplies and reinforcements can
At sea, the naval blockade has
islands.
be flown in, and the battle for sea and
already started and is being controlled
The battle in the sky will be fought
air will begin in earnest. A key target
by British nuclear submarines. They will
between Sea Harriers and Argentina's
will be the Argentinian's only aircraft
be joined by destroyers, frigates and
Skyhawks. It will be difficult to win, as
carrier. Without it, Argentinian land-
other submarines to search for the
the Skyhawks outnumber the Harriers.
based aircraft would have difficulty
Argentinians' four diesel-powered sub-
With control of the sea and air, the
attacking South Georgia or Hermes and
marines and the blockade is designed to
naval force will then try to starve out
Invincible.
prevent surface ships from reaching the
the Argentinian troops on the islands.
THEFALKLANDS
SOUTH
WEST FALKLAND
EAST FALKLAND
GEORGIA
PORT SALVADOR
Airport
Cape
Pembroke
PORT
LEITH HARBOUR
DARWIN
PORT
STANLEY
Lafonia
GRYTVIKEN
Falkland Sound
Falklands 800 miles
South Georgia 800 miles
0
50
100 miles
18
Chapter 4.
COUNTDOWN
ABOVE: General Leopoldo Fortunatao Galtieri, the new hero of Argentina. But failure in the Falkland Islands could destroy him as quickly as
success created him. Galtieri took power in a bloodless palace coup last December. He made his reputation in the 1975-79 war against left-wing
guerrillas. He is believed to have decided in December to invade the Falkland Islands this year.
A
S HE STOOD on the balcony of the
pink presidential palace, tens of
thousands of delirious Argentinians
below chanted his name.
'Galtieri, Galtieri!' they roared with
approval.
Lieut-General Leopoldo Fortunatao
Galtieri, Army Chief of Staff and President
of Argentina, beamed back and turned from
side to side with hands outspread to the
crowd.
He was pleased with himself. He had
reason to be. He was a national hero. His
successful invasion of the Falkland Islands
had fulfilled a lifetime dream of all
Argentinians and united the country as it had
not been united since the heyday of Juan
Peron.
Only a week before, the prospects for
Leopoldo Galtieri and the ruling military
junta he headed were much bleaker. The
military had run the country since over-
throwing Maria Peron in 1976. For the first
five years the gaunt figure of General Jorge
Videla ruled. Then General Roberto Viola
ABOVE: HMS Endurance was Britain's last permanent naval presence in the South Atlantic.
The recent decision to withdraw Endurance from the region is believed to have encouraged
took the reins for a short nine months in 1981
General Galtieri to think Britain would not defend the Falkland Islands if he invaded.
before being ousted in a bloodless palace
coup led by Galtieri in December.
The passions which Peron aroused on the
Montoneros. By 1979 it looked as if they had
The military had inherited an economic
left and right had developed into a bloody
won. But the price was high. According to
and political disaster from the Perons. The
guerrilla war between right-wing death
some estimates up to 15,000 political
grandiose public projects launched by Juan
squads and left-wing guerrillas called the
prisoners simply disappeared into
Peron in the early 'fifties sparked off an
Montoneros. Both claimed to be the only
Argentinian jails.
inflation run rampant. In 1955 the
true Peronists.
As for the economy, it continued to
Argentinian peso stood at five to the dollar.
The military set out to solve these
plummet. In 1981 Argentina had the world's
At the end of 1981 you needed 11,000 pesos
problems. They stamped on the right and
worst inflation - 131 per cent. The gross
for every Yanqui dollar.
fought a long, no-holds-barred war with the
domestic product plunged by 6.1 per cent.
19
ABOVE: The hero of Rhodesia, the villain/
un
scapegoat of the Falklands. Lord Carrington
is recognised as one of the finest Foreign
Secretaries Britain has ever had, but a mis-
calculation on Argentinian intentions cost
him his job and Britain the Falkland Islands
- and put Britain and Argentina on course
for a war.
of the Falkland Islands.
The British were preoccupied with other
problems. At home there were three million
unemployed Britons and continuing
inflation. Defence-wise, Britain was cutting
back its fleet and, most significantly, had
announced that its last regular patrol vessel
in the South Atlantic, HMS Endurance,
would be withdrawn.
Externally, Lord Carrington had bigger
fish to fry. He had solved the Rhodesia
problem and was using the prestige gained
from that to involve Britain in the more
glamorous and vital issues of the Middle
East and Afghanistan. On top of that, he
had the recurring headache of Britain's
contributions to the EEC to occupy his mind
and attentions.
President Reagan, reckoned General
Galtieri, had been won over by the junta's
support for American foreign policy in El
Salvador and the offer to protect the South
Atlantic from Soviet penetration. The
Russians had been won over with
Argentinian grain and, besides, they had
always supported Argentina's claim to the
ABOVE: This is the scrap from an old whaling station that 40 Argentinian scrap-metal workers
Falkland Islands.
were after when they landed on South Georgia without visas. When ordered to leave, they
Latin America also recognised
refused and raised the Argentinian flag.
Argentina's claims and the Third World was
There were a record number of
bankruptcies, and unemployment was
estimated at 13 per cent of the national
workforce.
The military was becoming unpopular.
Only a week before the invasion thousands
of demonstrators converged on the Plaza de
Mayo outside the Presidential Palace to
protest at the junta's human rights record.
Galtieri needed a national cause, to ensure he
stayed in power.
A week after the invasion of the Falkland
Islands a handful of demonstrators returned
to the Plaza to renew their human rights
protest. This time they were shouted down
by flag-waving, patriotic young
Argentinians.
Thousands of other young Argentinians
queued outside military recruiting offices to
enlist for the fight against the invading
British armada. In Cuba, the exiled
leadership of the Montoneros pleaded to be
allowed to return so that they could join the
fight against Britain. Galtieri had found his
ABOVE: Angry mothers demonstrate outside the President's Palace in the Plaza de Mayo,
Buenos Aires. Their children are among the estimated 15,000 political prisoners who have
cause.
'disappeared' into Argentinian jails since the military took power in 1976. Before the invasion,
Diplomatic sources now believe that
the Mothers of the Plaza' won widespread support during their reguler demonstrations. But
General Galtieri decided soon after taking
since the invasion they have been shouted down by patriotic young Argentinians who are more
power that the time was ripe for an invasion
intent on fighting the British Armada than winning human rights.
20
opposed to colonialism. Britain's friends in
Europe posed a problem, but Argentina also
had strong links with Spain, Germany and
Italy.
Towards the end of January the respected
and well-informed Argentinian columnist
Yglesias Ruoco dropped a big hint of things
to come. Writing in La Prensa he predicted a
new, urgent, international diplomatic
initiative on the islands, after which the
world would support the Argentinian
government in 'all acts - not exclusive of
military acts' to resolve the dispute.
Britain simply did not see the signs in time
- or, if it did, the Government believed that
talking could forestall an Argentinian
military move and a military move by Britain
could spark off the very invasion it was
designed to prevent.
Galtieri started testing the waters on 15
March when an Argentinian navy ship
landed 40 scrap metal workers on the island
of South Georgia, one of the Falkland Island
dependencies. The men worked for Sergio
Davidoff, who had bought the rights to
scrap metal from the island's derelict
whaling station.
Davidoff had a contract. What he did not
have was permission from the British
authorities - a visa - to land. The authorities
at the island's small settlement at Grytviken
Argentinian flag and fired celebratory shots
ABOVE: Nuclear submarine HMS Superb.
demanded that they ask for landing
in the air. HMS Endurance, not yet
She was the first to arrive after the invasion
permission or leave.
withdrawn, was ordered to the island. But
and started patrolling a 200-mile war zone
The Argentinians refused, ran up the
instead of evicting the Argentinians, the
around the islands.
authorities on board simply repeated the
offer to give them visas. Again the
Argentinians refused.
Galtieri clearly interpreted the British
response to the South Georgia landing as
further proof that the Conservative
Government was unable or unwilling to
prevent an Argentinian invasion of the
Falkland Islands.
He ordered the start of military action
which had been planned long before. Under
cover of regular joint manoeuvres with the
Uruguayan Navy, Argentinian ships moved
marines into the South Atlantic. When the
signal came from Buenos Aires they broke
off from the manoeuvres and steamed full
speed ahead for the Falkland Islands.
While the Argentinians moved into the
final stages, British intelligence started
feeding Whitehall with news of Argentinian
military moves. When Lord Carrington and
Mrs Thatcher travelled to Brussels for the
March 29 EEC summit they 'talked of little
else' but the Argentinian threat.
It was decided that Lord Carrington
would leave the summit early to return to
London. The same day British ships
manoeuvring off Gibraltar were ordered to
steam towards the Falkland Islands. The
nuclear submarine HMS Superb was also
dispatched to the South Atlantic. Lord
Carrington told the House of Lords that if it
proved necessary Britain would defend the
Falkland Islands.
But despite his fears of Argentinian
intentions, Lord Carrington decided that the
threat was not imminent enough to delay a
long-awaited trip to Israel. So when the
Argentinians stormed ashore the British
Foreign Secretary was in Israel. His
miscalculations cost Lord Carrington his job
- and his political career.
At the United Nations, British
Ambassador Sir Anthony Parsons claimed
that Argentina was about to invade the
Falkland Islands. The British Cabinet went
into emergency session. President Reagan
telephoned General Galtieri and spent 53
minutes trying to change his mind.
At 8.30 in the morning of 2 April 1982,
ABOVE: Armed and steel-helmeted Argentinian soldier arrests a protester on his way to a
the Falkland Islands were invaded by
demonstration outside the President's palace.
Argentinian troops.
21
Chapter 5.
INVASION
ABOVE: British marines are searched and
disarmed by Argentinian soldiers.
T
HE FIRST Argentinians ashore were
a handful of frogmen. Their mission:
to quietly capture the lighthouse
which guarded the entrance to Stanley
Harbour. They succeeded.
They were quickly followed by 300
marines, who landed at the Cape seven miles
from Port Stanley. The Cape secured,
another 400 steamed into Stanley Harbour
in landing craft and landed in the town. In
addition, more marines and infantrymen
were flown in by Sea King helicopters.
Against this force were 79 British
marines and the Falkland Islands Home
Guard of about 100.
Stands were taken at the lighthouse at
Cape Pembroke, at Stanley Airport, and at
the marine headquarters, with the toughest
and final stand being taken at the
Governor's Residence but the hopelessly
outnumbered British marines and islanders
hadn't a prayer, and three hours after the
first landing Governor Rex Hunt ordered his
men to surrender.
There was jubilation in Buenos Aires;
shame and humiliation in London. Parlia-
ment was the scene of angry demands that
the 'tin-pot dictatorship' leave British
territory. The Opposition Labour Party
demanded to know why the Government
had not acted sooner and stopped the
invasion.
Labour leaders called for the resigna-
tions of Defence Secretary John Nott,
Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington and
Prime Minister Mrs. Thatcher. They got
Lord Carrington - probably the finest
British Foreign Secretary since the war -
along with his deputy Humphrey Atkins and
the Minister for Latin American Affairs,
Richard Luce.
British defence and diplomatic efforts
were thrown into high gear. Mrs Thatcher
RIGHT: Argentinian marines raise their flag
Iwo Jima-style over the Falkland Islands.
22
froze Argentinian assets and ordered the
Navy to prepare a fleet for the South
Atlantic, and the Queen issued an order
allowing the Government to requisition
civilian ships. A fleet of 27 ships set sail.
These included five requisitioned ships,
among them the luxury P&O cruise liner the
Canberra. In addition to this fleet, four
nuclear submarines were dispatched to the
South Atlantic.
Britain's first diplomatic effort centred
on the United Nations. In the Security
Council British Ambassador Sir Anthony
Parsons scored a brilliant diplomatic victory
with a resolution condemning the
Argentinian invasion and calling for a
peaceful solution.
Support for the UN resolution and the
British position started coming in from all
over the world. The French were loud in
their condemnation of the Argentinians. So
31811
were the rest of the EEC and the White
Commonwealth.
Public opinion in the United States very
quickly swung behind the United Kingdom,
although the Reagan Administration tried
ABOVE: The blue and white Argentinian flag replaces the red, white and blue Union Jack as
the symbol of authority and power on the Falkland Islands as they become Islas Malvinas.
to steer a middle course because of
Argentina's support for his Latin America
simply failed to materialise. His Foreign
But it soon became clear that these
policy.
Minister, Costas Mendes, responded with
negotiations were to exclude the issue of
The international support which
the voice of reason. Argentina, he said, was
sovereignty. The islands now belonged to
President Galtieri had depended upon
willing to negotiate.
Argentina - and that was that.
To underscore this, the Argentinians
started flying more troops to the island.
Hercules transport aircraft landed at the rate
of one an hour, and by the time the British
fleet arrived in the area there were up to
10,000 Argentinian troops on the Falkland
Islands.
The Argentinians also took the South
Georgia Islands, capturing a small platoon
of British Marines after a bloody battle, and
Jose,LEONSUARE: MALVINA
50MOS
ABOVE: Francis Pym, the new man at the
GENTEDE
PAZ
PRESENTE
helm of the Foreign Office. Not the most
PERO
SI
VIVA
charismatic of figures, but respected on both
NO
sides of the House of Commons.
PAZ
FAIRIA
He started off in the present Government
as Defence Secretary, but his refusal to cut
DEATH TO THE
defence spending brought him into conflict
with the Treasury and Mrs Thatcher. He was
SWINE'S
moved on to become Leader of the Commons.
Within the Conservative Party, Francis
Pym is known as a 'Wet' who favours a
relaxation of the tight money policy and
more public spending.
This Old Etonian has often been men-
REMEMBER
tioned as a future Prime Minister, and many
political commentators believe that his move
to the Foreign Office will put him next in
ABOVE: The masses of Buenos Aires call for action against Britain as American Secretary of
line for Downing Street should Mrs Thatcher
State Alexander Haig meets with General Galtieri to talk peace.
fail in the South Atlantic.
23
RIGHT: Governor Rex Hunt in full regalia
but stripped of his medals as he leaves the
Falkland Islands. He has sworn to return and
he refused to shake the hand of the Argen-
tinian military commander when he left.
moved Argentinian troops into defensive
positions there.
An Argentinian military governor was
appointed for the Falkland Islands. He is
General Mario Benjamin Menendez; a man
who speaks little or no English. The
islanders were ordered to drive on the right
and threatened with 60 days jail if they
showed disrespect to Argentinian symbols
of authority - such as the blue and white
flag.
But the Argentinians also held out a
carrot to the islanders. They promised
investment in the islands and some of the
luxuries of twentieth century life - such as
television.
Some islanders came out and told the
press that there were signs that the 1,800
residents were now ready to become
Argentinians, and they certainly did not
want Britain to invade.
Governor Rex Hunt, now back in
London, dismissed these reports. Such
islanders, he said, were unrepresentative of
the population as a whole, whom he knew
were determined to stay British.
And the British government was
determined to stick to its policy of self-
determination. Mrs Thatcher, too, was
prepared to talk - but not until the
Argentinians had withdrawn from the
islands. The Falkland Islands were British.
To underscore this, Defence Secretary
John Nott announced that from dawn on
Easter Monday there would be a 200-mile
war zone around the Falkland Islands and
any Argentinian ship that strayed into those
waters would be shot at by a British nuclear
submarine.
Into this dangerous impasse stepped the
mediator - American Secretary of State
Alexander Haig.
ABOVE: A defeated British Marine is
marched off hands on head.
RIGHT: An Argentinian soldier doffs his
helmet in the church at Port Stanley. On the
left the Union Jack still hangs.
24
Chapter 6.
THE YANKS
P
RESIDENT REAGAN had a big
problem. He saw before him the
nightmare of a shattered American
foreign policy in Latin America and in
Europe.
Two of his closest allies in both regions
were preparing for war against each other,
and both were calling for his support. Failure
to support either side would have far-
reaching consequences.
There was no doubting the special
relationship between Britain and America; a
shared culture, history and language. They
had fought side by side in two world wars and
in Korea. They were both members of
NATO. Britain was the strongest supporter
of America's global foreign policy. The two
countries' intelligence services worked hand
in glove together and so did their respective
defence forces.
On top of that, American public opinion
was solidly behind Britain. Americans
instinctively distrust military juntas, dislike
ABOVE: From luxury liner to troopship.
who say that passengers who have made
unprovoked invasions and love Britain.
A week before the invasion the Canberra was
advance bookings on the cruise ship have
But then there was no doubting the
cruising with high-paying passengers. Now she
been understanding about cancellations. Most
importance of Argentina in the American
is heading south with marines in full combat
of them will go on the even more luxurious
gear. The Promenade Deck and baliroom floor
liner Sea Princess.
are now used for training. Marines have been
The Canberra is captained by Royal Navy
told to remove boots when walking on the
Reserve officer Dennis Scott-Masson, who was
carpets.
eager to see Royal Navy service again. Most of
Canberra was fitted out to take 3000
the liner's crew also volunteered to stay on
passengers. But the marines on board her
for the South Atlantic, including women.
now are not there for luxury, so about 5000
P&O has another cruise ship - the Uganda
have been squeezed aboard. The exact figure
- drafted into the Armada. A party of school-
is a military secret.
children aboard her for an educational
Once Canberra is in the South Atlantic
Mediterranean cruise had to cut short their
she will be used as a hospital ship. Workmen
trip of a lifetime so that the Uganda could
sailed with her to convert the liner for her
sail to Gibraltar to be fitted out as a second
new role as she steamed south.
hospital ship.
The Canberra is owned by P&O Shipping,
ABOVE: Alexander Haig - Vietnam hero,
Nixon aide, NATO Commander and finally
US Secretary of State. An intensely ambitious
man with presidential aspirations, he is the
architect of America's unpopular stand in El
Salvador. Argentina's support for the US
SOVIET SHADOW
British colonialism and re-stating their sup-
port for Argentina's claims.
Latin American policy has forced him to
And for their part the Argentinians have
steer a public middle course. Privately he
As with most international crisis, the shadow
courted Russian favour by signing an agree-
supports Britain, but fears Soviet inter-
of the Soviet Union looms large in the back-
ment for joint Argentine-Soviet exploitation
vention. Like Carrington, Alexander Haig's
ground. The Argentinians had counted on
of oil resources round the Falkland
political career could collapse in the South
Soviet support for the invasion.
Islands.
Atlantic.
The Soviet Union had in the past always
The Argentinians have has a long strange
supported the Argentinian claim to the
relationship with Moscow. The Argentine is
scheme of things. The military junta may
islands, but Moscow is always careful not to
a right-wing dictatorship, but when Presi-
have been shunned by the Carter Admini-
identify itself too closely with aggression.
dent Carter imposed his grain embargo on
stration for its human rights record, but it
So when the British forced a vote in the
the Soviet Union the Argentinians happily
was courted by the Reagan Administration
United Nations Security Council condemn-
stepped in and bailed out the Russians.
for its anti-communist position.
ing the Argentinian invasion the Soviet
The Soviet Union is now Argentina's
The Reagan Administration, in par-
Union disappointed Buenos Aires by only
biggest trading partner. And if the EEC ban
ticular Secretary of State Al Haig, had
abstaining.
on Argentinian imports holds, Buenos Aires
But since then the Russians have made
will become even more dependent on the
decided to make a stand against communist
up for their initial reluctance by attacking
Soviet Union.
penetration in Latin America. It was decided
25
ABOVE: This is the first and probably last
Royal Navy mission for HMS Invincible.
Britian's newest aircraft carrier has been sold
to Australia for £175 million.
She is the first of three new light aircraft
carriers built for the Royal Navy by Vickers.
The second one, Illustrious, is now under-
going sea trials and will soon be commissioned.
The Royal Navy has speeded up the final
trials because of the Falklands Crisis.
The plan is that Invincible will go to
Australia when Illustrious is commissioned.
But the present crisis may delay that.
Invincible carries eight Sea Harriers and
about 10 Sea King helicopters. Protection
includes Sea Dart missiles. Total length of the
Invincible is 650 feet. She weighs 19,500 tons
with a full load and can reach a top speed of
28 knots.
RIGHT: HMS Hermes: The flagship of the
British Armada. Normal complement is five
Sea Harriers and nine Sea Kings. But extra air-
craft have been brought on board.
The Hermes is best known for her distinc-
tive ski-jump which makes her look as if she
was punched in the bow with a giant fist. But
this ski-jump means the versatile Sea Harriers
can get up into the sky faster than any plane,
and in a battle that could be vital.
With a full load HMS Hermes weighs in at
28,700 tons. Protection includes Seacat
missiles and top speed is 28 knots.
She is not a young ship. Commission date
was 18 November 1959. But HMS Hermes
has undergone several refits since then.
BELOW RIGHT: Thousands crowded the
quayside to watch the armada sail out of
Portsmouth harbour with crews and equip-
ment on deck. The Argentinians were meant
to see these pictures in the hope that this
show of British naval strength and popular
support would bring them to the negotiating
table.
26
ABOVE: The pride and joy of the Argen-
tinian Navy and target number one for the
Royal Navy. This is the aircraft carrier
Veinticinco de Mayo or '25th of May.'
As long as this floating airport is at sea,
British strategy is at risk. It is perhaps omi-
nous for the Argentinians that the 25th of
May spent her first week after the invasion in
port with engine trouble.
Ironically, the Argentinian carrier, started
life as a British ship - HMS Venerable - 40
years ago. After the war she was sold to the
Dutch who in 1969 sold her to Argentina.
A total of 455 feet long and weighing
19,896 tons with a full load, The 25th of May
carries the formidable US-built Skyhawks and
the British-built anti-submarine helicopter Sea
King.
LEFT: HMS Broadsword is one of the Royal
Navy's newest destroyers. She is the first of
her class and was commissioned in May 1979.
She can carry two Lynx helicopters
equipped with Sea Skua air to surface
missiles. Broadsword is also armed with Sea
Wolf and Exocet missiles.
Top speed is 30 knots and fully loaded
Broadsword weighs in at 4000 tons.
BELOW LEFT: HMS Coventry is one of 14
Sheffield class of Type 42 destroyers in the
Royal Navy.
Her fully-loaded tonnage is 4100 tons and
top speed is 29 knots.
The Coventry is designed to provide area
air defence for a task force. It has one Lynx
helicopter on board with air-to-surface Sea
Skua missiles which are particularly effective
against fast patrol boats. The Argentinians
have reportedly managed to get some of their
fast patrol boats past the submarine block-
ade of the Falkland Islands.
The Coventry is also equipped with Sea
Dart missiles.
to make that stand in El Salvador.
The decision was unpopular in Europe
REST OF THE WORLD
and among a number of Latin American
countries. The human rights record of the
British diplomacy may have failed to stop
Duarte regime in El Salvador was appalling,
an invasion, but since then it has done a
and recently an even more right-wing
good job in marshalling world opinion and
government was elected.
support behind the British cause.
The biggest win has been Britain's
President Reagan, Secretary of State
partners in the EEC. After some initial
Haig and American foreign policy were up
dithering all of the other Nine Governments
against the wall over El Salvador. Anyone
agreed to impose a ban on Argentinian
who supported them there was a friend
imports.
indeed. Argentina gave full support. It even
This will hit the Argentinians hard. They
sent military advisers to help in the fight
export about £100 million worth of goods a
against leftist guerrillas.
On top of that, the military junta offered
themselves as a bulwark against Soviet
penetration of the vulnerable South
Atlantic, making them a vital element in the
Helmut Schmidt
oft-rumoured American proposal for a
from Kenya's President Arap Moi, current
South Atlantic Treaty Organisation (SATO)
chairman of the OAU, who registered his
to complement NATO.
deep concern at the invasion and called for a
Argentina had one more card up its sleeve
peaceful settlement. The Argentinians had
to show the Americans: the 1947 Rio de
counted on the Africans' loathing of
Janeiro Treaty of Inter-American Recipro-
colonies to win them over. But there is a
cal Assistance. This treaty is signed by all the
general respect among Britain's former
states in the Western Hemisphere and binds
African colonies for Britain's policy of self-
all the other signatories to come to the
determination in shedding former colonies.
At the same time, the Argentinian junta's
assistance of any of them if they are attacked
close links with South Africa have tarnished
by a country from outside the Western
its image in Black Africa.
Hemisphere.
Latin America is the only region which
The United States does not recognise
has supported the Argentinians, although
Argentina's claim to the Falkland Islands, so
if Argentina claims that a British counter-
invasion of the islands is an attack on
Argentinian territory and invokes the Rio
Treaty accordingly, the Americans can avoid
Pierre Trudeau
going to war against Britain.
But the rest of Latin America does
year to Community countries - over a
recognise the Argentinian claim, and,
quarter of their total trade. Some EEC
although there is unease about the invasion
countries such as Italy and Germany are
making a big sacrifice with this ban.
and larger Argentinian ambitions, some at
The EEC countries were also among the
least would consider themselves bound to
first to condemn the invasion. France led
support the military junta.
the way here and they quickly imposed a
Public opinion and the close transatlantic
ban on arms exports to Argentina.
links would probably swing America closer
The White Commonwealth also rallied
to Britain. Mrs Thatcher has made it clear
quickly to Britain's side. Canada recalled its
that she expects nothing less than full
Ambassador to Buenos Aires and stopped an
American support. The United States then
arms sale to Argentina. New Zealand and
Australia both offered full support to
finds itself lined up with Britain against a
Britain.
Latin America that it is trying to protect
The African countries took their lead
from communist penetration.
The openings and opportunities for the
Soviet Union in the Western Hemisphere
would be enormous and virtually impossible
Daniel Arap Moi
for Moscow to ignore.
It is not surprising that President Reagan
most of the countries made it clear that
quickly declared the Falklands an
they disapproved of the use of force.
The Latin Americans have a split
international crisis and dispatched Mr Haig
approach to the problem. They oppose
to London and Buenos Aires to mediate and
European colonies in the Western Hemi-
try to stop an Anglo-Argentine clash which
sphere. But Peron's attempts to export his
would be disastrous for America.
ideology to the rest of Latin America and
Shuttling back and forth, Mr Haig put
long-standing Argentinian claims elsewhere
forward a number of ideas to both sides.
have left Latin America frightened of any-
There was the revived lease-back proposal;
thing which encourages Argentinian
nationalism and increases the chances of
the condominium, both Anglo-Argentine
FrancoisMitterrand
Argentinian hegemony in the region.
and Anglo-American-Argentine; the
peacekeeping force with a variety of
After it, he was a hero. Galtieri's popularity
Minister hers as well, and will probably bring
constituent troops, and a number of other
- his mandate to rule - is based almost
about the collapse of the Conservative
variations on themes.
entirely on the invasion of the islands and
government.
But each time Haig the mediator put
Argentinian sovereignty over them.
A war, or amajor international crisis, has
forward an idea it was knocked down by one
If General Galtieri withdraws his troops
another consequence. It rapidly polarises
or the other side. The problem was that
and returns sovereignty over the islands to
opinion. In Britain this polarisation has
Argentina refused to accept anything short
Britain, then the same national passions
squeezed out the infant SDP-Liberal
of Argentinian sovereignty over the islands,
which raised him to his pedestal will cast him
Alliance just when it was beginning to walk.
and Britain refused to accept the loss of her
down.
The formerly demoralised Labour Party
sovereignty over the islands and would not
Mrs Thatcher's political future is also
made big gains with its attack on the
seriously negotiate this issue or withdraw her
to the Falkland Islands. For her, it is amatter
Conservative diplomacy, even if the
fleet until the Argentinian troops were
of honour and pride. The British
Opposition is split on how to react to the
withdrawn.
Government was caught napping by a 'tin-
Argentinian invasion. Labour is in its best
It isn't difficult to arouse national
pot dictator'. As a result it lost one of the
position since 1979 to win a general election
passions. A war will do it every time. The
finest foreign secretaries Britain has had for
should the Conservative government fall
trick lies in controlling those passions; in not
a long time.
over the Falklands Crisis.
becoming a hostage of them.
The Opposition has already loudly called
The political future of General Galtieri
General Galtieri very quickly became a
for the resignation of Mr Nott and Mrs
and Mrs Thatcher depends heavily on the
hostage of the national passions he aroused
Thatcher. Failure to reach an 'honourable'
outcome of the Falklands Crisis. So too
when his troops invaded Las Islas Malvinas.
settlement will certainly lose the rising Mr
could the future political direction of their
Before the invasion his rule was in trouble.
Nott his job, will probably lose the Prime
countries.
28
Chapter7.
COUNTING THE COS]
T
HERE IS no doubt about it.
Naval experts give the edge to
Britain in a naval battle with
Argentina in the South Atlantic.
That is not to say that the Argentinians
don't have a prayer and the British fleet is
without problems. The armada has big
problems - the biggest being that it will be
8,000 miles from home.
And the Argentinians have some things
going for them. Home with all its fuel,
supplies and reinforcements, is only 500
miles away from the Falkland Islands and
within reach of their fighter bombers.
In addition, by the time the British fleet
arrives in the South Atlantic, there will be up
to 15,000 Argentinians entrenched on the
Falkland Islands. It will take a lot to move
them.
3-A-202
ABOVE: The Argentinian Air Force will be
the biggest threat to the Royal Navy. Arrayed
against the British will be 68 US-built Sky-
hawks, 43 Mirage fighters and nine Canberra
long-range bombers.
What impresses the naval experts about
Britain's chances is the ability of the Royal
Navy. It is a first-class professional service,
equipped with some of the best fighting
equipment of the world. Of particular
importance are four Hunter killer nuclear
submarines patrolling the 200-mile war zone
around the Falkland Islands.
The line-up goes something like this. In
the first week, the British fleet had 27 ships
and four submarines available. Of these 27
ABOVE: Navy pilots aboard HMS Hermes go through last-minute exercises with Sea Harriers
surface vessels there were 12 fighting ships,
and Sea Kings as the carrier steams south to the Falklands.
five landing ships, two fleet oil tankers,
three supply ships and five requisitioned
civilian ships.
The fighting ships include the carriers
Hermes and Invincible equipped with the
fast and versatile Harrier jump jet and the
Sea King helicopter with its troop-carrying
and torpedo-firing capacity.
There is also the assault ship Fearless, the
light cruisers Antrim and Glamorgan, the
frigates Arrow, Alacrity and Antelope, the
'super' frigates Broadsword and Brilliant
and the landing ships Sir Galahad, Sir
Geraint, Sir Bedevere, Sir Percival and Sir
Tristram.
Against this fleet is all of the Argentinian
navy - but it is clearly out-classed. There is
one 40-year-old British-built aircraft carrier;
two 10-year-old and two 40-year-old diesel
electric submarines; one 44-year-old ex-
American cruiser; nine destroyers, of which
only two (British-supplied) are less than 37
years old, and two modern French-built
frigates.
But where the Argentinians have the
ABOVE: As HMS Hermes heads south, Royal Marines go through their exercises for a possible
potential to score is with their air power.
assault landing.
There are 43 Mirage fighters based near
29
ABOVE: A Sea King helicopter hovers over the deck of the carr ier HMS Hermes as she heads for the Falklands. On deck is a Sea Harrier.
Buenos Aires; 68 US-built Skyhawk
bombers at San Luis and nine Canberra
long-range bombers at Parana. These give
the Argentinian air force an air attack range
of about 700 miles. And against this force
there are only 18 British Sea Harriers.
The most likely course of action for the
British fleet is to sink, disable or blockade
Argentina's only aircraft carrier; then to
keep the fleet either out of or on the outer
limits of the Argentinian air force.
But this leaves the British without a vital
land base in the region. Its nearest such base
is Ascension Island - 3,500 miles away from
the Falkland Islands.
ABOVE: Sea Harriers and Sea Kings exercise on the deck of HMS Hermes as the carrier steams
south. These two aircraft will be the vital air arm of the task force and it will be their job to win
and maintain air superiority.
The Sea Kings will have additional tasks. They are equipped with sonar equipment for
searching out submarines and are armed with air-to-sea missiles. They could also be used for
ferrying troops.
The Sea Harrier is one of Britain's major contributions to the aerospace industry. It is what
is known as a VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) aircraft. It can take off and land straight
ABOVE: The City of London - first casualty
up and down as if it were a helicopter. This is vital on the deck of an aircraft carrier and, on
of the Falklands Crisis? The Government
land, it means that the aircraft needs only a small patch of land, not an expensive airstrip.
decision to freeze £2,000 million in Argen-
The Sea Harrier will be used in straight dogfights with the American-built Skyhawks of the
tinian assets in London has made other
Argentinian Air Force. The Harrier has the advantage, despite being outnumbered. It takes just
countries think twice about depositing their
two minutes to take off and climb to 40,000 feet. At 750mph it would take just six minutes
money here. The international status of the
to intercept a Skyhawk 35 miles away. Both planes are equipped with identical heat-seeking
City of London is one of Britain's biggest
Sidewinder missiles, but the Harrier will be an elusive target for the Skyhawk to track down.
money earners,
With its vertical thrust, the Harrier can literally jump out of the path of an attacking Skyhawk.
30
ABOVE: An excited Costa Mendes, Argen-
tina's Foreign Minister, arrives in Washington
to call for support from his fellow Latin
Americans. Senor Mendes has had a tough
fight on the diplomatic front since Britain
won the UN Security Council vote con-
demning the Argentinian invasion.
So the British fleet is likely to try and
establish a beachhead on one of the smaller
islands in the region - possibly on South
Georgia, where the troubles started and
where there is now an Argentinian force, but
one not as big as on the Falkland Islands.
On South Georgia, Britain could build
an airstrip from which fighter bombers
could attack the invasion force on the
Falkland Islands and any air transport from
the mainland to the islands. At the same
time, the nuclear submarines would
maintain a naval blockade of the islands.
Such a situation could develop into a
naval and economic war of attrition. And,
although Britain has its economic problems,
it is far better equipped to win such a
showdown.
British businessmen and bankers are
PRINCE ANDREW - the Sailor Prince. The
He trained at Dartmouth, Gosport,
seriously worried about the effect a clash
22-year-old Royal is on HMS Invincible as a
Portsmouth, RAF Leaming in Yorkshire
with Argentina will have on the British
Sea King helicopter pilot.
and RNAS Culdrose in Cornwall. He won
economy. Already the City of London's
He could see action by either ferrying
his green beret after marine commando
status as a safe financial haven has been
landing troops or searching for and destroy-
training and was named best pilot in his
severely damaged by the Government order
ing submarines with the Sea King's special
course at Culdrose.
to freeze Argentinian assets.
sonar equipment and air-launched homing
Last September Prince Andrew was
torpedoes.
promoted from Midshipman to Acting Sub-
The pound has also taken a beating on
Andrew followed in the footsteps of his
Lieutenant. On 27 October he joined the
foreign exchange markets, and it looks as if
father and elder brother when in 1979 he
A20 squadron aboard HMS Invincible.
Mrs. Thatcher's anti-inflation policy may be
signed on for 12 years' training and service.
in danger. The government is likely to raise
imports are worth an estimated £1,000
community on the Argentinian mainland.
interest rates or taxes to try and save the tight
million a year to Argentina, over a quarter of
These people are, in effect, hostages. In
money policy and hold the lid on inflation.
their total trade.
Argentina there have already been bomb
Then there is the cost of the operation.
But the Argentinians do have one final
threats against leading Anglo-Argentines,
The defence budget this year is £12.5. billion.
There is a contingency reserve of £2.4 billion,
ace up their sleeve. That is the presence of
and they fear that if Britain uses force to
1,800 British subjects on the Falkland
regain the islands their lives and property will
but that could quickly disappear if there is
Islands and the large Anglo-Argentine
be in danger.
any fighting.
For instance, a Harrier jump jet costs
about £2,000 a day to run, and to fire one
tigerfish torpedo is £500,000 worth of
equipment lost out of the torpedo tubes.
And if the Argentinians are successful in
sinking British ships then the cost could
quickly run into billions.
However, the possible headaches that
GOOD LUCK
Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Geoffrey
Howe could face are nothing like the ones
GOOD LUCK
being faced already by Argentinian
Economics Minister Roberto Alemann.
He had hoped this year to bring
HERMES.
Argentinian inflation to below 100 per cent
with a tight money policy à la Thatcher. As
part of this he had proposed a 10 per cent
defence cut. This is out of the question now.
The invasion and occupation of the
Falkland Islands has already cost the
Argentinians an estimated £500 million, and
Senor Alemann has suspended all foreign
exchange transactions to prevent a run on
the Argentinian peso.
The Argentinian economy has already
been hit by the British success in securing an
EEC ban on Argentinian imports. Those
ABOVE: 'Good luck' from sailors to sailors. These lads are safe ashore for the time being.
31
THE
FALKLANDS
CRISIS
ARGENTINA
BRITAIN
3 A-69 corvettes
4 diesel-powered
4 nuclear submarines
submarines
2 Type 22 destroyers
1 aircraft carrier (The 25th of May)
2 aircraft carriers
(Hermes and Invincible)
1 cruiser (General Belgrano)
3 Nimrod early
14 light helicopters
warning planes
2 Type 42 destroyers
2 assault ships
2 Fletcher Type
destroyers
1 Gearing Type destroyer
9 Canberra
long-range bombers
3 Type 21 frigates
3 Type 42 destroyers
3 Sumner Type destroyers
2 County class destroyers
32 Sea Harrier VTOL strike planes
68 Skyhawk bombers
43 Mirage fighters
Lynx helicopters
KKKKKKKK
18 Sea King helicopters
2 Type 12 frigates
********
25 armed
kkkkkkkk
1111
Additional ships
Civil ships:
helicopters
not illustrated:
2 troop/hospital ships
10,000 troops on Falkland Islands (plus
AAAA
Royal Fleet Auxiliaries:
(Canberra and Uganda)
tanks, armoured cars, mortar
4 tankers
2 roll-on, roll-off ships
emplacements and shore batteries)
2 fleet replenishment
1 maintenance ship
AXXX
ships
1 freshwater ship
1,000 troops
on South Georgia
KKK
1 stores support ship
3 salvage tugs
4 deep water trawlers
5,000 marines
5 landing and logistics
(used as minesweepers)
Not illustrated:
(estimated total, exact
ships
10 tankers
150,000 troops on mainland
figure military secret)
The Coalition for Peace
Through Security
Fourth Floor
27/31 Whitehall
London SW1A 2BX
Tel.: 01-839-3951
Reference Services
Central Office of Information, London
The Falkland Islands and Dependencies
The Falkland Islands and its Dependencies were illegally invaded and occupied by Argentine
military forces in early April. The British Government has no doubt of its sovereignty over
the Islands, which have been continuously, peacefully and effectively occupied by Britain
since 1833; and, in seeking a solution to the dispute, Britain has emphasised that it will not
support any transfer of sovereignty against the wishes of the Falkland Islanders. This paper
provides background information on the Falkland Islands and Dependencies together with a
brief history of the dispute with Argentina. It was prepared before the Argentine invasion and is
issued for general reference purposes.
THE FALKLAND ISLANDS
Situated in the South Atlantic, the Falkland Islands lie about 772 km (480 miles) north-east of
Cape Horn. They consist of about 200 islands, the largest being East Falkland and West Falkland,
and their total land area is some 12,173 sq km (4,700 sq miles).
The People
The 1980 census showed a population of 1,813 of which 1,360 were born in the Islands and
302 in Britain. Most can trace their origins in the territory back to the nineteenth century.
Although rising to a peak of 2,392 in 1931, population has declined ever since. The birth rate
per 1,000 in 1980 was 17-25 and the death rate was 4-85 per 1,000. Stanley, the capital, with a
population of 1,050 in 1980, is the only town: elsewhere the largest settlement is Goose Green
(95 people) on East Falkland. English is the language of the Islanders. There are Anglican, Roman
Catholic and Non-conformist churches.
Physical Features
The coastline is deeply indented and affords many good anchorages. There are no inland waters.
The surface is generally hilly except in Lafonia, the southern half of East Falkland; the highest
points are Mount Usborne (705 m - 2,312 ft) in East Falkland and Mount Adam (700 m -
2,297 ft) in West Falkland. Much of the upland is comparatively bare of vegetation and consists
of eroded peat, scree and stone runs - 'rivers' of angular quartzite boulders. Because of the
climate there are few trees, the natural vegetation being grassland with some species of heath
and dwarf shrubs. Bird and marine mammal life - geese, penguins, seabirds and seals - is
diverse and relatively unspoiled. There are no native land mammals.
Climate
The climate is characterised by a narrow temperature range, strong winds, a fairly low rainfall
evenly distributed throughout the year and frequent cloud cover. Snow has been recorded in
every month of the year except February, but seldom lies for long. Climatic figures for Stanley
are:
No 152/82
Classification 7(c)
March 1982
Mean annual temperature
5.6°C (42°F)
Mean annual wind speed
17 knots
Mean annual rainfall
635 mm (25 inches)
Annual maximum temperature around
21.1°C(70°F)
Annual minimum temperature around
-5.6°C
(22°F)
Average annual sunshine
1,640 hours
History
The Falkland Islands were probably first sighted by the English captain John Davis in 1592:
other sightings were by Sir John Hawkins in 1594 and the Dutch sailor Sebald de Weert in 1600.
The first known landing was in 1690 by Captain John Strong, who gave the Islands their English
name after Viscount Falkland, then Treasurer of the Navy. French seal-hunters, who were
frequent visitors to the area in the eighteenth century, called the islands 'les Iles Malouines', from
the port of St Malo, hence the Spanish designation, las Islas Malvinas.
In 1764 a small French colony, Port Louis, was established by de Bougainville in East
Falkland. Three years later the settlement was handed over to Spain on payment of a sum then
equal to about £24,000. The Spaniards renamed the settlement Puerto de la Soledad. Meanwhile
a British captain, John Byron, had made a comprehensive survey of West Falkland in 1765 and
noted the fine anchorage in Saunders Island, which he named Port Egmont. In the following
year Byron's subordinate, Captain Macbride, established a British settlement of about a hundred
people at Port Egmont. When in 1770 a Spanish force compelled the British settlers to leave,
this brought Spain and Britain to the verge of war, but in 1771, after protracted negotiations,
the Spaniards handed back Port Egmont to Britain, which re-established the settlement but
withdrew it again in 1774 on grounds of economy. The British claim to sovereignty was, however,
maintained and, as was then customary, a leaden plaque left, declaring the Falkland Islands to
be 'sole right and property' of King George III. The Spanish settlement on East Falkland was
withdrawn in 1811.
In 1820 the Buenos Aires Government, which had formally declared its independence of
Spain in 1816, sent a ship to the Falkland Islands to proclaim its sovereignty. A settlement was
established at Puerto de la Soledad in 1826 under the leadership of Luis Vernet, whom the
Buenos Aires Government appointed Governor, despite British protests. Five years later, however,
a United States warship, the Lexington, destroyed the fort at Soledad as a reprisal for the arrest
of three American vessels by Vernet, who was attempting to establish control over sealing in the
islands. Captain Silas Duncan, the commander of the Lexington, declared the Falklands free of
all government and they remained once again without visible authority. In January 1833 a
British warship visited the settlement and the British occupation of the Islands was resumed.
The Islands were at first put in charge of a naval officer, but in 1841 a civil Lieutenant-Governor
was appointed, and in 1843 an Act of the British Parliament put the civil administration on a
permanent footing. The Lieutenant-Governor's title was changed to Governor and the first
Executive and Legislative Councils were set up in 1845. Although there was a majority of
official members in the Legislative Council until 1951, nominated unofficial members played an
increasingly important part, and in 1949 members elected by universal adult suffrage were
introduced to the Council.
A grant in aid to the settlement was approved in 1841 and continued until 1880. A grant
in aid for a mail service continued until 1884-5, since when the territory has been self-
supporting. The development of the islands has been closely linked with the growth of the
Falklands Islands Company, founded in 1851, which is now the largest landowner and trading
company.
Government
The present constitution of the Falkland Islands came into force on 21 November 1977. The
government is administered by a Governor assisted by an Executive Council composed of two
ex officio members, two unofficial members appointed by the Governor and two elected
members of the Legislative Council nominated by that Council, and a Legislative Council
composed of two ex officio members and six elected members.
2
Elections are by universal adult suffrage, Stanley being represented by three elected
members, East and West Falkland by one each, and the other member representing all country
districts. In 1977 the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 years. The last general election
took place in 1981.
The Judiciary
The judicial system is administered by a Supreme Court (there is a non-resident Chief Justice),
a Magistrates' Court presided over by the senior magistrate, and a court of summary jurisdiction,
presided over by a bench of magistrates composed of two or more Justices of the Peace. A
Court of Appeal for the territory sits in London.
Defence
The Ministry of Defence maintains a Royal Marine detachment which trains the Falkland
Islands Defence Force, a voluntary and part-time local force.
The Economy
The Falklands economy is based almost entirely on sheep farming (about 650,000 sheep).
Studies are in hand to improve pastures and methods of sheep farming. Over the past few years
the Islands have received substantial aid from Britain for economic development and to build
up the dependency's infrastructure.
In 1975 the British Government commissioned an economic study by Lord Shackleton
(see p 7) in order to determine the prospects for, and the best means to achieve, the develop-
ment and diversification of the Islands' economy. The survey team included experts on fisheries,
oil and wool, which were regarded as the main areas of potential development. Published in
1976, Lord Shackleton's report recommended a number of major capital projects including the
establishment of a tourist industry, the enlargement of the airport, and the development of a
fishing industry and offshore oil and gas production.
It is hoped to develop a specialised tourist industry centred around the abundant wild-life.
Research has also been carried out into the fishing resources of the territory, for there are stocks
of king crab and krill (a small prawn high in protein). Britain recognises that without a political
settlement it will be difficult to persuade private enterprise to invest in the Falklands' economy,
to declare a 200-mile fishing zone or to explore for or exploit oil.
All land is freehold, except for some 11,370 hectares (28,100 acres) of Crown reserves
which can be rented. Most land is divided into a few large farms, and nearly half is owned by the
Falkland Islands Company. The Falkland Islands Government has concluded that some of the
Islands' large farms can be made more profitable by sub-dividing them and selling the smaller
farms to the Islanders and expatriates. One farm is already operating this way and appears to be
successful and another is now available for sub-division. No field crops are grown except for a
small quantity of oats grown for hay. Most householders grow their own vegetables.
Labour
About half the workforce is employed in sheep farming. In Stanley the largest sources of
employment are government and public services, trading and shipping.
The only trade union, the Falkland Islands General Employees Union, has some 500
members. Legislation is in force concerning minimum wages, working conditions, compensation
for accidents at work, and providing for arbitration in the unusual event of a labour dispute
which cannot be settled by direct negotiation.
Trade
Exports consist almost entirely of wool, hides and skins. The main imports are foodstuffs,
manufactured goods, timber and machinery. Most of the external trade of the Falkland Islands
is with the United Kingdom; recent trade figures are as follows:
3
Imports from Britain
Exports to Britain
Year
(£000)
(£000)
1977
2,387
1,524
1978
2,765
1,499
1979
3,319
2,359
1980
2,846
2,083
Public Finance
Total estimated revenue for 1981-82 is nearly £2.5 million, its main sources being internal
revenue (£597,110), posts and telecommunications (£572,942), municipal services (£248,000),
investments (£222,010), harbour (£182,800), customs (£180,800) and aviation (£98,244);
other revenue amounted to £377,205. Estimated ordinary expenditure was just over
£2.4 million, the main items being public works (£598,007 - recurrent and other), aviation
(£283,763), posts and telecommunications (£280,316), medical (£269,772), and education
(£256,274).
Taxation
Individuals pay a graduated income tax ranging from 22½p in every £ of the first £500 of
taxable income to 50p in every £ exceeding £4,500. Companies pay a flat rate of 52p in the £.
Import duties are payable on liquor, beer and tobacco.
Agreements are in force with Britain, Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, and the United
States under which double taxation is avoided.
Currency and Banking
The currency is local coinage and local £10, £5, £1 and 50p notes which are interchangeable
with sterling. Some banking facilities are provided by the Falkland Islands Company, the
Stanley Co-operative Society, and the Government Savings Bank. Plans are being made to
establish a commercial bank.
Development
In the period from 1976 to 1980 the total amount of British aid was £6.6 million, an average of
£735 per head per annum. Several important projects have been financed, notably the
electricity power station and the permanent airport at Stanley, opened in 1979. Grants have
also been provided towards the costs of constructing a road from Stanley to Darwin, building a
secondary school hostel in Stanley, purchasing a land plane and hangar for the internal air
service, and rehabilitating plant and establishing storage facilities for the Public Works
Department. In 1981 there were 46 professionally or technically qualified people working in
the Falkland Islands under the British aid programme, mainly in the education and health
services.
Social Welfare
Education
Education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 15 years. There is a
senior school at Stanley offering secondary education in a limited range of subjects up to the
ordinary level of the General Certificate of Education. Because of a recent decision by the
Falkland Islands Government to centralise education in Stanley a residential hostel has been
built to accommodate pupils from other parts of the territory: the costs are being met from
British aid funds. For children wanting to take the advanced level of the General Certificate
of Education, the British Government's aid programme finances them in a boarding school in
Britain. The few students undertaking higher education courses abroad are also assisted under
the British Government's aid programme.
Health
The Government Medical Department is responsible for public health and sanitation in the
territory and employs a senior medical officer, two medical officers, a dental officer and ten
nursing staff. A flying doctor service is available for outlying farm settlements. The Falkland
Islands Government maintains a general hospital at Stanley providing medical, surgical, obstetric
4
and geriatric care; new X-ray equipment recently installed in the hospital was purchased
through funds from Britain.
The commoner ailments in the colony are the common cold, nasopharyngitis, bronchitis,
gastro-enteritis and rheumatism in its chronic form.
Social Security
There is a system of family allowances, and two old age pension schemes, one contributory and
the other non-contributory, which cover all persons reaching the age of 65.
Libraries
There is a public lending library in Stanley and also a lending library operated by the Education
Department. A Camp library scheme provides a postal service designed to bring library facilities
to residents outside Stanley.
Communications and Services
A weekly air service links Stanley with southern Argentina. The permanent airfield at Stanley,
constructed with the help of British aid funds, opened in 1979 and is designed to take medium-
haul aircraft. A small government-owned internal air service (two Beaver float planes and one
Islander aircraft) provides the main internal passenger link between Stanley and the rest of the
territory, priority being given to medical cases. Other internal transport arrangements are
maintained by sea, a commercially owned ship carrying heavy freight and sea mail to the outlying
districts and collecting the wool crop. A ship on charter to the Falkland Islands Company makes
the round trip to Britain four or five times a year transporting the islands' wool and hide exports,
and calls at Mar del Plata in Argentina to pick up freight.
There are about 14 km (8½ miles) of roads in and around Stanley of which almost 9.6 km
(6 miles) are macadamised while the remainder consist of rock rubble. Britain is financing the
construction of a road between Stanley and Darwin. Unsurfaced tracks connect most settlements
on the east and west islands where travellers generally use Land-Rovers, motorcycles or horses,
depending on weather conditions. There are about 1,000 motor vehicles in the territory. There are
no railways or inland waterways.
Telecommunications
Internal telecommunications and broadcasting are the responsibility of the Posts and
Telecommunications Department, whereas external communications are the responsibility of
the Cable and Wireless Company. Stanley has a telephone system to which most East Falkland
farms are connected, and there is a similar service on West Falkland, centred on Fox Bay.
Traffic between the main islands and contact with farms on the smaller islands is by radio
telephone. Britain has provided funds to help purchase new and improved transceiver sets.
Telephone calls can be made between the territory and Britain, Argentina and most other
countries.
Broadcasting and the Press
The Falkland Islands Government runs a broadcasting station at Stanley and there are over
550 radio licence holders. There is also a government-operated wired broadcasting service in
Stanley. Periodicals published in the territory, other than the official gazette, are The Falkland
Islands Times (published monthly), Penguin News (monthly) and the Falkland Islands Journal
(published annually).
Public Utilities
A new electricity power station was completed in the 1970s and supplies power to Stanley.
Most farms and settlements have their own private generating plant. A water purification and
filtration plant supplies clean water for Stanley. There is scope for wind power generation,
hydro-electric and tidal power.
5
Meteorological Services
Meteorological services for the Falkland Islands are provided by a Government Meteorological
Department which has its headquarters in Stanley. The service provides forecasts for shipping
and aircraft and undertakes some research into the meteorology of the area.
THE FALKLAND ISLANDS DEPENDENCIES
The Falkland Islands have as dependencies South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands, the
Shag Rocks and Clerke Rocks. South Georgia lies 1,290 km (800 miles) east-south-east of the
Falklands, and the South Sandwich Islands some 760 km (470 miles) south-east of South
Georgia.
The Dependencies are British dependent territories, but for convenience they are
administered by the Falkland Islands Government, which is empowered to legislate for them. A
magistrate, who is also the Base Commander of the British Antarctic Survey Station, resides at
King Edward Point in South Georgia where there has been a government station since 1909.
The population of South Georgia comprises the staff of the British Antarctic Survey
Station at King Edward Point and in 1980 numbered about 20. Sea communications with the
island are dependent on Royal Research Ships Bransfield and John Biscoe. All food is imported
and there are no exports.
Those territories south of latitude 60° south which were formerly part of the Falkland
Islands Dependencies (the South Orkney Islands, the South Shetland Islands, and the
Antarctic Peninsula) together with the sector of the Antarctic continent lying between
longitudes 20° and 80° west, were constituted a separate territory in 1962 under the name of
British Antarctic Territory. This covers all British territories lying in the area affected by the
Antarctic Treaty, which was signed in 1959 and came into force in 1961.
The island of South Georgia has an area of 3,755 sq km (1,450 sq miles) and is some
160 km (100 miles) long with a maximum breadth of 32 km (20 miles). The land is very
mountainous, rising to 2,793 m (9,625 ft), the valleys being filled with glaciers, many of which
descend to the sea. The climate is not entirely Antarctic, but is very severe, the mountains being
largely ice- and snow-covered throughout the year. The only indigenous mammals are seals, but
there is a large herd of wild reindeer which were first introduced in 1911.
The South Sandwich Islands consist of a chain of uninhabited, actively volcanic islands
some 240 km (150 miles) long. The climate is wholly Antarctic. In the late winter the islands
may be surrounded by pack ice. The prevalent westerly storms always make landing difficult.
History
South Georgia was sighted at least twice between 1675 and 1756, but the first landing was that
of Captain James Cook in 1775. The South Sandwich Islands were discovered during the same
voyage. Thereafter, South Georgia was much visited by sealers of many nationalities, who
reaped a rich harvest from the immense number of fur seals and elephant seals which frequented
these shores. By 1815, the slaughter of seals had reached such proportions that sealers were
beginning to look elsewhere for them.
Whaling began in the twentieth century and grew into a highly specialised industry. The
principal development took place in 1903, when C. A. Larsen became the first modern whaling
company to establish a shore factory in South Georgia. The industry immediately prospered and
continued to expand quickly up to and during the first world war. From the beginning, South
Georgia was the most important centre of the industry and shore factories were operated at
Grytviken, Leith Harbour, Stromness, Husvik, Godthul and Prince Olaf Harbour. Since the late
1920s increasing use has been made of pelagic factory ships which operate in open ocean
throughout the whaling season. After the second world war three shore stations were worked at
South Georgia but all shore stations had ceased operations by December 1965. Since then the
main economic activity in the Dependencies has been fishing by distant water fishing fleets.
THE DISPUTE WITH ARGENTINA
There is no pressure for independence since the Islanders are united in their wish to remain
British despite a claim to sovereignty by Argentina on the grounds that it has succeeded to
rights claimed by Spain in the eighteenth century. Successive British Governments have had no
6
doubt about British sovereignty over the Islands, which have been continuously, peacefully
and effectively occupied by Britain since 1833.
The Falkland Islands' position as a non-self-governing territory has been debated by the
United Nations. The Islanders' elected representatives have explained the population's wish
to retain its association with Britain and not to become independent or associated with any
other country. Britain has pointed out that in these circumstances the Argentine claim is
contrary to the principle of self-determination.
In 1965 the UN General Assembly approved a resolution inviting Britain and Argentina
to hold discussions with a view to finding a peaceful solution to the problem, bearing in mind
the interests of the Islanders. Subsequent discussions were pursued between the two Governments
through diplomatic channels. In 1969 Argentina offered to discuss a lifting of the ban on direct
communications between the mainland and the Islands, and in 1970 special talks opened in
London between Argentine and British delegations, the latter including participants from the
Falkland Islands. As a result of further talks in 1971 in Buenos Aires, agreements were reached
covering air and sea communications, postal services, educational and medical facilities for
Falkland Islanders in Buenos Aires, and customs measures.
In 1974 Britain and Argentina signed two further agreements relating to the Falkland
Islands: one to facilitate trade and the carriage of goods between the Islands and the mainland,
and the other to allow the Argentine state petroleum company to supply the Islands with
petroleum products.
The findings of an economic survey of the Islands conducted in 1976 by
Lord Shackleton underlined the need for closer co-operation with Argentina. In 1977 the
British Government concluded that the time had come to consider whether a new framework
of economic and political co-operation with Argentina should be established. After detailed
consultation with the Islanders and with Argentina, terms of reference were agreed for British-
Argentine negotiations on political relations, including sovereignty, and on economic
co-operation in the Falkland Islands, their Dependencies and the south-west Atlantic in general.
Parallel working groups were subsequently established to study these two themes in depth, but
no progress was made.
A round of wide-ranging but exploratory talks was held with Argentina in April 1980. In
February 1981 further talks took place in New York between Argentina and Britain whose
delegation included two Falkland Islands' Councillors. Argentina rejected the British proposal
for a 'freeze' on the dispute for an agreed period of time during which both sides could
co-operate to develop the Islands' resources.
In February 1982 another round of formal talks took place in New York between
Argentina and Britain whose delegation again included two Falkland Islands' Councillors. The
two sides reaffirmed their resolve to find a solution to the sovereignty dispute and considered
in detail an Argentine proposal for procedures to make better progress.
Argentina also claims the Falkland Islands Dependencies. These claims have at different
times been based on proximity to Argentina and alleged inheritance of title from Spain.
Argentina first claimed South Georgia in 1927 and the South Sandwich Islands in 1948.
Britain rejects these claims as being without legal or historical foundation. In 1947, and
subsequently, Britain offered to submit the dispute on the Dependencies to the International
Court of Justice, and in 1955 the British Government applied unilaterally to the Court for
redress against encroachments on British sovereignty in the Dependencies by Argentina and
also by Chile. Both countries, however, declined to submit to the Court's jurisdiction in this
matter.
7
FURTHER READING
Information about the Falkland Islands is contained in the annual Yearbook of the Commonwealth,
published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office (HMSO). The Shackleton Report, Economic Survey of the
Falkland Islands, was published in two volumes (South America Department, Foreign and Commonwealth
Office - £14.50 including postage and packing) in 1976. The second edition of a book by Ian Strange
(The Falkland Islands, ISBN 0 7153 8133 4, David and Charles, 1981, £8.50) provides an account of the
territory's people, geography, history, administration, agriculture and fisheries, communications and natural
history.
(Spanish in preparation)
This paper is one of a series of reference publications prepared for the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
Although the text is Crown Copyright, it may be freely reproduced outside Britain, with or without
acknowledgment. Similar publications on other subjects may be obtained from British Embassies,
High Commissions or Consulates.
8
THE FALKLAND ISLANDS AND DEPENDENCIES
60° W
N
ARGENTINA
CHILE
FALKLAND IS.
0
10
20
30
40
50 MILES
0
20
40
60 KILOMETRES
Shag Rocks
SOUTH
,
GEORGIA
$ SHETLAND IS oD
SOUTH ⑆
S ORKNEY IS
SANDWICH
GRAHAM
IS.
LAND
Antarctic
Peninsula
SOUTH ATLANTIC
Antarctic Circle
OCEAN
PALMER LAND
BRITISH
ANTARCTIC
TERRITORY
a'
51°
0
500 MILES
0
BUO KILOMETRES
JASON ISLANDS
- punos Haddey
PEBBLE I.
North Falkland
SAUNDERS
Sound
KEPPEL
I
52
Foul
Bay
Byron Sound
Port Louis
Mt. Adam
King George
& 700 m, (2297 ft.)
8
EAST
Berkeley Sound
Bay B
WEST
SOUND
Grantham
Mt. Usborne I.
Sound
705 m. (2312 ft.)
FALKLAND
STANLEY
Darwin
Goose Green
BEAVER I.
Queen Charlotte
<
Bay
Fox Bay
Fox Bay - East
FALKLAND
ALKLAN
00
WEDDELL
I.
West
0.
LAFONIA
Choiseul Sound
52°S
0
52°S
Roventure
LIVELYI.
Low
Lively
Sound
Bay
Sound
SPEEDWELL
Bay of
Eagle
Harbours
Passage
60°W
58°
Coalition for Peace Through Security c/o
Committee to Prevent Nuclear War
413 East Capitol Street, S.E.
Washington, D.C. 20003
(202) 543-1286
May 17, 1982
Mr. Morton Blackwell
01d Executive Office Building
Office of Public Liason
Washington, D.C. 20500
Dear Mr. Blackwell,
I have enclosed some of the materials I received from London
recently I thought would be of interest to you. Similar packets
of material were distributed to every Congressional office as well
as some members of the press.
If I can be of any service or if you know of anyone else who
should receive any of these articles please let me know.
Sincerely,
Peter Nassetta
file
A Project of The S National Center for Public Policy Research, Amy Moritz, Executive Director
National Security Record
A Report on the Congress and National Security Affairs
THE HERITAGE FOUNDATION
513 C STREET, N.E.
WASHINGTON, D.C.
20002
(202) 546-4400
NO. 44
APRIL 1982
The Flawed Premises Behind a Nuclear Freeze
A dangerous shift has occurred in the public debate over
the basic concept of a negotiated freeze, even though it
the Reagan Administration's defense planning and spend-
heralds potentially disastrous effects on U.S. foreign and
ing priorities. Until recently, argument had focused on
defense policy rests on so many false assumptions.
issues legitimately concerned with national defense, such
Officials of the Reagan Administration have admitted
as the balance between nuclear and conventional emphasis
the sudden growth of the movement for a nuclear freeze
in force structure, whether high technology programs were
caught them by surprise. Even after several New England
being over-emphasized at the expense of readiness and
townships adopted resolutions endorsing the concept, the
force levels, and if the defense industry could efficiently
Administration failed to react. It was not until Senators
handle an upsurge in production. But the Administration's
Edward Kennedy and Mark Hatfield cosponsored a resolu-
program is now being attacked on grounds that largely
tion calling for a bilateral freeze that the Administration
ignore national security considerations. Assertions are
was prodded into action.
being made that it is "unfair" to increase defense spending
The Reagan Administration has adopted a strategy of
while social programs are being trimmed, that it is
neutralizing the freeze movement by co-opting its rhetoric.
necessary to cut defense spending to help balance the
For example, in a press conference on March 31st, Presi-
budget, or that the United States is engaged in a mindless
dent Reagan announced his sympathy with the freeze
arms race that will lead to a global holocaust unless it im-
movement's ideals. Although he could not accept an
mediately freezes its nuclear forces at current levels.
immediate freeze because of the current inferiority of U.S.
The most publicized of these assertions has led to the
strategic forces, he hoped that once parity had been
demand that the United States immediately seek a
established, a freeze followed by force reductions could be
negotiated freeze of nuclear weapons with the Soviet
negotiated with the Soviet Union. He also endorsed a
Union. This demand demonstrates ignorance of over a
counter-resolution by Senators Jackson and Warner that
decade of experience in arms control negotiations with the
advocates a freeze "once parity has been reestablished."
Soviet Union. It also reflects uncritical acceptance of a
While such tactics may be necessary in the short-run to
series of myths about the role and effects of nuclear
reduce the impact of the freeze movement on the legislative
weapons. Yet because it exploits anxieties that have been
process, in the long run they could prove counter-
building up among the public since the deterioration of
productive. What the President must do is counter the
American strength was graphically demonstrated under the
tragically mistaken ideas impelling the drive for a nuclear
Carter Administration, the nuclear freeze movement has
freeze. Key State and Defense Department personnel, as
been able to gather far more support than might have been
well as informed private citizens, should be mobilized to
expected.
communicate the President's position. In particular, the
These anxieties are primarily the result of the failure of
flawed premises behind the movement for a nuclear freeze,
detente. Three administrations-Nixon, Ford, and Carter
especially the notions that Mutual Assured Destruction is
-stressed the importance of the detente process in preserv-
the only possible strategy in the nuclear era, that we are
ing world peace, and hinted darkly at the consequences
locked into a spiraling arms race, and that a freeze would
should domestic opposition blunt their initiatives. Yet it
lead to international stability, should be clearly and
became increasingly obvious throughout the 1970s that
vigorously rebutted.
detente was not moderating Soviet behavior, that in fact
Soviet adventurism was on the increase. SALT in par-
ticular failed to live up to the claims made for it, as the
MUTUAL ASSURED DESTRUCTION
Soviet Union continued an unparalleled peacetime military
The basic assumption held by proponents of a nuclear
buildup of conventional and nuclear forces.
freeze is that the only conceivable role for nuclear weapons
The idea of a freeze of nuclear weapons superficially is
is to deter a massive attack on the U.S. population by
very attractive. By pressing for negotiations with the Soviet
threatening a similar attack on the Soviet Union. This
Union, it avoids charges of favoring unilateral U.S. dis-
policy is termed "Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD)."
armament. By not pressing for immediate reductions it
Less-informed members of the movement believe that this
sidesteps the critical question of "how much is enough" to
is the targeting policy of the United States, and can see no
assure the security of the United States and its allies. Yet
motive for any strategic force upgrade other than a mind-
PAGE 1
less desire to accumulate weapons. The more sophisticated
the Soviet Union to acquire comparable or superior
freeze advocates argue that as a result of uncontrollable
weapons systems. The American military establishment, in
escalation and incalculable collateral damage, it is impos-
turn, analyzes the worst case implications of Soviet re-
sible to limit the use of nuclear weapons in any meaningful
action. Then it demands still more weapons, often with
way. Any talk of doing so is dangerous nonsense that
much greater capabilities than needed. This action/
could precipitate the very nuclear conflict it is meant to
reaction arms race, its proponents go on to argue, is enor-
avoid.
mously destabilizing because of the tensions produced by
The emphasis MAD advocates place on threatening
the competition, and because of the fears each nation feels
whole populations with destruction in the name of strate-
about falling behind.
gic stability is highlighted by their rejection of any efforts
The freeze advocates accept this theory, and fault the
to protect the American public from the effects of a
Reagan Administration for greatly aggravating this cycle.
nuclear attack, and their obsession with "overkill." They
They are disturbed by what they consider unjustifiable in-
perceive both civil defense and anti-ballistic missiles as
creases in defense spending, and official statements they
provocative, for a number of reasons:
interpret as indicating the Reagan Administration has few
such programs would give the American people a false
inhibitions against rapidly escalating to the use of nuclear
sense of security, and hence remove pressure on the
weapons in the event of a conventional war. They also fear
government for meaningful arms control;
that the U.S. is planning a first strike, and see as evidence
the government could be encouraged into dangerous
the procurement of weapons systems such as the B-1
confrontations with the Soviet Union in the belief that the
bomber, MX missile, Pershing II medium range missile,
United States possessed immunity from the worst effects
ground-launched cruise missiles, and additional numbers
of a nuclear exchange;
and types of warheads.
the Soviet Union, feeling threatened by the erosion of
What is remarkable about this arms race model is that
its deterrent capability in a crisis, might try to salvage the
the trend it describes is the exact opposite of what is now
situation by preemption.
underway. The pattern instead, as shown in the chart
below, has been a steady decline in the U.S. strategic
While less-informed members of the freeze movement
nuclear force, especially in survivability and total force
will talk loosely of there being enough destructive force in
levels, in contrast to a massive increase in Soviet strategic
the arsenals of the superpowers to kill the earth's popula-
forces aimed at achieving a preemptive capability. When
tion twenty, or forty, or a hundred times over, its more
making charges about the United States engaging in an
sophisticated members will concede that this is technically
arms race, or about the Reagan Administration "accelerat-
inaccurate. But they argue that overkill is a serious prob-
ing the arms race," freeze advocates ignore:
lem, that the United States possesses far more nuclear
The United States froze the ceiling of its deployment
weapons than are needed to kill enough Soviets to deter
of strategic nuclear launch vehicles in 1967. Since then,
their leaders. Thus, the notion of gaining military advan-
their numbers have declined substantially, mostly as a
tage with additional nuclear weapons, much less establish-
result of aging B-52 bombers being retired from service,
ing strategic superiority, strikes them as ludicrous.
but also in the ICBM and submarine forces. Meanwhile,
The fundamental mistake with MAD is its assumption
the Soviet Union has massively increased its forces in both
that targeting populations is desirable to establish deter-
numbers and kinds of systems.
rence. Deterrence works only when it is backed by a cred-
ible threat, and the mutual suicide implicit in MAD does
Unilateral Cutbacks in U.S. Strategic Forces Since 1975*
not qualify. In fact, neither the Soviet Union nor the
1983
United States has ever made civilian populations its
(planned) 54 Titan II missile launchers scheduled
for deactivation
primary target. Both nations have the ability to attack a
wide variety of targets, including industry, stockpiles,
1981
Planned MX deployment of 200 missiles
military installations, communications centers, and com-
halved-no basing mode chosen
mand bunkers. In order to effectively deter the Soviet
1980-81
10 Polaris submarines with 160 SLBMs
Union, the United States must possess enough warheads to
deactivated
survive a Soviet attack, and enough flexibility to threaten
1977-82
Trident submarine construction cut back
whatever range of targets is necessary to blunt a Soviet
and delayed; Trident II missile develop-
military thrust. That the United States possesses thousands
ment postponed
of strategic nuclear warheads and has identified tens of
1977-81
ALCM, GLCM, SLCM production
thousands of potential targets does not mean that all the
delayed and cut back
weapons would be used in a single, simultaneous strike. It
1979
is because the United States cannot predict how much of its
400 Hound Dog cruise missiles deac-
tivated
force would survive a Soviet attack or what Soviet targets
would be the most important to threaten in any specific
1978
SRAM production line closed
conflict, that large nuclear forces are deployed.
1978
Minuteman III ICBM production line
closed-100 missiles cancelled
1977
A SPIRALING ARMS RACE
250 B-1s cancelled. (In 1981 the decision
was partially reversed, with 100 B-1Bs
The second unwarranted assumption nuclear freeze pro-
ordered.)
ponents make is that the United States and the Soviet
1975
Union are locked into a dangerous, costly, and futile arms
Single U.S. ABM site deactivated.
race. The theory behind this supposition is that major
*Since 1967 the number of strategic launchers has steadily declined due to attrition.
The above chart does not include the much larger number of tactical nuclear
weapons programs initiated by the United States prompt
weapons that have also been cut back or dismantled.
PAGE 2
The United States deliberately halted its plans for an
forces in a survivable basing mode, or to replace in-
ABM system, destroying the one site authorized by the
accurate, high yield weapons with smaller devices to mini-
SALT I treaty in 1975 after a continual reduction in the
mize collateral damage and fallout.
planned scope of the system since 1967. This was largely a
Freezing U.S. nuclear forces into a permanently inferior
result of a U.S. desire not to "generate an arms race in
position would do nothing to increase international stabil-
strategic defense weaponry." This has not been matched
ity. Japan and Western European nations, which for years
by Soviet restraint-in addition to maintaining a full-
have been sheltered under the U.S. nuclear umbrella,
fledged ABM system around Moscow they also test air
would be forced to reevaluate the possibility of acquiring
defense missiles in conjunction with ABM radars.
nuclear weapons of their own. Nations such as Iraq, Ar-
In the one area where the United States has not frozen
gentina, Pakistan, India, and South Africa, all of which
its strategic forces-technical improvements-the results
have launched major drives to acquire independent nuclear
have been to decrease their destructiveness. As a result of
capabilities, would not be at all inspired by a "freeze" to
advances in weapons accuracy and miniaturization, as well
abandon these efforts. If the freeze advocates are truly
as the development of MIRVs, the megatonnage and esti-
concerned about the spread of nuclear weapons technol-
mated collateral damage of the U.S. has declined dramat-
ogy, they would be better advised to put their energies into
ically. Furthermore, the United States has used this
securing better nuclear export controls.
technology to switch to warheads of smaller yield, an act
Moreover, a freeze would be completely unverifiable
of restraint unmatched by the Soviet Union.
and unenforceable. The Soviet Union has repeatedly
demonstrated that it cannot be trusted to conform to arms
The Reagan Administration has not accelerated either
spending or deployment of strategic forces, and in fact is
control agreements, and that in the face of the most con-
under criticism from many strategic analysts for failing to
clusive evidence, it will simply deny all charges. Its
take steps to reduce the vulnerability of U.S. land-based
development of biological weapons, as evidenced by the
strategic weapons. Its decision to procure 100 B-1B
anthrax epidemic at Sverdlovsk; its use of "yellow rain"
bombers is more than counterbalanced by its decision to
and other chemical and biological weapons to subdue guer-
half the purchase of MX ICBMs as planned by the Carter
rilla movements in Laos, South Yemen, and Afghanistan;
Administration without adopting a basing mode.
and its continual violation of the SALT I and the signed
but as yet unratified SALT II treaties have clearly shown
Numbers of warheads, the one index of strategic force
that even when violations are detected, compliance is im-
which the United States has not frozen, increased almost
possible to enforce. Beyond this, playing on American
totally as a result of the introduction of MIRVing in the
desires for arms control is a potent propaganda tool for the
1970s. Claims that the Reagan Administration intends to
Soviet Union; it certainly contributed to the unilateral U.S.
add thousands of new warheads are bogus-it also intends
disarmaments of the 1970s. The Soviet press and the ac-
to retire thousands, leaving a net increase only of several
tions of its representatives in the United States indicates
hundred. Statements that the United States and the Soviet
that the Soviet Union hopes to exploit the move for a
Union are at parity in warheads ignores the fact that
nuclear freeze in the same manner.
figures on Soviet warheads are estimates which take no
account of concealed or rapidly reloadable missiles.
Far from engaging in "worst-case" analysis, the
CONCLUSION
United States has tended to strongly underestimate Soviet
A bilateral freeze of nuclear weapons is clearly
strategic force levels and spending since 1962.
undesirable. It would be unverifiable, destabilizing, and
would condemn the United States to a permanently in-
In short, the contention that the United States and the
ferior position. Moreover, the hysteria the movement has
Soviet Union are trapped in a spiraling arms race, and that
the Reagan Administration will add impetus to this action/
generated blinds its advocates to the benefits of American
reaction cycle by a destabilizing build-up is utterly false.
possession of nuclear weapons. For thirty-seven years
there has been no war between the superpowers, in spite of
all manner of crises and confrontations. The extended
A FREEZE WOULD BE STABILIZING
deterrence provided by nuclear weapons has allowed the
The third major premise of the freeze advocates is that a
United States to preserve not only its own security but also
negotiated nuclear freeze would be stabilizing. It would, in
that of its allies without having to match the universal
their view, break the mindless arms race cycle, which has
military service or 15 percent or more of gross national
already taken the number of nuclear weapons to a mean-
product the Soviet Union annually invests into its military
inglessly high level. It would also restore reason to the
machine. It has redressed an enormous inbalance in con-
international order by demonstrating to the non-aligned
ventional forces, negating the at least four-to-one advan-
nations that the superpowers were capable of responsible
tage the Soviet Union retains in firepower.
behavior, and eliminate the pressure on Third World
The present uneasiness in the United States can be
nations to acquire nuclear weapons of their own. Finally, it
directly traced to the Soviet Union's effort to eliminate ex-
would be far easier to verify than the SALT II treaty, since
tended deterrence by obtaining a preemptive capability,
any construction of nuclear weapons or launchers would
and to misrepresentations of the Reagan Administration's
be a clear violation.
plans to forestall this. It is this point that President Reagan
In fact, a nuclear freeze would favor the Soviets, be
and his Administration must convey to the public. This
enormously destabilizing, and impossible to verify. A
cannot be done by expressing sympathy with the notion of
bilateral freeze would do nothing about the massive Soviet
a freeze, or by promising future symmetrical reductions
heavy ICBMs-SS-18s and SS-19s-which are clearly
that the Soviet Union will not agree to in any event. It can
designed for a preemptive attack on U.S. strategic forces.
only be done by a vigorous effort to expose the fallacious
It would also make it impossible to redeploy existing U.S.
principles on which the drive for a freeze rests.
PAGE 3
Insiders Report
Tracking the Issues through Congress
Hot Air and the Freeze
The organization of "Ground Zero" rallies and ini-
introduced on March 30th. Co-sponsored by no less than
tiatives for a nuclear freeze has triggered a rash of anti-
62 more Senators, it reaffirmed a senatorial consensus
nuclear and anti-defense rhetoric from Congress. But
established in 1972, when the Jackson Amendment to the
significantly, actual congressional action has focused upon
SALT I treaty mandated that future arms control
which of two competing resolutions calling for negotia-
agreements could not place the United States in a
tions with the Soviets leading to a nuclear freeze should be
numerically inferior position. The Senate Foreign Rela-
adopted. In the precarious months before the November
tions Committee has scheduled hearings on the resolu-
elections, Congress is not eager to be perceived as either
tions, beginning May 11th.
anti-freeze or anti-Administration.
Efforts to get a similar mandate from the House of
Congressional response to the nuclear freeze campaign
Representatives have floundered over the fact that no less
began on March 10th, when Senators Edward Kennedy
than four competing freeze resolutions have been intro-
and Mark Hatfield cosponsored a resolution that called
duced: Markey's version of the Kennedy-Hatfield Amend-
upon both the United States and Soviet Union to "pursue
ment, two variations of the Warner-Jackson Amendment,
a complete halt to the nuclear weapons race." The super-
and a resolution sponsored by Rep. Albert Gore calling for
powers are to achieve a mutual and verifiable freeze that
elimination of those strategic forces which threaten the
would cover the testing, production, and deployment of
nuclear deterrent of the other superpower. Senate insiders
nuclear weapons. Once this has been accomplished, they
point out that Gore's proposal is similar to the "March
are to undertake verifiable reductions in total weapons
1977" Carter SALT II package, which was immediately
levels. This resolution was introduced in the House of
vetoed by the Soviet Union, and to Nixon's SALT Option
Representatives by Representative Edward Markey. On the
C, which met a similar fate. No hearings have been
day of its introduction seventeen senators and 122
scheduled on the House freeze resolutions.
members of the House of Representatives cosponsored the
resolution.
At a March 31st press conference, President Reagan
This resolution sparked an immediate response from the
commended the Warner-Jackson resolution. He stated
Administration. On March 11th, Assistant Secretary of
that in view of the "definite margin of superiority"
State Richard Burt, Director of Politico-Military Affairs
possessed by the Soviet Union, it would be "disadvan-
made a strong statement expressing sympathy for "the
tageous-in fact, even dangerous" for the United States to
spirit that motivates the freeze efforts." However, he cited
agree to freeze nuclear forces at existing levels. The Presi-
a "number of compelling facts against a freeze":
dent's concession that the Soviet Union possessed strategic
The United States would be frozen into a position of
superiority touched off a storm of controversy. Senators
military disadvantage and dangerous vulnerability. Soviet
Jackson and Moynihan both contended that "in the aggre-
military investment, in the face of over a decade of U.S.
gate" U.S. forces were not inferior, as the United States
"substantial restraint," has produced generations of new
still possessed a significant second-strike capability,
ICBMs that directly threaten the U.S. deterrent, and
although they did express concern over both trends, and
IRBMs that give the Soviet Union an overwhelming advan-
the heavy Soviet ICBMs. Other critics of the Adminstra-
tage in this category of weapons.
tion's defense policy were less restrained, Senator Kennedy
Negotiation of a good START agreement depends
calling the President's proposal "voodoo arms control."
upon a strategic modernization program to give the U.S.
Interestingly enough, Kennedy's criticism of the
delegation credibility. By killing the modernization pro-
Administration's strategic forces arms control policy, with
gram, the freeze would end any chance of achieving
a buildup to parity before establishing an agreement,
negotiated Soviet reductions.
directly contradicted his attack on the Administration's in-
The U.S. is engaged in intermediate nuclear force
termediate nuclear forces arms control policy, the "zero
talks that would go far beyond a freeze. The U.S. goal in
option," which demands Soviet reductions without a cor-
Geneva is the "total elimination of land-based,
responding American buildup.
intermediate-range missiles." Abandoning the "two-
In sum, the nuclear freeze movement has not touched
track" approach of deployment and negotiation would
Congress very deeply. However, this could easily change.
eliminate the incentive for the Soviet Union to agree to the
The Administration's budget request for the Federal
"zero option."
Emergency Management Agency, which handles civil
Behind the scenes, key supporters of the President
defense, was heavily cut by the Senate Armed Services
drafted a rival resolution that also called for the United
Committee. In justifying this move, the committee
States and the Soviet Union to agree to a freeze of nuclear
members used arguments directly traceable to the freeze
weapons. However, this was to occur only after the United
movement. The Administration thus far has done a good
States had first reached "parity" in nuclear weapons with
job of containing pro-freeze sentiment on Capitol hill. But
the Soviet Union, and then the two powers had agreed to
additional actions are needed unless it is willing to risk hav-
substantial reductions. Sponsored by Senators Henry
ing it spread to other strategic programs as the funding
Jackson and John Warner, the bipartisan resolution was
debate heats up before the November election.
PAGE 4
Checklist of Issues coming before Congress
Watch For:
The Falklands and the D-5: Congressional advocates of
passage of this amendment could become a constitutional
strategic nuclear force modernization have begun to worry
issue. Similar bills have been introduced twice in a decade.
about a possible side effect of the Falkland Islands dispute
The Foreign Service Act of 1974 as originally introduced
between Britain and Argentina. Early this year, the Royal
included a clause requiring 80 percent of all ambassadors
Navy had made the difficult decision to procure the Tri-
to be career Foreign Service Officers, which was dropped
dent D-5 missile to modernize their ballistic missile
in committee. In 1976 Senator Mathias tried to amend this
submarine force. To do so within the fiscal limits set by
Act to require 75 percent of ambassadors to be FSOs. The
Parliament, the Royal Navy was forced to schedule the
bill has been referred to the Foreign Relations Committee
deactivation of a significant portion of its surface fleet, in-
for hearings which were held on April 28.
cluding the carrier Invincible. The need for conventional
forces demonstrated by the Falkland crisis could lead Brit-
ain to reverse its decision. This could threaten U.S. pro-
Plutonium Gap?: The Department of Energy (DOE) has
curement of the missile, whose unit cost was expected to
been warning for the past year that, beginning in 1989, it
greatly decrease following the British purchase. The missile
will be unable to produce enough plutonium to meet pro-
plays an important role in the Reagan Administration's
jected nuclear weapons requirements. Yet it still does not
strategic modernization program, owing to its greater
have an approved plan to meet this gap. DOE's preferred
range, payload, and accuracy.
program is the Special Isotope Separation project (SIS),
which would provide the needed plutonium by reprocess-
ing spent commercial reactor fuel. This policy of linking ci-
SS-16s: The Evans and Novak column "Soviet Freeze
vilian and military uses of atomic power has sparked op-
Warning" has prompted a somewhat confused reaction
position from both environmental groups and the power
from the Reagan Administration. According to the article,
utilities, and prompted Senate approval of an amendment
the Soviet Union has "fully deployed" 200 SS-16 mobile
to the Atomic Energy Act which would prohibit use of
ICBMs in violation of SALT II. Although the treaty is
civilian spent reactor fuel in any military program. The
unratified, and the President campaigned against it in
House of Representatives is expected also to approve the
1980, he has pledged to abide by its terms so long as the
amendment. An alternative solution proposed by DOE is
Soviets do likewise. State Department spokesman Dean
construction of a replacement reactor using an advanced
Fisher provided the official Administration response that
design. Both SIS and the replacement reactor proposals
"intelligence information does not support" these allega-
seem to be inappropriate responses to the problem of a
tions. When asked if this statement was supported by the
plutonium gap, for even with funding ranging from two to
entire Administration, Fisher responded "I am not aware
three billion dollars per installation, the first would not be
that there is any disagreement" among the various agen-
on line until 1992 at the earliest. Some critics have charged
cies. He did not mention that several agencies, including
that DOE is playing with national security in order to
the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, had not even
receive additional appropriations for advanced reactor and
been consulted. The careful wording of the denial supports
isotope separation research. They point out that a less
reports by Hill and Administration insiders that although
costly and more timely solution would be to duplicate one
the Evans and Novak column contained a number of im-
of the two production reactor designs now in use, each of
portant factual errors, in the main it was correct. If so, it
which has more than a thirty-year proven life span.
would challenge any lingering hopes about the reliability of
the Soviet Union as a treaty signatory.
El Salvador: On April 27th the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee began hearings on two bills designed to prompt
Ambassador Quota System: A bill introduced by Senator
negotiations and prevent the use of American military
Charles Mathias (R-MD) to amend the Foreign Service Act
forces in El Salvador. Senate Joint Resolution 144, spon-
of 1980 (S.1886) could weaken the President's control over
sored by Senator Paul Tsongas (D-Massachusetts) would
foreign policy by giving still more autonomy to the Depart-
urge the U.S. Government to adopt a policy of encourag-
ment of State bureaucracy. The bill would amend the
ing all parties to the conflict to begin unconditional
Foreign Service Act to read:
negotiations leading to a settlement and free elections in El
At any time, not less than 85 per centum of the total
Salvador. (The bill makes no reference to the elections
number of positions of chiefs of mission which are
which have already been held or to the refusal of the left to
occupied shall be held by career members of the
participate.) Senate Bill 2179, sponsored by Senator
(Foreign) Service.
Robert Byrd (D-West Virginia), would amend the War
Although as of October 1980 71 percent of U.S. ambassa-
Powers Act to prohibit the use of U.S. military forces in El
dors were career Foreign Service Officers, the Constitution
Salvador except for the protection or evacuation of U.S.
makes it clear that an ambassador is the personal represen-
citizens. Byrd has submitted this amendment in the face of
tative of the President, outranking even the Secretary of
strong Adminstration denial that it intends to send troops
State while in the country to which he is accredited. Thus
to El Salvador.
PAGE 5
каши
MISTORY
Suggested Reading
Background reading on the Nuclear Freeze:
Leites, Nathan. "Once More About What We Should Not
Do Even in the Worst Case: the Assured Destruction
Attack." Santa Monica: California Seminar on Arms
Alpern, David M. "Reagan Against the Freeze."
Newsweek, April 12, 1982, pp. 18-21.
Control and Foreign Policy, June 1974.
Lewis, Flora. "Brezhnev's Missile Freeze Still Far From a
Brown, Thomas A. "Missile Accuracy and Strategic
Thaw." The New York Times, March 21, 1982.
Lethality." Survival, March/April 1976, pp. 52-59.
Miller, Judith. "139 Legislators Urge Nuclear Arms Freeze
Bundy, McGeorge; Kennan, George F.; McNamara,
By U.S. and Moscow." The New York Times, March
Robert S.; and Smith, Gerard. "Nuclear Weapons and
11, 1982; "Reagan Endorses Rise in Atomic Warheads
the Atlantic Alliance." Foreign Affairs, Spring 1982,
by 380" The New York Times, March 22, 1982.
pp. 753-768.
Pilat, Joseph F. "A Ban-the-Bomb Baedeker." The
Clendinen, Dudley. "How Peterborough, N. H., Voted
Washington Quarterly, Winter 1982, pp. 203-207.
for Nuclear Freeze." The New York Times, March 26,
Pipes, Richard. "Why the Soviet Union Thinks It Could
1982.
Fight and Win a Nuclear War." Commentary, July
Evans, Rowland; and Novak, Robert. "Soviet Freeze
1977, pp. 21-33.
Warning." The Washington Post, April 5, 1982, p.
Rowan, Henry. "Formulating Strategic Doctrine." Report
A15.
of the Commission on the Organization of Government
Fenyvesi, Charles. "The Man Not Worried by the Bomb-
for Conduct of Foreign Policy, Vol. 4. Washington,
Richard Pipes: NSC's Kremlinologist Sets 2-in-5 Odds
D.C.: Government Printing Office, pp. 219-230.
for Nuclear War." The Washington Post, April 11,
"Should We Develop Highly Accurate Missiles and Em-
1982, p. B1.
phasize Military Targets Rather Than Cities?" Congres-
Gouré, Leon. War Survival in Soviet Strategy.
sional Record, March 28, 1974, pp. S4663-S4668.
Washington, D.C.: Advanced International Studies In-
"Which Comes First, Arms Control or Security? A
stitute, 1975.
Debate: Warnke and Rostow Work the Nuclear Equa-
"Haig's Speech on American Nuclear Strategy and The
tion." The New York Times, March 21, 1982, p. E5.
Role of Arms Control." The New York Times, April 7,
Wohlstetter, Albert. Legends of the Strategic Arms Race.
1982, p. A8.
Report 75-1. Boston: United States Strategic Institute,
Kaiser, Robert G. "Movement Against Nuclear Arms is
1975.
Mushrooming." The Washington Post, April 11, 1982,
Woolsey, James R. "Nuclear Freeze: It's Not That
p. A1.
Simple." The Washington Post, March 17, 1982.
PAGE 6
National Security Record, Edwin J. Feulner, Jr., Publisher; William C. Green, Editor. The Heritage Foundation, 513 C
Street, N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002; (202) 546-4400. CABLE: HERITAGE WASHDC: TELEX: 440235. Subscription
rate-$25/year. Nothing herein is to be construed as necessarily reflecting the views of The Heritage Foundation or as an
attempt to aid or hinder the passage of any bill before Congress. Reproduction is granted provided that proper attribution is
given. ISSN #0162-3206.
The
Heritage Foundation
513 C STREET, N.E. WASHINGTON, D.C. 20002
NSR #44: The Flawed Premises Behind a Nuclear Freeze
U.S. Was Unilaterally "Frozen" In 1970's
NUCLEAR "FREEZE" WOULD BAR
AMERICAN DEFENSE COMEBACK
limits on ballistic missile trajectories. such basing would make Amer-
By George F. Will
ica's land-based deterrent more survivable, and the world safer.)
The proposed freeze would extend to "testing, production and
I note with regret, but not amazement, that those who are advo-
further deployment of nuclear warheads. missiles and other delivery
cating a mutual U.S.-Soviet "freeze" of nuclear arsenals are not like
systems." But proponents cannot explain how they will provide for
Albert Einstein, who said: "Everything should be made as simple as
verification of, say, a freeze prohibiting improved yields of warheads.
possible, but not simpler." Simplicity makes the freeze proposal
or improved throw-weights of missiles, or even new missiles. How.
politically attractive, and irresponsible.
for example, will they verify whether new Soviet cruise missiles are
In the 1970s, while the Soviets raced ahead, America unilaterally
nuclear-armed ? Such verification is beyond the capability of our
practiced a semi-freeze. It deployed multiple
national technical means. and the Soviets will
warheads (MIRVs) on some existing missiles,
not permit the necessary on-site inspection.
but deployed not a single new ICBM. Amer-
The freeze proposal illustrates the danger-
ica deployed not a single new submarine-
ous asymmetry inherent in U.S.-Soviet arms
launched ballistic missile (SLBM) in the
negotiations. Such seductively simple pana-
1970s.
ceas pander to the widespread desire to
Applied to intermediate-range missiles in
believe that there can be an easy. cheap
Europe, the freeze proposal is the Soviet
escape from the dangers posed by modern
negotiating position: accept the Soviet's 300
physics and the modern Soviet state. In the
SS20s and permit no comparable U.S. mis-
only superpower where public opinion mat-
siles. Furthermore, if their general superiority
ters, the freeze proposal will undermine
in offensive systems were secured by a freeze,
support for modernization of strategic
the Soviets could further refine their desta-
weapons. The argument will be: any new
bilizing counter-force capabilities.
U.S. program will "provoke" the Soviets to
For example, a freeze would prohibit
reject a freeze.
new SLBMs but not new attack submarines
But the Soviets are serious about arms
that hunt SLBM submarines. These could
limitations only when America's ongoing
eventually give the Soviets a destabilizing
George F. Will was born in
programs compel Soviet seriousness. The
capability for destroying the U.S. sea-based
1941 in Champagne, Illinois. He is
Soviets rejected the idea of limits on defen-
deterrent.
a graduate of Trinity College and
sive systems-until the Nixon administra-
A freeze would kill the B1 bomber, but
Oxford University and received a
tion won congressional approval for ABMs.
would not inhibit the air defenses by which
Ph.D. at Princeton University.
Then the Soviets reversed themselves.
the Soviets degrade the effectiveness of
A former teacher of political
However, the fact that congressional sup-
America's ancient B52s. To try to preserve
philosophy at Michigan State
port for the ABM was so fragile (a one-vote
University and the University of
even a shadow of this leg of the strategic
Toronto, Mr. Will served on the
margin in the Senate) encouraged the Nixon
triad, America would have to spend heavily.
staff of Senator Gordon Allott
administration to accept a destabilizing
The B52's "escape time" (the time it takes to
of Colorado from 1970-1972. He
result in SALT 1: a temporary (five-year)
get out of range of nuclear effects from in-
went on to be the assistant editor
and ineffective restraint on offensive sys-
coming missiles) is inferior to the Bl's and
of National Review and, in 1974,
tems, but. effectively. a ban in perpetuity
inadequate to the threat of Soviet SLBMs
began a syndicated newspaper
on ABMs.
off the U.S. coast. Therefore, B52s would
column which today appears in
Proponents of a freeze advertise it as a
have to be rebuilt for better escape capability
more than 300 newspapers. A
first step toward President Reagan's more
and would have to be more dispersed (B52s
contributing editor of Newsweek,
ambitious goal of reductions in force levels.
can use fewer airfields than Bls, so airfield
Will is a regular member of
But were the Soviets to agree to a freeze, it
modernizations would be necessary) at pro-
Agronsky and Co. as well as ABC-
TVs "This Week with David
would remove the only incentive-ongoing
hibitive cost.
Brinkley".
U.S. programs-for the Soviets to nego-
The budgetary impact of a freeze would
tiate reductions.
be modest. Strategic programs-weapons,
The freeze proposal is popular with many
command, control, communications-ac-
who supported, and served in. the previous
count for just 15 percent of the defense budget. The freeze would
administration. That administration wasted four precious years
prevent some procurements, but would make other spending neces-
killing and retarding U.S. strategic programs. and -not coincident-
sary to ameliorate the freeze's destabilizing effects.
ally-negotiating arms control agreements so imbalanced and
(The freeze proposal makes it timely to note that some aspects of
porous that a Democratic-controlled Senate would not ratify them.
existing arms-control agreements are destabilizing. The ban on
The freeze proposal is another example of posturing and wasted
missile defenses [ABMs] is one example. Another is the ban on new
motion that the world can ill afford.
silos. This prevents, for example, deploying any of our permitted
number of ICBMs on the south sides of mesas. Given the inherent
© 1982, The Washington Post Company, reprinted with permission.
Wrong Route to Peace
A
cross Western Europe, pacifist pas-
other key sites in the West. The notion
sions are on the rise. Marchers have
seems to be that weakened resolve by the
hit the streets in large numbers in some
West will somehow cause the Soviets to
capitals to protest measures taken by their
lose their expansionist appetite.
own governments in their own defense.
That is a barren dream, a mythical vi-
The demonstrations are well-meant.
sion. It flies against all the evidence of
They are understandable in the context of
the Soviets' unslackened determination,
the deep-seated yearning of all people for
backed by a military buildup of gargantu-
a peaceful world.
an dimensions, to exploit every opportu-
Yet the new outcries are disturbing on
nity to extend their military and political
both sides of the Atlantic. For they repre-
influence around the world, wherever and
sent a turning away from reality. They re-
whenever they can. The Soviets' opportun-
ism can be likened to that of a hotel bur-
flect a welling up of isolationist sentiments
that pose potential danger to the alliance,
glar who skulks along the corridors at
anchored by the U.S., which has kept
night, checking doorknobs, ready to enter
Western Europe free and secure for up-
any room he finds unlocked. The West
wards of three decades.
must keep its doors locked.
Unilateral arms reduction is appease-
Many Europeans are aroused, in partic-
ment. It could be suicidal. Arms reduction
ular, by the proposed deployment of new
surely is a cherished goal. But it must be
breeds of U.S.-built missiles on European
bilateral. It must consist of specific, fair,
soil to modernize NATO's nuclear forces,
verifiable measures growing out of negoti-
an upgrading made necessary by Soviet
ations between the two sides.
deployment of improved missiles.
In a perfect world, there would be no
There's an irony about the new palpita-
nuclear weapons at all. In the real world,
tions being expressed in the streets and sa-
nuclear weapons exist. So long as they do,
lons of Europe. It was pointed up in a re-
the best way of reducing the risk that
cent late-night TV talk show in England,
they'll be used against you is to make cer-
with the audience participating. Two pol-
tain that any nation considering their use
iticians were discussing the NATO missile
is dissuaded from doing so by the knowl-
deployment when a young man rose from
edge that you are capable of striking back
the audience and asked: "Why are we pro-
in kind.
testing? We were the ones who asked the
'That's deterrence. It has been at the
Americans to send the missiles over to pro-
heart of Western security since the end of
tect us from the Russian missiles that are
World War 11. Its validity remains unas-
already there. The Americans didn't insist.
sailable today. But its continued efficacy
We asked."
is now being threatened by a misguided
Yes, the Europeans did ask, back in the
movement on the part of some in Europe
late '70s. Now, in a turnabout, some of
who quiver in the face of the potent, ever-
them are calling for unilateral nuclear dis-
growing military machine to the east.
armament. They seem to feel that if West-
They envisage a neutral Europe, with
ern Europe lowers its nuclear defenses,
military ties to neither of the superpowers.
then the Soviets, in their inherent good-
What they do not see, or are blinded to, is
ness, will dismantle all the missiles they're
a neutral Europe becoming a neutered
emplacing and targeting at capitals and
Europe.
TIME
Nation
APR
5
1982
Founders: BRITON HADDEN 1098-1929 HENRY R. LUCE 1090-1967
CHINA
A Rain of Terror in Asia
Area of reported concentrated
chemical attacks
The U.S. documents its charges of Soviet chemical warfare
BURMA
Hanoi
LAOS
GULFOF
GENO
idmorning on Oct. 10, 1980, a plane
Indochina and Afghanistan, killing more
VHOULAN
TONKIN
M
flew low over the foothills of the
than 10,000 people. The chemicals in-
Vientiane
Khao Khouy Mountains in southern Laos.
volved include nerve gas, mustard gas,
As it passed above the village of Long Sa,
lewisite and mycotoxins.
the craft began trailing plumes of reddish-
At a press briefing, Deputy Secretary
yellow gas. Villagers enveloped in the fall-
of State Walter Stoessel said that the sum-
ing mist felt dustlike particles landing on
mary was based on examinations of phys-
THAILAND
their skin. The air smelled of burning pep-
ical evidence, including environmental
pers. Ma Hear, who saw the mist fall on
samples, as well as the testimony of eye-
Bangkok
VIET
the village from a protected lean-to on a
witnesses to yellow-rain attacks, journal-
NAM
nearby hill, recalled that within minutes
ists and doctors treating refugees. Said
BATTAMGANG
many of Long Sa's 1,000 residents fell ill.
Stoessel of the use of these chemicals in
CAMBODIA
URSAT
Itchy rashes, followed by tiny blisters, ap-
hnom-Panh
peared on their skin. Their vision blurred,
GULFOF.
THAILAND
and the villagers felt dizzy and began gasp-
ing for breath. Farmers caught in open
100
SOUTH CHINA
fields vomited blood. Although most of
TIME Maps by Paul J. Pugliese
SEA
Long Sa's villagers recovered from the at-
tack, Ma Hear told doctors in a Thailand
refugee camp that 40 people died, includ-
ing his wife and daughter.
The "yellow rain" that fell on Long Sa
is the focus of a bitter dispute between the
U.S. and the Soviet Union. Since last fall;
Administration officials have accused the
Soviet Union and its allies of violating the
Geneva Protocol of 1925 and the 1972
Biological and Toxin Weapons Conven-
tion-both treaties have been signed by
Moscow-by engaging in chemical war-
fare. "With every passing day," charged
Secretary of State Alexander Haig in Feb-
ruary, "we get more incontrovertible evi-
dence of the use of mycotoxins [fungal
poisons] in Afghanistan, Laos and Kam-
puchea [Cambodia]
There is no ques-
U.S.S.R.
CHINA
Hmong Refugee May Xiong describes effect of chemical attacks on eyes and chest
A smell of burning peppers, then gasps for breath and vomited blood.
BADAKHSHA
Indochina: "Thousands have been
Soviets and their allies of using are the
KONARHA
PARWAN
killed or severely injured. Thou-
mycotoxins, specifically a class known as
Kabul
sands have also been driven from
NANGARHAR
trichothecenes. These poisons carry such
HERAT
LOGAR
their homeland by the use of these
names as nivalenol, deoxynivalenol and
AFGHANISTAN
INDIA
agents." As for Afghanistan, he
T2. Little is known about trichothecenes,
URUZGAN GHAZNI
added, Soviet forces have used a va-
but they apparently cause the deteriora-
PAKISTAN
riety of lethal and nonlethal chemi-
tion and death of cells in bone marrow,
cal weapons against rebel forces
lymph nodes, intestines and other organs,
KANDAHAN
IRAN
since the invasion in December
and the rupture of blood vessels. They also
Area of reported concentrated
1979.
interfere with the blood's ability to clot.
chemical attacks
The Soviet Union has consis-
When sprayed in a mist that is usually yel-
0
200 Γ
tently denied its involvement in
low but can be red or white, they are said
chemical warfare. The Soviet news
to kill plants, animals and people with
agency TASS denounced the State
frightening speed. According to May
tion in our minds that such weapons have
Department report as "dirty lies," and
Xiong, 29, a Hmong refugee in Thailand
been and are continuing to be used.
pointedly noted that the U.S. had used
who witnessed a score of gas attacks:
Responding to numerous requests
poisonous herbicides (including the con-
"Nothing survives yellow rain."
from Congress for documentation of these
troversial Agent Orange) during the Viet
charges, the Administration last week re-
Nam War. The Soviets have also accused
T
he first reports on the use of the toxins
leased a 32-page summary of its evidence,
the U.S. of supplying Afghan rebels with
in Indochina began circulating in
prepared by the State Department and
chemical weapons and of preparing to use
1976, when members of the Hmong
based in part on secret Pentagon and CIA
them against Cuba and the rebels in
tribes, which had fought with U.S. forces
reports. The document charged that since
El Salvador.
in the Indochina conflict, fled their Lao-
1975, the Soviets and their allies have
The most mysterious and dreaded of
tian highland villages for Thailand. At
launched at least 432 chemical attacks in
the chemicals that the U.S. accuses the
first, their bizarre stories were not taken
TIME, APRIL 5, 1982
Nation
seriously. But at least one listener was
charges; last November the U.N. sent an
out autopsies, a spokesman for the de-
struck by the consistency of these tales:
eight-member team to interview refugees
partment answered that the figure was
Dr. Amos Townsend, 51, a retired Air
in Thailand. The team was denied visas
meant merely to show the number of
Force colonel who served at Fort Detrick,
to Laos and Viet Nam and for complex
deaths that it had corroborated by outside
Md., when it was the U.S. Army's biologi-
diplomatic reasons did not try to make
evidence.
cal-warfare research center. "I knew the
on-site inspections in Cambodia. Not sur-
Scientists also take issue with the re-
Hmong were not lying to me," says
prisingly, the hamstrung investigation
port's argument that only large-scale in-
Townsend, who is now with an Interna-
found no evidence to "prove or disprove
dustry, on the Soviet model, can mass-
tional Rescue Committee team helping
the allegations." Even so, the U.N. team
produce the toxins. Argues Biochemist
refugees in Thailand. "There were so
reported that refugee accounts "could
James Bamburg of Colorado State Uni-
many stories, each slightly different, but
suggest a possible use of some sort of
versity: "You can do it in your basement
all describing similar incidents." Later,
chemical-warfare agents" and recom-
or a converted dog kennel." What most
refugees fleeing Cambodia began telling
mended that the inquiry continue. The
concerns scientific skeptics is that the
almost identical stories. In 1979, a U.S.
team visited Afghan refugee camps in Pa-
physical samples, the crux of the Govern-
medical team was sent to a Hmong refu-
kistan in February, and will issue a new
ment's case, are few in number and have
gee camp in Thailand to investigate the
report in the fall.
been gathered in haphazard fashion.
charges. It concluded that two or three
Notes Ecologist Arthur Westing of
chemicals, including a mysterious lethal
gas, were being used against the tribe.
BORSHAY
Hampshire College, who chaired a panel
on chemical weapons at a January meet-
Last September the U.S. announced
ing of the American Association for the
that a leaf and twig dusted with yellow
Advancement of Science: "You don't
powder, which had been retrieved by
know if they have been doctored or if
Thai forces from a Cambodian village
they were brought over sloppily and fun-
shortly after a gas attack, contained high
gus simply developed on them naturally."
levels of three trichothecenes. Townsend
collected another telling set of samples in
W
hether or not that is true, there is
October during a four-day trip to a Cam-
ample and indisputable evidence
bodian hospital that was tending victims
that the Soviet Union does have a mas-
of a reported yellow-rain attack. He drew
sive investment in chemical warfare. Ac-
blood from nine survivors of the assault,
cording to the Pentagon, the Soviets have
which had occurred four weeks earlier, as
100,000 personnel in the program and 14
well as from four people who had never
active chemical factories. By contrast,
been exposed to yellow rain. Traces of a
the U.S. military has only 5,000 people
metabolite of T2 were found in the blood
assigned to chemical warfare and no ac-
of two of the victims. Townsend last
tive production facility. Manufacture of
month made three more trips to the Thai-
chemical weapons ceased in 1969. The
Cambodian border to collect blood sam-
U.S. has a stockpile of 700,000 rounds of
ples from survivors of chemical assaults
nerve gas, but most of these weapons, says
that occurred in February and March.
Deputy Under Secretary of Defense
James P. Wade Jr., are "unserviceable
T
he State Department report contends
Yellow-rain investigator Dr. Amos Townsend
and unreliable."
that only the Soviet Union-and cer-
So many stories of similar incidents.
President Reagan wants to resume
tainly not its Indochinese allies-has the
production of chemical weapons, which
capacity to mass-produce the toxins. The
Some congressional critics are more
he has called "essential to the national in-
U.S.S.R. has a long familiarity with myco-
than satisfied by the State Department
terest." His new defense budget calls for
toxins. During World War II, thousands
report. Says Congressman Jim Leach,
$123 million to be spent on rebuilding
of Soviet citizens died, apparently after
Republican from Iowa: "The previous
and maintaining the U.S. chemical arse-
eating food made from improperly har-
statements on the subject were sufficient
nal. The Pentagon plans to produce so-
vested grain. The presumed reason: fun-
to indict but not to convict. On the basis
called binary weapons, in which the in-
gus growing on the grain had produced
of the new report, I think any jury would
gredients of deadly nerve gas are kept in
trichothecenes. Soviet technical literature
convict."
separate compartments of bombs or
contains extensive studies of the toxins,
World reaction to the U.S. charges
shells. They combine to form a lethal
including how to produce them on a large
has been curiously muted, in part because
mixture only after being fired, thus mak-
scale, and the Soviets are said to use the
of the Administration's frequent over-
ing handling safer.
chemicals as insecticides and antifungus
statements. Says Gregory A. Flynn, of the
Some military experts on Capitol Hill
agents. Says a State Department official:
Paris-based Atlantic Institute for Inter-
are dubious about allotting money for
"To produce them by the hundreds of
national Affairs: "What happened with
chemical warfare. Democratic Senator
pounds for spraying out of airplanes re-
that [purported Nicaraguan guerrilla in
Gary Hart of Colorado has introduced
quires a major pharmaceutical facility."
El Salvador] brought up to Washington is
legislation to ban money for the new
But why would the Soviets use these
bound to affect the world's interpretation
weapons, arguing that they "would consti-
deadly weapons? According to Richard
of this latest report." Concedes Leach:
tute a mindless escalation of the arms
Burt, director of the State Department's
"The U.S. is not too credible any more in
race." The Administration believes, how-
Bureau of Politico-Military Affairs,
the eyes of some [foreign] governments.
ever, that replenishing its chemical-weap-
"chemicals were the most effective way"
They think we suffer from an anti-Soviet
ons stock could force the Soviets into seri-
of removing enemies from contested terri-
paranoia."
ous negotiations on a chemical-arms ban.
tory. Argues Burt: "The Soviets teach in
Some U.S. scientists, too, argue that
If a mutually acceptable verification sys-
their chemical-warfare school that lethal
the case is not yet conclusive. Employing
tem could be worked out, said U.S. Disar-
chemical weapons are acceptable and ef-
a peculiarly exact figure that recalled the
mament Negotiator Louis Fields Jr. at
fective in putting down resistance in a lo-
illusory body counts of the Viet Nam
talks in Geneva last week, the U.S. would
cal war, particularly when it looks like
War, the State Department study alleged
"terminate our binary program promptly
you've got them on the run."
that at least 6,504 had been killed by
and eagerly."
-By Anastasia Toufexis.
The U.S. formally asked the United
chemical attacks in Laos. Asked how that
Reported by Victoria Butler/Bangkok and
Nations to investigate its yellow-rain
precise number could be confirmed with-
Bruce W. Nelan/Washington, with other bureaus
TIME, APRIL 5. 198:
Asian Refugees: Death in the Night
By WILLIAM KUCEWICZ
Japanese and Filipinos in their own coun-
ins or other poisons in Southeast Asia.
SANTA ANA, Calif.-In 1976 Yang Ying
tries, and witnesses have sometimes inter-
"This never happened to our people before.
started a new life in this Los Angeles sub-
preted the terminal groans as signs of ter-
Never. We've never seen anything like it in
urb. He and his family fled their besieged
rifying dreams. However, the CDC report
the past," says Xeuvang Vangyi, executive
native village in the hills of Laos. and were
says "careful questioning of the witnesses
director of Lao Family Community Inc.,
lucky enough to be among the 50,000 fellow
in the United States indicated that the ter-
which runs resettlement and training cen-
minal sounds were those that are often
members of the Hmong tribe to be admit-
ters in Los Angeles and more than a dozen
heard following cardiac arrest."
other cities in the U.S.
ted to the security of the U.S. With the help
of a local Hmong community group, he
The CDC report concludes that the
"We've complained already to CDC to
learned English. acquired a trade in elec-
heart's natural pacemaker mechanism has
check" into a possible connection between
tronic component assembly and got a job.
suddenly failed for some mysterious rea-
"yellow rain" and the sudden deaths, says
On Friday evening Dec. 12, 1980, Mr.
son. "The abruptness of the deaths re-
Gen. Vang Pao, who led the Hmong troops
Yang returned from work, ate dinner with
ported here is compatible with cardiac dys-
in the Vietnam war. He is now president of
his extended family in their small two-fam-
rhythmia, but the underlying mechanism
the Lao Family organization and is also
ily house and took his two young children
remains unclear." As close as it comes to
considered chief spokesman for Hmong
for a short stroll. For the rest of the eve-
an explanation is the speculation "there
refugees. But CDC "won't or can't do any-
ning, he sat around the table talking with
might be a genetic or an acquired disorder
thing to help that proof for the people," he
his father and brother and went to bed
predisposing these persons to sudden
adds.
about midnight. Around 4 o'clock in the
death."
"It's something we've looked into" as a
morning his wife awoke to the*sounds of
What the report does not mention is the
possible cause, explains Dr. Roy Baron, an
her husband gagging and gasping for air.
She called his father and brother, and
someone called an ambulance. But within
The report does not mention the fact that the Hmong
minutes Mr. Yang, at the age of 25, was
dead.
in Laos have been primary victims of biological toxin
Mr. Yang's relatives say he had been in
perfect health until the day he died; he had
weapons, commonly called 'yellow rain.'
never even been in a hospital. An autopsy
by the Orange County coroner could not de-
termine the cause of death other than to
fact that the Hmong in Laos have been pri-
say his heart failed. To this day no one
epidemiologist in charge of CDC's study of
mary victims of biological toxin weapons,
knows what caused Mr. Yang's untimely
these sudden deaths. However, "in the pre-
commonly called "yellow rain."
death.
liminary reports of the manner of death,
These hill tribe people, many of whom
But whatever killed Mr. Yang has
nothing suggested toxic substances should
fought alongside the U.S. in the Vietnam
reached epidemic proportions among
be proposed" as a likely cause, he adds.
war, have been a traditional center of re-
young, male Hmong refugees here. At the
The center interviewed families of 25 of the
sistance to the Communists in Southeast
end of 1981, the U.S. government Centers
39 victims of this sudden death syndrome.
Asia. After the fall of Laos, the Commu-
for Disease Control in Atlanta had re-
"Only one had a history of definite expo-
nist Pathet Lao tried to resettle the
corded 39 cases of "sudden, unexpected,
sure (to yellow rain), and two might have.
Hmong in the more controllable lowlands.
nocturnal deaths." Of these, 26 were
This is a similar proportion of the control
Those Hmong villages that resisted were
Hmong, eight others Laotian, four Viet-
group" of young refugees now being moni-
attacked. Since 1975 the Hmong have been
namese and one Cambodian. Only one was
tored, Dr. Baron says.
fleeing across the border into Thailand
a woman. In addition to the 39, seven new
The Hmong here complain, however,
and telling stories to anyone who cared
"suspected" cases have been reported so
that they can't be sure they have never
to listen about "yellow rain." This yel-
far this year. The CDC calculates that dur-
been exposed to "yellow rain." They ex-
lowish powder, dropped over villages and
ing the last year the death rate for young
plain that the trek out of the hills of Laos
fields by Communist aircraft, causes blis-
Laotian males was 87 per 100,000, compar-
to refugee camps in Thailand takes weeks
tering of the skin, vomiting and massive
able to the sum of the four leading causes
of walking through unfamiliar territory
hemorrhaging, with the victim often chok-
of natural death among U.S. men of simi-
that may have been previously contami-
ing to death on his own blood.
lar age.
nated. If not yellow rain, they add, other
The U.S. government and independent
poisons are also being used in Asia. They
Unable to Identify a Cause
analysts have confirmed the use of "yellow
tell of cases of persons becoming ill and
"This is a strange and fascinating oc.
rain" by Soviet-backed troops in Southeast
even dying from tainted water, salt, meat,
currence," says Dr. Anthony Contazerro of
Asia. According to a still classified Special
noodles and other foodstuffs. Mr. Vangyi
the University of California Medical School
National Intelligence Estimate, the U.S.
speaks of one case of poisoned sait sold to
in San Diego, which runs a referral pro-
now has communications intelligence that
fleeing refugees by the Pathet Lao; the
gram for Southeast Asian refugees. There
shows direct Soviet involvement in the use
salt, he says, caused the rotting away of
have been at least seven cases of nocturnal
of these obscene weapons which are sup-
these persons' lips, gums and the roofs of
deaths in the San Diego area, but neither
posed to be banned under international
their mouths to expose the nasal cavity.
the coroner's office nor doctors at the Med-
law. Secretary of State Alexander Haig
The Hmong here also talk of "green
ical Center have been abie to identify a
said recently that. the estimates of non-
eggs." Khang Yong Chue, who now lives in
cause.
combatant casualties from these weapons
Santa Ana, says that in the rainy season of
In December the Centers for Disease
range in the "scores of thousands."
1978 he saw aircraft drop bluish-green egg-
Control published an initial study, conclud-
Tests of "yellow rain" samples have
like objects in and around his village of
ing "the deaths reported here share sev-
identified the killer as mycotoxins of the
Ban Pha Honei in Laos. Rain and water on
eral features that suggest they may consti-
trichothecene group, which are poisons
the ground caused the shells of these
tute a distinct syndrome. They occurred at
produced naturally by fungus on grains.
"eggs" to evaporate and to expose a "very
night or in the early morning hours during
Most natural outbreaks of this toxin have
black" core which gave off noxious fumes,
sleep and involved mostly young, appar-
occurred in the Soviet Union, though some
he says. Some villagers who breathed the
ently healthy men who had no premonitory
cases have been reported in the U.S. and
fumes had stomach aches, diarrhea, loss of
symptoms. Descriptions of the terminal
Japan. Scientific studies continue on the ef-
sight and bioody vomit. He says he saw
events suggested that the transition from
fects of these mycotoxins on laboratory an-
seven persons die in 24 hours to three days
apparent health to death occurred within
imals. Little is known, however, about the
later.
minutes."
long-term effects on man of low-ievel expo-
Both Mr. Khang and his wife a year
The only publicly suggested cause for
sure to these fungal poisons.
earlier had been attacked by yellow rain;
the deaths has been that the men were
Many of the Hmong are convinced that
he is still crippled because the substance
frightened to death by nightmares. Similar
the current sudden death syndrome is
got on his legs and his wife is partially
deaths have been reported among young
somehow connected to the use of these tox-
blind because she looked up at the aircraft
during the attack and got the yellow pow-
der in her eyes. Neither has been exam-
ined by government medical specialists
seeking information on the effects of myco-
toxins.
Dr. Baron of the CDC says he has been
THE WALL STREET JOURNAL
urged to study mycotoxins specifically not
only by Hmong leaders, but by Congress-
man Jim Leach, who has raised the
"yellow rain" issue, and Jane Hamilton-
Merritt, whose Reader's Digest articles
were among the first to depict the plight of
March 11, 1982
the Hmong. But, Dr. Baron says, "I'm not
working in that direction."
Instead, the CDC study is concentrating
on looking for some clue in the medical
records and tissues of the dead. The center
is having an outside specialist conduct a
detailed examination of the electrical con-
duction systems of the hearts of six sudden
death victims. Dr. Baron says that one
thing is known, "Their coronary arteries
are sparkling clear," which rules out the
typical cause of heart attacks. He says the
exams hope to find some "defect" in the
conduction systems that may "predispose"
refugees to cardiac arrest.
Scientists Don't Understand
The CDC's initial report disappointed
not only the Hmong. The San Diego doctors
were "waiting with bated breath," Dr.
Contazerro says, but found it "very shal-
low." Yet in a sense the CDC is doing what
epidemiological institutions do; it certainly
was not established to study biological
warfare. And there is no particular
"medical evidence" to connect the noctur-
nal deaths and trichothecene toxins. Scien-
tists do not yet understand the mechanisms
by which these toxins produce their acute
symptoms, let alone what the long-term ef-
fects might be.
Yet in trying to learn whether the ob-
vious possibility is being explored, the
striking thing is a lack of vigor and ur-
gency throughout the U.S. government.
Trichothecenes go unmentioned in the CDC
report, though the nightmare hypothesis is
discussed. A high State Department office
dealing with "yellow rain" has heard
vaguely of nocturnal deaths, but is sur-
prised that they predominantly involve
Hmong. The Food and Drug Administra-
tion's top expert on mycotoxins has not
been consulted. Imagine if those nocturnal
deaths occurred among "Agent Orange"
veterans.
Surely it is a stunning coincidence that
the mysterious nocturnal deaths are occur-
ring among the same people attacked by
"yellow rain," and started to be reported
about the same time the attacks were. Any
connection would be fraught with medical,
ecological, diplomatic and military signifi-
cance. Surely there must be some way for
the U.S. government to focus some re-
search directly on the trichothecene hy-
pothesis. No one took the Hmong seriously
when they first started to tell of the horror
of "yellow rain," and now no one is taking
them seriously when they say why their
relatives here are dying in the night.
Mr. Kucewicz is a member of the Jour-
nal's editorial page staff.
Yellow Rain: Gaining Speed
For six months now we have been
that the realization that even in this
exhorting all and sundry to give the
area the Soviet Union operates with-
yellow rain attacks in Southeast Asia
out restraint affects our confidence in
WALL STREET JOURNAL
the attention they deserve. So we are
any agreement signed by the Soviet
relieved to observe that the issue is fi-
Union."
nally gaining speed. MAR 1 1 1982
This renewed government attention
March 11, 1982
Most important, we sense a consid-
parallels and stimulates a growing
erable change in attitude by the U.S.
public concern. The University of To-
government, which we have repeat-
ledo Law School held a conference on
edly criticized for not taking its own
the implications of yellow rain for in-
beliefs to their logical conclusion. The
ternational law. W. Hays Parks, of the
government had stated that the
Army Judge Advocate General's of-
Hmong and other Asian peoples were
fice noted, "There has been only one
being attacked by toxin weapons
successful arms control agreement in
banned by the 1972 Biological Weap-
U.S. history-the Rush-Bagot Agree-
ons Convention, and which beyond any
ment of 1817 between Great Britain
reasonable doubt come from the So-
and the United States, which limited
viet Union. If this is true, we argued,
naval power on the Great Lakes."
It must be taken as a serious and ur-
The Asia Society held a meeting in
gent issue, to be raised in every public
New York this week. Gary Crocker of
and international forum.
the State Department said that medi-
In the last few weeks, U.S. repre-
cal evidence suggests that mycotoxins
sentatives have done precisely that. A
may have been used in Yemen in the
Special National Intelligence Estimate
1960s, and by now are used by Soviet
was prepared, dealing with the large
proxy forces routinely in certain mili-
volume of refugee reports on toxin
tary missions. The Soviets have
warfare and adding such crucial infor-
passed the point of experimentation."
mation as communications intelli-
Last week Hodding Carter's
gence linking the Soviets to the weap-
"Inside Story" on PBS explored the
ons. This seems to have pulled the
question of why such a significant
government together.
story has not received wider coverage
For instance, Secretary of State
in the U.S. press; we hope that editors
Haig on Feb. 14 made his first state-
everywhere ponder the issue. But the
ment of any substance on yellow rain
press is also starting to pick up the
since he initially raised the mycotoxin
new concern. The Stoessel testimony
issue in Berlin last September. Asked
made headlines, and The Washington
on ABC about being "beaten up" on
Post carried a story from a correspon-
the issue by this newspaper and oth-
dent in Cambodia reporting that the
ers, he responded strongly that every
Khmer Rouge say Vietnamese troops
day there was more "Incontrover-
used gas on them as recently as Feb.
tible" evidence, and that "scores of
13.
thousands" of non-combatants had
All of this coverage is welcome.
been killed by the ugly weapons.
For our part, we certainly think that
This has been but one of a number
"yellow rain" is one of the most sig-
of official statements in the last few
nificant stories of the year. The biolog-
weeks. Richard Burt, director of poli-
ical weapons convention was signed in
tico-military affairs at State, told a
1972, in the bloom of detente, and all
European disarmament conference of
the while the Soviets were conspiring
an East German military manual that
to commit a massive violation. This
discusses toxin weapons at length, as
says things about the character of
if they are a normal part of the War-
their leadership that casts shadows
saw Pact arsenal. Deputy Secretary of
far beyond the immediate issue.
State Walter Stoessel told a Senate
It remains to be seen whether even
Committee this week that since 1979 at
now the government sees the issue in
least 3,000 Afghans have been killed
this full context, though Ambassador
by poison gas. There are indications
Kampelman certainly comes close.
that the agents used include the myco-
The cynics are saying that the re-
toxins. (Chemical agents violate the
newed interest in "yellow rain" is only
1925 Geneva protocol, while biological
a lobbying campaign for the adminis-
agents and toxins are covered by the
tration's proposals for binary chemi-
1972 convention.)
cal weapons, a more modern and
We particularly liked the statement
safer deterrent. Such doubts are likely
by Ambassador Max Kampelman,
to persist until we hear President Rea-
chairman of the U.S. delegation to the
gan himself on the issue. There is talk
Madrid Conference on the Helsinki
of his making a new defense speech,
agreement. He went beyond most
and this certainly would be an appro-
State Department spokesmen in not-
priate moment to make clear that
ing that the disarmament agreements
deep concern over yellow rain is a
had been "seriously and deliberately
pressing and permanent part of his
On the Agenda
WALL STREET JOURNAL
The State Department's workman-
and locations of Soviet military in-
like compilation of the evidence of
spections of chemical arsenals in Laos
chemical and biological warfare in
and the training of Vietnamese and se-
Southeast Asia was delivered Monday,
lect Laotian troops in chemical war-
MAR 24 1982
and received by the press without the
fare. Hmong refugees and Communist
withering skepticism that has recently
defectors also tell of Soviet advisers
stifled debate. It would seem that
preparing chemical weapons and even
"yellow rain" is now firmly estab-
participating in attacks. It says Lao
lished on the national agenda.
Communist or Soviet medical teams
The thrust of State's report-the
have entered attack zones to conduct
mass of refugee testimony, the activ-
body counts and to perform autopsies.
ity of the Soviet chemical warfare pro-
Evidence of shipments of these
gram, the identification of trichothe-
chemical and toxin weapons to Viet-
cene toxins as the latest horror weap-
nam from the Soviet Union dates back
on-is already well-known to followers
as far as 1975, when a Soviet ship sank
of these columns. But the report and
in the Black Sea. It was bound for
associated briefings did clear up some
Vietnam with a cargo of military
of the remaining confusions.
equipment. A Soviet captain of a div-
One of these concerned the medical
ing support ship, which was trying to
evidence. The symptoms reported
raise the sunken vessel, said that his
from "yellow rain" generally fit those
divers came in contact with toxic
of trichothecene poisoning. But the
chemicals and became very ill. A spe-
medical literature and animal experi-
cial Soviet salvage team was brought
ments suggest that the symptoms do
in, but its divers also became ill, and a
not develop immediately. There are
special military team took over. It
no previous reports of sudden massive
took three years to raise the ship, un-
hemorrhage, leaving victims choking
load the chemicals and scrap the ves-
to death on their own blood. Yet this is
sel.
what the Hmong refugees report, and
Another incident occurred in July,
in our opinion they have earned the
1981, when a Soviet shipment of
right to be believed.
wooden crates filled with canisters
Even if frightened refugees exag-
was unloaded at the port of Ho Chi
gerated the immediacy of the hemor-
Minh City. Some Vietnamese soldiers
rhage, of course, their kinfolk are just
were pilfering the crates, looking for
as dead, and the biological weapons
food and valuables, and one soldier
convention just as shattered. There is
tried to open a canister. Security
also the possibility that the chemicals
forces isolated the area and said the
are mixed with other poisons, and
canisters contained a deadly toxic
with solvents that speed absorption
substance from the USSR. The wooden
and the onset of symptoms. But most
crates, each weighing about 100 kilo-
simply of all, the clinical experience
grams, were loaded on military trucks
and animal experiments with trichoth-
and taken under special guard to the
ecenes concern ingestion, not inhala-
Long Binh storage depot.
tion.
The State Department's latest re-
Trichothecenes have' been consid-
port, along with the hundreds of pages
ered a public health and veterinary
of earlier reports, testimony and sci-
problem in moldy grains, so test ani-
entific evidence, leave room for only
mals were fed toxins, and developed
one conclusion: The Soviet Union is
gastric bleeding. At least outside of
actively engaged in chemical and bio-
the Soviet Union, no one saw any rea-
logical warfare in Southeast Asia and
son to test the effects of breathing the
Afghanistan. There is not much point
hemorrhage-producing agent into the
in dwelling any longer on the supposed
lungs. But inhalation experiments are
medical and scientific inconsistencies
now being run at the U.S. Army Medi-
or to decry a supposed dearth of evi-
cal Research Institute of Infectious
dence. It's time to turn attention to the
Diseases. At Monday's briefing,
question, what do we do about this?
Sharon Watson, a toxicologist, re-
What policies are most likely to bring
ported that the tests have produced
these heinous activities to a halt?
the same effects reported by the
What can we do to protect our own
Hmong.
troops from such warfare? What does
The State Department report also
this mean for other negotiations with
adds a mass of detail on Sovieť com-
the Soviet Union? How do we adjust
plicity in the chemical and biological
our thinking on what kind of an adver-
attacks. It provides numerous dates
sary we face?
The T Backgrounder
Herîtage Foundation
No.
The Heritage Foundation
513 C Street
N.E.
Washington, D.C.
20002
(202) 546-4400
165
February 5, 1982
MOSCOW'S POISON WAR: MOUNTING EVIDENCE
OF BATTLEFIELD ATROCITIES
INTRODUCTION
From the battlefields of Laos, Kampuchea and Afghanistan,
grisly evidence mounts of the systematic use of universally
condemned methods of warfare. There the Soviet Union and its
proxies are waging a clandestine war of chemical terror against
the political and ethnic groups that have refused to be subdued
by conventional arms. In exasperation, Soviet-backed forces have
turned to a poisoned earth policy designed to drive indigenous
nationalists and anti-communist guerrillas in Laos, Kampuchea and
Afghanistan from their homeland sanctuaries. The result: thou-
sands of men, women and children have been indiscriminately
slaughtered in what could become, if unchecked, a brutal poison
holocaust.
At first, there were only scattered stories of chemical
atrocities and they were disbelieved and generally ignored. But
the reports persisted and damning proof mounted. In recent
months, the evidence has become irrefutable and stands as an
indictment of the Soviet Union for crimes against humanity.
MYSTERIOUS DEATH CLOUDS
In 1976, terror-stricken refugees began streaming out of
Laos carrying news of a gruesome new addition to the arsenal of
the Soviet bloc. They told of a poisonous yellow cloud that they
called "Yellow Rain" because small particles in the cloud made
sounds like raindrops as they settled on the roofs of their huts
and on the surrounding fields. The mysterious yellow poison,
delivered by aerial bombing and artillery attacks, inflicted
bizarre and grievous injuries on the victims, often resulting in
quick, painful death. Direct exposure to the clouds caused
breathing difficulties, extreme irritation of the eyes, skin,
nose, throat and lungs. Small, hard blisters formed over
Note: Nothing written here is to be construed as necessarily reflecting the views of The Heritage Foundation or as an
attempt to aid or hinder the passage of any bill before Congress.
2
exposed body surfaces. This was accompanied by coughing of
blood-tinged material, choking, dizziness, multiple hemorrhaging
of mucous membranes, vomiting massive quantities of blood, the
seeping of blood from eyes, ears and nose, convulsions, and
death. All this happened within hours, sometimes minutes.
Shortly after death, the skin turned black.
Villagers less exposed to the poisonous cloud reportedly
took longer to develop the symptoms and had some chance of surviv-
ing. Many of these, however, died after a prolonged and agonizing
struggle with grotesque maladies: terrible skin blistering,
chest pains, inflammation of the eyes, nose, throat and breathing
passages, nausea, vertigo, bloody diarrhea, massive hemorrhaging
throughout the body but especially the lungs, the spewing of
blood from all body orifices, neurological spasms and shock. So
many different vital organs and bodily functions were damaged
that it was difficult to determine the precise cause of the
victim's death. So ghastly was the spectacle that one expert
described the victims as "walking hemorrhages" who literally
drowned in their own blood.
The poison clouds also killed livestock and damaged crops
and vegetation. Plants contaminated by the powdery residue
developed numerous scorched blotches about one millimeter in
diameter scattered over the surfaces of the exposed leaves.
These distinctive marks did not resemble the after-effects of any
known chemical weapon, herbicide or plant pathogen.
Initial reports of "Yellow Rain" were confined to the Hmong
tribal areas in central Laos. Later, tales of similar chemical
attacks began trickling in from Cambodian refugees in Thailand
and Afghan refugees in Pakistan. The descriptions they gave were
remarkably similar -- particularly so because these refugees had
very limited medical knowledge and were separated from each other
by vast geographical and cultural differences. Each of these
technologically unsophisticated peoples described the results of
the poison in terms of their own experience and cultural back-
grounds. The Kampucheans, for instance, reported that the victims
in their death throes "were jerking like fish when you take them
out of the water"; the Afghans recounted scenes of compatriots
"jerking like dogs with broken backs." The similarity of these
persistent reports of unusual medical symptoms, coming from rural
peoples with minimal contact with the outside world as well as
each other, made it impossible to discount such statements as
inventions of opponents of the local regime. Not only did the
flood of refugees fleeing the affected areas provide similar
accounts of appalling deaths, but the doctors treating survivors
in field hospitals and relief camps thousands of miles apart
recognized similar after-effects: hoarse voices, vision impair-
ment, weakness, lung disorders and skin lesions.
3
THE SEARCH FOR THE SMOKING GUN
In fall 1979, the Pentagon dispatched an army medical team
to Thailand to verify rumors of chemical warfare in neighboring
Laos and Kampuchea. After extensive interviews with refugees who
had witnessed attacks, Dr. Charles Lewis, the head of the medical
team and chief of dermatology at the Brooke Army Medical Center
in San Antonio, Texas, identified three basic sets of symptoms
produced by "Yellow Rain": 1) skin burns and burns to the eyes,
nose and throat; 2) spasms and convulsions; and 3) massive hemor-
rhaging. Lewis concluded that at least two or possibly three
different chemical agents were involved: a vesicant or blistering
agent that caused the burns, a nerve agent that caused the convul-
sions and an unknown agent that produced the hemorrhaging.
The medical team was given a sample of the yellow substance
left behind in one attack but experts were unable to detect any
known chemical agent. They did discover, however, a chemical
"surfactant" called lauryl sulfonate, commonly used in liquid
soaps and detergents to facilitate penetration of surfaces to be
cleaned. While army doctors were unable to identify the specific
agent or agents being used, they returned to the U.S. totally
convinced that chemical attacks were in fact taking place. There
could be no other explanation for the numerous accounts of "Yellow
Rain" or the presence of lauryl sulfonate at the site of one
attack.
These findings, however, evidently were not welcome by the
Carter Administration. It soft-pedaled the issue of chemical
warfare in Southeast Asia apparently because it did not want to
irritate the Soviets, with whom the U.S. was negotiating an arms
control agreement. The State Department adopted what, in retro-
spect, was an overly-cautious, non-committal stance. It did not
want to raise the issue without absolute proof and this was
inordinately difficult to obtain. While the intelligence communi-
ty was extremely interested in the reports, it wished to verify
them covertly to avoid alerting the Soviets that their actions
had been detected. The issue may well have faded were it not for
the determined efforts of a number of individuals horrified by
the use of battlefield poisons: Representative Jim Leach (R-Iowa),
who focused congressional attention on the issue; journalist
Sterling Seagrave, author of Yellow Rain, the most complete
published account of Soviet and Soviet-sponsored chemical warfare
operations; and Jane Hamilton-Merritt, an expert on the Hmong
hill tribes and author of "Gas Warfare in Laos" (Reader's Digest,
October 1980) and "Tragic Legacy from Laos" (Reader's Digest,
August 1981). Among the organizations which have brought the
matter to public attention are the Committee for a Free Afghani-
stan, Freedom House and the International Rescue Committee.
Since taking office, the Reagan Administration has proved
less concerned than its predecessor about "upsetting" the Soviets.
The new team in the White House pushed hard to obtain irrefutable
evidence of illegal chemical warfare activities. Solid evidence
4
was elusive because the attacks were in remote locations deep
within communist-controlled territory and the attackers seemed to
be taking special precautions by using Napalm to destroy residue
of the chemical attacks. Survivors understandably had not thought
of gathering physical evidence of the attack while their comrades
writhed nearby in their terrible terminal agony. Nor could
survivors be expected to risk contamination to acquire evidence.
Some who did attempt to collect proof and transport it out of the
war zone died from exposure to the evidence that they were carry-
ing. Others lacked the strength for the long trek to a friendly
border after exposure to the toxic agents. Moreover, by the time
that word of an attack had filtered into a friendly country, the
evidence at the site of the attack typically would have been
dissipated by the heavy rains in Southeast Asia, the storms and
snows in Afghanistan and other natural processes. Producing a
corpse was nearly impossible because of the problems with trans-
porting it through enemy lines and the speed of body decomposition
in Southeast Asian jungles. In Afghanistan, moreover, any attempt
to use the corpse as evidence would conflict with the Moslem
custom of burying the deceased on the day of death.
THE SMOKING GUN: TRICOTHECENE MYCOTOXINS
Despite the difficulty of securing physical evidence of
chemical attacks and the arduous, time-consuming task of identify-
ing the mysterious chemical agent, Washington finally has solved
the five-year-old riddle of ""Yellow Rain." Secretary of State
Alexander Haig announced on September 13, 1981, that the United
States has identified the critical lethal agent as a compound
composed of three tricothecene mycotoxins¹ -- poisonous substances
produced by the fusarium fungus. These mycotoxins were found at
the site of a "Yellow Rain" attack in levels up to twenty times
greater than they occur in nature. These mycotoxins are a perfect
fit for "Yellow Rain"; they produce all the symptoms of poisoning
reported and do not produce any symptoms not reported.
The first State Department announcements were based on one
sample of lethal powder taken from a leaf at the site of an
alleged chemical attack. Findings based on such evidence were
open to criticism because they lacked the important negative
controls of the testing process that could have provided informa-
tion about the tricothecene levels of uncontaminated vegetation
outside the immediate area of the attack. However, legitimate
doubts about the validity of the findings subsequently were
erased in early November when three new samples were tested. One
of the new samples was water taken from the same Kampuchean
1
The substances were identified as Nivalenol, Deoxynivalenol, and T-2
toxin. All three produced similar symptoms but differ in the degree of
severity; while Nívalenol was a stronger hemorrhagic, Deoxynivalenol
induced harsher vomiting and T-2 had greater skin irritative effects.
5
village which provided the first evidence. The two other new
samples came from separate chemical attack sites in Laos. Two of
the three had even higher tricothecene levels than the first.
Specimens of uncontaminated background soil and vegetation from
the areas confirmed that the identified mycotoxins do not occur
naturally in the affected areas.
At a Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearing on November
10, Richard Burt, Director of the State Department's Bureau of
Politico-Military Affairs, testified that "Yellow Rain's" mysteri-
ous lethal agent had been conclusively identified: "We now have
a smoking gun. We now have four separate pieces of physical
evidence. We may soon have more as, I regret to say, chemical
attacks have been reported in Laos and Kampuchea within the last
month
Anyone who conducts his own inquiry will come to the
same conclusions we have. If
THE SOVIET CONNECTION
There is more than a smoking gun. There is strong evidence
that it is Soviet-made and Soviet-supplied. Equally damning is
the evidence that Soviet advisors in Southeast Asia may be involved
in the use of the terror-weapon and that Soviet troops in Afghani-
stan undoubtedly are. "Yellow Rain" and other chemical weapons
are being delivered by Soviet-made aircraft, rockets and artillery.
Members of the U.S.S.R. Chemical Corps are present in large
numbers in Afghanistan and have been reported in Laos, where they
may be gauging the battlefield effectiveness of chemical delivery
techniques and toxic munitions.²
Although Moscow seems for the most part to leave the actual
chemical attacks to its Vietnamese, Kampuchean and Pathet Lao
allies, there are reports that the Soviets also have taken part
directly in the attacks. Hmong tribesmen have seen "roundeye"
pilots in the slow, low-flying AN2 aircraft -- Soviet biplanes
used as crop-dusters in the U.S.S.R. -- that drop the "Yellow
Rain" over Laos. A Vietnamese defector says that he observed two
Soviet advisors fire a round of chemical munitions at Khmer Rouge
guerrillas inside Kampuchea.³
Soviet technical support personnel participate actively in
the operations of the chemical warfare logistical infrastructure
in Laos, Vietnam and to some extent Kampuchea. Independent
intelligence sources confirm that a seven-member team of Soviet
chemical warfare specialists visited the Laotian cities of Pekse
and Seno to inspect chemical weapons after chemical attacks in
2
For example, see the State Department's compendium, "Reports of the Use
of Chemical Weapons in Afghanistan, Laos and Kampuchea," Summer 1980, p.
43.
3
Reported in Bangkok Post article reprinted in FBIS, Daily Report, Asia
and the Pacific, September 25, 1981, p. Jl.
6
1978. 4 Thai military intelligence and American radio monitors
have recorded and translated radio conversations of Russian
officers giving instructions for shipment of chemical warheads
from a chemical munitions depot in Laos up a highway toward Phu
Bia Mountain, the Hmong stronghold that has been the target of
repeated chemical attacks for over five years. Another radio
intercept recorded an exchange about a high-ranking Soviet general
touring several chemical munitions depots.
While the Vietnamese have had some chemical warfare units
for some two decades and are capable of conducting chemical
operations, it is extremely doubtful -- if not impossible -- that
they could produce the large quantities of mycotoxins that are
being dumped on villages and fields in Southeast Asia. Not only
does Indochina lack large-scale biological fermentation facilities,
but the four chemical warfare depots already identified in the
area are known (through radio intercepts) to be receiving chemical
munitions from the Soviet Union.⁶
Among the world's communist states, only the Soviet Union
possesses the industrial facilities and chemical warfare research,
testing and production capabilities needed to produce large
amounts of mycotoxin in a form that could be used effectively as
a weapon.
The combination of tricothecene mycotoxins identified in the
"Yellow Rain" samples does not occur naturally in plants native
to the jungles of Southeast Asia. The fusarium fungus producing
these mycotoxins thrives on grain and bread exposed to cold, wet
climates and exists throughout much of the U.S.S.R., where histor-
ically it has posed a serious threat to the Russian food supply.
Large-scale epidemics of what the Russians have called "staggering
sickness" (above all, a bleeding disease) repeatedly have broken
out in the Ukraine, Soviet Central Asia, the Urals and Siberia
due to the contamination of the Russian grain stores by potent
mycotoxins. In 1944, up to thirty percent of the population of
the Orenburg district in Siberia were stricken by the poison and
an estimated ten percent of the population -- almost thirty
thousand people -- reportedly died.
Soviet scientists began studying the disease intensively in
the 1930s and mycotoxins have figured prominently in Soviet
scientific literature over the past fifty years. Sterling Seagrave
points out that of the fifty articles on tricothecenes in Soviet
open source literature, twenty-two deal with defining the optimum
conditions for biosynthesis of the compounds,⁷ a sign that the
Soviets have more than a passing interest in obtaining large
quantities of the poisons. Research projects on mycotoxins are
4
William Safire, "Yellow Rain," New York Times, December 13, 1979.
5
Sterling Seagrave, Yellow Rain (New York: Evans, 1981), p. 35.
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid., p. 192.
7
carried out at heavily guarded Warsaw Pact institutes which
previously worked on chemical and biological warfare research.⁸
With the world's most advanced research program in the field of
tricothecene toxicology, the Soviets definitely possess the
knowledge, personnel and facilities needed to produce the poisonous
ingredients of "Yellow Rain."
It now appears, moreover, that the mysterious gas that took
hundreds of lives during the final stages of the 1963-1967 Yemen
Civil War may have been an early version of "Yellow Rain.' Not
only was the poison gas in Yemen never identified, but victims of
the gas attacks suffered the same hellish symptoms as did the
victims of "Yellow Rain" a decade later.
As if to admit tacitly that it has something to hide in the
matter, Moscow repeatedly has tried to block formation of an
impartial U.N. commission to investigate the situation in Laos,
Kampuchea and Afghanistan and has not cooperated with it once
formed. 9 Moscow and its allies have denied the U.N. access to
the sites of chemical attacks. Despite Soviet obstructions, a
U.N. panel of experts was dispatched to Thailand in November to
verify reports of Communist chemical warfare activities in neigh-
boring Laos and Kampuchea. Because the panel was not granted
sufficient time or resources to fulfill this mandate, it was
unable to reach a final conclusion as to whether or not chemical
weapons had been used. However, it did note that the symptoms
reported in some cases "could suggest a possible use of some sort
of chemical warfare agents.' In view of these tentative findings,
the U.N. General Assembly overrode Soviet bloc objections and on
December 9, 1981, voted 86 to 20 (with 34 abstentions) to extend
the investigations for another year. Since Pakistan recently
granted the U.N. panel permission to visit Afghan refugee camps
inside its borders, the U.N. panel of experts is now expected to
address the matter of chemical operations within Afghanistan.
The investigation of reported chemical warfare incidents is
a critical test of United Nations credibility. A November 27,
1981, Washington Post editorial declared:
The United Nations group has so far not accomplished
much of anything the group must be given adequate
time and financial resources to accomplish a difficult
task
The charges being investigated, after all, go
beyond whether this or that chemical has been used.
They engage nothing less than what the United Nations
is all about -- the international rule of law. The
8
State Department Fact Sheet, September 1981, p. 2.
9
During the Korean War, the U.S. called for the U.N. Security Council to
investigate Soviet charges that the U.S. was using bacteriological weapons.
The investigations were blocked, however, when the Soviets vetoed the
measure in the Security Council.
8
integrity of the international system demands that they
be conclusively proved or refuted.
CHEMICAL ATTACKS IN LAOS
Reports of chemical attacks began filtering out of Laos in
1976, although the first attacks began as much as two years
earlier. The State Department has documented well over one
hundred separate assaults, most against the Hmong (also known as
Meo) hill tribes of central Laos. As traditional foes of the
lowland Pathet Lao, the Hmong sided with the French against the
Viet Minh in the early 1950s and sustained an estimated 30,000
casualties aiding the U.S. fifteen years later. For this reason,
they are hated by the Vietnamese and Pathet Lao who have used
chemicals to attack defenseless villages inhabited by old people,
women, children and other non-combatants. At least half of the
Hmong surviving the gas attacks died on the trek to Thailand of
exhaustion, malnutrition or Pathet Lao ambushes. The few who
manage to get across the Mekong River to Thailand have been
described as "walking skeletons carrying skeletons out of the
jungle."
In addition to the "Yellow Rain, " the Vietnamese and the
Pathet Lao have employed a lethal red colored gas and less potent
blue-green and white poisonous gas clouds. These are delivered
by helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft, artillery and rockets. The
attackers, it seems, are testing various combinations of chemical
agents and means of delivery. Pathet Lao soldiers, meanwhile,
appear to be experimenting with antidotes to the poisons. There
have been reports of soldiers wearing cloth masks entering the
villages shortly after gas attacks to inject the inhabitants with
medicine and then take them to hospitals for observation. 10
These attacks are destroying the Hmong as a people. While
Hmong in Laos numbered about 500,000 in 1960, there are now fewer
than 100,000 remaining; 100,000 are in Thai refugee camps or
relocated to the West, including about 40,000 in the United
States. At least 15,000 to 20,000 Hmong are estimated to have
died in the communist chemical onslaught. 11 Many of those who
successfully have fled to freedom were exposed to poison gas and
continue to suffer constant headaches, painful muscles and joints,
pulmonary disorders, and eye and ear problems. At least thirty-
five Hmong adults in the U.S. have died suddenly in their sleep
for no apparent reason. 12
10
See, for example, State Department Compendium, p. 68.
11
Seagrave, op. cit., p. 253.
12
Jane Hamilton-Merritt, "Tragic Legacy from Laos," Reader's Digest, August
1981, pp. 96-97.
9
CHEMICAL ATTACKS IN KAMPUCHEA
The State Department has documented at least twenty-eight
separate chemical attacks in Kampuchea. The evidence comes from
interviews with Kampuchean refugees, Vietnamese defectors and
Kampuchean nationalist resistance fighters. As in Laos, the
munitions used and means of delivery varied widely. Chemical
attacks began much later than in Laos and increased markedly in
late 1979. "Yellow Rain" weapons have not been used as frequently
as in Laos -- possibly because the contested terrain was too close
to the Thai border and also was much more vulnerable to conven-
tional military attack than the mountain sanctuaries of the Hmong
in northern Laos.
In a typical chemical operation in May 1981, a Vietnamese
mortar attack only miles from the Thai border left scores dead
and drove sixty-five Kampucheans across the border to Thai refugee
hospitals where they received treatment. Thai army tests found
traces of cyanide in water samples and plant life recovered from
the area, while the Bangkok-based International Committee of the
Red Cross confirmed that numerous people were being treated for
chemical poisoning, some of whom died. 13 The Vietnamese also
have launched chemical attacks on the Thai side of the border.
In March 1980, a Vietnamese aircraft violated Thai airspace to
drop toxic gas after it was fired on by Thai forces. 14 On
January 29, 1982, the State Department announced that the analysis
of nine blood samples taken from survivors of a chemical attack
in the fall of 1981 provided additional evidence of chemical
operations inside Kampuchea.
CHEMICAL ATTACKS IN AFGHANISTAN
State Department files contain evidence of well over fifty
instances of chemical attacks in Afghanistan. U.S. officials
receive a constant flow of eyewitness reports from Afghan freedom
fighters, journalists and doctors who have treated survivors of
chemical attacks. Although no physical evidence has yet been
retrieved from the remote Afghan hinterland, technical methods
and human intelligence accounts, corroborated by the testimony of
Afghan army defectors, leave no doubt that chemical weapons are
being employed in Afghanistan. All that is missing -- as it was
for a while in Southeast Asia -- is the "smoking gun."
The first accounts of communist chemical operations in
Afghanistan date from late summer 1979, four months before the
Soviets overtly invaded. At that time, freedom fighters attempt-
ing to interdict the strategic Salang highway were bombed with
what an Afghan army officer (who later defected to the nationalist
13
"Chemical Warfare in Southeast Asia," Wall Street Journal, September 21,
1981, p. 34.
14
State Department Compendium, p. 118.
10
side) termed "nerve gas. #15 Since the Soviet invasion, chemical
attacks have been reported persistently in northeastern Afghani-
stan, particularly in the isolated northern province of Badakhshan.
At least three broad types of gases have been identified -- a
bright yellow or green riot control agent that causes painful
skin blisters; an incapacitant dubbed Blue-X that renders its
victims unconscious for up to eight hours; and a lethal agent
that comes in several different colors and is believed similar to
"Yellow Rain."
An eyewitness, who had survived a "dirty colored cloud,
yellowish brown, recalls in anguish that "our fighters were
throwing up blood as if they have been drinking blood and could
not hold any more. There was also blood in their eyes, like
tears, and from the nose. At first I thought it was from the
concussion of the bomb, but the bomb did not make a big explosion.
And our fighters did not have any marks on them. The rest of us
ran from the cloud. In another incident, the same Afghan reports:
"Our fighters died quickly. They were vomiting blood and fouling
their clothes and began to act like crazy people falling down and
jerking about. ⑉16
The yellowish brown clouds seem to be the favored weapon for
attacking freedom fighters holed up inside caves and underground
tunnels. Seagrave writes that such clouds have "brought the
freedom fighters writhing from their caves to dance and squirm,
and spew blood, and die in spasms on the bare rock reaches, like
earthworms wriggling in a lethal spray of insecticide. ⑉17 Dutch
journalist Bernd de Bruin filmed such an attack, took still
photographs of a dead freedom fighter whose skin had turned black
and described the experience in the magazine Niewsnet in August
1980. An Afghan doctor now living in the United States, Dr.
Bashir Zikria, has filmed survivors of a chemical attack, including
one dying a lingering death from acute gas poisoning.
The Soviets are thought to be dumping a liquid poison into
wells in southern and western Afghanistan and to be spreading an
oily, persistent nerve agent on the ground in northeastern Afghani-
stan. This dreadful substance clings to the feet of passing
freedom fighters and becomes lethal when warmed by a campfire or
by body heat; it then kills in minutes. Ground observers have
noted and satellite photographs have confirmed the deployment of
Soviet decontamination units in forward combat areas, particularly
in northeastern Afghanistan. Modern TMS-65 decontamination
vehicles, capable of rapidly cleansing tanks and other equipment
of chemical agents in the field, and AGV-3 detoxification chambers
for decontaminating personnel, are used widely and maintained at
high readiness. In view of the fact that the Afghan freedom
15
Ibid., p. 6.
16
Both incidents quoted in Seagrave, op. cit., p. 139.
17
Ibid., p. 138.
11
fighters pose no chemical threat to the Russians and since the
Russians already have withdrawn non-essential military units from
Afghanistan to hold down the size of their "limited" presence,
the continued deployment of such decontamination units is a clear
sign that Moscow is carrying out chemical operations.
SOVIET CHEMICAL WARFARE CAPABILITIES
The Soviet Union's offensive and defensive chemical warfare
capabilities, systematically developed and refined over decades,
are regarded as by far the world's best. Soviet military doctrine
views chemical agents as an integral part of overall military
strength and sees nuclear, chemical and biological weapons all as
"means of mass destruction." Soviet doctrine teaches that chemical
weapons are particularly well-suited for surprise attacks and for
seizing military and industrial facilities without destroying
them.
Among Moscow's forces are the 80,000 to 100,000 specialists
of the Chemical Troops that are devoted to chemical warfare
defense. (By comparison, the U.S. has 2,000 such troops.) In
Soviet exercises, offensive chemical operations are carried out
by conventional front line units, with division commanders respons-
ible for the planning, release and execution of the attacks.
Soviet military units have the training, equipment, doctrine and
organization to conduct sustained chemical operations. Each
division of ground forces maintains its own chemical defense
battalion complete with decontamination facilities for personnel
and equipment. Soviet armored vehicles are designed and equipped
to function in contaminated zones and quickly can be decontamina-
ted. Rigorous chemical operations training is routine in all
terrain and weather conditions; chemical warfare defense techni-
ques, in fact, are taught in elementary school.
Soviet stocks of chemical munitions exceed U.S. stocks by a
ratio of at least 4-to-1 and perhaps by as much as 10-to-1. Some
5 to 30 percent of Soviet conventional munitions, say analysts,
contain chemical payloads. 18 These include such first generation
agents as mustard gas, second generation agents such as tabun,
soman and VR-55 nerve gas and third generation agents such as the
tricothecene mycotoxins. 19
18
E. M. Kallis, "Chemical Warfare: Background and Issues," Congressional
Research Service, June 1981. p. 6.
19
For more information on Soviet chemical warfare capabilities see: John
Erickson, "The Soviet Union's Growing Arsenal of Chemical Warfare,"
Strategic Review, Fall 1979; and Amoretta Hoeber and Joseph Douglas,
"The Neglected Threat of Chemical Warfare," International Security,
Summer 1979.
12
TREATY VIOLATIONS
Chemical warfare has been prohibited on the battlefields of
western nations for over fifty years. Under the terms of the
1925 Geneva Protocol, to which the Soviets are a party, asphyxiat-
ing, poisonous or other gases, bacteriological methods of warfare
and all analogous liquids, materials and devices are banned from
military use. The 1972 Biological Warfare Convention, also
signed by Moscow, obliges states: "never in any circumstances to
develop, produce, stockpile or otherwise acquire or retain 1)
microbial or other biological agents, or toxins whatever their
origin or method of production, of types and quantities that have
no justification for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful
purposes; 2) weapons, equipment or means of delivery designed to
use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed con-
flict."
As biologically produced chemical substances, mycotoxins
fall within the prohibitions of both the 1925 Geneva Protocol,
which forbids the use of chemical weapons in warfare and the 1972
Biological Weapons Convention which forbids production, stockpil-
ing or transfer of toxin weapons. The Soviet Union stands in
naked violation of these two treaties as well as of customary
international law of armed conflict which prohibits the first use
of such weapons.
By cynically violating these agreements, the Soviets have
crossed the line respected by all civilized nations -- and even
by the Nazis, who refrained from using their nerve gas stocks on
battlefields during World War II. The poison atrocities in Asia,
along with the 1979 Sverdlovsk incident² raise grave doubts
about the credibility of the Kremlin's signature on international
treaties.
CONCLUSION
The Soviet Union, incapable of growing enough grain to feed
its own population, is devoting enormous resources and attention
to growing a grain fungus from which it extracts deadly mycotoxins
for military use. Aside from what this says about the nature of
the Soviet system, this chemical warfare effort is disturbing for
what it indicates about Soviet intentions in any future conflict.
20
In April 1979, an explosion at a top secret Soviet defense laboratory
released a cloud of anthrax spores in the vicinity of the city of Sverdlovsk,
killing up to 1,000 Soviet citizens. Moscow initially dismissed reports
of the accident as "impudent slander," then claimed the deaths were due
to spoiled meat, an explanation that is contradicted by all of the available
evidence. To this day, the Soviets have failed to explain the incident
satisfactorily, thereby failing to meet their obligation under the 1972
Biological Warfare Convention, to "cooperate in solving any problems
which may arise."
13
Although the lethal mycotoxins are now being field-tested exclu-
sively on anti-Soviet guerrillas and villages in remote corners
of the Third World, it is not so difficult to imagine them being
unleashed on NATO or other western military forces in the event
of a military showdown. Given the relatively poor preparedness
of NATO armed forces for chemical warfare, this is a grim prospect.
The Soviet Union's calculated duplicity in producing toxin
weapons, transferring them to client states and secretly deploying
them is also disturbing because of what it says about Moscow's
appraisal of the relative costs and benefits of breaking its
obligations under international treaties. If the Soviets cheat
on chemical warfare agreements in order to gain marginal advant-
ages in Asia, may they not also cheat on the much more critical
matter of strategic arms limitations?
Finally, the poisoning of thousands of civilian noncombatants
is an indictment of the values, methods, and morality of the
Soviet leadership itself. The Soviets have crossed a line that
even Adolf Hitler, in the darkest days of World War II, refused
to cross. The use of chemical weapons against remote Asian
villages should be triggering international outrage on legal and
humanitarian grounds. If these weapons continue to be used
without thundering international protest they could attain a
legitimacy that portends appalling consequences for all mankind.
James A. Phillips
Policy Analyst
14
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
John Fullerton, "Poisoned Earth Policy," Far Eastern Economic Review,
October 30, 1981.
Jane Hamilton-Merritt, "Gas Warfare in Laos," Reader's Digest, October 1980.
Jane Hamilton-Merritt, "Tragic Legacy from Laos," Reader's Digest, August 1981.
Sterling Seagrave, Yellow Rain (New York: Evans, 1981).
U.S. Congress, House Select Committee on Intelligence, "Soviet Biological
Warfare Activities," June 1980.
U.S. State Department, "Reports of the Use of Chemical Weapons in Afghanistan,
Laos and Kampuchea," Summer 1980.
U.S. State Deparment, "Update to the Compendium on Reports of the Use of
Chemical Weapons," March 1981.
Barry Wain, "Chemical Warfare in Southeast Asia," Wall Street Journal,
September 21, 1981.
Wall Street Journal, editorials: November 3, 6, 13, and 23, and December 18,
1981.
Washington Post, editorials: November 11 and 27, 1981, and January 14, 1982.
Special
United States Department of State
Report No. 98
Chemical Warfare in
Southeast Asia and
Afghanistan
Report to the Congress
from Secretary of State
Alexander M. Haig, Jr.,
March 22, 1982
THE SECRETARY OF STATE
WASHINGTON
TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES:
The years from 1914 to 1918 were among the most destructive of human life
in mankind's history. Yet the sacrifice of millions brought no lasting peace. Of the
elaborate structure for collective security, and the series of pacts outlawing war and
controlling armaments which were negotiated in the aftermath of this First World
War, little remains today. The League of Nations, the Kellogg-Briand Pact, and the
Washington Naval Agreement were all swept away in the tide of aggression which
culminated in a second global conflict. Almost the sole surviving monument, in the
law of nations, to the twenty million dead of the First World War is the 1925
Geneva Protocol outlawing chemical and biological warfare.
Today this accord, among the oldest of arms control agreements still in force,
along with another more recent such agreement banning biological and toxin
weapons, is again in danger of being swept away by a new tide of aggression. Over
the past seven years chemical and toxin weapons have been used, on an ever-
widening scale, in genocidal campaigns against defenseless peoples. These weapons
are being used for precisely the reason mankind has condemned and sought to
outlaw them-because of their indiscriminate action and horrific effects. Today
evidence of chemical and toxin warfare has accumulated to the point where the in-
ternational community can no longer ignore the challenge.
The enclosed report on the use of chemical and toxin weapons by the Soviet
Union and its Allies in Laos, Kampuchea, and Afghanistan has been prepared for
submission to the Congress, to the United Nations, and to each member of the inter-
national community. The report is drawn from information made available to the
United States Government since 1975. It contains the most comprehensive compila-
tion of material on this subject available, and presents conclusions which are fully
shared by all relevant agencies of the United States Government.
The international community and the world public need not rely solely on this
report to form their judgment, nor only upon the United States to provide their in-
formation. Lethal chemical and toxin weapons are regrettably still in use in Laos,
Kampuchea, and Afghanistan. New victims appear, new witnesses come forward,
new scientific evidence is uncovered with increasing frequency. The great bulk of the
information in the enclosed report could have been collected and analyzed by any in-
terested government, international organization, or major news service. If the
efforts of the United States Government to call attention to chemical warfare in
Afghanistan and Southeast Asia stimulate others to discover for themselves, and
join in efforts to expose the truth, this report will have served its most important
purpose.
Sincerely,
Alexander M. Haig, Jr.
Chemical Warfare in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan
CONTENTS
Page
Page
Introduction
4
TABLES
Key Judgments
6
Table 1: Laos: Summary of Re-
6
ported Chemical Attacks and
Methodology
Associated Deaths, 1975-81
8
Discussion of Findings
7
Table 2: Kampuchea: Summary of
What Chemical Agents Are Being
Reported Chemical Attacks and
Used?
7
Associated Deaths, 1978-81
11
Table 3: Afghanistan: Summary of
Laos
8
Reported Chemical Attacks and
Kampuchea
10
Associated Deaths, 1979-81
14
The Soviet Connection in Southeast
Table B-1: Reports of Probable
Asia
13
Chemical Agent Attacks
in Laos
20
Afghanistan
14
Table C-1: Comparison of Reported
Motivation for Using Chemical
"Yellow Rain" Effects With
Weapons
17
Known Trichothecene Effects
22
Table D-1: Symptoms of Chemical
ANNEXES
Attacks Reported in Laos,
Annex A: A Lao Pilot's Account
Kampuchea, and Afghanistan
24
18
Table E-1: Trichothecene-Produc-
Annex B: Findings of U.S. Govern-
ing Fungi
28
ment Investigative Teams: Use
Table E-2: Historical Trichothecene
of Chemical Agents Against
Mycotoxicoses
28
the H'Mong in Laos
19
Table E-3: Physicochemical
Annex C: Medical Evidence
21
Methods for Detection of
Annex D: Analysis and Review of
Trichothecenes
Trichothecene Toxins
in Feedstuffs
30
23
Table E-4: Spontaneous Occur-
Annex E: Overview of Natural
rence of Trichothecene Myco-
Occurrence and Significant
toxins
31
Properties of Trichothecenes
27
FIGURE
MAPS
Figure E-1: General Structure of
Laos: Chemical Warfare Opera-
Trichothecenes
29
tional Areas
9
Kampuchea: Chemical Warfare
Operational Areas
12
Afghanistan: Chemical Warfare
Operational Areas
15
This study presents the evidence avail-
there remained one major unresolved
able to the U.S. Government on chemical
issue-the exact nature of the chemical
Chronology of Diplomatic/
warfare activities in Laos, Kampuchea,
agents in use. Collection of physical
International Actions on Chemical
and Afghanistan through January 1982
samples was hindered by the remoteness
Warfare Use
and examines the Soviet involvement in
of the then principal areas of conflict-
those activities. It is based on a massive
as many as 6 weeks by foot to the
amount of information, from a variety of
nearest international border. Tests for
October 1978
sources, which has been carefully com-
known chemical warfare agents on those
piled and analyzed over the years. The
samples that were obtained proved con-
The United States called to the attention
paper is accompanied by annexes and
sistently negative.
of the Lao Charge d'Affaires in Washington
tables that provide details of the medical
In order to identify the chemical
the press reports alleging use of poison gas in
Laos.
evidence and sample analyses, a
agents in use, U.S. experts in late 1980
Assistant Secretary of State for East
technical description of trichothecene tox-
began to go back over all the report-
Asian and Pacific Affairs Holbrooke traveled
ins, and other supporting data.
ing-as far back as 1975-looking for
to Vientiane and discussed our concerns over
new clues. In particular, they sought to
H'Mong human rights and other issues with
INTRODUCTION
match the reported symptomatology of
Lao leaders.
Nearly 7 years ago, reports of the use
victims-which commonly included skin
irritation, dizziness, nausea, bloody
Late 1978
of lethal chemical weapons began to
emerge from Laos. In 1978, similar
vomiting and diarrhea, and internal
The Department of State directed U.S.
reports started to come from Kampu-
hemorrhaging-with possible causes. As
diplomatic missions in the Southeast Asia
chea, and in 1979 from Afghanistan.
a result of this review, the U.S. Govern-
area to seek to develop information on the
ment in mid-1981 began to test physical
alleged use of poison gas against the H'Mong.
Early reports were infrequent and frag-
mentary, reflecting the remoteness of
samples from Southeast Asia for the
the scene of conflict and the isolation of
presence of toxins. These substances are
January 1979
those subjected to such attacks. In the
essentially biologically produced
The Department of State again informed
chemical poisons. Although they have
the Lao Embassy of U.S. concerns about
summer of 1979, however, the State
never before been used in war, this was
reports of poison gas use in Laos, coupling
Department prepared a detailed compila-
a technical possibility, and it was noted
this with a similar demarche in Vientiane.
tion of interviews with refugees from
Laos on this subject. That fall, a U.S.
that certain toxins could produce the
The Lao denied the validity of the reports.
Army medical team visited Thailand to
sorts of symptoms observed in South-
March 1979
east Asian victims of chemical warfare.
conduct further interviews. By the
winter of 1979, the United States felt
In August 1981, unnatural levels and
The U.S. Representative to the 35th ses-
combinations of lethal trichothecene tox-
sion of the U.N. Human Rights Commission
that it had sufficiently firm evidence of
chemical warfare to raise the matter
ins were detected in the first sample to
expressed U.S. concern about the plight of
the H'Mong, specifically raising the poison
with the governments of Laos, Vietnam,
be tested by the United States for such
gas use issue.
and the Soviet Union. All three govern-
agents. This consisted of vegetation
ments denied that a basis for concern
taken from a village in Kampuchea
May 1979
over the use of chemical warfare agents
where an attack occurred in which peo-
ple had died after exhibiting the symp-
A State Department representative went
existed.
toms described above. In succeeding
to refugee camps in Thailand to interview
Dissatisfied with these responses,
H'Mong claiming to be eyewitnesses and/or
and possessing further reports that
months, further samples, taken from the
victims of poison gas attacks in Laos.
lethal chemical agents were in use in
sites of attacks in both Kampuchea and
A State Department representative
Southeast Asia and Afghanistan, the
Laos, yielded similar results. So did
visited Vientiane where he discussed the
U.S. Government in 1980 began to raise
samples of blood taken from victims of a
problem with various diplomatic missions and
the issue publicly in the United Nations,
chemical attack in Kampuchea.
the senior U.N. representative in Laos. Dur-
with the Congress, and in other forums.
Despite a continued flow of reports,
ing that visit, he raised U.S. concerns about
In August of that year, the State
dating back over 7 years, of chemical
the problem directly with the Lao Foreign
warfare in Southeast Asia and more
Ministry.
Department provided extensive docu-
mentation containing evidence of chemi-
recently Afghanistan, and despite the
September 1979
cal weapons attacks to the United Na-
still mounting physical evidence of the
use of trichothecene toxins as warfare
A Department of Defense medical team
tions and also made this material public-
ly available. In December, as a result of
agents, doubts as to the conclusive
was dispatched to Thailand to interview and
nature of the available evidence have
prepare a report on H'Mong refugees having
efforts by the United States and other
knowledge of gas attacks in Laos.
concerned nations, the U.N. General
persisted. These doubts have arisen for
Assembly voted to initiate an inter-
several reasons. For one, the evidence of
November 1979
national investigation into the use of
the use of lethal chemical weapons has
chemical weapons. This investigation is
become available over a period of
Demarches were made to the Vietnamese
in Paris and to the Soviets in Moscow
still underway. To date, the U.N. invest-
several years and from a variety of
expressing U.S. concerns about reports of
igating team has been denied admission
sources. Few governments, journalists,
poison gas being used against "resistance
to any of the three countries where
or interested members of the public have
forces" in Laos. Both the Soviets and Viet-
these weapons are in use.
been exposed to all of this evidence, nor
namese supported the Lao denial of the
has it been available in any one place. A
Despite the volume of information
validity of the reports.
on chemical warfare in Southeast Asia
second difficulty has been the inevitable
which had become available by 1980,
need for the U.S. Government to protect
December 1979
some of the relevant information, often
State and Defense Department officials
gathered at personal risk to individuals
presented evidence of gas attacks in Laos to
who secured it, or obtained through the
the House Foreign Affairs Committee.
use of highly sensitive methods.
4
February 1980
the U.S. submission, the U.S. compendium of
before the U.N. Group of Experts to respond
A bilateral demarche was made to the
reports from August 1980, an update to that
to questions pertaining to the U.S. submis-
compendium covering the period through
sion on September 14 of new evidence con-
Soviets about U.S. concerns regarding chemi-
January-February 1981, the transcripts of
cerning the use of lethal mycotoxins in South-
cal warfare use in both Laos and Kampuchea
congressional hearings held on the subject in
east Asia.
and about reports that chemical weapons
December 1979 and in April 1980, and the
were being used by the Soviets in Afghani-
texts of House and Senate resolutions con-
November 1981
stan. The demarche was made in Geneva in
the context of the U.S./Soviet bilateral
demning the use of chemical weapons.
The U.N. Group of Experts investigating
negotiations on a comprehensive prohibition
of chemical weapons production, develop-
July 1981
reports of chemical weapons use traveled to
Thailand to visit refugee camps and interview
ment, and stockpiling.
The United States provided further
and examine survivors and eyewitnesses of
details and written responses to questions
chemical attacks in Laos and Kampuchea.
May 1980
from the U.N. Group of Experts concerning
While there, the experts also obtained
the U.S. submission of March 1981.
samples from alleged chemical attacks and
An interagency team of U.S. Government
political, technical, and intelligence officers
samples of vegetation and blood from
was dispatched to Europe to brief the allies
September 1981
refugees exposed to chemical attacks.
Richard Burt, Director of the Bureau of
about the problem and to stimulate support
Secretary Haig announced, in his
Politico-Military Affairs, in testimony before
for having an impartial international in-
September 13 speech in Berlin, that the
vestigation conducted.
the Congress, announced the results of
United States had obtained physical evidence
analyses of additional samples of chemical
of the use of lethal mycotoxins in Southeast
warfare use revealing the presence of high
July 1980
Asia, discovered in the analysis of a leaf and
levels of mycotoxins and the results of
Another bilateral demarche was made to
stem sample obtained from the site of a
analyses of control samples from Southeast
the Soviets in the context of the U.S./Soviet
chemical attack in Kampuchea.
Asia which were found to contain no myco-
bilateral chemical warfare negotiations, con-
On September 14, the United States sub-
toxins.
cerning the problem of the reported use of
mitted a report on the new evidence pertain-
The United States submitted a report on
chemical weapons in both Southeast Asia and
ing to the use of mycotoxins to the U.N.
its analyses of chemical warfare use samples
Afghanistan.
Group of Experts investigating reports of
from both Kampuchea and Laos, which were
The Inter-Parliamentary Union adopted a
chemical weapons use.
found to contain high levels of mycotoxins, to
resolution calling for an impartial interna-
Under Secretary of State for Political
the U.N. Group of Experts investigating
tional investigation of reports of chemical
Affairs Stoessel held a press conference in
reports of chemical weapons use.
Washington on September 14 and provided a
weapons use.
Demarches were made to the Vietnamese
detailed press backgrounder on the new
in New York and to the Lao in Vientiane
evidence.
August 1980
Secretary Haig raised U.S. concerns
regarding the evidence of the use of lethal
mycotoxins in the conflicts in Kampuchea and
The United States circulated to U.N.
about the new evidence pertaining to the use
Laos. Both the Vietnamese and the Lao re-
member states a 125-page compendium of
of lethal mycotoxins in Southeast Asia and
about the 1979 Sverdlovsk anthrax incident
jected the evidence and denied the validity of
reports and declassified intelligence informa-
U.S. concerns.
tion pertaining to the use of chemical
with Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko during
weapons in Laos, Kampuchea, and Afghani-
their bilateral consultations at the United Na-
December 1981
stan.
tions in New York.
The 40-nation Committee on Disarma-
The U.N. Secretary General submitted
ment included language in its Annual Report
October 1981
the Report of the U.N. Group of Experts in-
to the U.N. General Assembly on the need
vestigating reports of chemical weapons use
for an impartial international investigation of
Following up the Haig/Gromyko discus-
(A/36/613). The report was inconclusive and
the problem of chemical weapons use.
sions, detailed bilateral demarches were made
stated that the group had been unable to
to the Soviets in Washington by Acting Arms
carry out all the actions it had intended (i.e.,
December 1980
Control and Disarmament Agency Director
on-site visits to Afghanistan, Laos, and Kam-
Grey, and a followup in Moscow by the U.S.
puchea) due to the refusals to cooperate of
With the full and active support of the
Deputy Chief of Mission, on the general sub-
the countries concerned, and that it had been
United States, the West, and others, the
ject of Soviet Biological Warfare Convention
unable to complete some of the actions it had
U.N. General Assembly adopted a resolution
compliance and specific U.S. concerns regard-
planned (e.g., on-site visits to Pakistan,
(A/35/144 C) establishing a U.N. investiga-
ing the 1979 Sverdlovsk anthrax incident and
analysis of the samples obtained in Thailand)
tion, under the auspices of the U.N.
the evidence of the use of trichothecene
in the time available.
Secretary General and with the assistance of
mycotoxins in Southeast Asia. The Soviets re-
With the full and active support of the
qualified medical and technical experts, of
jected U.S. concerns once again in their for-
United States, the West, and others, the
reports of chemical weapons use. The vote
mal response in November.
U.N. General Assembly adopted a resolution
was 78 in favor to 17 opposed, with 36
An interagency team of political, tech-
(A/36/96 C) extending for another year the
abstentions.
nical, and intelligence officers was dispatched
mandate of the U.N. Secretary General's
to Europe to brief the allies about the new
Group of Experts investigating reports of
March 1981
evidence of the use of lethal mycotoxins in
chemical weapons use. The vote on the
In accordance with U.N. General
Southeast Asia.
resolution was 86 in favor to 20 opposed,
Assembly Resolution A/35/144 C and the re-
A delegation of U.S. Government politi-
with 32 abstentions.
quest of the U.N. Secretary General, the U.S.
cal, technical, and medical experts appeared
submitted detailed information pertaining to
the reports of the use of chemical weapons in
Southeast Asia and Afghanistan. The U.S.
submission consisted of a letter summarizing
5
This report represents an effort of
Only an alert and outspoken world com-
sublethal doses of trichothecene toxins,
the U.S. Government to correct the first
munity, intent to maintain those stand-
but this evidence is not conclusive.
deficiency and to ameliorate the second
ards of international behavior it has SO
The Soviet Connection. The conclu-
to the extent possible. In preparation of
painfully achieved and so tenuously es-
tablished, can bring sufficient pressure
sion is inescapable that the toxins and
this report, all of the information avail-
able to the U.S. Government on chemi-
to bear to halt these violations of law
other chemical warfare agents were
cal weapons use in Laos, Kampuchea,
and treaty. It is hoped that publication
developed in the Soviet Union, provided
to the Lao and Vietnamese either direct-
and Afghanistan was assembled in one
of this report will be one step in this
process, the end result of which will be
ly or through the transfer of know-how,
place. This information was again re-
the cessation of chemical warfare and
and weaponized with Soviet assistance
viewed, analyzed, cross-indexed, and
organized in a coherent fashion. Based
the strengthening of the rule of law in
in Laos, Vietnam, and Kampuchea.
upon this comprehensive analysis, a set
the affairs of nations.
Soviet military forces are known to
store agents in bulk and move them to
of conclusions were drawn, conclusions
the field for munitions fill as needed.
which have since been reviewed and
agreed on without qualification by every
KEY JUDGMENTS
This practice also is followed in South-
east Asia and Afghanistan, as evidenced
relevant agency of the U.S. Govern-
ment.
Laos. The U.S. Government has
by many reports which specify that
Soviet technicians supervise the ship-
The evidence upon which this report
concluded from all the evidence that
is based is of several kinds, including:
selected Lao and Vietnamese forces,
ment, storage, filling, and loading onto
aircraft of the chemical munitions. The
under direct Soviet supervision, have
Testimony of those who saw, ex-
employed lethal trichothecene toxins and
dissemination techniques reported and
perienced, and suffered from chemical
other combinations of chemical agents
observed evidently have been drawn
weapons attacks;
against H'Mong resisting government
from years of Soviet chemical warfare
Testimony of doctors, refugee
control and their villages since at least
testing and experimentation. There is no
workers, journalists, and others who had
1976. Trichothecene toxins have been
evidence to support any alternative ex-
the opportunity to question large
positively identified, but medical symp-
planation, such as the hypothesis that the
numbers of those with firsthand experi-
toms indicate that irritants, incapaci-
Vietnamese produce and employ toxin
ence of chemical warfare;
tants, and nerve agents also have been
weapons completely on their own.
Testimony of those who engaged
employed. Thousands have been killed or
in chemical warfare or were in a posi-
severely injured. Thousands also have
tion to observe those who did;
METHODOLOGY
been driven from their homeland by the
Scientific evidence, based upon the
use of these agents.
analysis of physical samples taken from
The judgments of this study were ar-
sites where attacks had been conducted;
Kampuchea. Vietnamese forces
rived at through a rigorous analytical
Documentary evidence from open
have used lethal trichothecene toxins on
process.
sources; and
Democratic Kampuchean (DK) troops
Intelligence derived from "national
and Khmer villages since at least 1978.
Every relevant piece of informa-
technical means."
Medical evidence indicates that irritants,
tion on reported chemical warfare inci-
dents was reviewed, recorded, and tabu-
incapacitants, and nerve agents also
These sources provide compelling
lated. Numbers of attacks and deaths
have been used.
evidence that tens of thousands of un-
were screened for possible duplication.
sophisticated and defenseless peoples
Afghanistan. Soviet forces in
Extensive data on the Soviet chemical
have for a period of years been sub-
Afghanistan have used a variety of
and biological warfare program also
jected to a campaign of chemical at-
lethal and nonlethal chemical agents on
were reviewed.
tacks. Taken together, this evidence has
mujahidin resistance forces and Afghan
All the test data on physical evi-
led the U.S. Government to conclude that
villages since the Soviet invasion in
dence available to the U.S. Govern-
Lao and Vietnamese forces, operating
December 1979. In addition, there is
ment-including environmental samples
under Soviet supervision, have, since
some evidence that Afghan Government
and background controls-were re-
1975, employed lethal chemical and toxin
forces may have used Soviet-supplied
viewed.
weapons in Laos; that Vietnamese forces
chemical weapons against the mujahidin
A scientific report on toxins,
have, since 1978, used lethal chemical
even before the Soviet invasion.
which concluded that trichothecenes
and toxin agents in Kampuchea; and
Although it has not been possible to
probably were among the agents used in
that Soviet forces have used a variety of
verify through sample analysis the
Southeast Asia, was prepared.
lethal chemical warfare agents, including
specific agents used by the Soviets, a
The medical evidence was ana-
nerve gases, in Afghanistan since the
number of Afghan military defectors
lyzed, drawing on all available informa-
Soviet invasion of that country in 1979.
have named the agents brought into the
tion from Southeast Asia and Afghani-
The implications of chemical warfare
country by the Soviets and have de-
stan and incorporating the findings of a
in Afghanistan and Southeast Asia are
scribed where and when they were
Department of Defense medical team,
painful to contemplate but dangerous to
employed. This information has been
which concluded that at least three
ignore. This activity threatens not only
correlated with other evidence, including
types of agents were used in Laos.
the peoples of those isolated regions but
the reported symptoms, leading to the
Extensive consultations were held
the international order upon which the
conclusion that nerve agents, phosgene
with government and nongovernment
security of all depends. Those who today
oxime, and various incapacitants and
scientists and medical authorities, many
suffer chemical warfare against their
irritants have been used. Other agents
of whom were asked to review the evi-
homelands are powerless to stop it. The
and toxic smokes also are in the coun-
dence. Experts from other countries also
prohibitions of international law and
try. Some reported symptoms are con-
were consulted.
solemn agreement are not self-enforcing.
sistent with those produced by lethal or
6
After the data were organized to
clusion, however, rested on a much
nesses to chemical attacks reported
permit comparative analysis, the study
broader base of evidence than analysis
other unusual symptoms, including a
focused on three separate questions.
of one sample.
blackening of the skin, severe skin irrita-
Have lethal and other casualty-
By April 1980, the U.S. Government
tion along with multiple small blisters
had already concluded that lethal agents
producing agents been used in Southeast
and severe itching, severe eye irritation,
almost certainly had been used against
and difficulty in breathing-all of which
Asia and Afghanistan?
What are these agents, and how
H'Mong tribespeople in Laos. There was
suggests that phosgene oxime or a
less certainty then about the use of
similar substance was used.
and by whom are they employed?
Where do these agents originate,
lethal agents in Kampuchea, mainly
Collecting samples possibly contami-
and how do they find their way to the
because of the already mentioned suspi-
nated with a toxic agent during or after
field?
cions about the propaganda campaign of
a chemical assault is difficult under any
Pol Pot's Democratic Kampuchean
circumstances but particularly when the
Although the evidence differs for
forces, although their claims subsequent-
assault is against ill-prepared people
each country, the analytical approach
ly were shown to be valid. It was also
without masks or other protective equip-
was the same. Testimony of eyewit-
concluded that chances were about even
ment. Obtaining contaminated samples
nesses-date, place, and type of at-
that lethal agents had been used in
that will yield positive traces of specific
tack-was matched against information
Afghanistan. There was little doubt by
chemical agents depends on many fac-
from defectors, journalists, international
April 1980 that riot-control agents and
tors. These include the persistency of
organizations, and sensitive information
some form of incapacitants had been
the chemical, the ambient temperature,
that often pinpointed the time and place
used in all three countries. Since that
rainfall, wind conditions, the medium on
of chemical attacks. In addition, infor-
April 1980 assessment, additional
which the chemical was deposited, and
mation on military operations in the
evidence has allowed a much firmer con-
the time, care, and packaging of the
areas where chemical attacks had been
clusion. There is now no doubt that
sample from collection to laboratory
reported was examined to establish
casualties and deaths have resulted from
analysis.
whether air or artillery strikes took
chemical attacks in all three countries.
Many traditional or known chemical
place or whether there was fighting in
warfare agents are nonpersistent and
the areas where chemical agents report-
What Chemical Agents Are
disappear from the environment within
edly were used. In all three countries,
a few minutes to several hours after be-
instances were identified in which eye-
Being Used?
ing dispersed. Such agents include the
witness accounts could be correlated
As soon as it was determined that
nerve agents sarin and tabun; the blood
directly with information from other
chemical agents had been used, an effort
agents hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen
sources on military operations in prog-
was made to identify the specific agents.
chloride; the choking agents phosgene
ress.
To do this it was necessary to collect
and diphosgene; and the irritant
There is no evidence of any system-
and analyze at least one of the following:
phosgene oxime. Other standard
atic propaganda campaign by either the
environmental samples contaminated
chemical warfare agents-such as the
H'Mong in Laos or the Afghan resist-
with agents, the munitions used to
nerve agents VX and thickened soman
ance forces to promote the allegation
deliver agents, or biological specimens
and the blistering agents sulfur mustard,
that chemical agents have been used on
from victims of an attack. A study by
nitrogen mustard, and lewisite-may
their people. On the other hand, there
medical-toxicological experts of symp-
persist for several days to weeks
were early indications that Pol Pot's
toms exhibited by individuals exposed to
depending on weather conditions.
Democratic Kampuchean resistance did
toxic agents provides a good indication
The trichothecene toxins have good
engage in an organized propaganda cam-
of the general class of chemical agent
persistency but may be diluted by
paign on chemical agent use. These in-
used. Thus, the range of clinical mani-
adverse weather conditions to below
dications made U.S. Government
festations from chemical agents, as
detectable concentrations. To maximize
analysts cautious about accepting DK
reported by a U.S. Army investigative
the chances of detection, sample collec-
allegations, which increased markedly
team in Thailand, resulted in the deter-
tions need to be made as rapidly as
after the chemical attacks in Laos were
mination that nerve agents, irritants
possible after a chemical assault; as with
publicized. For Kampuchea, therefore,
such as CS, and highly toxic hemorrhag-
many agents, this means minutes to
special efforts were taken to confirm
ic chemicals or mixture of chemicals
hours. Under the circumstances of
such allegations by analyzing sources of
were used in Laos.
Southeast Asia and Afghanistan, such
information that in no way could be con-
Other medical-toxicological person-
rapid collection has simply not been
sidered part of a propaganda or decep-
nel who reviewed the evidence and con-
possible. Although many samples were
tion campaign.
ducted their own investigation reached
collected, few held any realistic prospect
the same conclusion. They further in-
of yielding positive results. It is fortu-
dicated that toxins such as the trichothe-
nate that trichothecenes are sufficiently
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
cenes were a probable cause of the lethal
persistent and in some cases were not
hemorrhaging effect seen in Kampuchea
diluted by adverse weather conditions.
In September 1981, the U.S. Govern-
and Laos. In many cases, symptoms
Thus we were able to detect them
ment declared publicly that toxins-
reported by the Democratic Kampu-
several months after the attack.
poisonous chemical substances extracted
chean forces in Kampuchea and the mu-
Samples have been collected from
from biological material-probably were
jahidin in Afghanistan were similar to
Southeast Asia since mid-1979 and from
the mysterious lethal agents used for
those reported by the H'Mong in Laos.
Afghanistan since May 1980. To date,
many years in Laos and Kampuchea.
Moreover, symptoms reported from
about 50 individual samples-of greatly
The statement was prompted by the
Afghanistan and Kampuchea indicated
varying types and usefulness for analyti-
discovery of high levels of trichothecene
that a highly potent, rapid-acting, in-
cal purposes-have been collected and
toxins in a vegetation sample collected
capacitant "knockout" chemical also was
analyzed for the presence of known
shortly after a March 1981 Vietnamese
being used. Mujahidin victims and wit-
chemical attack in Kampuchea. This con-
7
chemical warfare agents, none of which
has been detected. Based on recommen-
TABLE 1
dations by medical and toxicological ex-
Laos: Summary of Reported Chemical Attacks
perts and findings of investigators from
and Associated Deaths, 1975-81
the U.S. Army's Chemical Systems
Laboratory, several of the samples have
Time Period
Area
Attacks
Deaths
been analyzed for the trichothecene
Summer 1975
Vientiane
2
25 +
group of mycotoxins. Four samples, two
Fall 1976
Phou Bia
8
10
from Kampuchea and two from Laos,
Savannakhet
1
10
were found to contain high levels of tri-
chothecene toxins. In addition, prelimi-
Winter 1976-77
Phou Bia
2
16
nary results of the analysis of blood
Spring 1977
Phou Bia
6
66 +
samples drawn from victims of an attack
Khammouan
2
1
indicate the presence of a trichothecene
Summer 1977
Phou Bia
6
95
metabolite of T-2, namely HT-2.
Fall 1977
Phou Bia
1
25
A review of all reports indicates the
Winter 1977-78
Phou Bia
10
1,328 +
use of many different chemical agents,
Savannakhet
6
224
means of delivery, and types of chemical
Spring 1978
Phou Bia
34
969 +
attacks. The use of trichothecene toxins
has been identified through symptoms
Summer 1978
Phou Bia
22
664 +
and sample analysis. In some cases,
Fall 1978
Phou Bia
19
572
however, the symptoms suggest other
Winter 1978-79
Phou Bia
5
15 +
agents, such as nerve gas, which have
Spring 1979
Phou Bia
36
257 +
not been identified through sample
Summer 1979
Phou Bia
5
239 +
analysis. Significant differences as well
as similarities have surfaced in the
Fall 1979
Phou Bia
10
56
Xaignabouri
2
24 +
reports from the three countries. The
evidence from each country, therefore,
Winter 1979-80
Phou Bia
4
10 +
is described separately, with attention
Spring 1980
Phou Bia
3
24
drawn to similarities where appropriate.
Summer 1980
Phou Bia
6
187 +
Fall 1980
Xaignabouri
1
12
Laos
Phou Bia
7
88 +
Savannakhet
3
1+
Reports of chemical attacks against
Winter 1980-81
Xaignabouri
2
57
H'Mong villages and guerrilla strong-
Phou Bia
4
82
holds in Laos date from the summer of
Vientiane
1
1+
1975 to the present (see Table 1). Most
Spring 1981
Houaphan
2
?
of the reports were provided by H'Mong
Phou Bia
7
218
refugees who were interviewed in Thai-
Vientiane
1
-
land and the United States. More than
Summer 1981
Phou Bia
1
?
200 interviews were carried out various-
Fall 1981
Phou Bia
4
500+
ly by U.S. Embassy officials in Thailand,
Khammouan
3
534 +
a Department of Defense team of
226
6,310+
medical-toxicological experts (see Annex
B), U.S. physicians, Thai officials, jour-
nalists, and representatives of interna-
a This tabulation omits 35 attack sites, accounting for 194 deaths, which could not be geographically
located in the reports. The totals overall were 261 attacks and more than 6,504 deaths.
tional aid and relief organizations. Ac-
b A plus sign indicates that the report(s) of deaths gave a minimum figure. In some cases (shown with a
cording to the interviews, Soviet AN-2
question mark) deaths were reported, but no number was given. Other reports (signified with a dash) gave no in-
and captured U.S. L-19 and T-28/41
formation on fatalities.
aircraft usually were employed to
disseminate toxic chemical agents by
sprays, rockets, and bombs. In some
cases, Soviet helicopters and jet aircraft
provinces of Vientiane, Xiangkhoang,
The medical symptoms reportedly
were said to have been used.
and Louangphrabang adjoin (see map).
produced by the chemical agents are
The reports describe 261 separate
This triborder region accounted for 77%
varied. According to knowledgeable
attacks in which at least 6,504 deaths
of the reported attacks and 83% of the
physicians, the symptoms clearly point
were cited as having resulted directly
chemical-associated deaths. Most of the
to at least three types of chemical
from exposure to chemical agents. The
reported attacks took place in 1978 and
agents-incapacitant/riot-control agents,
actual number of deaths is almost cer-
1979. Since 1979, the incidence of chemi-
a nerve agent, and an agent causing
tainly much higher, since the above
cal attacks appears to have been lower,
massive hemorrhaging. The last-named
figure does not take account of deaths in
but reported death rates among un-
was positively identified as trichothecene
attacks for which no specific casualty
protected and untreated victims were
toxins. This was announced publicly by
figures were reported. The greatest con-
higher. Only seven chemical attacks
Secretary Haig in September 1981.
centration of reported chemical agent
were reported in the fall of 1981, for ex-
In a number of the refugee reports,
use occurred in the area where the three
ample, yet 1,034 deaths were associated
eyewitnesses described attacks as con-
with those incidents.
sisting of "red gas" or a "yellow cloud."
8
Laos: Chemical Warfare Operational Areas
China
China
Mekong
Phôngsali
Burma
HANOI
Louang Namtha
(Houakhong)
Louangphrabang
Xam Nual
Oudomsai
Houaphan
Laos
Bouamlong
Xiangkhoang
Xaigna-
bouri
+
Nam Yao
Plaine
.
des
.
Vietnam
Jarres, Xiangkhoang
Mekong
Ban Long Tiong
Phou:Bia
. Mae Charim
mountain area
Gulf
of
Vientiane
Paksane
Tonkin
VIENTIANE
*
Nong Kai
Khammouan
Ban Vinai
Na Phao.
Thailand
Xénô
Savannakhet
Savannakhét
Area of concentrated chemical attacks
Houaphan Province where chemical attacks have occurred
Military region headquarters containing chemical sections
Saravan
Refugee camp
Sampling area-trichothecene toxins
Airfield
Pakxé
Champasak
0
200
Attapu
Kilometers
Mekong
Names and boundary representation
Kampuchea
are not necessarily authoritative.
9
Red gas was considered the more lethal.
Obtaining additional data for Laos
In a December 15, 1981 press con-
A former Lao Army captain stated that
has been difficult because of the nature
ference in Beijing, former Lao Health
the "red gas" caused the H'Mong to die
of the fighting there. There have been
Ministry Bureau Director Khamsengkeo
within 12 hours. An employee of an in-
few major operations. The reports
Sengsathit-who had defected to
ternational organization interviewed vic-
reflect numerous minor engagements be-
China-confirmed that chemical
tims of a September 15, 1979 attack in
tween the opposing forces. In nearly all
weapons were being used "in the air and
which nonlethal rounds preceded an at-
cases, the chemical use reported has
on the ground" in Laos, killing "thou-
tack by five or six "red gas" bombs that
been directed against villages, in the
sands." He asserted that the Vietnamese
covered a 500-meter area. Persons
absence of obvious combat operations.
alone were using such weapons, keeping
within 30-100 meters of the circle died
This lends support to the Lao pilot's
the matter secret from the Lao. He also
in 10 minutes after severe convulsions.
claim that the Vietnamese and Lao
stated that 3,000 Soviet advisers were in
Others had headaches, chest pains, and
military commands were engaged in a
Laos and "have taken control" of the
vomiting but did not die.
"H'Mong extermination" campaign.
Lao Air Force, while 40,000-50,000
Every qualified interrogator who
Of particular interest are the circum-
Vietnamese troops had "reduced Laos to
systematically interviewed the H'Mong
stances surrounding the collection of
the status of a colony."
refugees concluded that they had been
two physical samples found to contain
subjected to chemical attacks. A U.S.
lethal toxins. The first was collected
Government medical team returned
after a March 13, 1981 attack on a
Kampuchea
from Thailand in 1979 convinced that
village between the villages of Muong
Since October 1978, radio broadcasts,
several unidentified chemical warfare
Chai and Phakhao in the Phou Bia
press releases, and official protests to
agents had produced the symptoms
region. In this case, a large two-engine
the United Nations by the Democratic
described by the refugees. This evidence
plane reportedly sprayed a mist of a
Kampuchea leadership have accused the
was expanded by testimony from a
moist, yellow, sticky substance; two
Vietnamese and the Hanoi-backed Peo-
variety of sources, including that of a
villagers and all village animals died.
ple's Republic of Kampuchea regime of
Lao pilot who flew chemical warfare
The second sample is from Ban
using Soviet-made lethal chemical agents
missions before defecting in 1979. His
Thonghak, another village in the Phou
and weapons against DK guerrilla forces
detailed description of the Lao, Viet-
Bia region, collected following an April
and civilians. DK allegations for a time
namese, and Soviet program to use
2, 1981 attack in which a jet aircraft
were the only source of information con-
chemical agents to defeat the H'Mong
reportedly sprayed a yellow substance;
cerning chemical warfare attacks in
resistance helped dispel any lingering
24 of the 450 villagers died. In the
Kampuchea. In November 1979,
suspicions that the refugees had
spring of 1981, seven separate chemical
however, the guerrilla forces of the
fabricated or embellished the stories.
attacks, resulting in 218 deaths, were
Khmer People's National Liberation
The Lao pilot described the chemical
reported to have occurred in this region.
Front reported that the Vietnamese had
rocket he had fired as having a more
It is significant that these attacks
attacked them with a tear gas which,
loosely fitting warhead than a conven-
took place following a period of escala-
from their description, resembled the
tional rocket. (His account appears in
tion in overall resistance activities in the
riot-control agent CS. Subsequently,
Annex A.)
Phou Bia area in the winter of 1980-81.
Thai officials, Democratic Kampuchea in-
In 1977, a H'Mong resistance leader
During that period, joint suppression
formants and refugees, Vietnamese Ar-
found a U.S. 2.75-inch rocket* with a
operations by Lao People's Liberation
my defectors, U.S. and Thai medical
modified Soviet warhead that fits the
Army and Vietnamese Army forces had
personnel, officials of international aid
Lao pilot's description. Other sources
achieved only limited success, perhaps
and relief organizations, and Canadian
reported that U.S. 2.75-inch rockets
spurring both forces on to greater
and West European officials also have
were fitted with Soviet-supplied lethal
effort. The more intense use of chemical
implicated the Vietnamese in the offen-
chemical warheads by Soviet and Viet-
weapons may have been part of this
sive use of lethal and incapacitating
namese technicians at facilities in Vien-
effort.
chemical agents in Kampuchea.
tiane as well as in Xiangkhoang and
Evidently the fact that chemical
There are reports of 124 separate
Savannakhet Provinces. Munitions
agents were being used in Laos was not
attacks in Kampuchea from 1978 to the
storage facilities suitable for storing
widely known among units of the Lao
fall of 1981 in which lethal chemicals
chemical agents and weapons have been
Army. In June 1981, a group of
caused the deaths of 981 persons (see
identified in each of these provinces. The
refugees from a village in Vientiane
Table 2). The mortality figure represents
aircraft types-AN-2s, L-19s, and
Province reached Thailand and described
a minimum because some reports state
T-28/41s-most often reported by the
attacks against them carried out a
only that there were deaths and do not
H'Mong refugees as being used to
month earlier by helicopters "dropping
provide a number. The earliest reports
deliver chemical agents have been iden-
poison" into their water supply. Lao field
cite attacks in Ratanakiri Province, in
tified as based on airfields in northern
units subsequently entered the village
the northeastern corner of the country
Laos throughout this period. A special
and were surprised at the sight of many
(see map). Reports from 1979 to the
Lao Air Force unit is responsible for
villagers still suffering from symptoms
present show the use of lethal chemicals
chemical rockets. The unit is com-
of acute poisoning. According to a
primarily in the provinces bordering
manded by a Soviet-trained Lao and has
villager, when the Lao military person-
Thailand. The greatest use of chemical
a Soviet rocket expert attached as an
nel saw the "small yellow grains" spread
agents apparently has been in Battam-
adviser.
around the village, they were convinced
bang Province, with 51 reported inci-
that toxic chemicals had been used on
dents; Pursat Province has experienced
*
During withdrawal of U.S. forces from
the village and requested medical assist-
the next highest frequency, with 25
Vietnam, thousands of these fell into Viet-
ance for those villagers still suffering
namese hands.
from nausea and bloody diarrhea.
10
Army private, who later defected, ob-
TABLE 2
served the following activities related to
Kampuchea: Summary of Reported Chemical Attacks
chemical warfare. During the fighting,
and Associated Deaths, 1978-81
all regiment (740th) troops were issued
gas masks. However, the 2nd Battalion,
Time Period
Area
Attacks
Deaths
a "border defense unit," was not issued
masks. This unit was in the Phnom
1978
Ratanakiri
5
?
Melai area and was virtually surrounded
Summer 1979
Kompong Speu
4
37
by Khmer Rouge forces. At another
Fall 1979
Siem Reap
1
-
point in the battle, the regiment's troops
Battambang
4
22 +
were ordered to don masks. The Viet-
Pursat
2
1+
namese Army private reported that he
Koh Kong
2
6+
saw two Soviets (Caucasians) fire a
Kampot
1
3
Kompong Chhnang
2
118
DH-10 (a hand-held weapon identified
by the private's comrades). He was
Winter 1979-80
Battambang
12
64 +
about 50 meters from the firing point.
Pursat
5
21 +
Koh Kong
2
4
The weapon at impact, which he was
able to observe from his position, gave
Spring 1980
Battambang
3
20 +
off clouds of white, gray, and green
Pursat
8
24 +
Koh Kong
5
13
gas/smoke. His signal unit subsequently
passed a message reporting that there
Summer 1980
Siem Reap
1
82 +
were 300 dead, including the un-
Battambang
3
23 +
Pursat
2
7
protected Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese
Koh Kong
3
of the border defense forces' 2nd Bat-
-
Winter 1980-81
8
talion. The corpses reportedly had traces
Battambang
-
Pursat
2
3
of white and green powder on their
faces and clothes. Their faces were con-
Spring 1981
Preah Vihear
1
-
torted, with eyes wide open. No blood
Battambang
12
163 +
Pursat
3
42 +
was seen. (A H'Mong resistance leader
Koh Kong
1
described an incident in 1981 in which
-
Kampot
1
two Soviet soldiers fired a hand-held
-
Summer 1981
Battambang
3
7+
weapon that dispersed a similar lethal
Kompong Thom/Cham
1
-
agent.)
Fall 1981
Siem Reap
16
305
Starting in February 1980, reports
Battambang
6
16
revealed that the Vietnamese were using
Pursat
3
60 mm mortars, 120 mm shells, 107 mm
-
Koh Kong
1
-
rockets, M-79 grenade launchers filled
Kampot
1
-
with chemical agents, as well as muni-
124
981
tions delivered by T-28 aircraft. Accord-
ing to the DK, the chemicals used were
a A plus sign indicates that the report(s) of deaths gave a minimum figure. In some cases (shown with a
green and yellow and powderlike in ap-
question mark) deaths were reported, but no number was given. Other reports (signified with a dash) gave no in-
pearance. In some instances the gas was
formation on fatalities.
described as yellow or white. The symp-
toms described were tightening of the
chest, disorientation, vomiting, bleeding
from the nose and gums, discoloration of
reported incidents. These numbers are
involved chemical substances-for exam-
the body, and "stiffening" of the teeth.
consistent with the overall high level of
ple, the movement of chemicals and per-
In July 1980, the DK described artillery
military activity reported in the border
sonal protection equipment into the
attacks that produced a black smoke
provinces.
area.
causing itchy skin, weakness, skin le-
A review of information from all
There is no doubt that in late 1978
sions, and in some cases decaying skin
sources provides direct and specific sup-
and 1979 the Vietnamese, and what
and blisters. In December 1980, the
port for 28 of 124 reported attacks.
later became the People's Republic of
Vietnamese were once again firing
There is, in addition, some evidence that
Kampuchea forces, made at least limited
chemical artillery shells, and it was
in all reported instances some form of
use of riot-control chemicals and possible
believed that poison chemicals were
attack took place. This evidence includes
incapacitating agents against both Com-
being brought into Thailand's border
reports of troop movements, supply
munist and non-Communist guerrilla
region. By March 1981, the Democratic
transfers, operational plans, postopera-
forces in Kampuchea. The chemicals
Kampuchea forces had reported numer-
tion reporting, and air activity. It in-
used probably included toxic smokes,
ous attacks directed against them with
dicates that military activity took place
riot-control agents such as CS, and an
lethal chemical agents and the poisoning
at the time and place of every incident
unidentified incapacitating agent that
of food and water.
reported to involve lethal chemical
caused vertigo and nausea and ultimate-
U.S. analysis of contaminated vege-
agents. In some cases, it provides strong
ly rendered victims unconscious with no
tation samples collected within hours of
circumstantial evidence that the action
other signs or symptoms.
a March 1981 attack showed high levels
In March 1979, during Vietnamese
of three trichothecene toxins in a com-
operations against Khmer Rouge forces
bination that would not be expected to
in the Phnom Melai area, a Vietnamese
be found in a natural outbreak in this
11
Kampuchea: Chemical Warfare Operational Areas
Laos
Thailand
Siem Reap-
Stung
Ratanakiri
Oddar Meanchey
Treng
Battambang
Battambang
Tonle
Sap
Kompong
Perlin
Phum Treng
Kampuchea
Mondolkiri
Thom
Kratie
Kompong
/
Chhnang
Kompong Cham
PHNOM PENH
Kompong
Koh Kong
Speu
Kandal
Prey
Veng
Vietnam
amorge
Svay
Takeo
Rieng
Kampot
Mekong
He.Cai Minh City
Gulf
of
Thailand
0
South
Area of concentrated chemical attacks
China
Takeo Province where chemical attacks have occurred
o
Sampling area-trichothecene toxins
Sea
0
100
Kilometers
Names and boundary répresentation
are not necessarily authoritative
12
environment. At the levels found on the
use of trichothecenes. (Blood analysis
early 1979 that evidence surfaced on the
vegetation, the three trichothecenes
results also appear in Annex D.)
Soviets' direct involvement in chemical
would produce vomiting, skin irritations
According to the DK soldiers
warfare activities. For example, the Lao
and itching, and bleeding symptoms.
affected, the chemicals used in the
Army chemical section in Xiangkhoang
Water samples taken from the area of
September 19 Takong attack were
prepared Soviet-manufactured chemical
the same attack also contained tricho-
dispersed as a gas or powder and as a
items for inspection by a Soviet military
thecene toxins. Control samples from
poison to water. The gas or powder was
team on February 7, 1979. A seven-man
nearby areas confirmed that these toxins
released from containers by tripwires in
team of Soviet chemical artillery ex-
were not indigenous to the locale.
the area of the rear forces. This descrip-
perts, accompanied by Lao chemical
(Details on the sample analysis appear in
tion is consistent with the other report-
officers, inspected chemical supplies and
Annex D.)
ing for this area and time.
artillery rounds at the Xeno storage
There also is ample evidence of mili-
Thailand also has been concerned
facility in Savannakhet on June 1, 1979.
tary activity at the place and time of the
about chemical attacks against its own
One report stated that the Soviets would
acquisition of the samples. Vietnamese
forces and civilian population. In March
be inspecting the same chemical ex-
Army defectors described plans for
1981, one Thai died from poisons placed
plosives used to suppress the H'Mong in
multiregimental sweep operations to be
by Vietnamese troops, and others
the Phou Bia area.
conducted along the border in north-
became ill after suffering bleeding from
In addition to this information,
western Battambang Province before
the nose and mouth. In May 1981, Thai
H'Mong accounts have described Soviet
the end of the dry season in May. Actual
forces captured two Vietnamese as they
advisers and technicians participating in
fighting, however, continued to be char-
were attempting to poison the water
the preparation of the chemical weapons
acterized by guerrilla tactics on both
supply in a Kampuchean relocation camp
for the attacks on the H'Mong villages.
sides, including, according to a Viet-
in Thailand. The poison was analyzed by
H'Mong eyewitnesses claim to have seen
namese Army defector, "staging am-
the Thai and found to contain lethal
"Caucasian pilots" in aircraft, and one
bushes, laying minefields, and use of
quantities of cyanide. Many reports in-
H'Mong report states that a downed
deception." Indeed, Democratic Kampu-
dicate that it is common practice for
Soviet aircraft was discovered in the
chean resistance forces were ordered to
Vietnamese units to poison water and
jungle along with a dead Soviet pilot. In
avoid large-scale operations and to limit
food used by the DK forces.
November 1981, a H'Mong resistance
combat operations to scattered sapper
leader described how Soviet soldiers
attacks. Such information is consistent
The Soviet Connection
fighting with the Lao Army fired hand-
with other reports of Vietnamese Army
in Southeast Asia
held weapons that dispersed a lethal
forces spreading toxic chemicals in
agent over a 300-meter area. Several
streams, along roadsides, and around
Much of the Soviet interest in Southeast
Lao defectors have reported seeing
villages and firing toxic gas shells
Asia is dictated by their rivalry with
Soviet advisers present when aircraft
against enemy positions. The Phnom
China and their close alliance with the
were loaded with chemical-agent
Melai sector, where Phnom Mak Hoeun
Vietnamese. Regional Communist forces
rockets.
is located, was described as an "anthill
have been strengthened to contain
In July 1981, a Soviet shipment of
of DK activity," and actions reported
Chinese influence and deter military in-
wooden crates filled with canisters de-
during March were "sporadic firefights"
cursions. The area of northern Laos be-
scribed by the Vietnamese as "deadly
around Phnom Mak Hoeun involving the
tween Vientiane and the Chinese
toxic chemicals" was unloaded at the
Vietnamese Army's 2nd Battalion, 2nd
border-where the H'Mong hill tribes
port of Ho Chi Minh City. This incident
Border Security Regiment.
have stubbornly resisted and harassed
further corroborates the judgment that
In Kampuchea, as in Laos, the
Vietnamese forces-is strategically sig-
the Soviets have been shipping chemical
period of late 1980 through spring 1981
nificant to the Vietnamese because it ad-
warfare materiel to Vietnam for some
was one of intensified Vietnamese opera-
joins a hostile China. In the last few
time. During the unloading, Vietnamese
tions to suppress the resistance and
years the Vietnamese have expanded
soldiers were caught pilfering the
break the will of the opposing forces. In
their military construction and strength-
wooden crates containing the canisters.
July 1981, trucks loaded with blue sacks
ened their forces in Laos which now
The soldiers dropped one of the wooden
filled with white powder were being
number 50,000.
cases and intentionally broke it open;
moved by the Vietnamese into the
Initially there was a tendency to in-
they wanted to determine if its contents
Pailin, Battambang, and Siem Reap
terpret the Soviet role as strictly ad-
were edible or valuable for pilferage.
areas. Vietnamese soldiers told villagers
visory. Now, however, there is con-
When a soldier broke the nylon seal and
that the chemicals caused blindness,
siderable evidence to suggest that the
attempted to pry open a canister, special
hemorrhaging, and vomiting.
Soviets are far more involved in the Lao
security personnel isolated the area and
Additional evidence was derived
and Vietnamese chemical warfare pro-
told the soldiers that the canisters con-
from blood samples drawn from victims
gram than was assumed earlier. An
tained deadly toxic substances from the
of Vietnamese chemical use that oc-
estimated 500 Soviet military advisers
U.S.S.R. The wooden crates, each
curred on September 19, 1981 in the
provide maintenance assistance and
weighing 100 kilograms, were loaded on
Takong area. Takong is in the same
technical support, actually running the
military trucks and taken under special
general area as Phnom Mak Hoeun-
Lao Air Force, and give advanced train-
guard to the Long Binh storage depot.
that is, the central region of Battam-
ing to Lao personnel in conventional as
This incident is only one in a series
bang Province near the Thai border.
well as chemical warfare.
involving Soviet chemical warfare
Although there is no independent confir-
The Soviets have had advisers and
materiel dating back several years. In
mation of the accounts of the attack,
technicians working in Vietnam and
1975, for example, a Soviet captain of a
American medical personnel visiting a
Laos for many years and in Kampuchea
diving support craft engaged in salvag-
DK field hospital examined the victims
since 1979. However, it was not until
ing a sunken ship in the Black Sea,
and obtained the blood samples.
which had been transporting Soviet
Analyses of these samples suggested the
military supplies to Vietnam, said that
13
his divers came in contact with toxic
Afghanistan
November 16, 1979, chemical bombs re-
chemicals, and a special Soviet salvage
portedly were dropped along with con-
Attacks with chemical weapons
unit took over the operation after the
ventional air munitions on targets in
against the mujahidin guerrillas in
divers became very ill. The salvage
Farah, Herat, and Badghisat Provinces
Afghanistan were reported as early as 6
operations, conducted by the ASPTR-12
months before the Soviet invasion on
by Soviet-supplied Afghan IL-28
Salvage, Rescue, and Underwater
bombers based at Shindand. A number
December 27, 1979. The information
Technical Services Group based in
of Afghan military defectors have stated
specifies that Soviet-made aircraft were
Odessa, were monitored by high-ranking
that the Soviets provided the Afghan
used to drop chemical bombs, with no
Soviet naval officers.
military with chemical warfare training
The operation began with the
clear identification of Soviet or Afghan
removal of tractors and helicopters
pilots or of the specific agents used. On
which cluttered the deck of the ship and
prevented access to hold hatches. Once
the surface clutter was removed, the
TABLE 3
divers attempted to enter the holds. At
this point, however, operations had to be
Afghanistan: Summary of Reported Chemical Attacks
suspended temporarily because of a
and Associated Deaths, 1979-81
violent outbreak of chemical poisoning
among the divers. Contact with the uni-
Time Period
Province
Attacks*
Deathsᵇ
dentified chemicals resulted in reddish
Summer 1979
Badakhshan
1
2,000ᶜ
welts 1-3 centimeters in diameter on ex-
Parvan
1
8
-
posed skin and was accompanied by
Bamian
1
severe headaches, nausea, and a general
Fall 1979
Konarha
1
350
feeling of fatigue. The symptoms dis-
Farah
1
?
appeared on their own after 3-5 days of
Herat
1
?
Badghisat
1
?
rest. At this point, military authorities
took over from the ASPTR-12 divers,
Winter 1979-80
Badakhshan
5
130+ +
-
who were temporarily withdrawn from
Takhar
1
Konarha
2
10 +
the project. Soviet naval divers were
Nangarhar
1
?
sent down and determined that the
Bamian
1
?
source of poisoning was chemical
Spring 1980
Badakhshan
1
1+
seepage from an open hatch of one of
Konarha
2
?
the holds. The hatch was promptly
Oruzgan
1
-
sealed, and the salvage operation was
Qandahar
1
-
once more assigned to ASPTR-12 divers
Summer 1980
Nangarhar
2
1
who resumed work and retrieved am-
Vardak
1
3
munition and an assortment of other
Herat
2
300 +
equipment. Once this was done, the
Kabul
2
-
military took over permanently. The
Fall 1980
Konarha
1
?
ship was raised without removing the
Lowgar
1
4
poisonous chemicals and towed to an
Ghazni
1
100
Odessa shipyard where the chemicals
Winter 1980-81
Lowgar
2
?
were unloaded by military personnel.
Spring 1981
Parvan
2
-
The ship was then broken up and
Lowgar
3
-
scrapped. The entire operation took
Ghazni
2
?
about 3 years to complete.
Qandahar
1
-
As another example of Soviet in-
Summer 1981
Nangarhar
2
?
volvement, two Vietnamese corporals,
Qandahar
2
16
from the 337th and 347th Vietnamese
Herat
1
119
Army divisions, have stated that Soviet-
47
3,042
supplied chemical weapons were stored
in caves near Lang Son in February
1979. Although their Vietnamese units
a This tabulation omits some attacks described in the text because they could not be dated or located with
were issued gas masks, they were told
high confidence.
b
that Soviet-supplied chemical weapons
A plus sign indicates that the report(s) of deaths gave a minimum figure. In some cases (shown with a
would not be used unless the Chinese in-
question mark) deaths were reported, but no number was given. Other reports (signified with a dash) gave no in-
formation on fatalities.
itiated chemical warfare. As late as
c The quality of reporting for this period is not as good as the information that became available after the
February 1981, a team of uniformed
Soviet invasion. We are concerned that this unusually high figure may reflect an accumulation of deaths from
Soviet military advisers was attached to
several incidents and not the single attack indicated. For example, reports were received describing over 1,000
deaths in Bamian Province in June-July 1979. An Afghan military officer reported seeing the bodies of many mu-
the corps headquarters. The team leader
jahidin in Panjsher Valley in August 1979 after a chemical attack and stated that many had been killed. An
was a senior Soviet colonel. The Soviets
Afghan civil engineer reported hearing that many deaths resulted from a chemical attack in the Jalalabad area,
were involved in training corps person-
also in the summer of 1979. Because we could not obtain supporting evidence, these reports were not included.
nel in the use of Soviet-supplied
Although sufficient evidence exists to conclude that Afghan Government forces used chemical weapons, mainly
bombs, from June to December 1979, no survivors or eyewitness accounts of these attacks are available to
weapons and equipment, including
determine the type of agent and symptoms.
chemical artillery shells and gas masks.
The Soviet team often inspected defen-
sive positions and observed training
maneuvers.
14
Afghanistan: Chemical Warfare Operational Areas
420 kilometers
to Arys'
China
Soviet Union
Feyzabad
Balkh
Qonduz
Conduz
Mazãr-e Sharif
Badakh
Takhar
Färyãb
Samangan/
Iran
Jowzjãn
Baghlan
Salang
Konarhã
Tunnel
Parvan
Bädghisät
Bagran
Laghmän
sadãbãd
Bâmian
KABUL
chaghasaray)
Herat
Jalalabad
Kavarzan
Ghowr
Kabul
Vardak
Herat
gar
Nanga
Afghanistan
ISLAMABAD
Paktia
*
Shindand
India
Orüzgän
Ghazhi
Farah
Deh Rãvod
Paktika
Pakistan
Zábol
Qandahar
Helmand
Nimrúz
Qandahar
Area of concentrated chemical attacks
Parvan Province where chemical attacks have occurred
Soviet chemical defense battalion
Airfield
0
300
Boundary representation is
Kilometers
not necessarily authoritative.
as well as supplies of lethal and in-
also reportedly used by the Soviets. The
aftereffects. In another, the bodies were
capacitating agents.
chemical clouds were usually gray or
characterized by abnormal bloating and
For the period from the summer
blue-black, yellow, or a combination of
blackened skin with a dark-reddish
of 1979 to the summer of 1981, the U.S.
the colors.
tinge, and the flesh appeared decayed
Government received reports of 47
Symptoms reported by victims and
very soon after death. In a third inci-
separate chemical attacks with a claimed
witnesses of attacks indicate that non-
dent, three dead mujahidin guerrillas
death toll of more than 3,000 (see Table
lethal incapacitating chemicals and lethal
were found with hands on rifles and ly-
3). Of the 47 reports, 36 came from
chemicals-including nerve agents,
ing in a firing position, indicating that
Afghan Army deserters, mujahidin
phosgene or phosgene oxime, possibly
the attacker had used an extremely
resistance fighters, journalists, U.S.
trichothecene toxins, and mustard-
rapid-acting lethal chemical that is not
physicians, and others. For 24 of the
were used. Medical examinations of
detectable by normal senses and that
reported attacks, there is additional in-
some of the victims include reports of
causes no outward physiological
dependent evidence supporting allega-
paralysis, other neurological effects,
responses before death.
tions of chemical attacks. In seven in-
blisters, bleeding, and sometimes death.
Shortly after the Soviet invasion,
stances, further individual reporting ex-
While none of the agents being used in
many reports were received that both
ists. Evidence for 20 of the reported in-
Afghanistan has been positively iden-
Soviet and Afghan forces were using
cidents comes from information on
tified through sample analysis, there is
various types of chemical agents. Ten
Soviet or Afghan Army combat opera-
no doubt that the agents being used are
separate chemical attacks, resulting in
tions in progress in areas and at times
far more toxic than riot-control agents
many deaths, were reported in the first
approximating those of a reported
such as CN and CS or even adamsite.
3 months of 1980. These reports came
chemical attack (see map).
Several descriptions of the
from northeastern Afghanistan and pro-
The reports indicated that fixed-
physiological action of a chemical agent
vide the highest percentage of reported
wing aircraft and helicopters usually
or of the condition of the corpses of vic-
deaths. During the mid-January to
were employed to disseminate chemical
tims were particularly unusual. In one,
February 1980 period, helicopter attacks
warfare agents by rockets, bombs, and
victims were rapidly rendered un-
were reported in northeastern Afghani-
sprays. Chemical-filled landmines were
conscious for 2-6 hours and had few
stan in which a grayish-blue smoke
resulted in symptoms similar to those
15
described by the H'Mong refugees from
attack. Soviet helicopter units par-
near Maruf, about 100 kilometers east of
Laos (e.g., heavy tearing or watering of
ticipated in chemical attacks from April
Qandahar. Soviet helicopters dropped
eyes; extensive blistering and discolora-
20 to April 29, 1981, in areas east and
green cylindrical canisters (18 inches
tion of the skin, later resulting in large
west of Kabul and in the Konar Valley,
long, 3-4 inches in diameter) which,
sheetlike peeling; swelling in the areas
according to eyewitness accounts. These
upon hitting the ground, emitted a
affected by the blister; and finally numb-
attacks were intended to drive personnel
greenish-yellow gas. According to the
ness, paralysis, and death). Medical
from sanctuaries, such as caves, in order
report, victims felt faint and dizzy; later
reports from examinations in Pakistan
to engage them with conventional fire.
their skin began to itch, and many lost
of refugees from a large attack in the
The munitions were described as Soviet
consciousness. About 300 persons were
upper Konar Valley in February 1980
250-kilogram RBK cluster bombs. The
affected by the gas and many died.
described red skin and blisters contain-
Soviets have such a munition, which can
Soviet ground forces captured many of
ing fluid described as "dirty water."
be filled with chemical agents. Other
the survivors. Other information on
Refugees estimated that about 2,000
reports described similar operations by
Soviet and mujahidin activities in the
people were affected after contact with a
helicopters north of Qandahar on April
Qandahar area during this period con-
dirty yellow cloud.
24 and April 26, 1981.
firms that this incident did in fact take
By spring and summer of 1980,
A former Afghan MI-8 helicopter
place.
chemical attacks were reported in all
pilot said Soviet forces had used chemi-
In February 1982, a member of the
areas of concentrated resistance activity.
cal weapons in Badakhshan, Qonduz,
resistance, with considerable knowledge
Many reports from different sources
and Konarha. Chemicals in canisters
of Soviet weapons, told a U.S. official
strongly support the case that irritants
that contained toxic gas, tear gas, and
that the Soviets were using irritants, a
were used to drive the insurgents into
antirespiratory gas, which has an in-
hallucinogenic gas, and what he said was
the open to expose them to attack with
capacitating effect by causing choking
an apparent nerve gas. He described the
conventional weapons and incapacitants
and difficulty in breathing, were manual-
"nerve agent" as an off-white powdery
to render them tractable for disarming
ly pushed from the cargo compartment
substance dispersed from helicopters
and capture. On several occasions in
of helicopters. The pilot said that there
generally during artillery or bombing at-
April 1980, for example, Soviet heli-
also was a specific gas that is absorbed
tacks. Victims realize they have been ex-
copter pilots dropped "gas bombs" on in-
by the body and leaves the skin SO soft
posed to chemical attack only when they
surgents, evidently to drive them from
that a finger can be punched through it.
become faint and dizzy. Subsequently,
caves.
In one case, there was a wind shift, and
they begin to vomit and bleed from the
A Dutch journalist, Bernd de Bruin,
Soviet and Afghan forces were seriously
eyes, nose, and mouth. Death occurs
published an eyewitness account of two
affected. Other sources also have de-
within a short time. The corpses are ex-
chemical attacks occurring in the Jalala-
scribed an incident where Soviet and
tremely relaxed, with no evidence of
bad area on June 15 and June 21, 1980
Afghan forces were victims of their own
rigor mortis. Flesh and skin frequently
(Niewsnet, August 2, 1980). He filmed
gas attack.
peel off if an effort is made to move the
an MI-24 helicopter dropping canisters
The following sequence occurred in a
bodies.
that produced a dirty yellow cloud. A
small valley in Qandahar Province in
According to this account, survivors
victim with blackened skin, discolored by
early June 1981. According to an
suffer aftereffects for about 6 months,
extensive subcutaneous hemorrhaging,
Afghan exile, Soviet combat groups
including chest congestion and pain, diz-
was photographed in the village 5 hours
engaged rebel forces in that valley dur-
ziness, and mental agitation. The
after the attack. The journalist evidently
ing a 2-week period. The situation
powder-like substance is more effective
was exposed because he developed
worsened for the Soviets, and an air-
at lower altitudes where there is less
blisters on his hands and a swollen and
strike was conducted. The exile stated
wind to dilute the poison, and mujahidin
itchy face. He also was exposed in the
that a Soviet helicopter delivered a
groups have experienced fatality rates
second attack, and it took about 10 days
single rocket, releasing a chemical that
as high as 70%. Many survivors of
for him to recover from skin lesions,
killed 16 insurgents. Nearly all reports
chemical attacks in Laos and Afghani-
nausea, diarrhea, and stomach cramps.
state that chemicals were delivered by
stan have exhibited the same long-term
An Afghan insurgent provided an
aircraft or helicopters; a few reports de-
health problems described in this ac-
eyewitness account of a July 6, 1980 at-
scribe chemical artillery rounds.
count.
tack on a village 10 kilometers east of
Before a sweep operation in the
Chemical defense battalions-stand-
Darae Jelga in Vardak Province. He
Konar Valley in September 1981, re-
ard in all Soviet divisions-are deployed
reported that a Soviet MI-24 helicopter
sistance leaders were told by an Afghan
with the three Soviet motorized rifle
gunship dropped a bomb that, upon ex-
officer that the Soviets had four agents
divisions operating in Afghanistan at
plosion, released a lethal chemical. A
available but would use only the incapac-
Qonduz, Shindand, and Kabul. Soviet
separate report confirmed that Soviet
itant which they could defend against
operational personnel decontamination
bombing attacks on villages in Vardak
with wet rags over the face. During the
stations were observed at several loca-
as well as Lowgar and Parvan Provinces
operation, Soviet helicopters conducted
tions, and chemical decontamination
were taking place during this period. In
gas attacks in 25 different areas, using
field units were deployed during a sweep
August 1980, information surfaced on a
cylinders about 1.5 meters long and 60
operation of the Konar Valley in eastern
Soviet attack with chemical bombs on
centimeters in diameter that exploded
Afghanistan and near Shindand in the
the village of Sya Wusan, 30 kilometers
4-5 meters above the ground, releasing
west in 1980. The operational deploy-
southeast of Herat, leaving 300 dead. It
the incapacitating gas. Some victims lost
ment of decontamination units for per-
was during this time that the Soviet
consciousness, were paralyzed, and
sonnel and equipment suggests that
chemical battalion at Shindand set up an
recovered, but others died, and un-
chemical battalions have supported
operational decontamination station.
protected areas of their skin turned dark
offensive chemical use. In addition,
Reports of chemical weapons use in
green to blue-green.
Soviet personnel have been observed
1981 essentially parallel 1980 reporting
An Afghan tribal leader recently de-
wearing chemical protective equipment.
with respect to frequency and location of
scribed a Soviet chemical attack against
The Soviets have specifically tailored
a large resistance force in October 1981
their forces in Afghanistan, in part
16
because of logistical constraints; 5,000
jor irritant to be removed as quickly and
could successfully deny or counter
troops and "nonessential" combat equip-
cheaply as possible. The use of chemical
charges that chemical weapons had been
ment were withdrawn, but the chemical
agents has played a major role in driv-
used, recognizing that it would be
battalions remain.
ing the H'Mong from their mountain
especially difficult to compile incon-
A Soviet military chemical specialist,
strongholds, relieving Vietnamese and
trovertible evidence from inaccessible
captured by the mujahidin, gave his
Lao ground forces of the need for costly
areas of Southeast Asia and Afghani-
name as Yuriy Povarnitsyn from
combat in difficult terrain. Much of the
stan. With respect to Kampuchea, they
Sverdlovsk. During an interview, he said
H'Mong population that lived in the
may also have calculated that, in view of
that his mission was to examine villages
Phou Bia mountain region has been
the lack of international support for Pol
after a chemical attack to determine
driven into Thailand, killed, or resettled.
Pot's resistance, chemical weapons could
whether they were safe to enter or re-
In the mountainous areas of
be used on his troops without significant
quired decontamination. An Afghan
Afghanistan, where rebels are holed up
international outcry.
pathologist who later defected described
in caves or other inaccessible areas, con-
In addition, the Soviet military very
accompanying Soviet chemical warfare
ventional artillery, high-explosive bombs,
likely considers these remote areas as
personnel into contaminated areas to
and napalm are not particularly effec-
providing unique opportunities for the
collect soil, vegetation, and water
tive. Many reports indicate that uniden-
operational testing and evaluation of
samples after Soviet chemical attacks.
tified chemical agents have been used on
chemical weapons under various tactical
According to firsthand experience of
such targets. Caves and rugged terrain
conditions. Years of aerial and artillery
former Soviet chemical personnel, the
in Laos and thick jungles in Kampuchea
chemical dispersion have undoubtedly
Soviets do not require decontamination
also have frustrated attempts to locate
provided the Soviets with valuable
equipment in an area where chemical
and destroy the resistance forces.
testing data. Southeast Asia has offered
bombs are stored or loaded onto air-
Chemical clouds can penetrate the heavy
the Soviets an opportunity to test old
craft. Thus, deployment of this equip-
forests and jungle canopy and seep into
agents that had been stockpiled for
ment in Afghanistan must be assumed
the mountain caves. Persistent agents
many years as well as more recently
to be associated with the active employ-
linger in the area and cause casualties
developed agents or combinations of
ment of casualty-producing chemical
days and sometimes weeks after the at-
agents. This conclusion is supported by
agents.
tack. Unprotected forces and civilians
information from foreign military
Afghan military defectors have pro-
have little or no defense against lethal
officers who have attended the Soviet
vided information on ammunition and
agents like toxins, nerve gas, or blister
Military Academy of Chemical Defense
grenades containing phosgene, diphos-
agents.
in Moscow. According to their Soviet in-
gene, sarin, and soman and have de-
Trichothecene toxins, which are
structor, three types of chemical agents
scribed where and when some of them
known to have been used in Southeast
may be used during the "initial stages"
have been used. They also have revealed
Asia, have the added advantage of being
of local wars: "harassing agents (CS,
locations where these agents were stock-
an effective terror weapon that causes
CN, DM), incapacitants such as psycho-
piled. The agents used, plus the time
bizarre and horrifying symptoms. Severe
chemicals (BZ) or intertoxins [sic-pos-
and location of the attacks, correspond
bleeding, in addition to blisters and
sibly enterotoxins], and herbicides." Dur-
with the refugee reports and recorded
vomiting, has instilled fear in the
ing the "decisive phase, lethal agents can
military operations.
resistance villages. Not only have the
be employed under certain cir-
The Soviet Union has stocked a
villagers and their animals been killed in
cumstances." In a local war, "chemical
variety of toxic chemical agents and
a gruesome manner, but the vegetation
weapons can be used to spoil enemy
munitions to meet wartime contingen-
and water also have been contaminated.
efforts to initiate operations, even if the
cies. Weapons systems capable of
Survivors are reluctant to return to
enemy has not used them first." The
delivering chemical munitions available
their inhospitable homes and instead
foreign officers' accounts, including
to Soviet forces in Afghanistan include
make the long and dangerous trek to
detailed descriptions of the Soviet
artillery, multiple rocket launchers, and
camps in Thailand.
chemical warfare program, support the
tactical aircraft.
There is no clearcut explanation of
conclusion that the Soviets consider
why trichothecene toxins have been used
chemical weapons an effective and ac-
Motivation for Using
in addition to irritants, incapacitants,
ceptable means of warfare in local
Chemical Weapons
and other traditional chemical warfare
conflicts.
agents. Speculation suggests that they
Insight into the Soviet bloc military
In the course of this analysis, the ques-
are probably cheaper to make and are
perspective on the use of toxins is pro-
tion has been posed: Is there a military-
readily available from Soviet stocks;
vided in the following passage from a
strategic or tactical rationale for the
they are probably safer and more stable
1977 East German military manual en-
systematic use of chemical weapons by
to store, transport, and handle in a
titled Textbook of Military Chemistry.
conventional forces in Laos, Kampuchea,
Southeast Asian environment, and they
and Afghanistan? The military problems
Toxins are designated as toxic agents
may require less protective equipment
faced in these countries-viewed from
which are produced by biological organisms
when being prepared for munitions.
such as micro-organisms, plants, and animals,
the perspective of the Soviets and their
They are difficult to trace as the
and cannot themselves reproduce.
allies-make the use of chemical
causative agent after an attack-as
By the middle of 1960 the toxins selected
weapons a militarily effective way of
demonstrated by the length of time it
for military purposes were included among
breaking the will and resistance of stub-
took for the United States to detect
the biologic warfare agents. In principle, this
born anti-government forces operating
them. Few laboratories in the world
was understood to mean only the bacterial
from relatively inaccessible, protected
have the analytical capability to identify
toxins. Today it is possible to produce various
sanctuaries.
toxins synthetically. Toxins with 10-12 amino
precisely the type and amount of
The Soviets have made a large in-
acids can currently be synthesized in the
trichothecene toxin in a sample of
laboratory. Toxins are not living substances
vestment in insuring that Vietnam and
vegetation, soil, or water.
and in this sense are chemicals. They thus
its clients succeed in extending their
The Soviets may well have
differ fundamentally from the biological
control over Indochina. For Vietnam,
calculated that they and their allies
organisms SO that they can be included
the H'Mong resistance in Laos is a ma-
among chemical warfare agents. As a result
17
of their peculiarities they are designated
Kampuchea, and Afghanistan-has any
airfield (Vientiane Province), where the
simply as "toxin warfare agents." They would
known large-scale facility or organiza-
rockets were fitted onto racks of the
be used in combat according to the same
tion for the manufacture of chemical and
L-19 aircraft for missions in the Phou
principles and with the same methods used
biological materials. Nor are they known
Bia area; later, the rockets from Phon-
for chemical warfare agents. When they are
to have produced even small quantities
savan were transported to Ban Xon by
used in combat the atmosphere can be con-
taminated over relatively large areas-we
of chemical warfare agents or munitions.
trucks. All U.S.-manufactured rockets
can expect expansion depths of up to 6 kilo-
The technical problems of producing
were stored with the tip and canister
meters before the toxin concentration drops
large quantities of weapons-grade tox-
kept apart; the two parts had to be
below lethal concentration 50
the
toxin
ins, however, are not SO great as to pre-
joined before being fitted to the racks on
warfare agents can be aerosolized. They can
clude any of the four countries from
the aircraft. The pilot observed, how-
be used primarily in micro-bombs which are
learning to manufacture, purify, and
ever, that all the rockets transported
launched from the air or in warheads of tac-
weaponize these materials. It is highly
from Phonsavan to Ban Xon were al-
tical rockets. Toxin warfare agents concen-
unlikely, however, that they could
ready assembled.
trates can be applied with aircraft spray
master these functions without acquiring
As part of his routine flight ac-
equipment and similar dispersion systems.
outside technical know-how.
tivities, the pilot would check his aircraft
The Soviet designation for several
and, in doing so, examine the tip portion
pathogenic Fusarium products is "IIF
of new smoke rockets that had been
(iskusstvennyy infektsionny fon), which
A
transported from Phonsavan. He said
stands for "artificial infection back-
that most appeared "loose" in the por-
ground." IIF devices are used in the
A LAO PILOTS ACCOUNT
tion where the tip and canister joined,
Soviet Union deliberately to contaminate
whereas the tip and canister of the ordi-
soil in experimental agricultural test
One of the most complete descriptions of
nary explosive-type rockets at Long
areas with spores of disease-producing
chemical warfare activities in the
Tieng were noticeably more tightly con-
fungi. We are not certain if the IIF com-
1976-78 period came from a Lao pilot
nected.
pounds include trichothecenes. Nor are
who was directly involved in chemical
In late 1976, during preparation for
we certain as to the intent of this agri-
warfare. The pilot, a former Lao
airstrikes on Kasy (Louangphrabang
cultural research program. It is possible
People's Liberation Army (LPLA) officer
Province) and in new areas of Phou Bia,
that these programs are designed to col-
who defected in 1979, reported that he
the pilot said he began carrying two or
onize soil with pathogenic organisms
flew captured L-19 and T-41 aircraft
three Vietnamese Army staff officers,
either to determine which crop varieties
equipped to dispense toxic chemical
sometimes accompanied by a Lao staff
are most resistant to disease or, alter-
agents on H'Mong villagers in the Phou
officer, in T-41 aircraft for recon-
natively, to test eradication and control
Bia area of northern Laos. He said that
naissance over the target areas. When
methods in infected soils. Elsewhere in
the LPLA, in cooperation with the Viet-
these airstrikes were launched, the
the Soviet agricultural research pro-
namese Army, had conducted chemical
defector pilot initially flew his L-19 air-
gram, however, it is known that there is
warfare operations in Laos since April
craft on missions with another pilot and
widespread use of certain trichothe-
or early May 1976. At that time, two
a Lao staff officer. After 2 or 3 weeks,
cenes, including sprays from light air-
Lao H-34 helicopters were flown be-
however, Vietnamese staff officers, who
craft. A capability exists within the
tween Long Tieng and the Phonsavan
spoke excellent Lao, began alternating
Soviet Union for multi-ton production of
airfield, both in Xiangkhoang Province,
with the Lao officers. Before each mis-
light aircraft spray-delivered microbial
on a series of flights to transport
sion, the Vietnamese or Lao staff officer
products such as those described above.
rockets to Phonsavan for storage.
would go over target areas outlined on
Evidence accumulated since World
Between June and August 1976, the
situation maps-which then were taken
War II clearly shows that the Soviets
LPLA launched attacks in the area of
along-and would point out the targets
have been extensively involved in
Bouamlong-in Xiangkhoang Prov-
to be attacked. The defector pilot noted
preparations for large-scale offensive
ince-a stronghold for remnants of the
that at no time did the Vietnamese staff
and defensive chemical warfare.
forces of former H'Mong Gen. Vang
officer communicate with Lao officers on
Chemical warfare agents and delivery
Pao. The LPLA used L-19 aircraft for
the ground, as did the Lao staff officers.
systems developed by the Soviets have
rocket attacks in that area aimed at
A new Vietnamese officer was assigned
been identified, along with production
eliminating the H'Mong resisting govern-
for each airstrike mission in the H'Mong
and storage areas within the U.S.S.R.
ment control. Lao crews responsible for
areas.
and continuing research, development,
loading rockets on the attack aircraft
The pilot related that before flying
and testing activities at the major Soviet
noted that they were not allowed to use
L-19 airstrike missions with a full load
chemical proving grounds. Soviet
the rockets that had been moved from
of rockets he was often warned by a Lao
military forces are extensively equipped
Long Tieng to Phonsavan, even though
commander to fly at above-normal alti-
and trained for operations in a chemi-
Phonsavan was much closer to the
tudes when firing rockets-to preclude
cally contaminated environment. None
Bouamlong target area than Long
hazard to the occupants of the aircraft.
of the evidence indicates any abatement
Tieng, where Lao aircraft had to rearm.
For this reason the pilot surmised that
in this program. The Soviets have shown
The pilot said that, during nearly 3
the "smoke" rockets fired at the H'Mong
a strong interest in improving or en-
months of flying missions against the
were unusual. He was able to observe
hancing their standard agents for
Bouamlong area, he flew his L-19 air-
that the "smoke" rockets detonated in
greater reliability and effect. Their large
craft to Long Tieng to be armed with
the air and that some produced white
chemical and biological research and
rockets.
smoke, with a mixture of blue, while
development effort has led them to in-
In late 1976, the pilot's L-19 aircraft
others produced red smoke, with a mix-
vestigate other kinds of chemical war-
was rearmed with rockets stored at
ture of yellow. The ordinary explosive-
fare agents, particularly the toxins.
Phonsavan. Initially, H-34 helicopters
type rockets detonated on impact. The
None of the four countries con-
were used to transport the rockets from
sidered in this report-Vietnam, Laos,
Phonsavan to a depot near the Ban Xon
18
commander or his designated repre-
northern Laos-including the one at
ANNEX B
sentative told the pilot before every mis-
Phonsavan, where AN-2s were seen in
sion that the operations-called Extinct
1978. Failure to observe chemical decon-
FINDINGS OF U.S. GOVERNMENT
Destruction Operations-were intended
tamination equipment at the airfields
INVESTIGATIVE TEAMS: USE OF
to "wipe out the reactionary H'Mong
does not rule out the presence or
CHEMICAL AGENTS AGAINST THE
people."
handling of chemical munitions. The
H'MONG IN LAOS
Before a mission involving "smoke
Soviets supervise the chemical warfare
rockets," the commander warned the
activities in Laos; it is assumed that
State Department Team
pilots to keep the operation secret. The
chemical munitions are handled in about
Lao defector said that, during the nearly
the same manner as in the U.S.S.R. Ac-
In May 1979, State Department officials
2 years in which he flew rocket missions,
cording to former Soviet chemical war-
visited Thailand to interview H'Mong
he learned from the Lao staff officers ac-
fare personnel, no protective clothing or
refugees and investigate allegations of
companying him that there were two
special decontamination equipment is re-
the use of chemical agents against
types of rockets. The first, mostly
quired for loading chemical bombs onto
H'Mong tribesmen in Laos (see Table
"smoke" rockets, were to be fired at
aircraft and helicopters at chemical
B-1). From the signs/symptoms describ-
targets far away from Lao and Viet-
munitions test ranges.
ed and observed, it is suggested that at
namese troops to avoid exposing them
The Lao pilot's description of the
least two and possibly three different
to the poison smoke. The second was of
rockets used on the L-19 was corrobor-
chemical agents may have been used,
the ordinary explosive type, considered a
ated by other sources. A H'Mong
such as:
"close support" rocket that could be fired
refugee, a former commander of a
A nerve agent (five or six in-
near Lao troop positions. Initially, the
500-man resistance force, reported that
dividuals reported symptoms that could
L-19 aircraft carried eight rockets-
in 1977 he found a rocket canister and a
be attributed to a nerve agent);
five "close support" and three "smoke"
separated warhead that he believed
An irritant or riot-control agent
rockets. Later, only four rockets, mainly
were the kinds used by the Vietnamese
and Lao. The canister had authentic
(one-third of the interviews); and
of the "smoke" type, were carried.
More than half of the interviews
After each, mission in which chemical
U.S. markings identifying it as a
indicated such a variety of signs and
warfare rockets were used, the pilot was
U.S.-manufactured 2.75-inch rocket and,
symptoms that it is difficult to attribute
returned to a "rest house" at Phonsavan,
reportedly, three lines of Russian
them to a single known agent.
where a Lao Army doctor and nurse
writing which he could not translate.
would examine him. He said that after
Another H'Mong resistance force officer,
It is possible that in some cases two
his missions, especially in 1978, he was
reportedly trained as a liaison officer
or more agents were combined.
particularly well treated by the examin-
and ordnance expert before the Com-
Reported signs and symptoms
ing doctor and watched very closely by
munist takeover of Laos, stated that he,
suggesting a nerve agent include sweat-
the nurse. Those L-19 aircraft pilots
too, believed that the rocket canister
was of U.S. manufacture and that the
ing, tearing, excessive salivation, diffi-
assigned to missions utilizing chemical
warfare rockets had special privileges,
Soviet technicians in Laos had modified
culty in breathing, shortness of breath,
nausea and vomiting, dizziness, weak-
including additional flight pay and free
the upper stage to contain a poisonous
ness, convulsions, and death occurring
meals at the Phonsavan cafeteria. In Oc-
(i.e., lethal) chemical.
shortly after exposure.
tober 1978, the Lao Army stopped using
The diameter of the warhead was
Reported signs and symptoms
L-19 aircraft on combat missions and
reported to be 12.5 centimeters (5
suggesting a riot-control or irritant
began using Soviet MiG-21s for chemi-
inches), probably a measurement taken
agent include marked irritation or burn-
cal attacks on the Phou Bia areas.
on a modified warhead, because the
ing of the eyes, with tearing and pain;
Several H'Mong reports corroborate
United States does not have a 5-inch
irritation and burning of the nose and
the testimony of the Lao pilot. A village
warhead for the 2.75-inch "rocket
throat; coughing; burning and tightness
chief, for example, described attacks
motor." During the Vietnam conflict,
in the chest; headache; and nausea and
covering all 7 days of the week of June
about 35 million U.S.-manufactured, con-
vomiting in a few cases.
5, 1976 in the Bouamlong area. He de-
ventional 2.75-inch rockets were sent to
Reported signs and symptoms not
scribed L-19 aircraft firing rockets that
the war zone, and many tens of thous-
related to any known single agent in-
produced red and green smoke: Ten
ands of these fell into North Vietnamese
clude a mixture of the above as well as
villagers were killed by gas and 30 by
hands when the South Vietnamese
profuse bleeding from mucous mem-
shrapnel. Most of the H'Mong reports
forces collapsed. The Vietnamese may
branes of the nose, lungs, and gastro-
documented by a U.S. Foreign Service
be using some of these rockets with ex-
intestinal tract, with rapid death of the
officer in June 1979 and a Department
isting loads, but modified warheads for
affected individuals in some instances.
of Defense medical team in October
the 2.75-inch rocket motor could easily
1979 were consistent with the pilot's
be fabricated in Vietnam and filled with
Estimates from the H'Mong inter-
testimony. H'Mong observers familiar
a lethal or nonlethal agent in Laos,
viewed indicate that approximately
with military aircraft reported L-19s in
especially with Soviet assistance. Ac-
700-1,000 persons may have died as a
use until late 1978. After that time,
cording to U.S. experts, fabrication of a
result of the use of chemical agents and
reports described jets or "MiGs" and
warhead 5 inches in diameter, necked
that many times this number became ill.
some accurately described Soviet
down to fit the 2.75-inch rocket, could be
It was reported that on many occasions
AN-2s.
accomplished by trained technicians in a
entire villages were devastated by these
A review of information back to
small, well-equipped machine shop and
agents, leaving no survivors.
1975 shows L-19 and T-28 aircraft
laboratory.
In the episodes described, most of
were operating from airfields in
the animals exposed to the chemical
agents were killed. Generally, all
19
chickens, dogs, and pigs died and, to a
lesser extent, the cattle and buffalo. On
TABLE B-1
several occasions it was reported that
where these agents settled on tree and
Reports of Probable Chemical Agent Attacks In Laos
plant leaves, many small holes appeared
in the leaves within 2 or 3 days. Rarely
Department of State Interviews Conducted in Summer 1979
did agent exposure result in the defolia-
Method of Attack
Material Used
tion or death of the plants.
Date
Location
by Plane
(Smoke/Gas)
Oct. 1977
Phu Hay, S. of Phou Bia
Rockets
Yellow-gray
Department of Defense Team
1978
Pa Sieng, S. of Phou Bia
Bomb
Yellow
Feb. 1978
Ban Nam Luk, S. of Phou Bia
Spray (?)
Yellow/white
From September 28 to October 12,
Feb. 1978
20 kms SE. of Phou Bia
Spray (?)
Yellow
1979, a team from the U.S. Army
Feb. 1978
Ban Ko Mai
Bomb
Yellow
Surgeon General's Office was in Thailand
Mar. 1978
Pha Houei
Sacks, burst in air
Brown
to conduct a similar series of inter-
Mar. 1978
Ban Na Pong
(?)
Yellow
views.* The team visited the following
Apr. 1978
Ban Phamsi
(?)
White, green,
H'Mong refugee camps of northern Thai-
blood-colored
land: the detention center at Nong Kai,
May-Apr. 1978
Ban Nong Po
Cloud
Yellow-brown
like rain
the large H'Mong camp at Ban Vinai,
June 1978
Ban Nam Teng
Rocket (?)
Yellow
and two smaller camps at Nam Yao and
June 1978-May 1979
Ban Don area
Spray
Yellow
Mae Charim. As the great majority of
Mid-1978
1-3 kms NE. of Phou Bia
Rocket, air burst
Red
refugees as well as the H'Mong leader-
Oct. 1978
Nam Kham
Rockets, air burst
Yellow
ship are at Ban Vinai, most interviews
Oct. 1978
6 kms N. of Phou Khao
Rockets, air burst
Red
were obtained there.
Oct. 1978
3-4 kms N. of Phou Bia
Rockets, air burst
Yellow-gray
The team was prepared to obtain
Nov. 1978
Phou Xang Noi
Spray
Yellow, blue
blood and skin samples (for cholinester-
Nov. 1978
near Phou Bia
Bomb, air burst
Yellow
ase activity and study of pathological
Nov. 1978
NE. of Pha Khao
Rocket, air burst
Yellow
changes, respectively) from those ex-
Apr. 1979
Ban Nouia Pong
Spray
Yellow
May 1979
Nam Po
Spray
Yellow
posed to chemical agents. For such
May 1979
Pha Mai
Spray, air burst
Yellow
samples to yield meaningful results they
must be taken within 6-8 weeks of ex-
posure. Since the last reported exposure
Department of Defense Interviews Conducted In Fall 1979
was in May 1979, no blood or skin
Method of Attack
Material Used
samples were collected.
Date
Location
by Plane
(Smoke/Gas)
Interviews were conducted through
June 1976
Pou Mat Sao
Rockets
Red, green
interpreters; one was an employee of the
Jan. 1977-Oct. 1978
Pha Khao
Rockets
Yellow, red, green
U.S. Consulate at Udorn, and the re-
Mar. 1977
Nam Theuna
Rockets
Red, yellow
mainder were hired from among the
Apr. 1977
Houi Kam Lang
Rockets
Yellow
refugees. The interpreters screened
May 1977
Pha Khae
Rockets
Red
those refugees who volunteered to talk
May 1977
Nam Moh
Rockets
Yellow
to the team and selected only those who
May 1977
Pha Ngune
Spray/rockets
Yellow
1977-1978 (3 attacks)
Phu Seu
Rockets
had been eyewitnesses to or had them-
Red, green, yellow
Jan. 1978
Houi Xang
Rockets
Red, green
selves been exposed to an agent attack.
Feb. 1978
Sane Mak Ku
Rockets
Yellow
Team members interviewed 40 men, 2
Feb. 1978
Tham Se Sam Leim
Rockets
Yellow, black
women, and a 12-year-old girl. Each in-
Feb. 1978
Kio Ma Nang
Rockets
Yellow
terview took 1-2 hours. To insure con-
Mar. 1978
Mouong Ao
Rockets
White
formity, a prepared questionnaire was
Mar. 1978
Khieu Manang
Rockets
Green
used as a guide.
Apr. 1978
Tha Se
Rockets
White
The chemical attacks reportedly oc-
June 1978
Pha Phay
Rockets
Yellow
curred between June 1976 and May 1979
June 1978
Phou Seng
Rockets
Red, white, black
July 1978
Phou Bia
Rockets
Red
(Table B-1). The absence of reports of
July 1978
Ban Nam Mo
Spray
Yellow
attacks after May 1979 may be because
July 1978
Phou Lap
Rockets
Yellow
Aug. 1978
Pha Houai
Rockets
Red, green
* The authors of the U.S. Army Surgeon
Aug. 1978
Ban Thin On
Rockets
Green, red
General's report are Charles W. Lewis, M.D.,
Aug. 1978
Bouamlong
Rockets
Red, green, yellow
COL, MC, Chief, Dermatology Service,
Sept. 1978
Pha Koug
Rockets
Yellow
Brooke Army Medical Center, Fort Sam
Sept. 1978
Ban Nam Tia
Spray/rockets
Yellow, green, red
Houston, Texas; Frederick R. Sidell, K.D.,
Sept. 1978
Pha Na Khum
Rockets
Red
Chief, Clinical Resources Group, U.S. Army
Oct. 1978
Phou Bia
Rockets
Biomedical Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving
Oct. 1978
Ban Done
Spray
Yellow
Ground, Md.; William D. Tigertt, M.D.
Oct. 1978
Phou Bia
Rockets
White, green, red
(Brigadier General, Ret., USA), Professor of
Nov. 1978
Phou Bia
Rockets
White, red
Pathology, University of Maryland,
Feb. 1979
Pha Mat
Spray
Yellow
Baltimore, Md.; Charles D. Lane, LTC,
Feb. 1979
Tong Moei
Rockets
Yellow, red
Southeast Asia Desk Officer, OACSI, Depart-
Mar. 1979
Pha Mai
Spray
Yellow
ment of the Army, Washington, D.C.; and
Mar.-May 1979
Pha Mai
Spray
Yellow
Burton L. Kelley, SP5, USA, Dermatology
(6 attacks)
Technician, Brooke Army Medical Center,
Apr.-May 1979
Pha Mai
Spray
Gray-white
Fort Sam Houston, Texas.
(4 attacks)
May 1979
Phou Bia
Spray
Yellow
May 1979
Moung Phong
Rockets
Red
20
few refugees crossed the Mekong River
most acute in the groin and axillae.
attacks of intense vomiting five or six
after that time-as a result of heavy
Thus, the acute signs and symptoms
times a day, they also had diarrhea, with
rains and flooding from June to Septem-
match some effects of traditional
bloody stools passed up to eight times a
ber 1979. Most of the early reports were
vomiting and blister agents but clearly
day. Bleeding under the fingernails and
of the use of rockets releasing the agent;
not all.
around the skin of the eyes and severe
beginning in the fall of 1978, the majori-
Within the first hours after the at-
bruising of the skin also were commonly
ty of the attacks were carried out by air-
tack, many victims also reported intense
reported. Opiates helped the fluid loss in
craft spraying a yellowish substance
red eyes, bleeding gums, convulsions or
adults, but in children or young persons
which "fell like rain." The attack sites,
more often trembling, and vomiting of
unable to tolerate the treatments of raw
concentrated around the H'Mong strong-
blood, with or without production of
opium and water, death occurred after
hold in the mountainous Phou Bia area,
copious amounts of saliva-lasting many
10 days to 2 weeks in about half the
also are listed in Table B-1.
hours to days, apparently depending on
cases. On the basis of reported signs and
The team was given a plastic vial
the exposure level. Thick mucous, pin-
symptoms, the cause of delayed death
containing pieces of bark, stained by a
point pupils, respiratory collapse, pro-
almost certainly was dehydration.
yellow substance, which several H'Mong
longed spasticity, and involuntary urina-
In many cases, chemical attacks are
refugees claimed was residue from an
tion or defecation were never reported
reported to produce symptoms other
aircraft spray attack in April 1979. Pre-
after a yellow rain attack; the absence of
than those described here. However,
liminary chemical analysis of the sample
these symptoms helped to rule out or-
there has always been a direct associa-
indicates that no standard chemical
ganophosphate nerve agents in the
tion of the above symptoms with reports
agent (i.e., an agent listed in TH 8-285,
minds of chemical warfare experts.
of yellow rain attacks-that is, when
U.S. Army, May 1974) was present.
Many medical and environmental
yellow material is used these symptoms
samples also ruled out these and other
appear; other agents may give rise to
Conclusions
traditional agents such as DM, DS, and
other symptoms. Although it is possible
others.
to exhibit one or even several of these
The conclusions of these teams, based
Many observers of "yellow rain"
symptoms associated with traditional
upon interviews obtained from H'Mong
effects reported formation within several
chemical warfare agents, no expert has
refugees, are as follows:
hours of small (1 centimeter) homoge-
been able to fit the sequence, severity,
Chemical agents have been used
neous, hard, fluid-filled blisters over only
and consistency with any of them. In
against the H'Mong.
exposed areas of skin, frequently in-
many cases, victims and observers were
The reported effects of these
cluding the victim's hands, arms, entire
examined, histories taken, and inter-
throat, and face-wherever skin was un-
agents suggest the use of a nerve agent,
views conducted by several health pro-
covered. In most cases the vomit, after
a riot-control agent, and an unidentified
fessionals weeks apart. Remarkable con-
2-8 hours, contained blood and, in many
combination or compound.
sistency has been observed.
cases, large amounts of it. About half of
From the beginning of the yellow
those receiving the most concentrated
rain episodes in 1975, autopsies occa-
ANNEX C
doses of yellow material-those who had
sionally have been reported anecdotally.
been directly under the spray-were
Some have been done inexpertly, some
MEDICAL EVIDENCE
observed within several hours to cease
by nonphysicians, and some were per-
vomiting temporarily. This interval was
formed on animals rather than on
Southeast Asia
often followed in 5-15 minutes by a
human victims. However, the consisten-
period of great pain when the victim
cy of the early reported "putrefaction"
Since 1975, many different sources-
would hold his abdomen and emit a gush
or "rottenness" of the digestive tract
refugees, relief workers and medical
of blood from mouth and nose. These in-
within 12-48 hours after death led many
personnel, including specially qualified
dividuals usually died within minutes
forensic medical experts to suspect that
physicians-consistently have detailed
afterward.
one effect of the poison-whatever it
unusual signs and symptoms of victims
Close questioning by physicians of
was- was to cause necrosis (cell death)
of "yellow rain." Specifically, victims in
witnesses to these final moments leaves
of rapidly dividing mucosa (mucous
Southeast Asia subjected to a direct at-
no doubt that the effects resulted from
membranes), especially in the stomach
tack of the yellow powder, mist, smoke,
severe gastrointestinal bleeding, signifi-
and upper small intestine. Other autopsy
or dust would be seen to begin retching
cant pulmonary bleeding, temporary
findings included hyperemia (engorge-
and vomiting within minutes. These
compression of accumulated blood in the
ment with blood) of digestive mucosal
effects and those described below were
stomach, and, finally, projectile vomiting
linings and remarkably intense conges-
not pronounced in individuals even 100
of as many as several hundred milliliters
tion and swelling in the lungs, liver,
meters from the attack zone, indicating
of blood. These findings were consistent
spleen, and sometimes the kidneys.
a relatively dense chemical/carrier com-
with animal and human autopsies.
These and other findings often led ex-
bination that was effective in low wind
Many victims of the yellow material
perts in toxicology and pathology, on the
conditions.
received less than the full brunt of a
basis of clinical and pathological data
Following the victim's exposure to
spray, entered the attack zone several
alone, to suggest mycotoxin or even tri-
yellow rain, the initial induced vomit-
hours to 2 days later, or consumed food
chothecene intoxication.
ing-unlike that caused by a traditional
or water contaminated by the material.
Trichothecene effects have been
riot-control nausea agent-was pro-
These individuals-often within the next
reported in the forensic, oncological, and
tracted over hours to days. It was often
24 hours-developed signs and symp-
toxicological literature for several years.
accompanied by dizziness, rapid heart-
toms similar to those more directly af-
Unpublished findings often have been
beat and apparently low blood pressure,
fected but often without pronounced
discussed in symposiums. In several
chest pain, loss of far-field vision, and a
skin effects if they had not contacted the
dozen cases, toxic effects in humans and
feeling of intense heat and burning on
powder residue directly. In addition to
the skin, although not described as being
21
animals have been carefully recorded,
and they match those of yellow rain with
TABLE C-1
good precision (see Table C-1). There
are no additional signs or effects of
Comparison of Reported "Yellow Rain" Effects
known trichothecene intoxication not fre-
With Known Trichothecene Effects
quently reported by victims, nor are
there any reported yellow rain symptoms
Yellow Rain Reports*
Effects of Trichothecenes
that cannot be explained by the effects of
1. Nausea, vomiting-severe, immediate
1. Nausea, vomiting-severe, immediate
the four specific trichothecene toxins
found in the samples.
2. "Falling down, world turning"
2. Dizziness
There are no significant medical dif-
3. "Burning of skin"-small blisters
3. Generalized erythema with a burning
ferences in the reporting from Laos and
sensation of skin
Kampuchea. Although the timing and
4. "Shaking all over, flopping like fish
4. Ataxia (failure of muscular coordination),
delivery systems have sometimes varied,
out of water"
occasional tremors and convulsions
the effects of the chemical agent, clini-
cally and pathologically, are identical. In
5. "Bleeding eyes"
5. Congestion of the sclera (white outer
some cases, a series of blood samples
coat of eyeball) and blood in tears
from Kampuchean victims also showed a
6. "Pounding" chest, rapid heartbeat,
6. Hypotension (abnormally low blood
trend toward leukopenia (reduction in
weakness
pressure) with secondary rise in
the number of white blood cells) and the
heart rate
presence of a trichothecene metabolite
7. Severe pain in center of chest
7. Angina (substernal chest pain)
(HT-2) consistent with trichothecene in-
toxication (see Annex D). Dose-response
8. Sleepiness, "not able to talk"
8. Somnolence, central nervous system
symptoms
éffects that were observed and routes of
administration were both consistent with
9. Bleeding gums and profuse salivation
9. Stomatitis (inflammation of oral mucous
effects of trichothecenes.
membranes) and ptyalism (excessive
An early hypothesis (1978-79) was
salivation)
that a significant number of deaths,
10. "Can't breathe"
10. Shortness of breath
especially in Laos, could be explained by
11. "Skin and body hot with cold''
11. Fever and chills
the heavy use of riot-control agents such
as CS, CN, DM, and agents which cause
12. Diarrhea with blood
12. Diarrhea with blood
itching and/or blistering. This hypothesis
13. Loss of appetite, inability to eat
13. Anorexia
was rejected quickly on two grounds.
First, trace contaminant analysis failed
14. Bleeding into skin and fingernails
14. Thrombocytopenia (decrease in number
to show the presence of any of these
of platelets, white blood cells involved
in clotting of blood) and purpura (skin
compounds in samples; several samples
discoloration caused by hemorrhage into
did, however, contain a trichothecene
tissues)
precursor. Second, contrary to common-
ly held views, the epidemiology of
15. Drop in white blood cell count
15. Leukopenia and anemia
diseases endemic to the central high-
16. "Rotten esophagus, stomach, intestines;
16. Rapid necrosis of linings of gastro-
lands of Laos and the public health
soft spleen and liver"
intestinal tract; lymphoid necrosis in
situation of the H'Mong do not support
spleen and liver
the view of malnourished, disease-
17. Swelling of all organs
17. Congestion of all organs
ridden, and weak persons who would
succumb easily to riot-control agents.
Also, many studies have shown the op-
posite: a relatively low incidence of pul-
* Effects are immediate at levels near to or above a rough estimate of 500-1,000 mg total body burden for
an adult. Although inhalation data are pending, the levels are consistent with reported lethal and sublethal doses.
monary disease, lower than what could
Trichothecenes in combination, when directly ingested or inhaled, or in purified form, are more toxic in lower
otherwise account for certain effects;
concentrations, and the order of signs and symptoms and timing varies.
better nutritional states than could
otherwise account for death in 10 days
to 2 weeks from water loss (dehydration)
and calorie depletion; and a death rate
bleeding)-but not hematemesis
mal anaesthesia, affecting only exposed
of nearly zero from causes other than in-
(bleeding from the gastrointestinal
areas of skin.
fection, old age, and trauma.
tract)-was reported in about half of
these cases.
Several features of at least one of
Postattack Medical Survey
Afghanistan
the chemical agents-an incapacitant-
There is evidence that after some at-
Some deaths associated with bleeding
used in Afghanistan defy explanation at
tacks in Laos and Afghanistan, Lao
have been described in the accounts
this time. One possibility is that the
Communist or Soviet forces entered the
from Afghanistan. In one set of cases, a
agent(s) are highly selective for the cen-
attack zones to conduct surveys. Several
physician examined persons who had
tral nervous system rather than the
reports indicate that survivors from a
been exposed to sublethal doses of a
autonomic nervous system. As yet, no
toxin attack on a Lao village were taken
yellow smoke/black smoke combination
good candidate agent has been identified
several kilometers from the village and
attack and one man near death after a
which will selectively inhibit the central
injected with a small volume of a clear
series of attacks. Hemoptysis (nasal
nervous system SO as to cause uncon-
solution said by their captors to be a
ciousness for several hours. Another
"new" medicine to assess the gas. The
finding has been the presence of a der-
injections, given intramuscularly in the
upper arm, reportedly did nothing to
22
alleviate the weakness, nausea, vomit-
1980, the trichothecenes were added to
currently available methods suitable for
ing, or diarrhea suffered. by the sur-
the list of agents suspected to have been
trichothecene analysis and an assess-
vivors. One victim reported the drug
used in Southeast Asia and Afghanistan.
ment of their utility and limitations is
caused an immediate sensation of
Other candidates under consideration in-
presented in Table E-3.
warmth throughout his body. Only the
cluded phosgene oxime, arsines, cyano-
A portion of the leaf and stem sam-
use of opium later eased the discomfort.
gen chloride, nerve agents, riot-control
ple was furnished to the U.S. Army
It is probable that this procedure was a
agents, and combinations of these
Medical Intelligence and Information
test either of a new antidote or of a
agents.
Agency for further analysis. This sam-
drug developed to reduce incapacitation
Many samples from chemical attacks
ple, a positive control sample to which
from the nausea and vomiting.
in Laos and Kampuchea were examined
T-2 toxin was added, and a negative
Similarly, in a few cases in Afghani-
at the U.S. Army's Chemical Systems
control sample of similar vegetation
stan, Soviet troops reportedly disem-
Laboratory (CSL) for the presence of
were forwarded to Dr. Chester J.
barked from helicopters or armored per-
traditional chemical warfare agents and
Mirocha of the Department of Plant
sonnel carriers at the edge of an attack
were reported to be negative. In March
Pathology, University of Minnesota. Dr.
site. Three or four, dressed in full anti-
1981, CSL reported the presence of an
Mirocha was given no information con-
contamination gear, walked among the
unusual compound (C₁₅H₂₄) in the vapor
cerning the history or content of the
dead, examined the corpses and, opening
analyses from several clothing and tissue
samples and was requested to analyze
them with a crude incision, examined
samples taken from the victim of a
the three unknowns for the presence of
the organs in the abdominal and thoracic
chemical attack. The compound was
trichothecene toxins using the best
cavities. In one case, a solution was
closely related in structure to the simple
methods at his disposal.
poured into the incision. When the corp-
trichothecenes. This finding sparked the
The analysis involves a series of ex-
ses were later recovered by the mu-
request for analysis of all future samples
tractions followed by ferric gel separa-
jahidin, the body cavity contents had
for the presence of trichothecene myco-
tion, selected ion monitoring on a com-
been destroyed beyond recognition.
toxins.
puterized gas chromatograph/mass spec-
These and a few additional reports sup-
trometer, and a full mass spectral scan
port the hypothesis that the perpe-
The Kampuchean Leaf and Stem
for comparison with known standards.
trators of some of the attacks were in-
Sample: The First Analysis for Tri-
The methods used are among the most
terested in studying aftereffects, lethali-
chothecenes. On March 24, 1981, a
sensitive and specific for detection of
ty, or some other quasi-experimental
number of samples were received from
these compounds; also, false positives
aspect of the use of a new chemical
the U.S. Embassy in Bangkok. Two
are rare. Toxins can be identified by
weapon. Recent indications from
were reported to have been collected
their mass spectra and quantified with a
Afghanistan indicate that one purpose of
from the site of a chemical attack that
high degree of accuracy. The vegetation
the field surveys and body examinations
occurred in the vicinity of TV 3391, an
sample allegedly exposed to a chemical
is to determine levels of toxic materials
area just south of Phnom Mak Hoeun. A
warfare agent was found to contain 109
still present in the attack zone before
vegetation sample and a water sample
parts per million (ppm) of nivalenol, 59.1
Soviet troops occupy it.
were collected within 24 hours of the at-
ppm of deoxynivalenol, and 3.15 ppm of
tack. Examination of bodies of victims
T-2 toxin; each is a potent toxin of the
of this attack by medical personnel
trichothecene group. No trichothecenes
ANNEX D
revealed highly unusual degeneration of
were detected in the negative control
the mucosal lining of the gastrointestinal
sample, and 35 ppm of T-2 toxin were
ANALYSIS AND REVIEW OF
tract. The effects described paralleled
detected in the sample to which T-2 tox-
TRICHOTHECENE TOXINS
those known to be produced by the
in had been added. It was Dr. Mirocha's
trichothecenes. The samples were sub-
assessment that a mixture of these par-
mitted to the Chemical Systems Labora-
Sample Analyses for Trichothecenes
ticular toxins in the high levels detected
tory for analysis for the presence of
could not have occurred as a result of
chemical warfare agents. With the ex-
natural contamination.
The Trichothecene Hypothesis. Since
ception of the unusual presence of high
1975, the U.S. Government has received
The possibility that the identified
levels of CN-, Cl-, and F-ions, no evi-
remarkably consistent reports detailing
toxins were produced by natural fungal
dence of known chemical warfare agents
chemical attacks in Southeast Asia.
contamination was discounted on the
was found. An initial test for the tricho-
Some of these reports described the use
basis of the climatic conditions required
thecenes by thin layer chromatography
of lethal agents which produced symp-
for production of T-2 toxin, the high
was inconclusive because of severe prob-
toms that could not be correlated with
levels of toxins detected, the unusual
lems with interfering substances and the
those produced by known or traditional-
mixture of toxins found, and the results
lack of appropriate standards.
ly recognized chemical warfare agents or
of surveys of Southeast Asia for the
The trichothecenes are difficult to
combinations of them (see Table D-1). It
presence of these toxins. This conclusion
detect even under ideal circumstances,
is readily apparent that the symptoms
was supported by the analysis of normal
and the presence of interfering sub-
most frequently described in Laos and
flora samples from Kampuchea de-
stances in the sample may make identifi-
Kampuchea correspond most closely
scribed below.
cation and quantification by thin layer
with those produced by a group of myco-
chromatography inconclusive. A review
Analyses of Control Samples From
toxins-the trichothecenes. A review of
of the limitations and potentials of the
Kampuchea for the Presence of Tri-
the scientific literature revealed not only
analytical methods for trichothecenes led
chothecenes. On September 20, 1981,
that these compounds had physical and
to the conclusion that the computerized
the U.S. Army Medical Intelligence and
chemical properties indicating potential
gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy
Information Agency received nine con-
as chemical agents but also that they
method in the selected ion-monitoring
trol samples from U.S. Army personnel
were the subject of intensive investiga-
mode enabled precise identification and
in Bangkok for the purpose of conduc-
tion by Soviet scientists at institutes
quantification of these compounds in
ting laboratory analyses for background
previously linked with chemical and bio-
complex mixtures. A comparison of the
logical warfare research. In the fall of
23
TABLE D-1
Symptoms of Chemical Attacks Reported in Laos, Kampuchea, and Afghanistan
% of Reports
Riot-
Mentioning
Tricho-
Nerve
Phosgene
Incapacitant
Control
Symptom
Symptom
thecenes
Agents
Arsines
Oxime
Cyanogens
(BZ)
Agents
Laos
Multiple deaths
84.6
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
Vomiting
71.4
X
X
X
-
-
-
X
Diarrhea
53.1
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
Hemorrhage
52.0
X
-
-
Xa
-
-
-
Breathing difficulty
47.95
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Itching and skin irritation
43.9
X
-
X
X
-
-
X
Nausea
42.8
X
X
X
-
-
X
X
Animal death
41.8
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
Blurred vision
39.7
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Headache
36.7
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
Fatigue
35.7
X
X
-
-
-
X
-
Nasal excretion
34.7
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
Rash or blisters
32.6
X
-
X
X
-
-
X
Tearing
30.6
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
Goughing
28.6
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
Effect on vegetation
26.5
X
-
X
X
-
-
-
Dizziness and vertigo
25.5
X
X
-
—
X
X
X
Facial edema
20.4
X
—
X
X
—
-
X
Thirst and dry mouth
20.4
X
-
-
—
-
X
-
Skin color change
16.3
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
Tachycardia
12.3
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
Temporary blindness
9.18
X
—
X
X
-
X
X
Rapid loss of consciousness
9.18
Xᵇ
X
-
-
X
X
-
Salivation
6.12
Xc
X
-
-
-
-
-
Hearing loss
5.1
X
—
—
-
-
-
-
Tremors or convulsions
4
X
X
-
X
X
-
-
Sweating
3
-
X
—
-
-
-
-
Paralysis
3
X
X
-
-
X
—
-
Loss of appetite
3
X
X
X
-
—
-
-
Frequent urination
2
X
X
-
-
-
—
—
Continued on p. 25
Note: This table is a compilation relating the signs and symptoms reported in the three countries
to symptoms associated with certain chemical agents. The frequency with which a particular
symptom was reported is expressed as a percentage of the total number of attacks.
levels of trichothecene toxins. The
tive indicator of any natural occurrence.
that these toxins may have been used as
samples were collected from an area
The nine samples were forwarded under
chemical weapons. This conclusion is fur-
near TV 3391 that had not been sub-
code to Dr. Mirocha for trichothecene
ther supported by the evidence provided
jected to any reported chemical attacks.
analysis. A portion of each sample also
by analysis of additional alleged chemical
The samples were collected by U.S. per-
was submitted to Chemical Systems
warfare samples from Laos and Kampu-
sonnel under instructions to reproduce
Laboratory for background determina-
chea as described below.
the sampling conditions, handling, pack-
tions of CN-, Cl-, and F-levels. No
aging, and transfer conditions of the
trichothecenes were detected in any of
Analysis of Additional Chemical
original sample as closely as possible.
these samples, indicating that nivalenol,
Warfare Samples From Laos and Kam-
The same species of plant was sampled,
deoxynivalenol, T-2, and diacetoxyscir-
puchea for the Presence of Trichothe-
and four other vegetation samples also
penol are not prevalent in the geographi-
cenes. The U.S. Army Medical Intelli-
were collected. A water sample and two
cal area from which the alleged chemical
gence and Information Agency received
soil samples were recovered. Corn and
warfare-exposed sample was collected.
from the Chemical Systems Laboratory
rice samples from the area also were
The appearance of these trichothecenes
three additional suspected chemical war-
taken. These grains provided an ideal
in high levels and unique combinations in
fare samples for analysis for trichothe-
substrate for growth of toxin-producing
a sample associated with a chemical at-
cenes. The first sample consisted of 10
fungi and would, therefore, be a sensi-
ml of water taken from the same chemi-
tack-which produced symptoms typical
of trichothecene exposure-indicates
24
TABLE D-1 (continued)
Symptoms of Chemical Attacks Reported in Laos, Kampuchea, and Afghanistan
% of Reports
Riot-
Mentioning
Tricho-
Nerve
Phosgene
Incapacitant
Control
Symptom
Symptom
thecenes
Agents
Arsines
Oxime
Cyanogens
(BZ)
Agents
Kampuchea
Multiple deaths
72.4
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
Hemorrhage
62.06
X
-
Xd
-
—
Dizziness and vertigo
51.7
X
X
-
-
X
X
X
Vomiting
41.3
X
X
X
-
-
-
X
Nausea
34.5
X
X
X
-
—
X
X
Skin irritation
27.6
X
-
X
X
-
-
X
Rapid loss of consciousness
24.1
X
X
-
—
X
X
-
Fever
20.68
X
-
—
—
-
-
-
Headache
17.2
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
Tearing
13.8
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Breathing difficulty
13.8
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Fatigue
13.8
X
X
-
-
-
X
-
Paralysis
10.3
X
X
-
—
X
-
—
Numbness
6.9
X
X
-
-
X
X
-
Blurred vision
6.9
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Dry throat and thirst
6.9
X
—
-
X
-
Edema
6.9
X
-
X
X
-
-
-
Salivation
3.4
Xc
X
-
-
-
—
Vegetation affected
3.4
X
—
X
-
-
-
—
Diarrhea
3.4
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
Cough
3.4
X
X
X
X
X
X
Nasal discharge
3.4
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
Rash or blister
3.4
X
-
X
X
—
-
X
Chills
3.4
X
?
-
-
-
-
-
Hearing loss
3.4
X
-
—
—
-
-
-
Afghanistan
Rapid loss of consciousness
47.9
X
X
—
-
X
X
-
Skin irritation and itching
31.5
X
X
X
-
X
Multiple deaths
30.1
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
Nausea
20.5
X
X
X
-
-
X
X
Vomiting
19.1
X
X
X
—
-
-
X
Tearing
17.8
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
Dizziness and vertigo
16.4
X
X
-
-
X
X
X
Blisters or rash
15
X
-
X
X
I
-
X
Difficulty breathing
13.7
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Paralysis
13.7
X
X
—
-
X
-
-
Headache
12.3
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
Temporary blindness
8.2
X
X
X
-
X
X
Salivation
6.8
Xc
X
-
-
—
-
Loss of appetite
6.8
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
Effects on vegetation
5.5
X
—
—
—
-
-
-
Fatigue
5
X
X
-
-
-
X
-
Confusion
4.1
X
X
—
-
-
X
-
Hemorrhage
4.1
X
—
-
Xª
-
-
-
Change in skin color
2.8
X
—
—
X
-
-
-
Diarrhea
2.8
X
X
X
-
—
-
-
Coughing
1.3
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
a Bloody frothing.
b Only at very high doses.
C
Depending on which trichothecenes.
di
Blood flecked frothing.
25
cal attack site in Kampuchea as the leaf
100 ppm at the very least and probably
the trichothecenes, however, and may
and stem sample previously examined.
much higher. The sample size was too
prove to be useful markers. The
The second sample came from the site of
small to allow adequate analysis for the
trichothecenes induce a severe
a "yellow rain" attack occurring on
other three trichothecenes of interest.
leukopenia (decrease in white cell count)
March 13, 1981, in the village of Muong
These results support the hypothesis
which can persist for several weeks
Cha (TF 9797) in the Phou Bia region of
that trichothecenes have been used as
following exposure. In addition, the
Laos. The agent was sprayed from a
chemical warfare agents in Laos and
trichothecenes affect some liver and
twin-engine propellor aircraft at about
Kampuchea. The presence of these high
kidney function marker enzymes which
noon, local time. The falling substance
levels of trichothecene toxins in water
can be monitored in the blood.
was described as "like insect spray" and
and in yellow powder scraped from
On October 11, 1981, four whole
sounded like drizzling rain. Quite sticky
rocks argues against natural occurrence,
blood samples and four blood smears
at first, it soon dried to a powder.
since neither water nor rock is a suitable
were received from the U.S. Embassy in
Symptoms described by victims included
environment for growth of the fungi re-
Bangkok. The blood was drawn from
nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. A sam-
quired to produce the toxins.
four Khmer Rouge soldiers on Octo-
ple of the agent scraped from the sur-
Differences between the analyses of
ber 7, 1981 at a Khmer Rouge hospital
face of a rock by a victim and carried in-
the Kampuchean leaf and stem sample
inside Kampuchea. Detailed medical his-
to Thailand was turned over to U.S.
and the water sample collected from the
tories as well as descriptions of the at-
Embassy personnel. The third sample
same attack site raise additional ques-
tack were recorded on each individual
was taken from the site of a "yellow
tions. Failure to find T-2 toxin in the
from whom a blood sample was taken.
rain" attack that occurred at 2:00 p.m.
water sample is probably due to the rela-
All four men were victims of a gas at-
on April 2, 1981, at Ban Thong Hak (TF
tive insolubility of T-2 toxin in water.
tack occurring near Takong on
9177). Twenty-four people reportedly
The presence of diacetoxyscirpenol in
September 19, 1981. Symptoms experi-
died in this attack; there were 47 sur-
the water might be the result of bio-
enced included vomiting, blurred vision,
vivors. Symptoms included severe skin
transformation or breakdown of T-2, as
bloody diarrhea, difficult breathing, dry
irritation and rash, nausea, vomiting,
they are SO structurally similar, differing
throat, loss of consciousness, frontal
and bloody diarrhea. A survivor of the
only in the substitution on carbon 8.
headache, tachycardia, and facial edema.
attack scraped this sample from the sur-
While this hypothesis cannot be entirely
Unfortunately, the samples could not be
face of a rock with a bamboo knife.
ruled out, it is unlikely on the basis of
refrigerated until 48 hours after collec-
Although the individual took precautions
known biotransformation of T-2 in the
tion. Thus, it was impossible to obtain
(that is, cloth mask), a severe skin rash
laboratory. The initial vegetation sample
data concerning white cell counts and
and blisters developed.
was not screened for diacetoxyscirpenol,
blood chemistry. The four whole blood
These three samples were submitted
although the mass spectra from the in-
samples were submitted to Dr. Mirocha
to Dr. Mirocha for analysis. The water
itial analysis will be reexamined for
for analysis for trichothecene metabo-
sample from Kampuchea contained 66
trace amounts of it.
lites because of the possibility, admitted-
ppm of deoxynivalenol and a trace
The absence of nivalenol in the
ly remote, that some of the metabolites
amount of diacetoxyscirpenol. A trace
water sample is more difficult to explain
might bind to blood proteins and might
quantity of the second sample was
because nivalenol is water soluble. The
still be detectable even 3 weeks after an
screened as strong positive for trichothe-
effect of environmental conditions and
attack.
cenes. Further analysis of that sample
microorganisms on the stability of these
On October 22, 1981, additional
confirmed the presence of high levels of
compounds may vary widely for each of
blood samples were received. These had
T-2 toxin (150 ppm) and diacetoxyscir-
the specific compounds and may explain
been drawn from nine victims from the
penol (25 ppm). Nivalenol and deoxy-
the analytical results. Further scientific
September 19 attack and from four con-
nivalenol may also be present but are be-
investigation of these factors is needed.
trol individuals of similar age and back-
ing masked by interference from
ground who had not been exposed to a
phtalate compounds (leached from the
Analysis of Blood Samples From
chemical attack. The samples had been
plastic packaging). An effort to modify
Chemical Attack Victims
properly refrigerated and were accom-
the extraction process is being made in
panied by complete and detailed medical
order to overcome the interference so
Blood samples drawn from victims of re-
histories taken by trained medical per-
that nivalenol and deoxynivalenol can be
cent chemical attacks in Kampuchea
sonnel who examined the individuals, In-
measured more easily. Interestingly, ex-
have been received by the U.S. Army
cluded in the package were blood smears
amination of the petroleum ether frac-
Medical Intelligence and Information
and heparinized and nonheparinized
tion from the sample revealed the
Agency for analysis for indications of
samples from each individual. The
presence of a yellow pigment almost
trichothecene exposure. Little is known
samples were submitted for blood assays
identical to that previously identified by
concerning the rate of metabolism of tri-
to the U.S. Army Medical Research In-
Dr. Mirocha in cultures of Fusarium
chothecenes in humans; it is difficult,
stitute of Infectious Diseases.
roseum, indicating that the yellow
therefore, to estimate the probability of
The above results show no statisti-
powder probably consisted of the crude
detecting trichothecenes or their metab-
cally significant differences between ex-
extract of a Fusarium culture.
olites in blood samples. T-2 is rapidly
posed and control groups (students
There was little of the third sample
cleared from the blood in animals, and
T-test). In eight individuals exposed to a
contained in the vial received for
25% of the total dose is excreted within
chemical agent, a trend toward de-
testing. The quantity was too small to be
24 hours after exposure; it is unlikely
pressed white cell counts was observed.
weighed accurately, and inspection of
that trichothecenes could be detected
Such an observation would be compati-
the vial revealed only a small speck
unless blood samples were obtained
ble with the clinical picture of toxin ex-
estimated to weigh much less than 0.1
within 24-48 hours after an attack.
posure; however, it is also compatible
mg. That speck contained 10 ng of
Other blood parameters are affected by
with a number of other medical prob-
diacetoxyscirpenol, a level equivalent to
lems, and a larger control sample would
26
be required before such-results could be
ANNEX E
population of the district died of the
adequately interpreted. Abnormal liver
disease. Many other outbreaks of ATA
and kidney functions were not indicated
OVERVIEW OF NATURAL OCCURRENCE
occurred in the Soviet Union, mainly
by these data.
AND SIGNIFICANT PROPERTIES OF
during the 1942-47 period. The con-
Portions of the blood samples were
TRICHOTHECENES
tamination was traced to overwintered
analyzed by Dr. Mirocha for the pres-
millet, wheat, and barley infected with
ence of trichothecenes and/or trichothe-
Historical Trichothecene
Fusarium. Symptoms of the disease in-
cene metabolites. The results of the
analyses are consistent with trichothe-
Mycotoxicoses
cluded vomiting, skin inflammation,
multiple hemorrhaging (especially of the
cene exposure in at least two of the gas-
The trichothecenes are members of a
lung and gastrointestinal tissue), diar-
sing victims and tend to support the
large group of naturally occurring toxins
rhea, leukopenia, and suppression of
hypothesis that a trichothecene-based
known as mycotoxins. The word "myco-
bone marrow activity.
agent was used in this attack.
toxin" is derived from the Greek
In 1939, Premier Joseph Stalin dis-
Using the selected ion-monitoring
"mykes" meaning fungus and the Latin
patched Nikita Khrushchev to the
gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy
"toxicum" meaning poison. It refers to a
Ukraine to organize and improve agri-
analysis technique, Dr. Mirocha was able
metabolite produced by a mold that is
cultural operations and to identify the
to identify tentatively a metabolite of
toxic to man and animals. Mycotoxicoses
disease causing the deaths of many
T-2 toxin (that is, HT-2) in the blood of
have been described as the "neglected
horses and cattle. The problem was
two alleged victims. The compound was
diseases," and before 1960 English-
traced to hay and straw contaminated
identified on the basis of its selected ion
language literature concerning the
with Stachybotrys atra. The disease,
masses and gas chromatographic reten-
diseases caused by mycotoxins was
later referred to as stachybotryotoxi-
tion times.
scarce. Soviet scientists have been in-
cosis, occurred after ingestion or contact
The tentative identification of HT-2
volved in research with some of these
with the contaminated grain. Symptoms
in the blood of two victims, and the
compounds for almost 30 years longer
included ulcerative dermatitis, peroral
trend toward depressed white cell
than their Western counterparts. The
dermatitis, blood dyscrasias, hemor-
counts in these same victims, cannot be
Soviet Union has had serious problems
rhagic syndromes, abortion, and death.
taken as conclusive scientific proof of
with mycotoxin contamination of food
The greatest economic impact was due
toxin exposure because the trace amount
and has suffered several severe out-
to loss of horses, although cattle, sheep,
of the compound present precluded une-
breaks of disease in humans. The first
poultry, and humans also were affected.
quivocal identification and quantification
comprehensive studies of mycotoxin
Other disease outbreaks in which
and because many other medical prob-
diseases were conducted in the Soviet
similar symptoms were present occurred
lems in addition to toxin exposure can
Union in the late 1930s.
in 1958 and 1959 among horses and cat-
cause a decrease in white cell counts. It
Since the 1940s, the group of myco-
tle in the Soviet Union and Eastern
is interesting to note that the individual
toxins figuring most prominently in
Europe; thousands of animals were lost.
who showed the greatest amount of the
Soviet scientific literature are the tri-
Other intoxications were reported later
compound tentatively identified as HT-2
chothecenes, a class of chemically
in his blood reportedly received the
related, biologically active fungal metab-
greatest exposure to the agent. He was
olites produced primarily by various
Soviet Scientists Involved in
exposed to contaminated water for more
species of Fusarium. Table E-1 lists
Mycotoxin Research
than 30 minutes and was the only victim
some of the toxins in this group and pro-
who fell down in the water and actually
ducing fungi. The fungi are well-known
A. Kh. Sarkisov-All Union Scientific Re-
swallowed some of it. However, the
plant pathogens that frequently invade
search Institute of Experimental Veteri-
nary Science, Moscow
description by victims of symptoms cor-
many agricultural products.
V. I. Bilay (also spelled Bilai)-Ukrainian
relating exactly with those associated
Trichothecene toxins, perhaps more
S.S.R. Institute of Microbiology and
with trichothecene poisoning provides
than any other mycotoxins, have been
Virology, Kiev
strong circumstantial evidence that tri-
associated with acute disease in humans.
V. A. Tutel'yan-U.S.S.R. Academy of Medi-
chothecenes were used as chemical
Most of the human intoxications have
cal Sciences Nutrition Institute, Moscow
agents in yet another chemical attack in
occurred in the Soviet Union (Table
M. A. Akhmeteli-U.S.S.R. Academy of
Southeast Asia.
E-2). The earliest recognized outbreak
Medical Sciences Institute of Epidemiology
Trichothecenes have been identified
occurred in 1891 in the Ussuri district of
and Microbiology
previously in environmental samples
castern Siberia. Humans who consumed
L. Ye. Olifson
A. M. Kogan
taken from several other chemical at-
contaminated grain exhibited headache,
M. F. Nesterin
D. T. Martynenko
tacks in Laos and Kampuchea. Analysis
chills, nausea, vomiting, vertigo, and
K. Z. Salomatina
N. A. Kostyunina
of control vegetation, water, soil, corn,
visual disturbances. Dogs, horses, pigs,
Ye. P. Kozhevnikova
V. V. Yerinakov
and rice samples from these areas, as
and domestic fowls reportedly were
N. D. Osadchaya
I. A. Kurmanov
affected.
L. F. Mikhaylova
V. V. Semenov
well as reviews of published scientific
Sh. M. Kenina
The most extensive mycotoxicosis
Z. K. Bystryakova
literature, indicates that the particular
V. L. Kartashova
Z. Z. Orlova
toxins that have previously been identi-
outbreak reported to have caused multi-
L. R. Filonova
L. S. L'vova
fied are not known to occur naturally in
ple fatalities in man also occurred in the
T. Ye. Tolcheyeva
L. I. Lozbina
the combinations found and at the levels
Soviet Union. In 1944, 30% of the
Kn. A. Dzhilavyan
T. A. Shevtsova
detected in Southeast Asia. The latest
population of Orenburg district, near
I. S. Yelistratov
I. Yu. Makedon
analysis results contribute another piece
Siberia, was affected by alimentary toxic
N. S. Tishkova
N. S. Proskuryakova
of evidence to the growing body of data
aleukia (ATA), a disease later shown to
V. I. Kaplun
A. V. Borovkov
be caused by ingestion of trichothecene
Ye. P. Kozhevalkova
M. N. Nazypov
supporting the charge that trichothe-
cenes have been used as chemical/bio-
toxins. More than 10% of the entire
S. M. Gubkin
L. I. Lozbin
L. I. Il'ina
M. S. Marova
logical agents in Southeast Asia.
P. A. Il'in
27
in Japan, Europe, the Soviet Union, and
the United States, affecting various
TABLE E-1
domestic animals and-in the case of
"red mold toxicosis"-man. All of these
Trichothecene-Producing Fungi
diseases have now been shown to be due
Type
T-2 Type
Nivalenol-Type
Macrocyclic
to ingestion of trichothecenes rather
than to an infectious agent. In earlier
Trichothecenes
T-2 Toxin
Nivalenol
Roridins
outbreaks, the levels of toxin present in
HT-2 Toxin
Monoacetyl-
Veirucarins
the contaminated grain were not meas-
Nivalenol
ured; however, the levels of nivalenol
Diacetoxyscirpenol
Diacetyl-Nivalenol
Satratoxins
and/or deoxynivalenol measured in toxic
Neosolaniol
Deoxynivalenol
Vertisporin
grains implicated in more recent out-
breaks (i.e., "moldy corn toxicosis" and
Fungus
F. tricinctum
F. nivale
Myrothecium
"red mold toxicosis") typically were be-
verrucaria
tween 2 and 8 ppm.
F. roseum
F. opisphaeria
M. roridum
Natural Occurrence of
F. equiseti
F. roseum
Trichothecene Mycotoxins
F. sporotrichioides
Stachybotrys atra
Publications concerning the occurrence
Verticimonosporium
of trichothecenes are relatively scarce
diffractum
because of the lack of convenient detec-
F. lateritium
tion methods and the complexity of the
F. poae
trichothecene family of compounds. Only
recently have scientists developed
F. solani
methods capable of distinguishing be-
F. rigidiusculum
tween close structural derivatives and
F. semitectum
accurately quantifying the levels of toxin
present (see Table E-3 for comparison of
analytical methods). Extreme care must
TABLE E-2
be taken when reviewing the scientific
Historical Trichothecene Mycotoxicoses
literature on natural occurrence of these
compounds because erroneous conclu-
Districts and
Toxicosis
Affected Species
Symptoms
sions can beldrawn on the basis of
"Taumelgetreide" Toxicosis
U.S.S.R.: man, farm animals
results obtained with inadequate analyti-
Headache, nausea, vomiting,
vertigo, chills, visual
cal techniques. Misidentification of com-
disturbances
pounds and gross overestimation of con-
centrations have occurred using tech-
Alimentary toxic aleukia
U.S.S.R.: man, horse, pig
Vomiting, diarrhea, multiple
niques such as thin layer chromatog-
hemorrhage, skin
infiammation, leukopenia,
raphy.
angina
Table E-4 lists the reports of natural
occurrence of T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscir-
Stachybotryotoxicosis
U.S.S.R., Europe: horse
Shock, stomatitis, hemorrhage,
penol, and nivaleríol that were obtained
dermal necrosis, nervous
from a literature search of more than
disorders
3,000 citations concerned with tricho-
Bean-hull toxicosis
Japan: horse
Convulsion, cyclic movement
thecene toxins. Levels that are ques-
Dendrodochiotoxicosis
U.S.S.R., Europe: horse
Skin inflammation, hemorrhage
tionable on the basis of techniques used
are indicated. It is immediately apparent
Moldy corn toxicosis
United States: pig, COW
Emesis, hemorrhage
that the levels of toxins found in the
Red mold toxicosis
Japan, U.S.S.R.: man, horse,
Vomiting, diarrhea, congestion
various samples from Laos and Kam-
pig, COW
and hemorrhage of lung
puchea are ,highly unusual, even if one
and intestine
accepts the questionable reports in Table
E-4 as valid. The levels of these toxins
(150 ppm of T-2 toxin, 109 ppm of
nivalenol, more than 100 ppm of
and Kampuchea samples were taken
strate. In a natural environment, how-
diacetoxyscirpenol, and 66 ppm of deox-
from surfaces-rocks and water--that
ever, the Fusaria species cannot com-
ynivalenol) are markedly higher than
would be extremely unlikely to support
pete well with other molds such as
those reported to occur in nature. It
Fusaria growth and toxin production.
should also be noted that the incidences
species of Aspergillus and Penicillium,
Higher levels of toxin production can, of
recorded in Table E-4 concern levels of
and levels of toxin produced are orders
course, be induced when the mold
of magnitude lower.
toxin produced when Fusarium is grow-
species is grown in pure culture under
The conclusion that the levels of tox-
ing on its ideal substrate, while the Laos
ideal laboratory conditions; for instance,
ins found in the Southeast Asia samples
the Soviets have succeeded in producing
could have occurred only by means of an
4 grams of T-2 per kilogram of sub-
unnatural mechanism is also strength-
ened by surveys of the area conducted
28
by various researchers. Surveys of the
FIGURE E-1
toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins naturally
General Structure of Trichothecenes
present in Southeast Asia conducted by
the Mahidol University in Bangkok and
the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology have not revealed the presence of
T-2, nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, or dia-
10
1
H
R1
cetoxyscirpenol, although other myco-
CH3
toxins such as aflatoxin were identified.
H
These results were confirmed by our
9
2
analysis, using our own methodology, of
11
3
normal flora samples of vegetation, soil,
water, corn, and rice from Kampuchea
13
that failed to reveal the presence of
trichothecenes.
Skeptics have formulated theoretical
6
explanations for the analytical results to
12
support a hypothesis of natural occur-
rence of these toxins. It was postulated
7
5
R₅
4
H
that the trichothecenes found were ab-
sorbed through the roots of a plant,
CH2
CH₃
R₂
translocated to the leaves, and exuded
and washed onto the surface of a rock
R4
and into water where they were found.
R3
A 1981 publication by Jarvis et al. re-
ported a Brazilian shrub that appeared
to absorb, translocate, and chemically
alter a macrocyclic trichothecene pro-
duced by soil fungi. While this citation is
used to support a hypothetical mode for
natural deposition in Southeast Asia, it
T2 Toxin
Nivalenol
Deoxynivalenol
should be noted that the plant reported
in this publication did not exude the tox-
in, that the toxin was extremely phyto-
R1=OH
R1=CH
R1=OH
toxic to all other plants assessed, and
that the plant was not capable of de
R2=OAc
R2=CH
R2=H
novo trichothecene synthesis. No other
trichothecenes have been found to be ab-
sorbed and translocated in any other
R3=OAc
R3=OH
R3=OH
plant in this manner. Control samples of
soil and vegetation from Southeast Asia
do not support endemic presence of
R4=H
R4=OH
R4=OH
these toxins. The appearance of these
particular trichothecene toxins in these
R5=OCOCH2CH(CH3)₂
R5 =0
R5= =0
high levels in environments generally in-
hospitable to their formation cannot
reasonably be attributed to a natural
contamination.
Chemical and Physical Properties
of the Trichothecenes
bon atoms 9 and 10 and an epoxy group
by treatment with strong mineral acid,
at carbon atoms 12 and 13. These com-
which will open the 12 to 13 epoxide
When considering the suitability of tri-
pounds are stable, especially in the solid
bond and abolish all biological activity.
chothecenes as agents, factors such as
form. They may be stored for years at
Most of the toxins are well absorbed
stability, solubility, and ease of produc-
room temperature with no loss of activi-
through mucous membranes and some
tion must be considered. The general
ty. They are heat stable with no loss of
through skin; this property is also a
structure for the trichothecene group is
activity noted after heating for 1 hour at
function of the R group.
shown in Figure E-1. There are more
100° centigrade. The solubility depends
Some of these compounds have been
than 40 currently known, naturally oc-
on the R groups; highly hydroxylated
synthesized chemically; however, bio-
curring, 12 to 13 epoxytrichothecenes.
derivatives are more water soluble. The
synthesis employing Fusarium species is
The R groups may be hydroxyls, acyl-
compounds are also quite stable in solu-
the most effective way to produce large
ated hydroxyl groups or esters. The R
tion. Detoxification can be accomplished
quantities. In a preliminary search of re-
group for the toxins detected in the
cent Soviet literature, 50 articles dealing
sample is shown below the general
structure. All of the compounds have in
common an olefinic double bond at car-
29
chea, and Afghanistan. The correlation
TABLE E-3
is striking.
Physicochemical Methods for Detection of Trichothecenes in Feedstuffs
The LD₅₀'s (dose required to produce
death in 50% of a test population) of the
Trichothecenes
trichothecenes in laboratory animals
Detection
Required
Use and
Method
Detected
Limits
Standards
Limitation
range from 0.1 mg/kg to greater than
Thin-layer
All
0.1 microgram/spot
Reference
Qualitative
1,000 mg/kg, depending on the particu-
chromatography
(H2SO₄)
Standard
Interference
lar toxin, species, and route of exposure.
1-dimension
Not confirmatory
The LD₅₀ of T-2 toxin in a cat is 0.5
mg/kg. However, the ED₅₀ (dose re-
Thin-layer
All
0.1-1.0 microgram/
Reference
Qualitative
quired to produce a desired physiological
chromatography
spot (H2SO₄)
Standard
Less interference
effect in 50% of a test population) is
2-dimension
Confirmatory
much lower. The ED₅₀ to produce a
vomiting reaction is 0.1 mg/kg; for skin
Gas-liquid
Nonhydroxy-
0.03-0.05
Reference
Quantitative
irritation it is in the tenths of micro-
chromatography
lated or TMS
microgram/
Standard
Monoglyceride
derivatives
microliter injection
interference
gram range.
Equivocable
Most of the data concerning the
identification
toxicological effects of the trichothecenes
are derived from animal data in which
Gas chromato-
TMS
0.02-0.05
Reference
Semiquantitative
pure compounds were administered by
graphy/mass
derivatives
microgram/
Standard or
Less interference
oral, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, or
spectrometry-
microliter
Spectrogram
Unequivocable
intravenous routes. Unfortunately, there
normal scanning
injection
identification
are no reports concerning the effects of
mode
inhalation of mixtures of the compounds.
Therefore, it is difficult to speculate con-
Gas chromato-
TMS
0.007-0.02
Reference
Quantitative
cerning the effects that would be ex-
graphy/mass
derivatives
microgram/
Standard or
Best for complex
spectrometry-
microliter
Spectrogram
pected in humans exposed to an aerosol
mixtures
selection ion
injection
Unequivocable
of mixtures of these potent toxins. The
monitoring
identification
most useful data concerning exposure in
humans were obtained in a phase I
Nuclear-
All
Reference
Confirmatory
clinical evaluation of anguidine (dia-
magnetic-
Standard or
Purified toxin
cetoxyscirpenol) as an anticancer drug.
resonance
Spectrogram
structure
Diacetoxyscirpenol was administered by
elucidation
intravenous infusion. Doses of 3 mg/m²/
day caused immediate onset of nausea,
Radio-
T-2 toxin
1-20 nanogram
Rabbit anti-
Sensitive
vomiting, diarrhea, somnolence and/or
immunoassay
T-2 toxin
Low interference
mental confusion, fever, chills, a gen-
(developmental
anti-body
stage)
eralized erythema with a burning sensa-
HT-2 toxin
Relative structural
tion, hypotension, dyspnea, stomatitis,
specificity
hives, and ataxia. Because of the side
effects, the treatment was discontinued.
The properties which make the use of
diacetoxyscirpenol potentially useful as
with the trichothecenes were reviewed.
toxic to man than to microorganisms.
an anticancer drug are the same as
Of these, 22 dealt with defining optimum
Mycotoxins can be produced in good
those responsible, in part, for its ex-
conditions for biosynthesis of the com-
yield employing the same techniques
treme toxicity. It and the other tricho-
pounds. N.A. Kostyunina has reported
used to produce some antibiotics. Thus,
thecenes cause extensive damage to
production of T-2 toxin at levels of 4
it may be concluded that the Soviets
rapidly dividing cells such as tumor cells.
grams per kilogram of substrate (nor-
could produce trichothecenes in large
Unfortunately, the cells of the lining of
mally wheat grain or rice). Many in-
amounts. They produce an antibiotic
the gastrointestinal tract and bone mar-
dustrial microbiology plants have been
that is a trichothecene derivative, which
row are also rapidly dividing, and the
identified in the Soviet Union. Some are
would provide an ideal cover for agent
effects of the trichothecenes on these
involved in production of single-cell pro-
production facilities.
cells result in severe, rapid degeneration
tein for fodder additives, others produce
of these tissues. The compounds also
antibiotics, and the function of still
have direct effects on the clotting fac-
Medical Effects of the
others is unknown. Fusaria are pro-
tors in the blood (that is, a primary
Trichothecenes in Humans
duced in the Soviet Union at a facility
effect on Factor VII activity and a sec-
long reported in the open literature as
The most prominent symptoms associ-
ondary effect on prothrombin), which
being a suspected biological warfare
ated with trichothecene poisoning are
result in excessive hemorrhage following
agent production and storage facility.
listed in Table E-2. Striking among
trauma.
This facility, Berdsk Chemical Works, is
these is the rapid onset of vomiting,
The other useful body of clinical data
near the science city of Novosibirsk in
along with severe itching and tingling of
concerning the effects of trichothecenes
Siberia. The only difference between an
the skin. Hemorrhage of the mucous
in humans is drawn from descriptions of
antibiotic and mycotoxin is their target
membranes and bloody diarrhea follow.
the course of the disease in the natural
specificity. Both are produced by fungi,
The symptoms shown in Table E-2 are
but the mycotoxins are relatively more
similar to those reported by victims of
trichothecene attacks in Laos, Kampu-
30
TABLE E-4
Spontaneous Occurrence of Trichothecene Mycotoxins
Concentration
(parts per
Toxin
Country
Source
million)
Reference
FOOTNOTES
T-2 Toxin
U.S.
Mixed feed
0.08ᵇ
15
a References:
U.K.
Brewer's grains
ND°
19
India
Sweet corn
4b,d
5
1. Balzer et al. (1977)
Canada
Corn
ND
4
2. Ciegler (1978)
India
Sorghum
NDᵈ
22
3. Eppley et al. (1974)
Canada
Barley
25d
20
4. Funnel (1979)
India
Safflower seed
3-5d
6
5. Ghosal et al. (1978)
U.S.
Corn stalks
0.11ᵇ
16
6. Ghosal et al. (1977)
U.S.
Feed supplement
ND
7
7. Hibbs et al. (1974)
U.S.
Corn
2
8
8. Hsu et al. (1972)
U.S.
Mixed feed
0.3
14
9. Isshi et al. (1975)
France
Corn
0.02b
10
10. Jemmail et al. (1978)
U.S.
Corn
ND
2
11. Marasas et al. (1977)
12. Miller (1976)
13. Mirocha (1979)
Diacetoxy-
U.S.
Mixed feed
0.5
15
14. Mirocha (1979)
scirpenol
U.S.
Mixed feed
0.38
15
India
Safflower seed
3-5d
15. Mirocha et al. (1976)
6
Sweet corn
14d
16. Mirocha et al. (1979)
India
5
17. Mirocha et al. (1979)
Germany
Corn
31.5°
23
18. Morooka et al. (1972)
U.S.
Corn
0.88
21
19. Petrie et al. (1977)
20. Puls and Greenway et al. (1976)
Deoxynivalenol
U.S.
Corn stalks
1.5b
16
21. Romer, T., Ralston Purina,
U.S.
Corn
1.8ᵇ
15
St. Louis, MO (personal
U.S.
Corn
1.0ᵇ
15
communication)
U.S.
Corn
0.1ᵇ
15
22. Rukmini and Bhat (1978)
U.S.
Mixed feed
0.04b
15
23. Siegfried (1979)
U.S.
Mixed feed
1.0ᵇ
15
24. Vesonder and Ciegler (1979)
U.S.
Mixed feed
1.0ᵇ
15
25. Vesonder et al. (1976)
U.S.
Corn
7.4
9
26. Vesonder et al. (1978)
U.S.
Corn
0.1-25d
21
U.S.
Corn
trace-25d
2, 21
b Zearalenone (F-2 toxins) also detected
U.S.
Corn
1.1-10.7
26
in the sample.
C ND = toxin concentration was not deter-
U.S.
Corn
41
25
U.S.
Corn
1.0°
mined.
17
U.S.
Oats
5
17
d Levels that are questionable on the
Japan
Barley
ND
18
basis of techniques used.
U.S.
Corn
1.0b
13
U.S.
Corn
0.06b
13
U.S.
Mixed feed
0.07b
13
France
Corn
0.6ᵇ
10
South Africa
Corn
2.5
11
Zambia
Corn
7.4
11
U.S.
Corn
ND
2
Japan
Barley
7.3
18
Austria
Corn
1.3
24
Austria
Corn
7.9
24
Canada
Corn
7.9
24
Nivalenol
Japan
Barley
ND
18
France
Corn
4.3ᵇ
10
Partially
U.S.
Corn
ND
25
characterized
India
Safflower seed
NDᵈ
6
trichothecenes
Skin irritant
U.S.
Corn
93 positiveᵇ
3
factors-not
of 173
analyzed
U.S.
Corn
Multiple positive
21
chemically
samples
Yugoslavia
Corn
16 positive
1
of 191
31
outbreaks that occurred in the Soviet
the body temperature normally does not
rhage. Hemorrhages of the mucous
Union. The effects produced are similar
rise. The leukocyte count may begin to
membranes of the mouth, tongue, soft
to radiation poisoning, and there is a la-
decrease in this stage, and there may be
palate, and tonsils occur. Nasal, gastric,
tent phase similar to that seen in radia-
an increased erythrocyte sedimentation
and intestinal hemorrhages can be
tion poisoning, in which the overt symp-
rate. This first stage may last from 3 to
severe. Areas of necrosis begin to ap-
toms disappear.
9 days.
pear on the lips, fingers, nose, jaws,
The clinical picture may be divided
eyes, and in the mouth. Lymph nodes
into four stages.
The second stage is often called the
are frequently enlarged, and the adjoin-
latent stage or incubation period because
The first stage occurs within
ing connective tissue can become so
the patient feels well and is capable of
minutes to hours after ingestion of toxic
edematous that the patient has difficulty
normal activity. It is also called the
grains. The symptomatology described
opening his mouth. Blood abnormalities
leukopenic stage because its main
was produced by oral exposure to low
features are disturbances in the bone
previously described are intensified.
doses. In exposure by inhalation, the
Death may occur from hemorrhage,
marrow and the hematopoietic system,
symptoms may be more pronounced or
strangulation due to swelling, or sec-
characterized by a progressive leuko-
the time course accelerated. The char-
ondary infection.
penia and granulopenia and a relative
acteristics of the first stage include
lymphocytosis. In addition, anemia and a
The fourth stage is convalescence.
primary changes, with local symptoms,
decrease in erythrocytes, in the platelet
Three or 4 weeks of treatment are re-
in the buccal cavity and gastrointestinal
count, and in hemoglobin occur. Disturb-
quired for disappearance of necrotic le-
tract. Shortly after ingestion of toxic
ances in the central nervous system and
sions and hemorrhagic effects. Two
grain, the patient experiences a burning
autonomic nervous systems may occur
months or more may elapse before the
sensation in the mouth, tongue, throat,
as well as weakness, vertigo, fatigue,
bloodforming capability of the bone mar-
palate, esophagus, and stomach as a
headache, palpitations, and mild
row returns to normal.
result of the toxin's effect on the mucous
asthmatic conditions. Visible hemor-
membranes. The tongue may feel
rhagic spots (petechiae) begin to appear
Published by the United States Department
swollen and stiff, and the mucosa of the
on the skin, marking the transition to
of State
Bureau of Public Affairs
oral cavity may be hyperemic. Inflam-
the third phase. The second stage may
Office of Public Communication
Editorial
mation of the gastric and intestinal
last 3-4 weeks. The transition to the
Division
Washington, D.C.
March 1982
mucosa occurs, along with vomiting,
third stage is sudden, and symptoms
Editors: Norman Howard and Colleen
diarrhea, and abdominal pain. In most
progress rapidly.
Sussman
This material is in the public
cases excessive salivation, headache, diz-
domain and may be reproduced without
ziness, weakness, fatigue, and tachy-
In the third stage, petechial hemor-
permission; citation of this source is
cardia accompany the initial stage.
rhages occur on the skin of the trunk,
appreciated.
There may be fever and sweating, but
arms, thighs, face, and head. They can
vary from a millimeter to a few centi-
meters in size. Capillaries are fragile,
and any slight trauma results in hemor-
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