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Ronald Reagan Presidential Library
Digital Library Collections
This is a PDF of a folder from our textual collections.
Collection: Blackwell, Morton: Files
Folder Title: Catholic (1 of 3)
Box: 34
To see more digitized collections visit:
https://reaganlibrary.gov/archives/digital-library
To see all Ronald Reagan Presidential Library inventories visit:
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Contact a reference archivist at: [email protected]
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CATHOLIC WRITER AND ARTIST GUILD
527 BURGUNDY STREET, No. I
NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA 70112
(504) 522-0434
Sept. 7,1983
To: mr. morton Blackwell
Dear Morton:
We enclose our letter sent
today to m. Fisher of the american
Security Council.
We appreciate the way you
have enabled a couple of us to
attend the outrach briefings.
We are still working on ways
to situate one of us in Wash-
ington on a permanent basis,
so as to attend regularly
meantime our letter to mr.
Fisher will bring you up to date
on our work. Have a lovely autumn.
Sincerely yours,
C. Ron Riggs, La. Barbara namer
martin Kilcoyne, N.C.
Dorothy O'Malley, Wis.
Walter Bruschi, M.D., Ks.
CATHOLIC WRITER AND ARTIST GUILD
527 BURGUNDY STREET, NO. 1
NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA 70112
(504) 522-0434
September 7, 1983
Mr. John Fisher
The American Security Council
Washington Communications Center
boston, Virginia 22713
Dear Mr. Fisher:
Would you be SO kind as to route this present communication
through the proper channels at the American Security Council.
Our organization has been pleased to list my name and that of
our officers in other cities as signers of that splendid joint
statement of the Veterans of Foreign Wars and the ASC.
I write to you now in the hope that the American Security
Council will see fit to release to our group of Catholic writers
a small grant that will enable us to initiate our Church-of-Silence
Project, one that is described on the white sheet that is attached
here. The Project, as you will see, is directly related to this
problem of Congressional resistance to the Reagan initiatives in
Central America.
The "Congress problem" is in large part a people problem. The
American people have been propagandized out of their wits by the
Red front groups in this country. Perhaps especially is this true
of American Catholics, as you will of course already know.
As this situation has worsened, our group has decided to deal
with it by bringing out and distributing in parishes nationwide
a small new anti-Communist Catholic newspaper, at the outset a
"freebie," titled THE LOYALIST: THE VOICE OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC
CHURCH-OF-SILENCE. In this present summer I toured the eastern
half of the U. S., including the Capitol, in an energetic effort
to raise funds for the paper and for the new news agency, American
Catholic News (ACN), which will be its publisher.
Sad to say, I was not successful in getting the necessary
funding together, although I did win many friends for this work.
At present the valuable project is still having to idle in neutral,
a fact which leaves its planners in the frustrating position of
having to "fiddle while Central America burns."
Looking back now it seems to me unfortunate that during my
2.
time in the Capitol I did not think to call at the American Security
Council, Mr. Fisher. Also unfortunate, I believe, is the fact that
when I made my fund-raising presentation to individuals and groups,
I did not think to ask for start-up funds only. Rather I attempted
to raise the full amount which I had estimated would carry the news
agency and paper through their first full year of operations, some
$114,000.00.
A revision of our approach seems to be called for. with the
situation in Central America becoming so grave, and the propaganda
war against the Reagan initiatives continuing to cripple U. S.
interests, I am here moved to appeal to you and to the American
Security Council for emergency funding in the amount of $2,500 as
start-up funding for the work described.
That amount will enable us to get our MCI-type phone hookup
installed and to print up and distribute the first issue of THE
LOYALIST. We would of course run as a large ad the ASC-VFW state-
ment (or a similar one) and other Wake-up-America items aimed at
de-propagandizing Left-leaning Catholic parishoners.
Can the Council assist us in this fashion? Can any agency in
official or semi-official Washington do so? We realize full well,
of course, that the existing Church-state laws prevent government
monies from going to assist religious work. But when the religious
work proposed is the defense of the nation against its enemies, can
such laws still apply? We defer to your expert judgement on this.
Naturally you need background and references on our leadership.
We can readily supply these. A couple of us have been in attendance
at Mr. Morton Blackwell's outreach briefings this summer, and SO
we are are not strangers to him.
Meantime you may refer to these parties in Washington for infor-
mation. After the offices of Mr. George Bush and Senator Jeremiah
Denton cooperated with us in setting up contacts, I was able to talk
personally this July and August with the following parties or their
representatives. This present letter will be shared with them:
Joel Lisker--Senate Committee on Subversion and Terrorism
Paul Weyrich--Committee for a Free Congress
Father Enrique Rueda--Catholic Center, Committee for a Free Congress
Joe Duggan--Ambassador Kirkpatrick's Office
Michael Novak--American Enterprise Institute
Amy Moritz--Captive Nations Group
Roger Fontaine--National Security Council, Inter-American Affairs
Richard Vigilante--Office of Public Liaison, OEOB
Chris Dobbelaere--National Journalism Center
Also for background, I enclose a couple of my anti-subversion
writings from National Review and Catholicism in Crisis. We look
forward to hearing from you very soon.
Sincerely yours,
cc. Guild Officers
Miss Barbara Nauer
Guild President/ Editor
THE CHURCH-OF-SILENCE PROJECT
7.4.83
Prospectus
The Catholic Writer and Artist Guild is a nationwide network of creative Roman
Catholics, including priests and bishops, who since 1981 have worked to penetrate
the leftist media barrier which seriously disadvantages orthodox or Papally loyal
Catholics worldwide.
The organization is now seeking funds to establish a new Catholic news agency,
American Catholic News, and an underground weekly newspaper for free distribution in
Catholic schools and parishes. Both the agency and the paper are to be headquartered
in New Orleans where they will act as the voice of the Church-of-silence. These news
outlets will regularly carry the news and opinions of conservative and tradition-
minded U. S. Catholics along with news of Catholic individuals and groups that are suf-
fering in the occupied and revolutionary countries.
Though deeply serious of purpose, the Church-of-silence newspaper (whose name has
yet to be decided) will take a generally low-brow and sometimes humorous approach to
current Catholic problems, especially those in the U. S. Aimed at the ordinary man
and woman in the pews, the newspaper will rely more heavily on short articles, action
photos and the scholarly brief than do most of the newsletters and publications pres-
ently serving Catholic loyalists. Every individual who joins the Guild as a member
automatically becomes a grass-roots reporter for the American Catholic News network.
The Guild
The organization's aims and background are described on the attached flyer. The
group operates with the knowledge and approval of Archbishop Philip Hannan of New
Orleans and it makes it a policy to enlist the support and cooperation of other U. S.
pastors and bishops in its ongoing activities.
The members of the Guild tend to be career professionals--college professors,
priests, parents, physicians, journalists--or else younger Catholics who are preparing
for careers in government, teaching and the arts. The plan for having Guild members
act semi-formally as reporters to the news network concerning the state of the Church
is causing the group to be especially attractive to collegians who have discovered that
on campuses now, the atmosphere is especially hostile to young Catholics traditional in
beliefs and morals. Younger members of the Guild have usually discovered through raw
experience that militant secularism, which tends to take up Marxism as a political phil-
osophy, is actually the religious heresy known as Modernism, which has been opposed
by all of the modern popes.
Financial Data
During summer of 1983, the Guild's founding president Barbara Nauer is meeting
with church and government officials in Washington, New York and a number of other
major cities in an effort to raise $114,000, the minimal amount that is needed to
initiate the Church-of-silence project and carry it through its first year, July 1
1983-84. Mother of five grown children and a college English professor by profes-
sion, the Director has supported the Guild to date from her own earnings and the
dues and donations of the membership, the same sources which have supported her fund-
raising travels.
The Church-of-silence project is in urgent need of funds to expand its work on behalf
of the oppressed Church. Donations to the Guild are tax-deductible. If you know of
a funding source, or if you would like to join the group as an activist or a prayer
supporter, contact Miss Nauer at the address below. Meantime please pray for the
believing but suppressed Catholic Church, the Church-of-silence, everywhere.
PRESIDENT:
SPONSORING ORGANIZATION:
CATHOLIC WRITER AND ARTIST GUILD
MISS BARBARA NAUER
CELEBRATIONS NEW ORLEANS, INCORPORATED (NON-PROFIT)
(504) 522-0434
527 BURGUNDY STREET, #1 NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA 70112
PULCHRITUDO
THE
VERITAS
BONITAS
CATHOLIC WRITER AND
ARTIST GUILD
"Light and darkness have nothing in common."
- II Cor. 6:15
SPONSORING ORGANIZATION:
PRESIDENT:
CELEBRATIONS NEW ORLEANS, INCORPORATED (NON-PROFIT)
MISS BARBARA NAUER
527 BURGUNDY STREET, #1 NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA 70112
(504) 522-0434
AIMS
1. To introduce Jesus Christ and His gospel to creative people.
2. To explain and promote Roman Catholic truths, traditions and prayer practices.
3. To defend the Pope, the Papal authority, and Catholic magisterial teachings.
4. To oppose Modernism and related contemporary heresies.
5. To Increase the rapport between Roman Catholic writers, artists and musicians and the
wider intellectual and artistic communities.
6. To bring creative and artistic Catholics into closer touch with each other and with the
Holy See.
THE FOUNDATION AND BACKGROUND
The Date of Foundation: The Feast of the Immaculate Conception, Dec. 8, 1981.
The Catholic Writer and Artist Guild is a fellowship of serious and prayerful Roman Catholics who are active in
writing, music and the graphic and performing arts. They have discovered through their reading and by corresponding
with each other that they share a sense of urgency about Modernism's threat to the Church as well as feelings of deep
loyalty to Pope John Paul II and the Papal authority in general.
These Catholics, acting out of these shared attitudes and the evangelical zeal for the Falth that marks prayerful
Catholics everywhere, have decided to come together In a mutual-interest fellowship, the Guild.
Guild members, who tend to form personal friendships across the miles, undertake to act as a semi-formal news-
gathering agency serving the Catholic community worldwide. They remain ever alert to discover means by which the
Roman Catholic Church-of-slience can find Its voice In the media and among all the People of God.
This is the devoutly believing Catholic Church which ever remains witness to the supernatural and to the presence
of the "other world" of Divine grace and unseen beings and forces ever active among us. The church-of-sllence Is the
Roman Church whose faith and spirit are repressed now by totalitarian regimes in the occupled countries and by Modernist
and schismatic infuences elsewhere.
Some Guild members offer to do creative or investigative work on paid assignment for the Guild or for Its publi-
cations. All pray daily for the success of the Guild's apostolate and take part In the organization's "media watch."
The watch asks the Guild's activist members to agree to monitor one or more local or national publications on a
regular basis and to forward to Guild Headquarters clippings or other evidence of false teachings or erroneous or blased
reporting. Sometimes members, including prayer supporters, may be moved to write letters to editors or to others who are
responsible for presenting Modernist or other condemned religious teachings as Catholic beliefs. On occasion they may
join with other Guild members In making a written protest or appealing for true teaching and an assenting spirit.
As well as performing the news-gathering, reviewing and praying activities just described, Gulld members are
expected to pursue on a daily basis as many as possible of the following prayer practices: Mass and holy communion;
scripture reading; meditation before the Blessed Sacrament; private devotions to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, the Blessed
Virgin, and/or the two saints who have been selected as Guild patrons, Michael the Archangel and Saint Catherine of Siena.
The Gulld encourages the use of home prayer-shrines by its members and the forming of Schola (prayer-study) groups
In private homes, meeting weekly or semi-monthly, in citles where several members live. It also promotes the use of Catholic
sacramentals (blest objects) in combatling the materialist heresies and drawing lost souls to Christ.
MEMBERSHIP
Open to all creative Catholics eighteen and over. Dues are $10 for 6 mos. or any traction thereof ($7 for students) and
are renewable each Jan. 1 and July 1. New members are required to send an extra $10 for purchase of a kit of valuable
resource materials on Modernism-encyclicais bibliographies, etc. - and to fin out a Personal Data Sheet that will introduce
them to the other members of the Guild. Dues and supportive donations to this work are tax-deductible.
SEP 1 1983
Menta
Blackwell
11552
August 29, 1983
Faith Ryan Whittlesey
The White House
W, DC
Ms Whittlesey:
The reason the Cathollc Church, an arm of the sovereign and imperial
nation of Vatican State, wants the US to withdraw from Central America is
part of its strategy. VS puts priests on both sides of the struggles. Con-
sequently ho matter which side wins VS will still be running the show as
it has been doing since 1525.
Sincerely,
Russelll Eggleston
Box 2073
Grand Rapids, Michigan
monton
- wy thank
The
Jars
1/9
Heritage
Lectures
6
Papal
Economics
Jude P. Dougherty
Claes G. Ryn
James V. Schall
William A. Stanmeyer
edited by
Philip F. Lawler
The
Heritage Foundation
The
Heritage Foundation
Board of Trustees: Hon. Ben B. Blackburn (Chairman), Dr. David R.
Brown, Joseph Coors, Ambassador Shelby Cullom Davis, Hon. Jack Eckerd,
Thomas C. Ellick, Edwin J. Feulner, Jr., J. Robert Fluor, Joseph R. Keys,
Dr. Robert Krieble, Lewis E. Lehrman, J. F. Rench, Hon. Frank Shakes-
peare, Hon. William E. Simon, Frank J. Walton. President: Edwin J.
Feulner, Jr.
The Heritage Foundation is a Washington-based, tax-exempt, non-partisan public policy
research institution dedicated to the principles of free competitive enterprise, limited govern-
Papal
ment, individual liberty and a strong national defense.
The Heritage Foundation publishes a wide variety of research in various formats for the
benefit of decision-makers and the interested public. The views expressed in the Foundation's
Economics
publications are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Foundation
or its Trustees.
The Policy Studies Series are in-depth analyses of major issues written by scholars or
experienced professionals in the appropriate field.
The Inside Back Cover includes a list of Policy Studies in print.
Jude P. Dougherty
Claes G. Ryn
Policy Review is The Heritage Foundation's quarterly journal of public policy. An editorial
advisory board of distinguished specialists in economics, foreign policy, defense studies,
James V. Schall
William A. Stanmeyer
political science, sociology and other disciplines seeks out for publication original proposals
and critiques addressed to the problems of our society.
edited by
Subscriptions to Policy Review are available for $15 for one year, and $28 for two years.
The Heritage Foundation Research Department frequently publishes Issue Bulletins and
Backgrounders: the former are concise and timely analyses of specific, current policy issues;
Philip F. Lawler
the latter are in-depth studies of longer-range policy questions.
The Heritage Foundation Resource Bank is a clearinghouse of information useful to like-
minded organizations. Its newsletter, the Insider Newsletter, transmits news of conferences,
publications and work-in-progress to interested institutions and individuals.
The Communications Network provides lecturers in both foreign and domestic policy to
colleges and civic groups.
The Washington Semester Program was established to provide an opportunity for interested
students to increase their knowledge by first-hand experience of Congress and the legislative
process. It is an intensive, one-semester program designed to provide a balance between
lectures, a Congressional internship and individual research.
The Foundation is classified as a Section 501 (c) (3) organization under the Internal Revenue
Code of 1954. It is further classified as a "non-private" (i.e., "public") Foundation under
Section 509 (a) (2) of the Code. Individuals, corporations, companies, associations, and
foundations are eligible to support the work of the Foundation through tax-deductible gifts.
Background material will be provided to substantiate tax-deductibility.
CONTRIBUTORS
JUDE P. DOUGHERTY is the Dean of the School of Philoso-
Introduction
phy at the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C.
The editor of The Review of Metaphysics, he frequently writes
I
and lectures on social and political issues affecting American life.
On September 15, 1981, Pope John Paul II issued his third
CLAES G. RYN is Chairman of the Department of Politics at
encyclical, Laborem Exercens, or On Human Work. Unlike
Catholic University. A regular contributor to many scholarly
many papal statements, which are of interest primarily to mem-
journals, he is the author of Democracy and the Ethical Life: A
bers of his Roman Catholic communion, this encyclical quickly
Philosophy of Politics and Community.
captured the attention of readers from every faith, and from
every political persuasion. The social teachings of the Pope
JAMES V. SCHALL, S.J. is Associate Professor of Govern-
reflect not simply the opinions of one man, but the accumulated
ment at Georgetown University, and a Consultor to the Pontifi-
beliefs and traditions of an ancient faith. Consequently, those
cal Commission on Justice and Peace. He is the author of numer-
teachings can influence the social and political thought of
ous essays and books including Christianity and Politics and
innumerable readers, Catholics and non-Catholics alike. Because
Christianity and Life.
they are written from an avowedly religious point of view, these
teachings furnish a new perspective on political issues, and a
WILLIAM STANMEYER is director of the Lincoln Center
useful counterweight against ordinary political rhetoric.
for Legal Studies in Arlington, Virginia. He has taught both law
At the same time, papal statements are often cited by the
and political theory at Loyola, Georgetown, and Catholic Uni-
proponents of particular political viewpoints, as evidence that
versities, and writes regularly on public policy from an interdis-
the Pope supports their particular programs. And Laborem
ciplinary perspective.
Exercens proved no exception to this rule. Within days after the
publication of the encyclical, political analysts from every point
PHILIP F. LAWLER is Director of Studies at The Heritage
on the ideological spectrum had claimed the support of the
Foundation and Managing Editor of the quarterly journal
Pope-often for ideas that were mutually contradictory.
Policy Review.
In order to sort out the various interpretations of the encycli-
cal, one must first understand the unique tradition of papal
social teachings. Laborem Exercens is only the most recent in a
long line of "social encyclicals," in which Popes throughout this
century have addressed questions of political, economic, and
social justice. In fact, John Paul II had originally planned to
release Laborem Exercens on May 15, the 90th anniversary of
the first famous social encyclical: Rerum Novarum, by Pope
Leo XIII. The Pope's schedule was disrupted, of course, by an
attempted assassination and a long period of convalescence.
In recognition of the importance of this encyclical, and in the
hope of helping intelligent readers to interpret the Pope's ideas
correctly, The Heritage Foundation organized a symposium on
Laborem Exercens, which was held at the Catholic University
of America on October 26, 1981. The essays presented in this
volume are based on papers presented at that symposium. We
i
are grateful to the School of Philosophy and the Department of
Nonetheless, as John Paul explains in the text of his encycli-
Politics at Catholic University for their help in arranging the
cal, the Church does make certain specific demands upon secu-
seminar and ensuring its success.
lar governments. Most notably, Catholic teachings demand that
On Human Work, the official translation of Laborem Exer-
the dignity of the individual be preserved against all encroach-
cens, is available through the National Catholic News Service in
ments. In keeping with that demand, the Church has tradition-
Washington. Throughout this volume, all references to the ency-
ally invoked the so-called principle of subsidiarity, which asserts
clical are based on that translation. In the text, numbers in
the primacy of the individual, the family, and the informal
parentheses refer to the numbered sections of the translated
neighborhood as opposed to the State. Catholic social teaching
encyclical.
is an affirmation of the importance of human freedom and dig-
nity, and a constant warning against the overweening power of
central government.
II
Having made these assertions, the Church has traditionally
remained silent on the question of how best to pursue economic
Pope John Paul II, for all his undeniable virtues, is not a
and social goals. Thus John Paul, in this and in previous state-
trained economist. And while Roman Catholics believe that the
ments, calls for a dramatic attack on poverty throughout the
Pope is infallible when he speaks about faith and morals, his
world; he does not stipulate how that attack should be con-
teachings on social and political questions are certainly not
ducted, nor indeed does he demand government programs as
infallible. Why, then, are papal statements on such questions
opposed to private charitable initiatives. These are questions
treated with so much attention and respect? Do they reflect
best resolved by sophisticated economic analysis, not by moral
anything more than the personal beliefs of a very intelligent
suasion. In Laborem Exercens, John "Paul mentions several pos-
amateur?
sible approaches to effective labor relations. But ultimately the
Obviously, the Pope's thoughts carry tremendous importance
merits of these approaches must be subjected to empiral eco-
simply because of the author's moral authority. Papal encycli-
nomic tests. The Pope does not prescribe solutions to the prob-
cals may not be infallible, but they are certainly treated with
lems of human work; he simply insists that some solutions are
utter seriousness by the millions of people who look to the Pope
urgently needed.
for their spiritual leadership. Whether or not one accepts John
In the last analysis, John Paul points out, the problem of
Paul's religious authority, one cannot readily dismiss the ancient
human work is an individual problem: it is the individual,
and powerful ethical tradition from which his thoughts emerge.
through his efforts and his intentions, who gives special value to
Unlike most political leaders, the Pope appeals not to pragmatic
the tasks he performs. So the most pressing social need is not
interests, but to ultimate moral values.
for grand governmental schemes, but for the construction of a
For that same reason, however, the Pope's statements on
sound, understandable philosophy of work. At its most stirring
social issues should not be interpreted simply as political
moments, Laborem Exercens insists that human labor is a holy
responses to political problems. As the representative of a reli-
undertaking-an active partnership in God's work of Creation.
gion that aims toward perfection in an other-worldly kingdom,
It is this understanding, and not any specific function of labor-
the Pope must constantly call upon his fellow Christians to
management relations, that gives work its distinctive value in
make heroic demands on their own charity, and to strive for
Christian theology.
personal sanctity despite their manifest human weaknesses. No
Here, too, the encylical provides a unique and valuable insight
matter how well an earthly government functions, the Church
into the problems of contemporary American society. Our
will always point out its shortcomings, calling believers to pur-
nation was founded by men who had a similar attitude toward
sue loftier goals. In short, while politics is the art of the possible,
the moral value of labor, and our economic and social institu-
Christian morality is a search for perfection.
tions are constructed from that moral basis. But in recent years,
ii
iii
many social critics have complained that the moral and philo-
James Schall begins his essay by pointing out the many con-
sophical underpinnings of our social institutions have begun to
trasting readings that have been given to John Paul's arguments.
crumble. If that is true, then Laborem Exercens provides a
Clearly, some of these readings must reflect a grave misconcep-
strong antidote for the nation's malaise. After all, the dignity of
tion of the Pope's ideas. But at least part of the problem, Father
work is not simply a religious principle; it is a vital principle of
Schall points out, might stem from the somewhat obscure mean-
ing of the word "work" as it is used in Laborem Exercens. Some
our economic system.
clarification is in order, and perhaps clarification of this concept
One final point bears mention in these introductory remarks.
is the most important work to be done by interpreters of the
All too often, readers with a strong political bias-liberals and
conservatives alike-react strongly to the distinctive rhetoric
encyclical.
However, no honest reader of the encyclical could possibly
of papal social statements. It is indeed true that Pope John Paul,
miss the steady emphasis on transcendent religious themes. It
like his predecessors, appeals to many of the same motives that
would be very difficult, William Stanmeyer observes, for an
are cited by liberals in the secular realm. But when the Pope
areligious reader to agree with the Pope; in fact it is fair to say
calls for an ethic of peace, brotherhood, and sharing, is he sim-
that the entire argument of the encyclical presupposes a religi-
ply echoing the demands of the political Left? Or, on the con-
ous disposition. Still, working from that basic understanding,
trary, is the Left borrowing the language of an ethical system
Stanmeyer finds several specific questions that could be addressed
that has proven its power over a period of thousands of years?
within the purview of the encyclical: for instance, the problems
The intelligent reader can reach his own conclusion.
of bureaucracy, unemployment, and inflation.
-Philip F. Lawler
III
By happy coincidence, the five essays contained in this vol-
ume follow a discernible pattern. The first essays concentrate
primarily on the theoretical underpinnings of the papal social
teachings, providing a valuable background for the reader who
is not well acquainted with that tradition. Then gradually, the
later essays delve into the concrete empirical evidence for (and
against) the Pope's argument.
Laborem Exercens is a dramatic document in many respects,
and its argument is not often heard in ordinary political contro-
versies. But the encyclical adheres fairly closely to the main
traditions of Catholic social teachings. Opening the proceedings,
Jude Dougherty outlines the essential elements of that traditional
social doctrine, and places John Paul squarely within the scope
of previous papal declarations.
Claes Ryn follows by taking up one specific aspect of the
Pope's argument: the idea of community. Too often, he argues,
modern political analysts look upon "community" as an abstract,
intangible agglomeration of persons. The Christian approach, in
sharp contrast, insists on the dignity of the individual-the flesh-
and-blood neighbor rather than the abstract vision of humanity.
V
iv
The Work Ethic of John Paul II
JUDE P. DOUGHERTY
When I was asked to prepare this paper I had not yet read
John Paul II's encyclical. I had read two newspaper accounts of
Laborem Exercens, but still remained uncertain of its specific
content and thrust. It occurred to me that it might be useful to
sketch the Church's teaching on labor and then to consider the
content of the encyclical against that tradition. When I say the
Church's teaching, I am using the term loosely, for what I obvi-
ously mean is one layman's grasp of that teaching. Whether I
have captured the tradition or not, I leave for the reader to
decide. My method, following my first inclination, is to set
forth ten points, which I think summarize the Church's teaching
with respect to labor. I will then compare the teaching of Labor-
em Exercens with those ten points and attempt to state where it
has broken new ground, if indeed it has.
From its inception, the Church has taught the dignity of
labor. This attitude stems from the Gospel narratives themselves
as well as from the view of man presupposed by the Gospels.
The Gospels portray Joseph as a craftsman, and it is supposed
that Jesus himself learned to use his hands as a carpenter in his
father's workshop. But behind the Gospels is the conviction
that man is both body and soul and that it is fitting that man
works out his salvation with both. This doctrine is the corner-
stone of Western monasticism, and it is, I believe, that monastic
tradition which has shaped the Catholic work ethic in later ages.
1. Benedict prescribed manual labor for the monks who would
follow his Rule. As a matter of fact, Benedict is credited with
being the first intellectual in the history of the West to get dirt
under his fingernails. The Greeks, by contrast, took a contem-
plative approach to nature; manual labor was the lot of the
slave. Plato is said to have chided two disciples for making
instruments by which to measure the motion of heavenly bodies.
But for Benedict, manual labor was an important dimension of
human activity. Most of the recruits to his early monasteries
were, in fact, the sons of noblemen, and yet he prescribed work.
In his own words, "The brethren must be occupied at stated
hours in manual labor, and again at other hours in divine
2
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Jude P. Dougherty
3
reading." Benedict's conception of the monastic life is essen-
can contribute to the same degree; similarly, there is no expec-
tially social and cooperative. His Rule, as a discipline of the
tation that all will share to the same degree. There is the impor-
common life, differs from older rules in its strongly practical
tant awareness of moral failure. Some, although not ill endowed
character. The Benedictine Abbey was to be a self-contained
by nature, fail as a result of their own choices to develop their
economic organism, like the villa of a Roman landowner. Be-
abilities or fail through laziness to contribute their fair share.
cause the monks were themselves the workers, the old classical
They who have not in justice contributed have no claim in strict
contract between servile work and free leisure no longer ob-
justice to share. In charity the community may provide for the
tained. According to the Rule, the abbot is the manager of the
ill endowed; it may even care for those who have willfully failed
estate of the monastery. The Rule lays great stress on the equal
to acquire skills or squandered their talent and resources. But
treatment of all members of the community: noble or peasant,
charity is not mindless. It cannot encourage shiftlessness or
free or slave. Benedict's monasteries are credited with revolu-
materially cooperate in evil.
tionizing the order of social values as a result of their sanctifica-
5. It is evident that the doctrine of free will is an important
tion of work and poverty. The slave-owning society of the
factor in Christian attitudes toward work. To some extent indi-
empire and the aristocratic warrior ethos gave way to an institu-
viduals are what they are because of their free choices. No deter-
tion which stressed the value of manual labor. The effects of the
minism robs man of responsibility for what he has become. By a
new order were not long in coming. The disciplined and tireless
law of nature men are brought to face the long-term consequences
labor of the monks brought back into cultivation the lands which
of youthful choices. Some have-nots have not because of their
had been deserted and depopulated since the age of the invasions.
own moral failure. Poverty is not, as modern doctrine proclaims,
In the words of John Henry Newman, who wrote brilliantly
always the product of external social and economic forces.
about the period, "by degrees the woody swamp became a her-
Poverty is also the product of nature's ill-endowment or of cul-
mitage, a religious house, a farm, or abbey, a village, a seminary,
pable personal failure. Poverty is a symptom of a more radical
a school of learning and a city." The whole Christian outlook
flaw in nature or in human conduct. Men cannot be preserved
toward labor is embodied in Benedict's Rule and that Rule was
from the consequences of their vice, ignorance, and folly.
to become a norm in the Christian West.
6. The Church teaches that certain minimal goods are re-
2. Manual labor is seen not only as a human good, but as a
quired as conditions for human freedom and growth. Spiritual
necessity. Man may be the culmination of a hierarchy in nature
growth is uppermost in mind. This requires a degree of material
but nothing is given without toil. The Christian sees this as God's
well-being, an amount of leisure. All are called to the moral life
way of presenting man with the goods of the earth. Nature
and to at least a minimal life of the mind. Religion presupposes
exists for man and is to be used by man, but man must culti-
reflection. In common with the Greek, the Christian affirms
vate, shepherd, and construct. Man is to utilize nature's gifts,
that contemplation is the end of human toil.
bound only by the admonition to use wisely.
While manual labor is a human good, it is nevertheless more
3. The sense of community taken for granted within the
of a means to an end than an end in itself. There are many
monastic tradition is a model for secular society as well. The
goods of the body, but the highest goods are the goods of the
goods of the earth are held in common. The recognition of com-
spiritual life of man: personal moral growth and art, science and
munity implies that all are entitled to share. The assumption is
wisdom. Property and material wealth are the condition of these
that all are engaged in the productive process to the extent that
distinctively human goods. The unquenchable curiosity of, the
their ability and station permit. Property owners do not have
human intellect and the consequent variety of taste require
the right to do what they please with what they call their own,
material means for their satisfaction. Personal growth also
for they are only the stewards of their possessions.
depends upon the associations one makes. Material means are
4. Charity is crucial in any Christian theory of community.
required if one is to choose one's companions, to marry in
The Christian takes for granted the inequality of ability. Not all
accord with one's best perceptions, and to lead the life of the
4
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5
mind. Apart from individual ownership of property, there can
usually condemned strikes which result in the closing of essen-
never be genuine individual freedom.
tial public services.
The Church has also endorsed the formation of unions for
Fair Return for Labor
another role that they play in the community, namely, their
role as intermediate societies protecting the individual from
7. A man has a right to the fruit of his labor. In a primitive
larger or more powerful bodies which do not always have the
agrarian society this principle would hardly require debate. But,
individual's interest in mind.
when one hires oneself as a laborer to till another's land or work
In recent decades with the growth of union size and power,
in another's shop, principles of equity need to be enunciated. A
admonitions for union restraint are almost as frequent as appeals
man may lack real property, but assuming normal health of the
to justice directed at owners in a previous period. The call to
body, he is not without resources. The Church has taught in
prudence is sounded in all directions.
every period that a man by his labor, whatever the economic
10. Opposition to socialism has been a constant feature of
situation, is entitled in exchange for that labor the minimal
the Church's social teaching. This stems from the conviction
goods of life, a living wage. Exploitation whether by feudal lord
that a sense of independence, self-reliance, self-respect, and eco-
or factory owner is never sanctioned. An assumption underlying
nomic power can only come from the possession of property.
this teaching is that the earth with sufficient tilling will yield its
There is the belief that no system of insurance, nor any scale of
fruit.
wages, can provide man with those goods of soul which are an
8. Industrial society complicates the enunciation of generic
integral element of full and normal life, and which are second
principles. Only a few factors need be mentioned to illustrate
in importance to food, clothing, and shelter. Though aware of
the complexity. Labor often is not directly related to the end-
the baser tendencies of human nature, the Church has more
product. An individual or a factory may produce what is merely
confidence in the decency of a mercantile class than in the abil-
a component in a larger enterprise. Products themselves are bar-
ity of government to legislate moral goals. The most cunningly
tered, their value often determined by the market. Mistakes can
devised social statutes, it is thought, will not compel men to act
be made in production; the margin for error is great. Labor can
justly in their economic relations unless they are moved by a liv-
be squandered; decisions to produce badly made. One may have
ing and enlightened conscience. The voice of conscience will
invested in or hired out to a losing enterprise. The link between
ordinarily have little effect if it is not recognized as the voice of
labor and marketable product is too easily broken. For effort
God. Neither legal ordinances nor humanitarian appeals will be
expended there ought to be a just return, but there are no guar-
effective without the assistance and direction of religion.
antees that an enterprise will be profitable. The risks attached
to production sometimes fall on the laborer. The Church has
In Step with Tradition
taught that the risk is to be borne principally by the entrepre-
neur who stands to gain much from success. The laborer is
The above decalogue is what I take to be the common moral
entitled to a living wage even in a marginal enterprise or in one
teaching of the Church with respect to labor. Maverick sages and
of dubious return. Labor is not to be exploited to bring a return
tutors apart, these are the teachings I heard as a youth. Thus it
to an ill advised venture.
is not surprising that I found in John Paul's encyclical all the
9. If labor's rights are to be respected so, too, are those of
above and then some. I will turn to the "then some" in a
owners and the community. The Church in modern times has
moment, but it is worth noting simply because the press has
affirmed the worker's right to organize and to strike under cer-
made so much of the fact that the encyclical is not about
tain circumstances. But the strike is an extraordinary means:
Poland alone. It is not addressed to the Polish situation any
the common good must always be respected. Moralists have
more than it is to that in Bolivia. John Paul's voice carries a
found the secondary boycott difficult to sanction and have
special ring to anyone who reads the news from his native land;
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7
but the principles thought to bear on the Polish situation were
best general teaching on problems affecting the place of work.
similarly enunciated by his predecessors. To read the document
In a period of rampant relativism such unification is at once
in a parochial fashion is to miss its essential feature. Nor is it to
more difficult and more necessary than it may seem. More diffi-
be read for its novelty. Papal documents by their very nature
cult, because of the absence of a common way of thinking
are the last place one can expect new teaching. They are chiefly
about things; more necessary, because people have no other
vehicles by which the established is reaffirmed. The Church does
place to look. Governments may outdo the religious mind in
not discover morality but endorses the highest moral principles
their concern for the laborer or the disadvantaged. Where those
discerned by men. The Scriptures and the teachings of Christ
concerns are not crassly political, they may, in fact, reflect a
are of the most general sort. The Church teaches in their light,
religious world-view. But governments are not good at defend-
but the specific teachings of the Church are the product of
ing principles-even principles which lead to actions that are
enlightened investigation. She carries in her doctrine not only
deemed expedient. The churched as well as the unchurched
the voice of Jerusalem but the wisdom of Athens, Rome, and
need to be reminded of the unity of an outlook that is fre-
medieval Paris as well.
quently assumed by both. It can be argued that much contem-
If the encyclical of John Paul advances Papal teaching it does
porary social doctrine which we take for granted is Christian
so, in my judgment, when it calls attention to several facets of
in its origin and that its proper defense is Christianity itself.
the productive process which were not singled out in prior papal
Though many of those values are to be found in other places,
documents:
their fullness is nowhere to be found save in the tradition repre-
1) The psychological requirements of the work place;
sented by John Paul.
2) The interdependence of nations by reason of the uneven
It is likely that the teachings of Laborem Exercens can be
distribution of the earth's raw materials;
endorsed by secular- and religious-minded alike, but I know of
3) The needs of migrant laborers; and
few intellectual systems which can justify the principles on
4) The employment and treatment of the handicapped.
which they rest, and of no world spokesmen for any of the
A case can be made that on all of these issues the Pope is
alternative systems. The role may be uniquely Peter's.
behind the times. Responsible corporations have long ago (if
for no other than reasons of self-interest) adopted policies that
make the work-load more varied and meaningful. Moral tracts
on the relation of industrial nations to those which are mainly
the exporters of raw materials are not wanting. The problems of
migrant laborers have been addressed by governments, corpora-
tions, and voluntary organizations on both sides of the Atlantic.
In the United States, federal guidelines on mainstreaming the
handicapped are lengthier than the encyclical itself.
What then should one say of a document that simply reiter-
ates common moral teaching? Much depends on one's attitude
toward religious authority. For some, John Paul has the author-
ity of a scholarly Reinhold Niebuhr, for others that of an evan-
gelical Billy Graham, and for still others, he is in a unique way
the Voice of Christ as mediated by His Church. By ordinary
standards he is someone who commands respectful attention.
But more needs to be said.
The encyclical brings together in an authoritative way the
The Work of Community
Claes G. Ryn
9
CLAES G. RYN
Using the term work in a sense which is perhaps broader than
John Paul's, work is finally but another name for life, life being
always an effort to master challenges and overcome obstacles.
Reading the encyclical Laborem Exercens one is reminded
Man must work for his livelihood, but he must also work out his
repeatedly of the long tradition of teaching from which it ema-
salvation. In the end, work is but another term for willing. We
nates and which it seeks to develop. John Paul's examination of
may introduce a distinction corresponding to the two ways to
work assumes a dual understanding of man's purpose. The ulti-
salvation and say that there is the work of otherworldliness,
mate end of man is to live in the kingdom of God. This destiny
meaning the willing of that which holiness requires; and there is
is revealed in the spirit of otherworldliness which finds its full-
the work of human community, meaning the willing of that
est expression in the life of Christ and in the life of the saints.
which the good life requires, including economic well-being.
But awareness of man's ultimate end beyond this world must
The purpose of work, John Paul contends, is "making life more
not lead to neglect of the higher potentialities of our earthly
human." (#3) It should contribute to human community, ulti-
existence. The latter should be fully developed in accordance
mately to community with God.
with its own intended perfection.
In its concern for man in society, John Paul points out, the
Although John Paul does not here dwell on the point, catho-
Church is primarily interested in "the eternal designs and tran-
lic Christianity recognizes two distinct and yet intimately related
scendent destiny" which God has "linked with him." But while
ways to salvation. There is the way of those who would live
the Church looks at human work first of all "in the light of the
now as though they were already in the heavenly kingdom; such
revealed word," John Paul freely grants that the wisdom and
vows as celibacy and poverty express the aspiration of holiness.
knowledge of philosophers and other scholars is indispensable
But this type of witnessing is not the only way of serving God.
to the proper understanding of man in society. (#4) In keeping
Indeed, if actually practiced by all men, celibacy would mean
with this recognition I shall draw on some worldly wisdom in
the end of the human race. Poverty, if universally adopted,
order to discern and elaborate upon John Paul's view of the
"would sink the world in squalor and darkness.' Therefore, as
relationship of work to community and their respective meaning.
John Paul points out, the general command to men is, "Be fruit-
ful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it." (#4) Most
men are expected to serve God by making the best of the
Ideology vs. Community
various resources which have been placed in their care. Laborem
The central message of Laborem Exercens will be misunder-
Exercens is addressed primarily to work as "a fundamental
stood if its sociopolitical arguments are confused, as no doubt
dimension of man's existence on earth." (#4) Man's proper
they will be, with ideological and pseudo-moralistic calls for the
development through work in human society is of vital concern
political transformation of society. The humanizing reforms
to the Church as having a direct bearing on his ability to reach
desired by John Paul are not drawn from some abstract blueprint
his ultimate end. However, John Paul also guards against a
but spring from solidarity with concrete human beings working
secularizing preoccupation with the things of this world. He
to improve their lot in particular historical circumstances. He
reminds his readers, in the words of Gaudium et Spes, that
assumes that reforms have to take into account the special needs
"earthly progress must be carefully distinguished from the
and conditions of actual societies, firms and workplaces. His
growth of Christ's kingdom." (#27)2
shunning of radical ideological blueprints is evident, most gen-
1. Walter Lippmann, The Public Philosophy (New York: New American Library,
erally, from his respectful treatment of "the particular cultural
1955), 116.
2. See Gaudium et Spes, 39. For an extensive discussion of the relationship be-
and historical links" forming the basis of man's membership in
tween specifically religious values and the values of "wordly" civilization, see Claes
society. (#10) More specifically, John Paul emphatically rejects
G. Ryn, "The Things of Caesar: Notes Toward the Delimitation of Politics," Thought,
Vol. 55, No. 219 (December, 1980).
the radicalism of Marxism and atomistic liberalism. This rejec-
tion is an example of his not regarding the past as an evil
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Claes G. Ryn
11
heritage to be discarded. On the contrary, what he writes about
persons in groups which are far less than global or socially all-
man's dependence on the past closely parallels the thought of
encompassing. Most men find their deepest sense of belonging
Edmund Burke. John Paul refers to society as "a great historical
in the family and in other freely chosen contexts of intimate
and social incarnation of the work of all generations." It is "the
human contact, such as the neighborhood church, union chap-
great 'educator' of every man." He argues that when work is
ter, service club, school, or work place. Here the individual
done in the right spirit it "serves to add to the heritage of the
exists as a real person. He cares genuinely and directly for
whole human family." (#10) Viewed in this perspective, John
others and is cared for in turn. He listens with real interest to
Paul's notion of solidarity calls to mind the famous words of
others and is listened to in turn. In his social groups man is not
Burke that society is "a partnership not only between those
an isolated, passive being. He is somebody; he makes a differ-
who are living, but between those who are living, those who are
ence; he is needed. He feels that he himself can and must con-
dead, and those who are to be bom." Man's social nature is
tribute to the good life for himself and his fellow humans. The
defined by his participation in "the great primeval contract of
effect of social memberships at their best is to develop the
eternal society."⁸ Beneficial reform, then, does not uproot man
human personality and to give a sense of security and meaning-
from his historically evolved social contexts but takes carefully
ful purpose.
measured steps to improve upon the heritage of the past.
Labor unions and professional associations are examples of
For John Paul, as for Burke, society is not an undifferen-
institutions which can provide a beneficial sense of economic
tiated mass of individuals. It is an organic fabric of human asso-
security. But if they are nothing more than economic pressure
ciations carrying forward the work of civilization. It is in his
groups, they are failing in their highest role, which is to be a
immediate social environment that man finds the most signifi-
bulwark for community. John Paul makes it clear that unions
cant opportunities for community and personal development.
and similar associations must not be viewed as instruments of
The family is central. John Paul writes: "It must be remembered
group egoism and class warfare. It is to the extent that they are
and affirmed that the family constitutes one of the most impor-
motivated by solidarity in the real sense that they can contrib-
tant terms of reference for shaping the social and ethical order
ute to the larger good of society. Pluralism enhances social har-
of human work." (#10) In the family, man starts to develop
mony only if man's many groups are joined by the work of
many of the qualities which sustain society. In a similar vein,
community. If that is the case, it can truly be said, in the words
Edmund Burke contends that the source of warm feelings for
of John Paul, that "social and socioeconomic life is certainly
society as a whole is in the affections that we have for the little
like a system of 'connected vessels." (#20)
"platoons" to which we belong. We may add that in a people
consisting of disharmonious, dissolving families, disaffection
with the larger society is likely to be common.
Humanity: Real and Abstract
Among the contemporary scholars whose worldly wisdom
The tradition of social teaching to which Laborem Exercens
offers confirmation of John Paul's defense of community is
belongs has given strong support to the old principle of subsidi-
Robert Nisbet. Developing a tradition which goes back to Plato
arity. It should be noted that this principle runs contrary to any
and Aristotle and beyond, Nisbet argues that man's social nature
notion of social engineering. It is not deemed appropriate that
becomes manifest primarily in his "autonomous groups. "4 To
government should mastermind the life of society with refer-
live in community is not so much to be a part of humanity in
ence to some blueprint for the good society. The principle
general; it means first of all to be associated with particular
expresses a strong preference for meeting needs, as far as possi-
ble, where they are most strongly felt. Government should
3. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (New York: Bobbs-
Merrill, 1955), p. 110.
assume only those tasks which cannot be handled, or handled
4. Robert Nisbet, The Quest for Community (New York: Oxford University
effectively, by any other organizations or groups closer to the
Press, 1953).
citizens. It is assumed that decentralization and differentiation
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13
of social life is desirable, partly to keep the solution of prob-
iat, or the starving Third World. Indeed, a merely sentimental
lems as close as possible to those who are immediately affected
caring has the advantage of somehow always transferring real
by them. Assessments of the principle of subsidiarity today
obligations to some agency other than oneself, such as govern-
must of course include consideration of its prudence and practi-
ment or an international organization. It is quite possible to
cality in modern circumstances. However, this consideration
bask in self-approbation for one's own noble moral feelings with-
would be incomplete without consideration of its moral signifi-
out having taken a single step to improve one's own character.
cance.
Christianity does not teach a self-congratulatory sentimental
It is essential to understand that there is a direct relationship
benevolence. It admonishes us: not to have warm feelings for
between concern for man as a member of concretely existing
humanity in general, but to love our neighbor. And to love
intermediate groups, such as we find in Laborem Exercens, and
one's neighbor is a personally demanding task requiring actual
a certain view of the nature of love and community. To grasp
moral character. Genuine love asks of us-employers and
the central message of John Paul's encyclical, it is necessary to
employees, teachers, children, mothers and fathers-that we
recognize the difference between the generalized humanitarian
should care for living, breathing people in our immediate envi-
sympathy which is usually associated with modern ideological
ronment. And these "neighbors" may well be obstreperous,
schemes and the concern for human welfare which inspires the
ugly, unlikeable individuals making uncomfortable demands on
pages of the encyclical. Failure to understand the difference be-
our time and energy. It is here and now, and not in the public
tween Christian love and expressions of a merely sentimental
arena of abstract moralizing, that moral character is really tested.
brotherhood of man is the source of endless moral and intellec-
Needless to say, Christianity hopes and expects that love of
tual confusion in the contemporary world. The following analy-
neighbor will spread more broadly and inspire political and
sis of the nature of love refers specifically to Christianity but
social life in general. One of the aspects of a society formed
applies more generally to the ethical life, whatever label may be
according to the principle of subsidiarity is to protect and to
attached to it. Obviously, morality is not a monopoly of Chris-
multiply opportunities for concrete, close-range association and
tians or, for that matter, of religious believers.
thus to aid the work of community. The important work of
Those today who speak the most and the loudest about the
government should of course also respect the highest moral
plight of the disadvantaged and about the need to reform society
goals and standards. But here as elsewhere the character of
tend to exhibit a generalized caring for nobody in particular.
those in power is crucial. Standing on the worldly ethical wis-
These lovers of humanity take great pride in their own elevated
dom of the ages as well as the revealed word, Christianity knows
moral sentiments and expect our applause for being the con-
that the work of the moral life begins at home with reform of
science of the world. In righteous indignation they decry the
self and love of neighbor.
meanness of those who do not share their views of what moral
It is no coincidence, therefore, that the Christian understand-
responsibility demands. And because the language of their sen-
ing of love should go together with emphasis on the importance
timents is often that of Christian love and charity, the essential
of man's most intimate groups for his development as a person.
difference is easily overlooked. It is not noticed, for example,
John Paul stresses that the Church has always given prominence
that the humanitarian sympathy on which so many modern
to the role of the family in educating man for community.
people base their claim to moral worth has few, if any, prerequi-
Having sprung forth and been challenged in the family and other
sites of moral character. In the classical and Judaeo-Christian
intimate relationships, love may then come to spread, like rings
tradition of ethics, love and charity are understood to be the
on the water, to the entire human family. Indeed, the love of
fruits of long and sometimes difficult improvement of self. The
the saint knows no bounds.
great appeal of modern sentimental brotherhood, by contrast, is
In glaring contrast, the modern humanitarian sympathy which
that it relieves man of moral effort. Nothing is easier than caring
parades under the banner of "love" allows the individual to
in the abstract for the suffering poor, or the exploited proletar-
bypass the difficult effort of moral self-scrutiny and self-reform.
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Claes G. Ryn
15
Except with God, Christianity associates universal love of man
of power. Hence the totalitarians seek to weaken or destroy
primarily with the exceptional man of character, the saint.
these freely formed associations either by infiltrating or by for-
Modern "love of man" presupposes no such difficult overcoming
bidding them. Is there a more chilling example of the destruc-
of self. It lets the individual go directly to the reform of society
tion of community than the Hitler Youth or Komsomol parti-
and, yes, the entire world. What the individual lacks in personal
san informing on his parents? The final result of the totalitarian
character he can make up in sentimental overflow and ambi-
assault on the intermediate groups is the creation of a people of
tious schemes for social engineering. The effects of this per-
isolated, insecure, naked individuals. Instead of a people organ-
verted form of moralism are potentially diabolical. The new
ized in diverse, overlapping, and spontaneously created associa-
morality makes it quite possible to be a passionate lover of
tions, there appears the lonely crowd, the undifferentiated mass.
humanity, like a Robespierre, a Marx or a Lenin, and to be a
And of course the totalitarians want that mass to march in step
passionate hater of actual human beings. Surely, moral blind-
for the final victory of "brotherhood" in the world. Perhaps the
ness and conceit are wholly dominant when the representative
ultimate perversion of community is the dehumanizing "brother-
of the heavenly kingdom, the priest who administers the sacra-
hood" of the rootless crowd roaring its consent to totalitarian
ments and preaches the word of love, is considered justified in
slogans.
also carrying a machine gun. "You be my brother or I shall
The same ultimate result is advanced in more subtle ways
kill you!"
within our modern Western societies. Many would have govern-
Community in the real sense of the word is not some abstract
ment and society in general act in the spirit of an abstract indi-
brotherhood of man; the latter, for all its possible emotional
vidualism. No longer should citizens be treated with respect to
intensity, is actually empty of all humanizing content. The
their social roles and memberships, not as male or female, father
work of community establishes a pattern of concrete social rela-
or mother, member of a profession, citizen of a state or local
tionships. To summarize what has been argued so far: it is
community, but simply as-abstract individuals having abstract
chiefly in his immediate groups that man's humanity is realized.
rights. Carried to its individualistic extreme, "equality before
The man of generalized benevolence may well be incapable of
the law" requires that society disregard that which makes men
love for actual persons. The man of real character thrives as a
into what they are. Before the bench of the law man must stand
member of social groups. It might be added that it is men of the
stripped of all the social roles and characteristics which define
latter type who are best equipped, provided they also have the
his personhood. The Equal Rights Amendment, in so far as it
necessary knowledge and prudence, to employ the powers of
follows the same logic, offers an example of the same attempted
government for the improvement of their own society and the
depersonalization; the law and public policy must not favor or
rest of the world.
disfavor any social roles or arrangements, not even if these have
been sanctioned or disapproved by hundreds of years of civiliza-
Assaults on Community
tion. John Paul's moderate and balanced defense of the family
and the role of the mother is opposite in spirit to a social ideol-
A terrible danger of the modern ideologies is that they threat-
ogy whose practical effect is the atomization of society. When,
en all genuine community and thereby the development of the
in the name of some abstract individual rights, society is not
essential nature of man. Whether predominantly individualistic
allowed to give preferential treatment to those roles and institu-
or collectivistic, the economistic view of life described by John
tions which have proved most humanizing and ennobling over
Paul prepares the way for atomistic dissolution of society.
the centuries, it is also prohibited from protecting the social
The most blatant and immediately threatening attack on
nature of man.
community comes from the totalitarian movements. They cor-
To take another example of the effects of abstract individual-
rectly view the intermediate groups with deep suspicion, for
ism, the formula "one man one vote" tends to disenfranchise
these divide men's loyalties and counteract the centralization
men as members of social groups. The logic of this formula is
16
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Claes G. Ryn
17
that democracy should not pay its respects to political subdivi-
real solution to the rootlessness of the modern working masses
sions like states and localities by giving them special political
is to attack its sources, the twin curses of materialism and ab-
influence and protection. In the United States, the fact that the
stract individualism. Much like Robert Nisbet, Röpke would
States, regardless of population, are given two senators in the
have society work toward conditions in which spontaneously
Congress is a particularly striking instance of such preferential
formed human associations can thrive and have real influence.
treatment. "One man one vote," consistently applied, would
The basic unit of the good society is not the undefined abstract
give citizens political power only as members of the undifferen-
individual with abstract freedoms and rights but man manifest-
tiated mass. The transformation of society for the sake of
ing his essential nature in his social memberships. Röpke is a
majoritarian mass democracy requires again that man's associa-
proponent of the market economy as most compatible with a
tions be ignored. But one has to ask this question: When the
humane society, but he wants it understood that this economy
dissolution of the people into an egalitarian mass has finally
is one thing where "atomization, mass, proletarianization, and
been completed, so that everybody can truly be counted as one,
concentration rule"; it is quite another in a society which seeks
has the individual gained or lost? When does he feel most impor-
to absorb the central moral and cultural lessons of civilization
tant and influential; as an active member of groups, or as a
and manages to integrate the individual into a "natural order"
member of that mass of equal citizens casting a ballot periodic-
of genuine belonging. "In such a society, wealth would be
ally to decide who shall be his ruler?⁵ Whatever its moralistic
widely dispersed; people's lives would have solid foundations;
pretentions, abstract individualism and egalitarianism represents
genuine communities, from the family upward, would form a
a denial of man's specifically human nature. The "brotherhood"
background of moral support for the individual; there would be
it seeks is realized in practice by destroying the social fabric of
counterweights to competition and the mechanical operation of
concrete community.
prices; people would have roots and would not be adrift in life
Perhaps the most humane and insightful of the economists of
without anchor.'
this century is Wilhelm Röpke. He warns against the Vermassung
I cannot read John Paul's defense of human community against
of modern society. Like John Paul he deplores the "proletarian-
proletarianization, mechanization and "excessive bureaucratic
ization" of the working man. A society which radically departs
centralization" without seeing the parallels between his con-
from the classical and Judaeo-Christian traditions and which
cerns and those of social thinkers like Edmund Burke, Wilhelm
transforms itself from a "system of 'connected vessels," that is,
Röpke and Robert Nisbet. (#15) John Paul's understanding of
from an organism of diverse and mutually supportive associa-
ethics, politics and economics can be explicated, substantiated
tions, into a mass of socially uprooted individuals, provides the
and strengthened with reference to worldly wisdom like theirs,
worst environment for the economic work of society. Only in a
which is very close in spirit to his own thought.
people where central moral and cultural values are transmitted
Implied in what I have argued is a standard for judging the
through strong social groups can economic production be prop-
quality of life in various societies. Whatever their ideological
erly subordinated to the higher ends of society. According to
claims or pretenses, do they actually provide their citizens genu-
Röpke, the real alternative to laissez-faire capitalism is not
ine opportunities for the work of community? Does the particu-
socialistic collectivism or the welfare state as ordinarily con-
lar society give the individual freedom, resources and encourage-
ceived. "Government-organized relief for the masses is simply
ment to seek a life which richly enhances his existence as a
the crutch of a society crippled by proletarianism. "6 The only
social being, thus contributing to the completion of his specific-
ally human nature, or does it leave man lonely, insecure and
5. The problem of community as related to two very different types of democra-
cy, plebiscitary and constitutional, is treated in depth in Claes G. Ryn, Democracy
afraid?
and the Ethical Life: A Philosophy of Politics and Community (Baton Rouge: Louisi-
ana State Univeristy Press, 1978).
6. Wilhelm Röpke, A Humane Economy (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1971),
p. 154.
7. Ibid., p. 35.
James V. Schall
19
On Imitating the Creator
Henry Tanner, at The New York Times, stressed less utopian
themes, such as what are labor unions and whether they ought
JAMES V. SCHALL
to be political parties or tools of class-warfare (which the Pope
said they should not).⁵ Msgr. George Higgins, on the other hand,
saw a polemical purpose, wherein Laborem Exercens would
John Paul II's new encyclical, Laborem Exercens, "broke no
somehow "likely prove unpopular with economic conservatives,"
new grounds either socially or theologically," wrote Time maga-
who ironically have been trying to suggest this more critical
zine, ever faithful to its own doctrines, in a self-revealing remark.¹
look at labor unions in papal documents for years. 6 Meantime,
The Washington Post, however, cited a high Vatican official to
perhaps the leading "economic conservative" interested in reli-
the effect that the purpose of this new papal document was to
gious matters is Michael Novak, who found the papal document
inspire "new concepts that could unite workers and heal per-
"brilliant," coming from a man who actually knew something
sistent divisions between capital and labor.' Polish sources
about Marxism, such as how it really works.⁷
seemed to consider the Pope finally to have found a way to
On the whole, I did not find this encyclical as theologically
justify capital by identifying it with historical, stored work.
profound as Redemptor Hominis, nor as philosophically perti-
Italian sources did not believe the Holy Father was recommend-
nent as John Paul II's previous Dives in Misericordia, which lat-
ing a third sort of economic system, but rather that he was sug-
ter addressed itself to the major socioeconomic issue of our era,
gesting ways to humanize existing ones.³
namely the radical limits of justice and their relation to revela-
By contrast, only three weeks after its publication, Malachi
tion. It goes without saying, of course, that the subject matters
Martin darkly warned that the "Vatican's momentous message
of these three documents differ widely in scope. Christology
on workers has gone unheard," because "powerful forces with-
and mercy are closer to the heart of the faith than human works,
in and without the Church of Rome (have) mounted a conspiracy
in which alone, as Luther and the Council of Trent taught, we do
of silence against it." Even granting that three weeks are enough
not find our salvation. Human works, as John Paul II himself
time to decide how to assimilate such a complex document, Mr.
taught in Redemptor Hominis, are deepened by the gift structures
Martin went on to announce that both Leo XIII and Pius XI
of revelation. (#16-17) At the end of Laborem Exercens, John
had been "reversed" by John Paul II, who has now "severed
Paul II recalled this basic distinction: "Earthly progress must be
the economic chain that has shackled Christendom to capitalism
carefully distinguished from the growth of Christ's Kingdom.
since capitalism was born in the West." Indeed, for Malachi Mar-
Nevertheless, to the extent that the former can contribute to
tin, John Paul II seemed to be someone fresh out of the Sixth
the better ordering of human society, it is of vital concern to
Century, since the Pope sees "the work of human beings in its
the Kingdom of God." (#27) Salvation comes to this race of
relationship with God and society through the lens that has not
men individually, so that there is no necessary reason why God's
been used for 1500 years." There is even more: for John Paul
gifts cannot rebound in society, even making it more itself.
II's vision is neither capitalist nor socialist but "anticipates man
(#25) Faith has its own sources and motives for action in the
in a society that has never been."⁴ Needless to say, if we sus-
world and does not need to imitate or subsume modern ideolo-
pect the Holy Father's thought is something from either the
gies to explain itself, as John Paul II taught also at Puebla. (III,
Dark Ages or Never-Never Land, we may well rejoice over
2-7) In Laborem Exercens, John Paul II tried to place the
"mounting a campaign of silence against it."
notion of human work in a larger context than that in which it
is normally conceived. At the same time, he wished to concen-
1. Time, September 28, 1981.
2. Washington Post, September 16, 1981.
5. New York Times, September 16, 1981.
3. National Catholic Register, October 18, 1981.
6. Catholic Standard, September 24, 1981.
4. Fairfax (Virginia) Journal, October 9, 1981.
7. National Review, October 16, 1981.
20
Papal Economics
James V. Schall
21
trate on work, its nature and its limits. He based his approach
any activity by man, whether manual or intellectual, whatever
upon Genesis, on the idea that man is to subdue the earth, that
its nature or circumstance (Introduction; cf. #9) This
toil and effort are a part of work's reality. The Pope did not
procedure has the advantage of "equalizing," as it were, all men
attempt to show the relation between the "increasing and
and women before God proportionately in "what" they do,
multiplying" part of Genesis and the "subduing the earth,"
whether king or pauper. The pursuit of each worldly vocation,
however much the possibility of one depends reflexively on the
then, at its innermost personal level as well as in the activity in
other. To exhaust the notion of work is not to exhaust the
itself, yields a proper dignity and eternal reward. This, of course,
whole metaphysical range of reality, certainly, but work is an
is not intended to deny that we can choose evil even in our
avenue by which we can begin to look at the whole.
works, but it serves to remind us that works are not somehow
"separate" from us, the error John Paul II saw in the classical
The Person as Center
liberals. (#13) This is not unrelated to Luther's denial of a spe-
cial privilege to the clerical vocation, a denial that emphasizes
The main thesis of Laborem Exercens is founded upon a
the worth of each human "work."
theme-first explicitly stated, I believe, by Pius XII, though
On the "objective" side, the Pope seemed to grant that the
substantially always basic to Christian teaching-that the human
results of work could be distinguished according to its varying
person is the center, purpose, and end of human society and
values, so that the "product" of a scholar would be different
economic activity.⁸ We should not miss the deep metaphysical
from that of a carpenter who made a chair. (#8) Even here,
import of this point, since it goes to the heart of the Thomism
however, the Pope has refused to separate the technical, artistic,
characteristic of this Pope's thinking: namely, that "societies,"
or technological products of human labor in such a way that
or "classes," or "nations," or "states," or "unions," or "corpo-
their "existence" becomes unrelated to the labor that pro-
rations," or any other organizations or rational unities, do not
duced them or that uses them.
transcend or absorb into themselves the human person in his
religious destiny, which is alone what reaches God, for whom
All the means of production, from the most primi-
each person is specifically created.⁹ By insisting that all these
tive to the ultra-modern ones-it is man that has grad-
relations which flow from the activity of human work be
ually developed them: man's experience and intellect.
grounded in the human person, the Pope takes a most crucial
In this way there have appeared not only the simplest
philosophic step to prevent any abstraction or ideological con-
instruments for cultivating the earth, but also through
struct from gaining a sort of higher 'being' over the human per-
adequate progress in science and technology the more
son in his concrete existence.
modern and complex ones: machines, factories, lab-
The first step the Pope took, then, to be sure no ungrounded
oratories and computers. Thus everything that is at
abstract realities could claim directive authority over the truth
the service of work, everything that in the present
in persons, was to distinguish between work "objectively," in
state of technology constitutes its ever more highly
what is done, and "subjectively," in who does the work. Speak-
perfected "instrument," is the result of work. (#12,
ing in this latter sense, he then identified anything that any
cf. also #13.)
human being does, from housewife to thinker, from industrial
worker to farmer and teacher, as "work." "And work means
This does not as such treat the question of ownership, which
Laborem Exercens discusses in the context of a reaffirmation
and statement of private ownership (#14), but it does seem to
8. Cf. John XXIII, Mater et Magistra, #219.
9. Cf. Redemptor Hominis, #8 and #13. Also the two addresses of John Paul
prevent any radical alienation of man from his own activity,
II on St. Thomas, in The Whole Truth About Man: John Paul II to University Facul-
which so concerned Marx.
ties and Students. J. Schall, ed. Boston, St. Paul Editions, 1981.
If we compare the very incisive and profound reflections of
22
Papal Economics
James V. Schall
23
contemporary philosophers such as Yves Simon, Josef Pieper,
(#19) Work is to be rewarded either in private or socialized
and Hannah Arendt regarding the nature of "work," we see that
systems according to the objective work done, that is, "a just
there can be serious confusions caused by the Pope's expansive
remuneration of the work done." This is to be accomplished
usage of the word "work," so that it comes to cover any sort
through the "wage system." Yet, there was no discussion about
of human activity. Josef Pieper especially was most concerned
how this is to be determined on the basis of the work itself.
that the strict notion of "work" ought not to be equated with
The fact that the subjective worth of the individual's work is,
liberal or contemplative activities of man. Indeed, Pieper's
in a sense, infinite because of the person, does not give us any
Leisure: the Basis of Culture, is a careful warning of the danger
true estimate of the exchange value of the work product. Not
of identifying "work" with "intellectual activity." There can be
even the various "rights" of the worker decide this in the
no doubt of a totalitarian danger in so identifying man with
abstract. Perhaps the solution lies in another remark of the Pope
"work" that there is no place for any contemplative or revela-
that "the first principle of the whole ethical and social order is
tional "openness" to his intelligence from God or nature, some-
in the principle of the common use of goods." (#19) Thus, the
thing the Pope takes care to clarify in other works. The classical
goods workers need for themselves and their families become
distinctions between contemplation and action, making and
available to them through "the wage which (they) receive in
doing, work and labor, art and politics, of which Hannah Arendt
remuneration for (their) work." (#19) This "just wage" is said
wrote in the Human Condition and the Life of the Mind, are
to verify "the justice of the whole socio-economic system."
also difficult to distinguish in the Pope's treatment of "work."
Presumably, in so identifying work with all man's activities,
even intellectual and artistic ones, the Holy Father did not in-
The Missing Marketplace
tend to reverse his own Thomistic background, which would
What is paradoxical about these remarkable observations on
carefully distinguish, in Pieper's sense, the qualitatively differ-
wages and work is the lack of any explicit reference to the mar-
ent kinds of activity proceeding out of the human person, in
ket as the immediate means by which goods produced finally
which "work" would not be the highest or most important.
reach the concrete people who need them, through the payment
Moreover, in broadly identifying "work" with every activity
of a price. Just wages cannot be conceived by command nor in
of a person, the Holy Father did not deal in any precise fashion
some abstract calculation, nor can they be conceived apart from
(as Michael Novak also noted) with those factors of economic
some estimate of just prices, some sense of risk and competi-
life that more particularly contribute to subduing the earth for
tion. And just prices in a way look to the worker not so much
man's purpose. To be sure, the Pope re-emphasized that the
as worker but as consumer. Yves Simon had suggested in his
individual persons want to be self-reliant and to be assured that
Philosophy of Democratic Government that, for the most part,
their "obligation to work" also enables them "to know that in
the just price is most nearly calculated by its market price, a dis-
-
(their) work, even on something owned in common, (they) are
cussion itself arising from medieval and early modern Christian
working for themselves." (#15) There is a remarkable empha-
social thought. Thus, wages themselves-which, as the Pope ad-
sis on private property in this document, evidently echoing the
mits, must be in relation to general business prosperity, some-
recent experience with public bureaucracies. Actually, the
thing that takes into consideration what he called direct and
emphasis on a worker's interest in working for himself is not
indirect employment (#17)-must have a relation to the pro-
far from the classical economists' notion of "self-interest,"
ductive-distributive system by which in practice we freely delib-
purged perhaps of some of its extremes.
erate about what goods and services are produced and on which
Furthermore, the Pope, in light of the general topics treated
ones we shall spend our wages. The encyclical, too, never goes
in any complete economic analysis, made two observations that
into the related question of a reasonable profit as a reward for
he did not fully explain. The first was that "the key problem of
a new idea, product, process, or service made available to the
social
ethics. .is that of just remuneration of work done
common good. In the encyclical itself, the word "profit" is
24
Papal Economics
James V. Schall
25
always used with the adjectives "excess" or "inordinate" in rela-
spond to few if any 20th century manifestations in which these
tion to a strict interpretation of classical economic theory. (#11)
extremes are radically modified precisely to answer the objec-
Just profit, as something earned by the "work" of thought or sac-
tions of classical theory. As a result, unfortunately, there is no
rifice or hard work, is not discussed. Legitimate profit, with the
accurate description of existing economic systems, their limits
loss to the economy and the workers when it is not present, is
and controls, nor of their accomplishments in terms of freedom,
the other side of the relation between just price and just wage.
justice, productivity, and efficiency. There is, however, a grow-
It is in a sense directly related to the idea of creativity, which
ing awareness of the drawbacks to state controlled development
comes to be so central to this insightful document.
and distribution, even though the encyclical recognizes the need
Thus, a further basic aspect of economic growth, upon which
for a strong, moral state. (#18)
jobs and worker wages depend, is the direct human "work"
aspect most clearly stressed by the Pope: that which relates
Therefore, while the position of "rigid" capitalism
"creation" to "work," on its human side. Homo faber, man
must undergo continual revision in order to be re-
the maker, is in a sense man the creator-a secondary creator,
formed from the point of view of human rights, both
to be sure, but still someone who puts new things into the
human rights in the widest sense and those linked
world in response to human needs and, even more, in response
with man's work, it must be stated that from the
to human dreams. This is, of course, familiar to us under the
same point of view these many deeply desired re-
terms of innovation or entrepreneurship. It is something more
forms cannot be achieved by an a priori elimination
than the cycle of wage-price-market-profit. The closest the Pope
of private ownership of the means of production. For
comes to speaking of it is under the phrase "the virtue of indus-
it must be noted that merely taking these means of
triousness" (#9), though presumably one could be industrious
production (capital) out of the hands of their private
but not creative. All through the encyclical, there are indica-
owners is not enough to ensure their satisfactory
tions of awareness of invention and innovation, especially in
socialization. They cease to be the property of a cer-
retrospect, when John Paul is looking at what modern produc-
tain social group, namely the private owners, and
tive economy has produced. (#12, #18) What perhaps needs
become the property of organized society, coming
more clarification is the close connection between the effective,
under the administration and direct control of another
just economy, and the human capacity for "newness," as Han-
group of people, namely those who, though not own-
nah Arendt called it: human creativity, productive growth, self-
ing them, from the fact of exercising power in society
development, profit, and wage-price. This combination is what
manage them on the level of the whole national or
results in the better and new jobs that the Pope argues we need
the local economy.
for every worker throughout the world.
This group in authority may carry out its task satis-
The entire discussion of "capitalism" in the encyclical studi-
factorily from the point of view of the priority of
ously avoided any adequate examination of 18th and 19th cen-
labor, but it may also carry it out badly by claiming
tury economic history. In spite of the admitted horror stories,
for itself a monopoly of the administration and dis-
such a study would ask why, as the last century progressed, the
posal of the means of production and not refraining
workers in fact grew richer. This is still the greatest intellectual
even from offending basic human rights. Thus, merely
enigma in any socialist theory, one by no means solved by the
converting the means of production into state prop-
Leninist theory of "imperialism." Capitalism is almost always
erty in the collectivist systems is by no means equiva-
explained in its extreme theoretic form, which would corre-
lent to "socializing" that property. We can speak of
socializing only when the subject character of society
10. See Capitalism and the Historians, edited with an introduction by F.A. Hayek;
is ensured, that is to say, when on the basis of his
Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1954. Also Paul Johnson, Will Capitalism Sur-
vive? Washington, Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1979.
work each person is fully entitled to consider himself
26
Papal Economics
James V. Schall
27
a part owner of the great workbench at which he is
the material well-being for the developed countries.
working with everyone else. A way toward that goal
And they can also bring relief and hope to the mil-
could be found by associating labor with the owner-
lions who today live in the conditions of shameful
ship of capital, as far as possible, and by producing a
and unworthy poverty.
wide range of intermediate bodies with economic,
social and cultural purposes; they would be bodies
enjoying real autonomy with regard to the public
Prospective Answers
powers, pursuing their specific aims in honest collab-
Aside from the somewhat static thesis sometimes implied
oration with each other and in subordination to the
here, which sees wealth mainly as sharing what already exists
demands of the common good.
(#14)
instead of creating something more, I think it can be argued
that all of these things the Pope desires are in fact taking place.
There is considerable evidence that many of these goals
Anyone familiar with the work of Norman Macrae, Peter Druck-
already exist in modern democratic economic systems in pro-
er, Willard Beckermann, Paul Johnson, and others who stress
ductive economies. Several authors are beginning to suggest too
both the productive side of the world economy and the way
that many of these basic institutions and economic motives do
jobs are being exported to the Third World, because of innova-
arise from a philosophical insight into creativity, largely inspired
tion and growth, will suspect that the ideals of the Pope are
by the Judaeo-Christian tradition.
being widely discussed in other settings, in a context of entre-
The encyclical also speaks of rights to jobs (#18), leaving
preneurship, capital transfers, competition, intermediate eco-
aside again, perhaps because of lack of attention to innovation
nomic structures, adequate reward, and concern for the poorest.
and creativity in this regard, the question of how jobs are cre-
There are several aspects of this most stimulating document
ated, what social, political, and religious attitudes are necessary
that might be reflected about, such as the re-stressing of the
to cause economic growth. 11 P.T. Bauer, I think, has made it
idea of the living family wage that occurred in earlier papal
quite clear that the major causes of failure to develop are religi-
documents, the question of "corporation" related to the idea of
ous or attitudinal or cultural ones, so that the principal contri-
unions, the lack of attention to the question of actual success or
bution of religion to the goal of more jobs, more attention to
failure of states in terms of their performance, and the question of
the poor, would be to emphasize those ideas of creativity, risk,
the real nature of a modern corporation. None the less, the spiritu-
accountability, savings, and service that are within religion's
ality of work, how man comes closer to God by working and
own tradition. At the beginning of Laborem Exercens, there is
therefore making his life and those of others more complete,
the following statement about what the Pope would like to see
these are certainly valuable contributions of John Paul II. The
happening to the national and world economy:
relation of divine and human creativity to growth in economic
and cultural experience, the difference between "materialism"
These new conditions and demands will require a
and a healthy Incarnationalism which understands the value of
reordering and adjustment of the structures of the
matter, the reminder that work is also related to suffering and
modern economy and of the distribution of work.
sacrifice, are also important themes. 12 "Only man is capable of
Unfortunately, for millions of skilled workers, these
work, and only man works, at the same time by work occupy-
changes may perhaps mean unemployment, at least
ing his existence on earth." (#1) Thus, work as the Pope sees it
for a time, or the need for retraining. They will very
becomes a particular mark of man and of his uniqueness. It is
probably involve a reduction or less rapid increase in
the mark of a person operating within a community of persons,
11. "Where Will the Jobs Come From?" The Economist, January 3, 1981.
12. Cf. S. Jaki, The Road of Science and the Way to God; Chicago, University
of Chicago Press, 1978.
28
Papal Economics
persons for whom their bodies, the earth are normal parts of
life. Karol Wojtyla, the philosopher of the "acting person," has
thus begun to spell out how this activity reaches our creative
Interpreting Laborem Exercens
endeavors to subdue the earth as a sign of the dignity of human
PROFESSOR WILLIAM A. STANMEYER
life.
The uniqueness of this Encyclical, in my opinion, is that it
betrays all the marks of a document open finally to a complete
It is indeed a privilege to join this company of scholars, many
understanding in papal thought of the innovative, productive
nature of an economy directed to and by human persons. Cre-
of whom I have known as personal friends for some years, in
meditating on Pope John Paul II's new encyclical, Laborem
ativity is indeed the right word.
Exercens, "On Human Work." I am fortunate that the luck of
the draw, or the whim of the Chairman, positioned my remarks
after those of Drs. Dougherty and Ryn and Father Schall, be-
cause I have profited by their insights and may be more able to
avoid saying too much or too little about a given theme in this
essay.
For a five-year period concluding in 1968, I had the privilege
of teaching social philosophy to undergraduates; and during
much of that time I taught a course expressly titled "Papal
Social Encyclicals." We studied and augmented with outside
readings the encyclicals: Rerum Novarum and Quadragesimo
Anno; the one on Atheistic Communism and the one on Chris-
tian Education of Youth; and the last two of this genre, Mater
et Magistra and Pacem in Terris.
I was struck at the time by the ease with which various ideo-
logically motivated groups could pick and choose a phrase here,
a passage there, to prove their pre-conceived positions. For
example, because Pope John XXIII used a word which was
usually translated as "socialization," those who would draft the
Pope into their own ideological army claimed he had endorsed
Socialism. Conveniently overlooked were passages (such as
#53) stressing the priority of the individual person or the
importance of decentralizing society's decision-making through
adherence to the principle of subsidiarity; and the original Latin
text, which used the words socialium rationum incrementa,
which is better translated "increase in social relations and social
organizations" rather than the misleading "socialization."
I have a hunch that Laborem Exercens may have to endure
the same treatment. The attempt to forestall such a fate is pre-
sumably one of the purposes of this symposium. With that goal
in mind, I turn to the first major point.
30
Papal Economics
Professor William A. Stanmeyer
31
The Spiritual Nature of Work
.An inner effort on the part of the human spirit,
guided by faith, hope, and charity. [so that] the
In dealing with any statement by the present Pope, we must
work of the individual human being may be given the
remember that this is a man who is very much a practical philos-
meaning which it has in the eyes of God and by means
opher. He is to the fields of philosophy and theology what most
of which work enters into the salvation process.
of our nation's Founding Fathers were to the fields of law and
(#24)
government. He combines a concrete and "existential" grasp of
particulars with a remarkable ability to generalize and abstract-
Thus John Paul's view of labor is part of his broader view of
a natural, though rare, combination-fitting for a man who him-
man, the universe, and God-and anyone who attempts to take
self has been a manual worker and, later, a writer of a theologi-
a passage here or a point there to grind some a priori axe of his
cal doctoral dissertation on "The Problem of Faith in Saint
own should, if he is honest, publicly admit or reject the tradi-
John of the Cross."
tional Christian understanding of the Fall and Redemption and
Therefore it is with some hesitation that one begins the task
ultimate transtemporal destiny of man in Christ. If he accepts
of analyzing the Pope's thought. Though the encyclical is long
these teachings, they give a definitive gloss to the words' mean-
and, to a cursory reader, somewhat repetitious, it does have
ing. If he rejects these teachings, he is hypocritical in claiming
some profound insights to which, one fears, he may not do jus-
the words while casting aside their inner spirit and life.
tice without greater analysis and reflective commentary from
others. The basic point about the spiritual nature of work is an
The Role of Women
illustration. One suspects that those generals in the ideological
wars will try to draft the Pope into their army without admit-
In the section titled "Work and Personal Dignity," the Pope
ting that his spirituality makes him very much a conscientious
mentions that toil
objector in the attacks by materialism against the remnant of
Christian principle still animating the corpse that once was
is familiar to women, who sometimes without proper
Western Civilization.
recognition on the part of society and even of their
The Pope seeks to prevent this distortion of his teaching at
own families bear the daily burden and responsibility
the outset, by basing his argument on the Book of Genesis: the
for their homes and the upbringing of their children.
fact that God created this universe, that we work "to subdue,
(#9)
to dominate the earth" and to reflect "the very action of the
creator of the universe." (#4) The reason this is important to
and later he makes some statements which will not endear him
man is, in the words of the Pope, the fact that:
to the feminists:
.as the 'image of God' he is a person, that is to
Experience confirms that there must be a social re-eval-
say, a subjective being capable of acting in a planned
uation of the mother's role, of the toil connected with
and rational way, capable of deciding about himself,
it and of the need that children have of care, love and
and with a tendency to self-realization. (#6)
affection in order that they may develop into responsi-
ble, morally and religiously mature and psychologically
He stresses the point of God's hand throughout the Encyclical;
stable persons. It will redound to the credit of society
thus, "At the beginning of man's work is the mystery of crea-
to make it possible for a mother-without inhibiting
tion." (#12) For the Pope, work is always tied up with the
her freedom, without psychological or practical
transcendent and eschatological goal of man; he states that
discrimination, and without penalizing her as com-
there needs to be:
pared with other women-to devote herself to taking
32
Papal Economics
Professor William A. Stanmeyer
33
care of her children and educating them in accord-
husband might deposit into a retirement fund for his home-
ance with their needs. Having to abandon these
maker-wife, a fund she would have if she left her children with
tasks in order to take up paid work outside the home
the babysitter and worked for a company as a junior executive.
is wrong from the point of the good of society and
I see potential support, in the Pope's words about not "penaliz-
of the family when it contradicts or hinders these pri-
ing her as compared with other women," for such provisions
mary goals of the mission of a mother. (#19. Empha-
in the Family Protection Act now before the U.S. Senate-but
sis added)
I fear the generality of his comments will strip them of their
practical impact.
A paragraph later he re-affirms the traditional view that men
and women have different, complementary callings:
Utter Rejection of Marxism
But it is fitting that they should be able to fulfill their
The Pope rejects the "Economism and Materialism" of the
tasks in accordance with their own nature, without
Marxists (#13). Indeed, he rejects the theoretical infrastructure,
being discriminated against and without being exclud-
if one may so call it, of the Marxist thesis: the antithetical clash
ed from jobs for which they are capable, but also
between capital and labor. He asserts without equivocation:
without lack of respect for their family aspirations
and for their specific role .The true advancement of
that capital cannot be separated from labor; in no
women requires that labor should be structured in
way can labor be opposed to capital or capital to
labor, and still less can the actual people behind these
such a way that women do not have to pay for their
advancement by abandoning what is specific to them
concepts be opposed to each other
and at the expense of the family, in which women as
Opposition between labor and capital does not
mothers have an irreplaceable role. (#20. Emphasis
spring from the structure of the production process
added)
or from the structure of the economic process.
Phrases such as "primary goals of the mission of a mother"
Later in the same section (13) he insists on "the primacy of the
and "tasks in accordance with their own nature. .their specific
person over things":
role.
what is specific to them
the
family,
in
which
women
as mothers have an irreplaceable role" embody positions that
The break occurred in such a way that labor was sepa-
the modern sophisticated world, with its plans for "day-care
rated from capital and set in opposition to it, and
centers" and working wives, rejects. The Pope reiterates elemen-
capital was set in opposition to labor, as though they
tal truths, though one wishes he had spelled out the rationale
were two impersonal forces, two production factors
for his position more fully: the fact, for instance, that many
juxtaposed in the same "economistic" perspective.
psychologists have discovered the importance of "bonding" by
This way of stating the issue contained a fundamen-
tal error. the error of economism .an error of
a young child with a permanently present and loving adult-
materialism
usually the mother-for that child's healthy psychological
growth; and one wishes that he had spelled out its consequences
more completely: the fact, for instance, that the tax codes of
A moment later he removes any doubt about the application of
various nations, including I would say the United States, need
this analysis to Communism:
revision to encourage married women to remain with their chil-
.it is obvious that materialism, including its dialec-
dren rather than pursue an alternative "career." We could do
this, for example, by permitting tax credits for funds the
tical form, is incapable of providing sufficient and
34
Papal Economics
Professor William A. Stanmeyer
35
definitive bases for thinking about human work.
.In
To me, this is simply a clear-headed comment by a man who has
dialectical materialism too man is not first and fore-
either carefully meditated on Milovan Djilas's book, The New
most the subject of work. .but continues to be
Class; or spent a long time living in a country like Poland, or both.
understood and treated. .as a kind of "resultant" of
production relations prevailing.
An Alternative to Marxism and Capitalist Individualism
Nor does the Holy Father lend his support to various forms
The Papal social encyclicals have consistently sought a via
of Western socialism, with their crusades to "nationalize" the
media between liberal capitalism and Marxist/Fabian socialism.
means of production and thereby, in an abstract sense, to
Pope John Paul continues in the same direction as Leo XIII and
"make social" the ownership and control of property. While
Pius XI: He condemns general government collectivization and
condemning, as had his predecessors, "rigid" capitalism" (#14)
centralization, as had Leo in Rerum Novarum (#7-24): e.g.,
and while reiterating the Church's position that there is a "uni-
versal destination of goods and the right to common use of
.the fundamental principle of Socialism which
them," he points out that
would make all possessions public property is to be
utterly rejected because it injures the very ones whom
many deeply desired reforms cannot be achieved by
it seeks to help, contravenes the natural rights of indi-
an a priori elimination of private ownership of the
vidual persons, and throws the functions of the State
means of production.
and public peace into confusion. Let it be regarded,
therefore, as established that in seeking help for the
The reason is that the Socialist Appropriators who replace the
masses this principle before all is to be considered as
Capitalist Exploiters amount to only one more "ruling class"
basic, namely, that private ownership must be pre-
likely to commit the same anti-personalist sins in the name of
served inviolate. (#24)
social government as did the private enterpreneurs they replaced:
And as had Pius XI:
For it must be noted that merely taking these means
of production. .out of the hands of their private
We make this pronouncement: Whether considered as
owners is not enough to ensure their satisfactory
a doctrine, or an historical fact, or a movement,
socialization. They cease to be the property of a cer-
Socialism, if it remains truly Socialism .cannot be
tain social group, namely the private owners, and
reconciled with the teachings of the Catholic Church
become the property of organized society, coming
because its concept of society itself is utterly foreign
under the administration and direct control of another
as to Christian truth. (Quad. Anno, #117)
group of people
If Socialism, like all errors, contains some truth
This group in authority may carry out its work
.it is based nevertheless on a theory of human
satisfactorily from the point of view of the priority
society peculiar to itself and irreconcilable with true
of labor; but it may also carry it out badly by claim-
Christianity. Religious socialism, Christian socialism,
ing for itself a monopoly of the administration and
are contradictory terms; no one can be at the same
disposal of the means of production and not refrain-
time a good Catholic and a true Socialist. (Quad.
ing even from offending basic human rights. Thus,
Anno, #120)
merely converting the means of production into
state property in the collectivist systems is by no
Without perhaps the ringing rhetoric of his predecessors, John
means equivalent to "socializing" that property.
Paul continues this tradition.
36
Papal Economics
Professor William A. Stanmeyer
37
And as had his predecessors, he rejects laissez faire capitalism.
Some Weaknesses
He declares (#14) that the "exclusive right to private ownership
of the means of production" is not "an untouchable 'dogma' of
I turn now to what strike me as some weaknesses in the ency-
economic life." Rather, "The principle of respect for work de-
clical, due perhaps to the Pope's recognition of the misuse his
mands that this right should undergo a constructive revision
enemies in Poland might make of his words or perhaps to the
both in theory and in practice."
failure of some of his advisors to recall the twisting some phrases
He then illustrates with possible "adaptations of the sphere
in Mater et Magistra and Pacem in Terris were given. make
of the right to ownership of the means of production":
these comments with some hesitance, considering the eminence
of the writer compared with the commentator; still, an honest
proposals for joint ownership of the means of work,
reviewer must mention what seems more bitter than sweet.
sharing by the workers in the management and/or prof-
First, I notice the absence of explicit reiteration of the prin-
its of businesses, so-called shareholding by labor, etc.
ciple of subsidiarity. That principle had been a keystone of the
earlier social encyclicals. Briefly, it teaches that "larger" or
He urges that
"higher" social and governmental groups are "subsidiary" to the
primal units, the individual and the family; and that one should
A way toward the goal [of considering oneself a part
transfer an essential task to these "higher" groups only after
owner] could be found by associating labor with the
giving the "next higher" group or unit the first opportunity to
ownership of capital, as far as possible, and by pro-
"solve" or deal with the task; that one goes up through a hier-
ducing a wide range of intermediate bodies with eco-
archy and always tries, as soon as possible, to transfer the task
nomic, social, and cultural purposes.
back "down" to the primal unit. Concretely, education of chil-
dren is a task for the family, then for private groups and associa-
Here again the reader fears the Pope's words may be misap-
tions (including, but not limited to, churches), neighborhoods,
plied by those who do not realize how far, in some ways, indus-
cities, states, and nation-in that order. Thus, caring for the
trialized nations like the United States have gone to implement,
elderly and infirm is a task for the family, then for private
in a practical way, such ideas. For example: Sears has long had
groups and associations, and so on. Subsidiarity is a key to the
a "profit-sharing" program for its employees; more recently
Pope's "personalist" social philosophy, because it combines
companies have begun paying their employees in stock; to sup-
power, authority, and responsibility as close as possible to the
plement their regular wages; and the rapid growth of ESOPs-
problem: namely, in the individual and the primary group, the
Employee Stock Ownership Plans-in the last couple of years sug-
family.
gests that we are on the brink of perhaps wholesale adoption of
There is no doubt that Pope John Paul agrees with this. He
some of the Pope's general suggestions on widening worker
stresses the lineal continuity of his words with his predecessors.
ownership of the means of production. Finally, as the Pope
He stresses the importance of the family. He condemns any
points
out,
"
the justice of a socioeconomic system
.de-
"system of excessive bureaucratic centralization" (#15) and the
serves. to be evaluated by the way in which man's work is
mere transfer of ownership to the state. Indeed, he strongly sug-
properly remunerated .In every case, a just wage is the con-
gests the point in the sentence immediately following the last
crete means of verifying the justice of the whole socioeconomic
words quoted:
system
In America, wages are generally far higher, com-
pared to the return in terms of productivity that the worker
associating labor with the ownership of capital.
.and
gives to his employer, than they are in such nations as Japan
producing a wide range of intermediate bodies with
and West Germany-another reason to reject any claim that
economic, social, and cultural purposes, they would
the Pope is condemning American "welfare capitalism."
be bodies enjoying real autonomy with regard to the
38
Papal Economics
Professor William A. Stanmeyer
39
public powers, pursing their specific aims in honest
useful or helpful to meet society's real needs for goods and ser-
collaboration with each other and in subordination
vices. With the advent of the automobile, many carriage- and
to the demands of the common good, and they would
harness-makers became unemployed; but it would not have
be living communities both in form and in substance
served the health of society for the government, say, to subsi-
in the sense that the members of each body would be
dize the harness-making industry to keep them in their jobs. I
looked upon and treated as persons and encouraged
believe that when the Pope says unemployment "in all cases is
to take an active part in the life of the body (#14-15).
an evil," one must distinguish: it is an economic evil if it is per-
manent and wide-spread and not the fault of the worker (whose
I am reminded here of the medieval Guilds, of the writings of
pride, in some cases, insists on a high-paid job or none at all, as
Robert Nisbet in such books as Community and Power (some-
in the case of the P.A.T.C.O. employees who are now out of
times titled, The Quest for Community), and of recent thoughts
work), but it may sometimes be a moral good for him-forcing
by Michael Novak on "intermediating groups." I also suggest
him to reassess his proper role and seek more diligently to find
that the "real autonomy" the Pope urges for these groups
a truly productive job. If they are not general and systemic,
makes sense only if the principle of subsidiarity is honored:
pockets of temporary and episodic unemployment can some-
that is, only if they have something to do and the state permits
times be an economic good for society: if the unemployment
them to do it. Thus there is no doubt that the Pope supports
derived, for instance, from the bankruptcy and dissolution of
the principle, though leaving it to inference.
companies simply not meeting the real needs of the changing
Second, he introduces the concept of the "Indirect Employ-
society. Indeed, it is only through temporary unemployment
er" (#17) an idea which contains considerable potential for
that laborers, skilled and unskilled, become available to move
misunderstanding. For he applies it "to every society and in the
to businesses being formed or expanding. Without transitional
first place to the State." I think more is lost than gained, in clar-
unemployment, the labor force could not move from a dying
ity of thought, when one suggests that the State is the employer
industry to a growing one. Where, for example, would the bur-
of us all-even indirectly. What the Pope means, it appears, is
geoning computer industry or solar heat industry obtain work-
that the state creates the context and the conditions of employ-
ers and technicians except largely from prior employment in
ment and thus the justice of its socio-economic rules, exactions,
technical jobs no longer economically desirable? Thus the
and arrangements is a factor in realizing the humanization of
Pope's words on unemployment leave something to be desired,
work and the just rights of labor.
especially since they will surely be co-opted by the ideological
Third, the Pope has some thoughts on unemployment (#18)
crusaders who want government to be "the employer of last
which do not do justice to the problem in an industrialized
resort," something it cannot do, because it really does not have
nation such as the United States. First of all, his words may be
the money to pay them; and it does not produce anything of
read to suggest that the mere fact of unemployment is in itself
serious value for society.
"the opposite of a just and right situation." This is somewhat
oversimplified. In a mobile society with seasonal adjustments,
with many bankruptcies removing employers from economic
Unemployment and Inflation
activity even as the creation of numerous new companies and
A footnote: the Pope's comments about the unemployment
businesses adds to the employment market, there is certain to
of young people also are insufficient. In the United States a
be an unemployment rate of 4 to 7 percent most of the time.
sizeable number of unemployed teenagers are without a job be-
Employment is related to productivity, and over the long
cause of the minimum wage and other government rules, which
haul it is better for an unproductive worker to be out of a job
price low-skilled labor out of its market, giving the potential
for a time-perhaps while he goes to school to be retrained-
employer incentives to cut his work force and even to auto-
than to continue paying him for a job in which he does nothing
mate, where he can, to avoid the frustrations-and costs-of
40
Papal Economics
Professor William A. Stanmeyer
41
dealing with unreliable and overly mobile, yet high-priced, train-
because it fails to admit the true nature of man. It reiterates the
ees. In light of many studies over the last 20 years (e.g., those of
need for moderation in this area; as for example, its point (#20)
black economists Thomas Sowell and Walter Williams), there is
that "a strike remains. .an extreme means," and the last resort;
no doubt that teenage and young-adult unemployment in the
and that "when essential community services are in question"
United States is due primarily to the political distortions intro-
there can be no "right to strike." It insists, rightly, that we have
duced into the economic labor market by a well meaning but
a human nature which, in essentials, will not change-and thus
naive federal government seeking to legislate a wage that is dis-
women's distinctive role is the upbringing of children. But most
proportionately high compared with what these young would-
of all it reminds us that the value of work is not what is pro-
be workers might produce.
duced externally, but the inner spiritualization of the person
Finally, the encyclical is silent about inflation, which robs all
who works, and thus that even menial and hidden labor, if done
laborers, manual and intellectual, of the fruit of their toil. In
"in and through Christ" is of great value. Thus I say, if any
the Pope's theory, the public authority-ultimately, the national
Marxist seeks to co-opt the Pope in this Letter, let us first ask
government-is responsible for the conditions requisite to pro-
him to answer the ultimate question for mankind the last 2,000
mote the common good. Yet in the United States and many
years: "What think ye of Jesus Christ?"
other industrialized countries the main cause of inflation is: the
national government. Thus the public authority, charged with
the duty to protect its citizens, also robs them-by creating fiat
currency, debasing the money already in circulation; and by
borrowing enormous sums so that it can spend more than its
tax revenues, thus pushing interest rates so high that all workers
are damaged. For example, the construction workers in housing
are presently unemployed at twice the rate of the general popu-
lation; and only the rich can afford home mortgages-even while
the government obligates itself to pay exorbitant service-on-the-
debt (in the U.S., over $90 billion this year). Such a policy con-
tains considerable immorality: the theft of personal savings, the
destruction of habits of frugality and thrift, the deception
undergirding the government pretense of compassion which
masks its self-indulgent failure to control its own appetite for
spending, a mentality of greed and envy animating hundreds of
factions elbowing each other out of the way to get their slice
of someone else's pie, a collective prodigality that makes the
Prodigal Son of the Gospel look ascetic compared to our nation.
Like unemployment, inflation is a crushing burden for the
laborer and it deserved some attention in a Letter such as this.
Despite these strictures, this is an excellent document. It
blends a good deal of practical wisdom with the alpha and
omega of reality, the spiritual dimension. It reiterates the
Church's basic teachings that private enterprise is a good system,
though subject to abuse; and that Marxist totalitarianism is a
fraud, not only because of its economic failures but primarily
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by Milton R. Copulos (1978, $2.00)
Family Choice in Education: The New Imperative
"I gave particular attention to your analysis of the
by Onalee McGraw (1978, $1.00)
China and the Abrogation of Treaties
carrier controversy. I found it to be quite accurate
by Barry M. Goldwater (1978, $2.00)
and the most comprehensive analysis I've seen."
Closing the Nuclear Option: Scenarios for Societal Change
by Milton R. Copulos (1978, $2.00)
JAMES O. MAYO, RADM, USN, Retd.
Indexing the Inflationary Impact of Taxes: The Necessary Economic Reform
Military Affairs Editor, Kiplinger
by Donald J. Senese (1978, $2.00)
Secular Humanism and the Schools: The Issue Whose Time Has Come
LS6
by Onalee McGraw (1977, $1.00)
For a complete list of publications - to order any of the above-write:
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Dept. G, The Heritage Foundation, 513 C Street, N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002
Heritage Foundation. 513 C Street. N.E., Washington, D.C. 20002; (202) 546-4400. CABLE:
HERITAGE WASHDC: TELEX: 440235. Subscription rate $25/year.
The
Heritage
6
Lectures
With the publication of his encyclical On Human Work, Pope
John Paul II plunged into the debate about the value of labor,
and the proper approach to economic life in modern society.
Recognizing the importance of the Pope's ideas and the
reactions that they have elicited, The Heritage Foundation
brought several outstanding scholars together soon after the
publication of the encyclical, to discuss its meaning and its
implications. The results of that seminar provide a unique
insight into modern economic theory and its ethical dimen-
sions.
This seminar was co-sponsored by the School of Philosophy
and the Department of Politics at the Catholic University of
America.
The
Heritage Foundation
513 C Street, N.E.
Washington, D.C. 20002
$2.00