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Records of the Office of Speechwriting (Clinton Administration)
Joshua Gottheimer's Files
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State of the Union 1999 / Box 5 / Josh Gottheimer Files
Consultation memo binder
Internal facts binder
Roosevelt room reading session drafts
Real rejected articles
Folders for drafts 12, 13, 19 and 22
Josh Gottheimer Facts Folder
AMOODAOHJ
INCA
JL)H -15
Bumpers votes
%
1975 -
536
I
602
1976 -
600
608
1977 -
572
635
90
1978 -
444
I
516
86
1979 -
446
496
90
1980 -
467
531
88
1981 -
435
483
90
1982 -
437
I
465
94
1983 -
338
I
371
91
1984 -
248
1
275
90
1985 -
370
1
381
97
1986 -
340
354
96
1987 -
407
420
97
1988 -
352
379
93
1989 -
309
/
312
99
1990 -
319
1
326
98
1991 -
277
(
280
99
1992 -
262
1
270
97
1993 -
368
/
395
98
1994-
326
1
1
329
97
1995
-
545
1
613
97
1996 -
282 \ 306
92
1997 -
298 1 298
100
1998 -
(315
-It-ht
how many votes Cast
Elected 1974
19575- 5 14THT HTT IIII 1111
III LIII IIII 1111 ++++++
602 Eab I
- 66
1975
536
1976 - 688 rotes - 88 =
600
IIIT ( 111 IIII -111 ++++
411 IIII ++++ HII -++
III IIII IHI 1111 111
1977 - 90 % 635
572
1988 - 86020 0/516
ALY 444
1979 - 10% of 496
446
1950 - 8840 of 531
467
1981 - 90% s 483
435
1982 - 94% of 465
457
http://www.pub.whitehouse.gov/uri-..oma.eop.gov.us/I998/T0/14/6.tex.l
THE WHITE HOUSE
Office of the Press Secretary
For Immediate Release
October 11, 1998
REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT
DURING EDUCATION BUDGET NEGOTIATIONS
The Cabinet Room
1:00 P.M. EDT
THE PRESIDENT: In only 447 days, the 21st century begins, a century
in which the education of our nation's children will matter more than
ever before. Yet, far too many of our schools are not ready for that
new century. We've all seen the news stories about teachers teaching
classes in subjects they didn't major in in college, about schools SO
overcrowded they have trailers out back to handle the overflow, about
classrooms with 35 or more students all vying for a minute of attention
from the teachers, about schools so old they can't be connected to the
Internet.
This can be changed, but we cannot afford to wait. And we are waiting
for the Republican majority in Congress to bring this year's education
investment bill to the floor. The delay must end. on education,
Congress must choose progress over partisanship. We need a strong
bipartisan bill.
Just a few days ago I had the honor of signing into law such a bill to
open the doors wider to higher education. And in just the last two
days, Republicans and Democrats have worked together to pass strong
charter school and vocational education measures. And I'd like to
thank Senator Jefford, Senator Kennedy, Senator Coats, Congressmen
Goodling and Clay and Roemer for that. Now it's time once again for
Congress to cross party lines and send me an education budget that I
can sign that is worthy of our children and their future.
This bill must make the right investments in our children's future.
It must include a strong down payment on my request for 100,000
teachers for smaller classes in the early grades. It must invest in
academically enriched after-school and summer school programs to keep
kids in school and out of trouble. It must invest in modernized
schools for our children -- we cannot raise students up in buildings
that are falling down. Any budget that does not do anything to help
modernize our schools, to give our children safe and clean places to
learn does not fully prepare them for the 21st century.
Tomorrow night, the funding to keep the government open expires again.
Senator Daschle, Congressman Gephardt, the Democratic colleagues and I
will work with the Republican majority to do the right thing for our
country. We must pass a budget that is fiscally responsible, that
honors our values, that invests in the education of our children. That
is the most important thing we can do in this long running Congress.
Q Mr. President, the Republican leaders were saying this morning
that if you were serious about reaching this budget deal that you
would stay in Washington instead of going on to fundraisers tomorrow
and the following day.
THE PRESIDENT: Well, let me first of all say that in
the State of the Union in January, I sent a program to Congress to
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save the surplus until Social Security is fixed, to invest in
education as I just described, to pass a patients' bill of rights, to
keep our economy going amidst all this economic turmoil in the world.
In February, T sent them a balanced budget with the same education
program in it.
This is the first Congress in 24 years that did not pass
a budget -- in 24 years. Now, they have turned their attention to
this and we are making progress. And I worked on it yesterday, I am
prepared to do whatever it takes to work with them now that they have
turned their attention to this to get the job done. But in the end
it is their votes. We are aggressively working with them to resolve
this, but they have to decide that they will agree with us after this
whole year that it is a priority, that we are going to do it and that
we're going to do it now.
Ω Mr. President, will you sign another continuing
resolution if Congress passes one? Dick Armey said today that he
felt one was needed.
THE PRESIDENT: You mean for a couple days?
2 That's right.
THE PRESIDENT: Well, sure, we're not going to shut the
government down if we're working on this, of course. No one is
interested in doing that. I just want to get this job done.
CONGRESSMAN GEPHARDT: Mr. President, can I add an
answer? This Congress has been here probably less than most
Congresses, but what I'm worried about is not when they're not here.
What I'm worried about is when they are here -- they' ve killed
campaign reform, they ve killed the tobacco bill, they ve killed all
the education legislation the President has sent, they killed
patients' bill of rights; they tried to spend the surplus on a tax
cut, rather than saving it for Social Security.
They shouldn't be worried about whether the President is
here or not -- the President is here, the President sent the bills.
I'm worried about what they do when they are here. They kill
everything that the American people want. And that's what they' ve
got to get to work on, to do the things people want done.
O
Mr. President, you characterize this asma
do-nothing Congress. Do you think, with the results of the upcoming
election will it be a referendum on your presidency? You're going to
run against this Congress, do you think the election results will be
a referendum on your presidency?
THE PRESIDENT: Well, first of all, I'm not running.
But what I do intend to do is to bring the issues to the American
people. The American people will have to decide if they believe that
Social Security should be saved before this surplus is spent for
other things. The American people will have to decide whether they
really want a patients' bill of. rights that guarantees people in HMOs
the right to see a specialist or go to the nearest emergency room or
have their medical records private or finish a treatment for
chemotherapy or pregnancy before they can be forced to change
doctors.
These are the kinds of decisions the American people
have to make about what they want for their future. What I'd like to
see is this election to be about the American people and their
future, not about Washington, D.C. just as I think this last year
could have been and should have been about the people in America and
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not about Washington, D.C. That is the decision before them and I
trust them. I think they'll make the right decision.
END
1:06 P.M. EDT
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THE WHITE HOUSE
Office of the Press Secretary
(New York, New York)
For Immediate Release
October 12, 1998
REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT
AT THE G & P CHARITABLE FOUNDATION FOR CANCER RESEARCH
FIRST ANNUAL GALA BENEFIT
Sheraton New York Hotel and Towers
New York, New York
9:15 P.M. EDT
THE PRESIDENT: Thank you. Well, when I told Denise I would do this
for her in the memory of her daughter, I didn't know that an added bonus
was I would be introduced by Bill Cosby -- (applause) -- a man who -- T
mean, his net worth was 500 times mine before I met all those lawyers in
Washington. (Laughter and applause.) But I thank you, Bill. I thank
you and Camille for your friendship, the letters you sent me, the words
of wisdom in the last several months, and for being here tonight.
I want to thank my wonderful friend, Denise Rich, for SO many things,
but for remembering her daughter in this magnificent and far-sighted and
humane way. Hillary would like to have been here with me tonight, but
she is in Prague on a trip for our country. But we love you, Denise,
and we thank you for what you're doing. (Applause.)
I want to thank Les Moonves for his work in making this evening a
success. And I want to say I am delighted that you're honoring Milton
Berle. (Applause.) Thank you.
You know, when you're President, you can speak off the cuff a little
bit, but you have all these wonderful people who work for you and they
dig up interesting facts. Now, here are the facts they dug up for me to
say about Milton Berle. (Laughter.) Oh, no, it gets better. Sit down.
He's been in show business for 85 years. He's performed in drag more
than any other entertainer except the road show cast of La Cage Aux
Folles. (Laughter.) And, most important, he holds the Guinness Book of
World Records for the most charity benefit performances of any
entertainer in history. Thank you, Milton Berle. (Applause.)
I'd like to ask you to take just a couple of minutes to seriously
consider the purpose for which you have come tonight. Twenty-five years
ago, America declared war on cancer. Twenty-five years from now, I. hope
we will have won the war. I hope the war on cancer will have about as
much meaning to schoolchildren as the War of 1812. Twenty-five years
from now, I hope schoolchildren don't even know what the word
chemotherapy means.
The progress now being made against cancer is stunning. We are
closing in on the genetic causes of breast cancer, colon cancer and
prostate cancer; testing medicines actually to prevent these cancers.
New tools for screening and diagnosis are returning to many patients the
promise of a long and healthy life. From 1991 to 1995, cancer death
rates actually dropped for the first time in history.
For the last six years we have worked hard to fight this dreaded
disease, helping cancer patients to keep their health coverage when they
change jobs, accelerating the approval of cancer drugs while maintaining
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THE WHITE HOUSE
Office of the Press Secretary
For Immediate Release
October 31, 1998
RADIO ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT
TO THE NATION
Glen Forest Elementary School
Falls Church, Virginia
10:06 P.M. EST
THE PRESIDENT: Good morning. I'm speaking to you today from the Glen
Forest Elementary School in Falls Church, Virginia, where I'm joined by
students, parents and teachers to talk about a problem they understand
all too well: the urgent need in America for school construction. In
fact, I'm speaking to you from one of nine trailer classrooms that sit
outside the schoolhouse on what used to be a playground, because there's
simply not enough room inside for all the students. And the 10th
trailer goes up in a matter of days.
Falls Church is not the only place with this problem. Rundown schools
and rising enrollments have made these trailers an increasingly common
sight all over our country. Too many children are going to school every
day in trailers like this one. In other schools, class is held in
gymnasiums and cafeterias. I've even heard some stories of classes
being held in closets. Crumbling walls and ceilings have forced still
other schools to bus their students to neighboring facilities.
With a record number of school buildings in disrepair, especially in
our larger cities, and school enrollments all over America at record
highs and rising by the millions, the need to renew our nation's public
schools has never been more pressing. I've said many times that in this
increasingly global world where what you earn depends upon what you
learn, improving education must be our nation's top priority for all our
children.
For nearly six years now I've done everything I could to meet that
challenge. I'm especially proud of the victories for America's children
our administration fought for and won in the balanced budget Congress
passed just last week. We fought for and won new investments, from
child literacy to college mentoring, from after-school programs to
summer school programs, to opening the doors of college even wider by
helping more people with financial aid. All these things will help all
our children reach their highest potential no matter where they start
out in life and where they go to school.
Perhaps even more important, we fought for and won an unprecedented
commitment to put 100,000 new well-trained teachers in our nation's
classrooms, to reduce class size, decrease discipline problems and
increase student learning. But you don't have to be a math whiz to know
that more teachers and smaller classes means we also need more
classrooms. Unfortunately, the Republican leadership in Congress failed
the simple test to pass my school construction initiative to help
communities build, repair and modernize 5,000 schools around our
country.
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I'm disappointed that Congress also blocked our efforts to raise
academic standards and strengthen accountability in our schools. At a
time when our children's education matters more than ever to our
children's future, and to our nation's strength in the 21st century,
there are still even some Republicans in Congress who would shut down
the Department of Education.
Now, in just a few days Americans will go to the polls to elect
the next Congress. And there's a lot at stake. Our children don't need
another two years of partisanship -- they need two years of progress, of
putting people over politics. And we need a Congress that doesn't
retreat from our commitment to hire 100,000 teachers; a Congress that
makes a commitment to modern schools SO those teachers can teach in
classrooms, not in trailers; a Congress that puts aside partisanship and
puts our children's future first.
The American people have the power to elect that kind of Congress.
Our children are counting on us to do it. So this Tuesday let me urge
all of you, without regard to your party, please, go out and vote for a
Congress that will strengthen education and strengthen our nation for
the 21st century.
Thanks for listening.
END
10:10 A.M. EST
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THE WHITE HOUSE
Office of the Press Secretary
(New York, New York)
For Immediate Release
October 12, 1998
REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT
AT THE G & P CHARITABLE FOUNDATION FOR CANCER RESEARCH
FIRST ANNUAL GALA BENEFIT
Sheraton New York Hotel and Towers
New York, New York
9:15 P.M. EDT
THE PRESIDENT: Thank you. Well, when I told Denise I would do this
for her in the memory of her daughter, I didn't know that an added bonus
was I would be introduced by Bill Cosby -- (applause) -- a man who -- I.
mean, his net worth was 500 times mine before I met all those lawyers in
Washington. (Laughter and applause.) But I thank you, Bill. I thank
you and Camille for your friendship, the letters you sent me, the words
of wisdom in the last several months, and for being here tonight.
I want to thank my wonderful friend, Denise Rich, for so many things,
but for remembering her daughter in this magnificent and far-sighted and
humane way. Hillary would like to have been here with me tonight, but
she is in Prague on a trip for our country. But we love you, Denise,
and we thank you for what you're doing. (Applause.)
I want to thank Les Moonves for his work in making this evening a
success. And I want to say I am delighted that you're honoring Milton
Berle. (Applause.) Thank you.
You know, when you're President, you can speak off the cuff a little
bit, but you have all these wonderful people who work for you and they
dig up interesting facts. Now, here are the facts they dug up for me to
say about Milton Berle. (Laughter.) Oh, no, it gets better. Sit down.
He's been in show business for 85 years. He's performed in drag more
than any other entertainer except the road show cast of La Cage Aux
Folles. (Laughter.) And, most important, he holds the Guinness Book of
World Records for the most charity benefit performances of any
entertainer in history. Thank you, Milton Berle. (Applause.)
I'd like to ask you to take just a couple of minutes to seriously
consider the purpose for which you have come tonight. Twenty-five years
ago, America declared war on cancer. Twenty-five years from now, I hope
we will have won the war. I hope the war on cancer will have about as
much meaning to schoolchildren as the War of 1812. Twenty-five years
from now, I hope schoolchildren don't even know what the word
chemotherapy means.
The progress now being made against cancer is stunning. We are
closing in on the genetic causes of breast cancer, colon cancer and
prostate cancer; testing medicines actually to prevent these cancers.
New tools for screening and diagnosis are returning to many patients the
promise of a long and healthy life. From 1991 to 1995, cancer death
rates actually dropped for the first time in history.
For the last six years we have worked hard to fight this dreaded
disease, helping cancer patients to keep their health coverage when they
change jobs, accelerating the approval of cancer drugs while maintaining
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safe standards, continually every year increasing funding for cancer
research.
In the last few weeks, four critical steps have been taken. First
of all, in spite of all the fights we've been having in Washington, we
did succeed in getting from Congress on a bipartisan basis the largest
single increase in funding for cancer and other medical research in
history as part of our gift to the 21st century. (Applause.)
Second, I directed the National Cancer Institute to expedite a new
computer system to give tens of thousands of cancer patients across our
country access to clinical trials on the kinds of new cancer treatments
that can save their lives.
Third, I have taken steps to ensure that by next year cancer
patients and advocates will have a seat at the table when we set the
medical research agenda in government, because those who suffer from
cancer know truths about these diseases that even the experts do not
understand.
And, fourth, we've made $15 million available to study the
long-term effects of cancer treatment and how to prevent cancer
recurrence.
And I know, Denise, these grants have special significance to you
because Gabriella, herself, succumbed as a result of the treatment she
received from Hodgkin's Disease. So we give these grants with you and
your family in mind. (Applause.)
Oh, we've still got a lot to do, all right, in this battle for
victory over cancer. We have to convince the next Congress to finish
the unfinished agenda of this one to pass a patients' bill of rights to
ensure cancer patients high-quality care -- (applause) -- to help
Medicare beneficiaries with cancer be a part of these clinical trials,
to convince the next Congress to confirm the first oncologist ever
nominated to be head of the FDA, Dr. Jane Henney; and finally to take
strong action to protect our children against America's number one
cancer threat, the sales of tobacco products illegally to our children.
(Applause.)
But I came here to say to you two things. First of all, our
country is moving in the right direction. And with all the partisanship
in Washington, this is one area where we have pretty much moved
together, hand in hand across party lines.
Secondly, I want you to know that there is SO much to be done
that, in spite of increasing and unprecedented government efforts, it's
not enough. We need the kind of effort that you're making here tonight.
You never know how many lives you'll save, how many children you'll give
a future to, and it's really worth doing.
Let me just say one final thing. The fight against cancer is
really a fight for life, a fight for the elemental proposition that all
of us are bound to seek, not just for ourselves, but for all others, the
chance to live out our dreams for as long and as well as we can. And
whenever that chance is cut short, we are all diminished. I'm thinking
about it in another context today because, like SO many of you, I was
heartbroken this morning to learn that young Matthew Shepard, who was
beaten SO viciously in Wyoming, succumbed to his injuries.
And I say that to remind you, when we come here tonight you feel
good about it, you feel good about yourselves. You're contributing
money to help people you'll never know live lives you'll never be a part
of. And that is in the best tradition of humanity. You do it because
you know in some profound and almost indescribable way we share a common
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mission in these brief lives we live on Earth. And when someone else
takes a life -- as this young man was apparently beaten to death and,
apparently, only because he was gay -- and that taking is done out of
blind hatred and maybe even fear, like cancer, it violates every sense
of how we think life ought to be.
So I say to you tonight, when you go home and you ask yourselves
what happened tonight -- besides the fact that you all look beautiful
and you saw a lot of interesting people, and you had to put up with a
speech from the President, and you marveled at Milton Berle, and Bill
Cosby made you laugh -- you can say, I stood for life. Not my life, but
someone else's. Not someone I know, but someone I don't. Not someone
whose life I will share, but someone whose life I hope will be
wonderful.
And it is the recognition of how we are all bound together across
all the lines that superficially divide us that makes this a very great
country. When we violate that, we diminish our own lives. When we
honor it, we lift our lives. And I thank you for how you have honored
it tonight.
God bless you. (Applause.)
END
9:28 P.M. EDT
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THE WHITE HOUSE
Office of the Press Secretary
For Immediate Release
November 6, 1998
REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT AT SIGNING CEREMONY
DESIGNATING LITTLE ROCK CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL
A NATIONAL HISTORIC SITE
The South Lawn
11:43 A.M. EST
THE PRESIDENT: Thank you very much. You know, when Ernie was up
here introducing me, I remembered that he was the only senior among the
Little Rock Nine. He graduated in the spring in 1958, and when they
called him up to receive his diploma, the whole auditorium was quiet,
not a single person clapped -- but we're all clapping for you today.
(Applause.)
I would like to thank all the members of the Little Rock Nine who
are here, including Elizabeth Eckford, Carlotta LaNier, Jefferson
Thomas, Minnijean Trickey, Terrence Roberts. Melba Pattillo Beals is
not here. Gloria Ray Karlmark is not here. Thelma Mothershed Wair is
not here. I think we should give all of them another hand. (Applause.)
I would like to thank Congressman Elijah Cummings, Congressman
Gregory Meeks for coming; Mayor Woodrow Stanley of Flint, Michigan;
Commissioner Edna Bell, the president of the National Association of
Black County Officials, from Wayne County, Michigan. I'd like to thank
and welcome the Mayor-elect of Washington, D.C., Anthony Williams.
(Applause.)
I told him I'd be for more federal aid if he'd teach me how to tie
a bow tie. I never learned how to do that. (Applause.)
I would like to thank Secretary of Transportation Rodney Slater
and the Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt for their presence and
leadership. (Applause.) And I would like to say a special word of
welcome and profound appreciation for his historic role in Tuesday's
historic turnout of voters, to Reverend Jesse Jackson. Welcome, sir,
we're delighted to have you here. (Applause.)
I thank the United States Marine Band, as always, for their great
performance, on the occasion of John Philip Sousa's birth anniversary.
And let me say a special word of welcome again to the White House to the
magnificent young people of Eastern High School Choir from Washington,
D.C. Thank you. (Applause.)
Let me say, since we are here to talk about our reconciliation, I
hope you will forgive me for taking just a moment -- and I know I speak
for all Americans who are here -- to express my sympathy to the people
of Israel, who this morning were once again the target of a vicious
terrorist attack. No nation should live under the threat of violence
and terror that they live under every day.
When Prime Minister Netanyahu and Chairman Arafat signed the Wye
River Agreement, they knew they would face this moment. They knew when
they went home both of them would be under more danger and the
terrorists would target innocent civilians. They knew they would have
to muster a lot of courage in their people to stick to the path of peace
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in the face of repeated acts of provocation.
There are some people, you know, who have a big stake in the
continuing misery and hatred in the Middle East, and indeed everywhere
else in this whole world, just like some people had a big stake in
continuing it in Little Rock over 40 years ago.
I ask for your prayers and support today for the Israelis and the
Palestinians who believe in this agreement and who are determined to
carry out their responsibilities and who understand that the agreement
is the best way to protect the safety of the Israeli people. It was
tenaciously negotiated, hard fought, but it is the best way to safety
for the Israelis, the best way to achieve the aspirations of the
Palestinians, and in the end, the only answer to today's act of criminal
terror. I hope you will all feel that in your heart. (Applause.)
Let me say, this is a very, very happy day for the people who were
part of the Little Rock Nine experience, for the people of Little Rock,
all the Arkansans who are here, African Americans from throughout our
country. There was an earlier reference made by Congressman Bennie
Thompson -- and I thank him for his outstanding leadership in this
endeavor and for his fine remarks today -- about the election.
Now, most of the publicity about the election has been the
enormous turnout of African American citizens in a midterm election that
resulted in the victories that have been well publicized for non-African
American elected officials. And having been one of those on several
occasions, I am immensely grateful. (Laughter.) But what has received
less publicity that I would like to point out, because this too was a
part of the road that the Little Rock Nine began to walk for us, is that
on Tuesday in the state of Georgia, an African American was elected the
Attorney General of the state, an African American was elected to the
labor commission of the state. (Applause.)
And in the South on Tuesday, African American Congressmen were
reelected in majority white districts, with large majorities -- large
majorities. (Applause.) That is a part of the road we have walked
together, a part of what we celebrate today.
There are so many here who played a role in it. One more person I
would be remiss if I did not recognize, that Hillary and I love so much
and are so grateful to, is the wonderful Dr. Dorothy Height. Thank you
for being here. Let's give her a big hand. (Applause.) Thank you and
bless you.
Ladies and gentlemen, there is only one bittersweet element in
this magnificent moment for Hillary and for me, and that is that we are
celebrating the last piece of legislation passed by our good friend Dale
Bumpers. We have walked a lot of steps together since I first met Dale
Bumpers about 25 years ago when he was Governor. And we've had a lot of
laughs at each other's expense. After I became President, just to make
sure that I didn't get a big head, he went around Washington introducing
me to people as the second-best Governor Arkansas ever had. (Laughter.)
Today I told him that I hadn't much time to review my remarks, and
therefore hadn't had the opportunity to delete all the nice things that
had been written for me to say about him. (Laughter.)
But I do want to tell you that this is a truly astonishing public
servant. Hillary and I admire him, admire his wife Betty, admire the
things that he's stood for and she's stood for, and we will miss them.
Last month, in a final and, as always, brilliant speech on the Senate
floor, Dale mentioned an inspiring teacher who once stopped him when he
was reading out loud and said to the whole class, "Doesn't he have a
nice voice. Wouldn't it be tragic if he didn't use that talent?"
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I think it's fair to say that Dale Bumpers has done his teacher
proud -- (applause) -- because he used that eloquent, impassioned voice
to make sure that all the children of his state and our nation could
make use of their God-given talents.
We owe him an enormous debt of gratitude for his nearly five
decades of caring, often courageous public service, and I cannot thank
him enough.
The bill that Senator Bumpers and Congressman Thompson have
presented to me for signature today recognizes the courage of the Little
Rock Nine and that of their parents, their leaders, their community
leaders, especially our great friend, Daisy Bates, who could not be here
today.
Because of all of them, Central High has become a hallowed place,
a place every bit as sacred as Gettysburg and Independence Hall.
Interestingly enough, back in the 1920s, it was voted the most beautiful
school in America. It is still a functioning school -- very much SO.
There are some years when its students comprise 25 percent of our
state's entire roster of National Merit Scholars. It's a place where
children can still go and study Greek and Latin, something that's rare
in all school districts throughout America. It is, I believe, about to
become the only open, fully operating school that is a National Historic
Site.
As Ernie said, Hillary and I welcomed the Little Rock Nine back to
Little Rock on the 30th anniversary of the integration of Little Rock
Central High School. Then I was profoundly honored to hold open the
door of the school so they could walk through on the 40th anniversary.
Today I was able to welcome them all to the White House to the Oval
Office and now on the South Lawn.
On the fateful day they stepped into Central High School and were
removed by the police, President Eisenhower was on vacation in Newport.
When he learned what had happened to them, and that Governor Faubus had
turned over the streets to the mob, he realized that -- even as a
conservative -- the federal government had to act. The next day he flew
back to the White House. His helicopter landed just a few steps from
here. He had just ordered General Maxwell Taylor to put the might of
the 101st Airborne Division behind their righteous march through the
doors of Central High.
Now, thanks to Senator Bumpers and Congressman Thompson, and many
others, as they said, our nation has found two very fitting ways to
honor that march to ensure that the memory of the Little Rock Nine and
all they represent remains alive long after those of us with living
memories are gone.
As part of the budget I signed two weeks ago, I was authorized to
confer Congressional Gold Medals, the highest civilian honor the
Congress can bestow, on each and every member of the Little Rock Nine.
It was only a few months ago that we presented President Nelson Mandela
with that same award, and he spoke SO movingly of his long struggle to
tear down the walls of apartheid. The Little Rock Nine broke through
the doors of apartheid.
I can't wait until the artists finish creating your medals and we
can bestow them upon you, an honor you richly deserve. And then of
course the main reason we're here today is to make a living monument
forever out of the setting of your struggle.
Again, I thank Senator Bumpers and all the others. The bill will
allow the National Park Service to work with the community to maintain
and protect Central High's magnificent building. It will also allow the
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Park Service to start acquiring land in the surrounding neighborhood to
create new facilities where people can learn about the origins and the
aftermath of the 1957 crisis topics that simply can't be fully
explored in the existing visitor center's limited space.
Children will never fully understand what you experienced in 1957.
Maybe that's not such a bad thing. But they need to know. And now, for
to come, children will have an opportunity to walk the stairs
you walked, to see the angry faces you braved, to learn of your
sacrifice, and about what, as a result of your sacrifice, you, your
fellow Arkansans, and your nation have become. Perhaps they will even
see what it was about the Little Rock confrontation that made racial
equality a driving obsession for SO many of us who were young at the
time and seared by it.
Again, I want to thank you for staying together over these 40-plus
years now, for being willing to show up and be counted, and to remind
us, for showing us the shining example of your lives so that we could
never forget all those who went before you who never had the chance that
you gave to all who came after.
Monuments and medals are important reminders of how far we have
come, but it is not enough. The doors of our schools are open, but some
of them are falling off their rusty hinges. And many of them are
failing the students inside.
The economy has never been stronger, but there are still striking
disparities in jobs, in investments in neighborhoods, in education and
criminal justice. Still too many break down along what W.E.B. Du Bois
first called the color line. And while the Little Rock Nine have
enjoyed great success in business, in the media, in education, they can
tell you that in spite of what we celebrated on Tuesday, there is still
discrimination and hatred in the hearts of some Americans.
All of that we found in our Presidential Initiative on Race, and
we must never forget that it is our continuing obligation to the Little
Rock Nine and all others who brought us to this point to fight this
battle.
The last point I want to make to you is that the face of America
is changing, and changing fast. I went to an elementary school last
Saturday to talk about the need to build and modernize our schools.
There were children from 24 nations there. The principal said, Mr.
President, we're so glad to have you here with all the parents here; I
only wish that we could have translated your talk into Spanish and
Arabic.
America is changing, and it is good thing, if we remember to live
by the ideals on which this country was founded, if we remember the
sacrifices of the Little Rock Nine, if we listen to our teachers like
Dr. John Hope Franklin. We, in other words, have a whole new chapter in
the nation's march to equality to write.
Remember what Senator Bumpers' teacher said: Wouldn't it be
tragic if he didn't use that talent. That's exactly what the struggle
for one America is all about, because that is a question that should be
asked of every single child in our country. (Applause.)
When we ask that question with the Little Rock Nine in mind, it
helps us to keep our eyes on the prize, the prize of true equality and
true freedom, that ever elusive, always worth seeking, more perfect
union.
These people that we honor today, in the school we save today for
all time, have given us all a great and treasured gift. May God bless
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12/14/98 12:59 PM
them and the United States.
Thank you very much.
END
12:02 P.M. EST
5 of 5
12/14/98 12:59 PM
12/14/98 MON 13:22 FAX
117th Edition
REF
HA 202 A1
V. 17TH
1997
C. 01
SEQ: S38520000
TI: STATISTICAL ABSTRACT OF
THE UNITED STATES 12/10/97
of the
United States
1997
DG-0242B
DEC 05 1997
N.L.M:
The National Data Book
PROPERTY OF THE
NOTAL LIBRAR 135
NATIONAL
LIBRARY OF
will INTO
MEDICINE
hopital as
tylese talk, dis
American Hospital Anrual
in charge
It doctor
of usplus
12/14/98 MON 13:18 FAX
001
NUMAN
Public Health Service
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH & HUMAN SERVICES
MEALTH
National Institutes of Health
National Library of Medicine
Bethesda MD 20894
FAX FAX FAX FAX FAX
HISTORY OF MEDICINE DIVISION
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
402-8978
Phone: 301-496-5405
Fax: 301-402-0872
To:
Jeff Horwitt
white House
Phone:
Fax: 202-456-2505
From:
Elizabeth Tunis
Comments:
The data from Statistical Abstracts
is a bit old so I called AMA, AHA for
the latest data available Let me know if we
can be of Further assistance.
Number of pages including this coversheet:
Original mailed: O Yes V.Vo
12/14/98 MON 13:19 FAX
002
93rd Congress, 1st Session
House Document No. 93-78 (Part 1)
BICENTENNIAL EDITION
HISTORICAL
STATISTICS
of the United States
COLONIAL TIMES TO 1970
PART 1
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
U.S. Department of Commerce
Rogers C.B. Morton, Secretary
James L. Pate, Assistant Secretary
for Economic Affairs
BUREAU OF THE CENSUS
Vincent P. Barabba, Director
12/14/98 MON 13:20 FAX
004
Historical Statistics
B 305-330
VITAL STATISTICS AND HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE
Series B 305-318. Hospitals and Beds, by Type of Service and Ownership (AHA): 1946 to 1970
Non-Federal
Beds per 1,000
Total
Federal, all types
population
Short-term general
Long-term general
Psychiatric
Tuberculosis
and special
and special
Year
Hospitals
Beds
Hospitals
Beds
Hospitals
Beds
Hospitals
Beds
Hospitals
Beds
Hospitals
Beds
Total
Short-
term
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
1970
7,123
1,615,771
5,859
848,232
286
59.961
519
526,889
101
19,720
408
160,969
8.0
4.2
1969
7,144
1,649,663
5,853
825,795
260
63,075
509
570,550
107
20,662
416
169,681
8.3
4.1
1968
7,137
1,663,203
5,820
805,912
280
66,517
605
593,916
116
22,213
416
174,645
8.4
4.1
1967
7,172
1,671,125
5,850
788,446
331
80,311
470
609,075
105
18,228
416
175,065
8.6
4.0
1966
7,160
1,678,658
5,812
768,479
291
67,337
476
639,041
156
30.796
425
173,005
8.7
4.0
1966
7,123
1,703,522
5,736
741,292
283
65,897
483
685,176
178
37,196
443
173,962
8.9
3.9
1964
7.127
1,696,039
5,712
720,810
300
68,783
487
691,367
187
39,589
441
175,490
9.0
3.8
1963
7,138
1,701,839
5,684
698,191
323
79,525
499
714,661
186
39,144
446
176,318
9.1
3.7
1962
7,028
1,689,414
5,564
676,795
323
73,474
491
716,781
203
44,687
447
177,677
9.2
3.7
1961
6,923
1,669,789
5,460
658,521
321
70,636
483
714,622
222
48,556
437
177,554
9.2
3.6
1960
6,876
1,657,970
5,407
639,067
308
67,214
488
722,493
238
52,101
436
177,105
9.8
3.6
1959
6,845
1,612,822
5,364
619,877
330
68,323
459
688,410
254
67,392
438
178,820
9.2
3.5
1958
6,786
1,572,036
5,200
609,732
321
78,383
475
646,270
261
57,077
439
180,574
9.1
3.6
1957
6,818
1,688,691
5,309
594,529
340
77,608
452
641,455
280
62,097
437
188,002
9.2
3.5
1956
6,966
1,607,692
5,299
586,498
396
75,646
525
695,331
315
66,096
432
184,121
9.6
3.6
1955
6,966
1,604,408
5,237
667,612
402
76,278
542
707,162
347
70,194
428
183,162
9.8
3.5
1954
6,970
1,677,961
5,212
553,068
406
70,926
564
691,176
368
73,558
430
189,233
9.8
3.4
1953
6,978
1,680,654
5,212
545,903
406
68,039
541
691,855
384
72,253
435
202,604
10.0
3.5
1952
6,903
1,561,809
5,122
530,669
405
69,731
546
675,749
391
72,642
439
213,018
10.0
3.4
1951
6,832
1,521,959
5,066
516,020
394
62,768
551
655,932
399
72,642
422
214,597
9.9
3.4
1950
6,788
1,455,825
5,031
504,504
412
70,136
533
619,530
398
72,178
414
189,477
9.6
3.3
1949
6,277
1,435,288
4.585
476,584
395
79,145
507
614,465
414
78,330
376
186,764
9.7
3.2
1948
6,160
1,411,450
4.499
471,565
362
77,040
504
601,103
409
75,906
386
185,846
9.7
3.2
1947
6,173
1,400,818
4,475
465,209
385
84,758
499
580,273
411
70,307
403
199,771
9.8
3.2
1946
6,125
1,435,778
4,444
473,059
389
83,416
476
568,473
412
74,867
404
235,964
10.3
3.4
Denotes first year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.
1 Non-Federal short-term general and special hospitals.
Series B 319-330. Hospitals and Beds, by Type of Service (AMA): 1909 to 1953
Total
General
Mental
Tuberculosis
All other
Beds per 1,000 population
Year
Hospitals
Beds
Hospitals
Beds
Hospitals
Beds
Hospitals
Beds
Hospitals
Beds
Total
General
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
1953
6,840
1,578,014
5,087
658,762
593
749,393
420
88,406
740
81,463
9.9
4.1
1952
6,666
1,641,615
4,924
640,928
585
732,920
428
89.571
728
78,192
9.9
4.1
1951
6,637
1,529,988
4,890
640,207
596
728,187
430
88.379
721
78,215
10.0
4.2
1950
6,430
1,466,912
4,713
587,917
679
711,921
431
85,746
707
71,328
9.6
3.9
1949
6.572
1,439,030
4.761
574,683
606
705.423
444
83,470
761
75,454
9.7
3.9
1948
6,335
1,423,520
4,589
576,459
586
691,499
438
81,993
722
73,669
9.7
3.9
1947
6,276
1,425,222
4,639
592,463
685
680,913
441
81,328
711
70,528
9.9
4.1
1946
6.280
1,468,714
4,623
641,831
675
674,930
450
83,187
732
69,266
10.5
4.6
1946
6,611
1,738,944
4,744
922.649
563
667,393
449
78.774
755
80,228
13.1
7.0
1944
6.611
1,729,945
4,833
925,818
566
648,746
453
79,848
769
75.534
13.0
7.0
1943
6,655
1,649,254
4,885
850,576
675
650,993
456
79,860
740
67,825
12.8
6.3
1942
6,345
1,383,827
4,667
694,260
586
646.118
468
82,372
734
61,077
10.3
4.4
1941
6,358
1,324,381
4,518
633,498
596
638,144
477
82,365
767
70,374
9.9
4.0
1940
6,291
1,226,245
4.482
462,360
602
621.284
479
78,246
778
64,355
9.8
3.6
1939
6,226
1,195,026
4,356
444,947
600
606,284
480
75,972
790
67,823
9.1
3.4
1938
6,166
1,161,380
4,286
425,324
592
691,822
493
76.022
796
68,212
8.9
3.9
1937
6,128
1,124,648
4,245
412.091
579
570,616
508
76,751
796
65,090
8.7
3.2
1936
6,189
1,096,721
4,207
402,605
584
548,952
506
73,692
892
71,472
8.6
3.1
1935
6,246
1,075,139
4,267
406,174
592
529,311
496
70,373
901
69,281
8.4
3.2
1934
6,334
1,048,101
4,198
393,426
614
613,846
496
70,063
1.027
70,768
8.3
3.1
1933
6.437
1,027,046
4.237
386,713
621
498,955
497
70.682
1.082
70,696
8.2
3.1
1932
6,562
1,014,354
4,305
395,548
624
479,548
512
69,676
1,121
69,587
8.1
3.2
1931
6,619
974,115
4,309
884,333
687
451,245
509
65,923
1,208
72,614
7.9
3.1
1930
6,719
955,869
4,302
371,609
561
437,919
515
65,940
1,341
80,401
7.8
3.0
1929
6,665
907,133
4,268
367,094
572
414,386
502
61,310
1,323
74,403
7.4
2.9
1928
6,852
892,934
4,361
363,337
653
394,268
508
62,113
1.430
73,216
7.4
3.0
1927
6,807
853,318
4,322
345,364
563
373,864
508
63,170
1,414
71,420
7.2
2.9
1926
6,946
869,445
7.3
1925
6,896
802,065
4.041
293,301
589
341,480
466
49.131
1,800
118,163
6.9
2.6
1924
7,370
813,926
7.1
1923
6,830
765,722
3,793
593
476
1,968
6.8
1921
'6,286
1920
6,152
817,020
4,013
311,159
521
295,882
52
10,150
1,566
200,829
7.7
2.9
1918
5,329
612,251
5.9
1914
5,047
682,481
6.4
1909
4,359
421,065
4.7
1 Excludes hospitals with less than 10 beda
78
statistic
available
No. 175. Employment in the Health Service Industries: 1980 to 1996
No. 177. Dentists and Nurses: 1980 to 1995
(In thousands. See headhole table 662]
(As of end of year. Excludes Puerto Rico and outlying areas]
1987
SIC
ITEM
Unit
1980
1985
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
INDUSTRY
code
1980
1985
1990
1994
1995
1958
1,000
141
156
168
²173
179
153
187
190
(NA)
Health services 2
80
Above (axc. in Federal service)
3
5,278
(NA)
6,293
7,814
8,992
9,257
19
1.000
121
136
144
147
149
152
154
157
Offices and clinics of MD's
801
802
1,028
1,338
1,545
1,60E
Rate per 100,000 population
Rate
53
57
58
59
59
60
60
60
(NA)
15
Offices and clinics of dentists
802
(NA)
439
513
574
597
Numes. number (active registered),
1,000
1,273
1,538
1,731
1,790
1,853
1,907
1,976
2,044
2,116
2
12/14/98
Offices and clinics of other practitioners
804
96
165
277
378
Rate per 100,000 population
Rate
560
644
698
713
730
755
774
793
798
407
4
Nursing and personal care facilities
805
997
1,198
1,415
1,649
1,693
114
Skilled nursing care facilities
8051
(NA)
791
989
1,221
1,252
PLA Not available. Includes current year's graduates. 2 Revised since originally published. 3 Source: American Dental
12
Intermediate care facilities
8052
(NA)
(NA)
200
206
213
Association, Bureau of Economic and Behavioral Research, Master Membership file and periodic censuses. Based on Bureau
is
Other, n.e.c.
8059
(NA)
(NA)
227
222
229
U Carous estimated resident population as of July 1. Estimates reflect revisions based on the 1990 Census of Population.
M
Scurce: Except as noted, U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services. Health Resources and Services Administration,
MON
Hospitals
806
2,750
2,997
3,549
3,763
3,784
315
data.
General medical and surgical hospitals
8062
(NA)
2,811
3,268
3,459
3,484
35
Psychiatric hospitals.
8063
(NA)
59
104
97
91
,
Specialty hospitals, BXC. psychiatric.
8069
(NA)
126
176
207
208
r.
No. 178. Health Professions Schools-Number, Enrollment, and Graduates: 1980 to 1996
Medical and dental laboratories
807
(NA)
119
166
189
(Curs on the number of schools are reported as of the beginning of the academic year; all other data are reported as of the
193
23
Home health care services
808
(NA)
(NA)
291
end al the academic year. Data are based on reporting by health professions schools]
559
626
a
NA
Not
available. 1 Based on the 1987 Standard Industrial Classification code; see text, section 13. 2
Includes to
REGISTERED NURSING
Licensed
FAX
industries not shown separately.
N.e.c. means not elsewhere classified.
Medi-
Oste-
Asso-
prac-
Den-
Optom-
Phar-
YEAR
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletins 2445 and 2481, and Employment and Eamings. monthly, March and in
cine
opathy
Total
Bacca-
ciate
Diploma
tical
tistry
etry
macy
Issues.
laureate
nursing
end
of
RAMA (latest available statistic)
degree
710
NUMBER OF SCHOOLS 1
No. 176. Physicians, by Selected Activity: 1980 to 1995
TWO
126
14
1,385
377
697
311
1,299
60
16
72
441
776
256
1,165
60
17
72
Total
(In thousands. 1980, 1985, and 1995, as of Dec. 31; other years as of Jan. 1, except as noted.
195
127
15
1,473
rive
127
15
1,469
455
776
238
1,087
59
17
73
Includes Puerto Rico and outlying areas]
'M7
127
15
1,465
467
789
209
1,068
58
17
74
168
127
15
1,442
479
792
171
1,095
58
17
74
ACTIVITY
1980
1985
1990
1992
1993
1994
1995
has
127
15
1,457
488
812
157
1,171
58
17
74
1580
126
15
1,470
489
829
152
1,154
56
17
74
Doctors of medicine, total.
467.7
552.7
615.4
653.1
670.3
684.4
721
1591
126
15
1,484
501
838
145
1,125
55
17
74
Professionally active
435.5
511.1
560.0
594.7
605.7
619.8
64E1
1782
126
15
1.484
501
848
135
1,154
55
17
74
Place of medical education:
1953
126
16
1.493
507
857
129
1,159
54
17
74
U.S. medical graduates
343.6
398.4
437.2
460.4
1
466.6
475.0
491;
1954
126
16
1,501
509
868
124
(NA)
54
17
74
Foreign medical graduates
91.8
112.7
122.8
134.3
139.1
144.8
1511
1995
126
16
1,516
521
876
119
54
17
74
Sex: Male
(NA)
386.7
436.3
463.9
484.6
488.5
494.9
Female
50E)
48.7
74.8
96.1
110.1
117.2
124.9
14E'
ARST-YEAR ENROLLMENT
Active Non-Federal
417.7
489.5
539.5
575.5
564.0
597.3
55,316
6,132
1,202
Patient care
6241
1560
16,930
1,426
105,952
35,414
53,633
16,905
8.035
361.9
431.5
487.8
520.2
531.7
543.2
564:
1585
16,997
1,750
118,224
39,573
63,776
14,875
47,034
5,047
1,187
6,986
Office-based practice
271.3
329.0
359.9
387.9
398.8
407.0
421
1986
16,963
1,737
100,791
34,310
56,635
9,846
44,477
4,843
1,251
7,091
General and family practice
47.8
53.9
57.6
58.6
58.1
58.2
St
1987
16.819
1,724
90,693
28,026
54,330
8,337
42,452
4.554
1,234
7,554
Cardiovascular diseases
6.7
9.1
10.7
11.4
12.1
12.9
12"
168
16,713
1,692
94,269
28,505
57,375
8,389
43,774
4,370
1.268
7,751
Dermatology
4.4
5.3
6.0
6.3
6.5
6.7
71
Meg
16,868
1,780
103,025
29,042
63,973
10.010
47,602
4,196
1,271
7,990
Gastroenterology
2.7
4.1
5.2
5.7
6.3
6.7
71
1.790
16,756
1,844
108,580
29,858
68,634
10,088
52,969
3,979
1,258
8,033
Internal medicine
40.5
52.7
57.8
65.1
67.3
67.9
THE
'Ril
16,876
1,950
113,526
33,437
69,869
10,220
56,176
4,001
1,239
8,267
Pediatrics
17.4
22.4
26.5
29.0
30.8
31.5
I
GE2
17,071
1,974
122,656
37,886
74,079
10,691
58,245
4,047
1,355
8,343
Pulmonary diseases
2.0
3.0
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.6
13
1933
17,079
2,035
126,837
41,290
75,382
10,165
60,749
4,072
1,395
8,664
General surgery
22.4
24.7
24.5
24.9
24.3
24.2
26
#4
17,121
2,162
129,897
42,953
77.343
9,601
(NA)
4,100
1,351
8,970
Obstetrics and gynecology
19.5
23.5
25.5
27.1
27.6
28.2
29
25
17,085
2,217
127,184
43,451
76,016
7,717
(NA)
4,121
1,390
9,157
Ophthalmology
10.6
12.2
13.1
13.7
13.9
14.3
141
1366
17,058
2,274
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
4,237
1.438
8.740
Orthopedic surgery
10.7
13.0
14.2
15.8
16.3
16.6
17:
Otolaryngology
5.3
5.8
6.4
6.6
6.7
6.9
"
TOTAL ENROLLMENT
Plastic surgery
2.4
3.3
3.8
4.0
4.1
4.3
41
1980
63,800
4,571
234,659
98,939
92,069
43,651
52,202
22,482
4,517
23,074
Urological surgery
6.2
7.1
7.4
7.7
7.8
7.8
$1
1985
€7,016
6,547
237,232
95,008
104,968
37,256
48,840
20,588
4,569
18,646
Anesthesiology
11.3
15.3
17.8
20.0
20.6
22.0
zu
1556
66,535
6,608
217,955
91,020
96,756
30,179
39,345
19,563
4,562
19,098
Diagnostic radiology
4.2
7.7
9.8
10.9
11.9
12.1
121
1967
66,125
6,640
193.712
81,602
89,469
22,641
38,510
18,673
4,636
20,073
Emergency medicine
(NA)
(NA)
8.4
9.4
9.8
10.6
117
1968
65,735
6,586
182,947
73,621
90,399
18,927
40,035
17,885
4,646
21,424
Neurology
3.2
4.7
5.6
6.3
6.6
7.1
H
1983
65,300
6.614
184,924
70,078
95,986
18,860
42,808
17,094
4,708
22,447
Pathology, anatomical/clinical
6.0
6.9
7.3
7.9
8.5
8.7
11
1990
65,016
6,615
201,458
74,865
106,175
20,418
46.720
16,412
4,723
23,013
Psychiatry
15.9
18.5
20.0
21.8
22.3
22.6
231
1991
65,163
6,792
221,170
61,788
117,413
21,969
52,749
15.951
4,760
23,238
Other specialty
31.9
35.8
28.8
31.7
32.4
33.2
361
1392
65,602
7,012
237,598
90,877
123,816
22,905
56,762
15,882
4,864
29,482
Hospital-based practice
90.6
102.5
127.9
132.3
132.9
136.1
13E1
1993
66.142
7,375
257,983
102,128
132,603
23,252
59,095
15,980
5,078
26,287
Residents and interns
2
59.6
72.2
69.9
92.2
89.0
91.5
93:
1984
66,629
7,822
270,228
110,693
137,300
22,235
61,007
16,250
(NA)
27,143
Full-time hospital staff
31.0
30.3
38.0
40.1
3
43.9
44.6
43:
67,072
8,146
268,350
112,659
135,895
19,796
(NA)
16,353
5,201
27,667
Other professional activity
1995
35.2
44.0
39.0
38.7
37.7
39.9
Not classified
401
1996
66,970
8,475
261,219
109,505
135,235
16,479
(NA)
16,552
5,312
28,060
20.6
14.0
12.7
16.6
14.7
14.3
201
Federal.
17.8
21.6
20.5
19.2
21.7
22.5
GRADUATES
Patient care
21:
14.6
17.3
16.1
15.0
18.8
19.3
181
Office-based practice
1980
15,113
1,059
75,523
24,994
36,034
14,495
41,892
5,256
1,073
7,432
0.7
1.2
1.1
1.5
0.1
16,318
1,474
82,075
24,975
45,208
11,892
36,955
5,353
1,114
5,735
Hospital-based practice
1365
13.9
16.1
15.0
Other professional activity
3
13.5
18.7
19.3
181
1986
16,117
1,560
77,027
25,170
41,333
10,524
29,599
4.957
1,085
5,800
3.2
4.3
4.4
4.2
2.9
3.2
3:
Inactive/unknown address
1987
15,830
1,587
70,561
23,761
38,528
8,272
27,285
4,717
1.081
5,854
32.1
41.6
55.4
58.4
64.7
64.7
742
1988
15,919
1,572
64,839
21,504
37,397
5,938
26,912
4,581
1,106
6,184
Doctors of osteopathy
4
18.8
24.0
30.9
33.5
1969
15,630
1,609
61,660
18,997
37,837
4,826
30,368
4,312
1,143
6,560
33.4
35.0
35.)
1390
15,398
1,529
66,088
18,571
42,318
5,199
35,417
4,233
1,115
6,956
Represents
zero.
NA
Not
available.
1 Foreign medical graduates received their medical education in schools outso
1991
15.427
1,534
72.230
19,264
46,794
6,172
38,100
3,995
1,224
7.122
the United States and Canada. Includes clinical fellows. Includes medical teaching. administration, research, and other
1992
15,365
1,532
80,839
21,415
52,896
6,528
41.951
3,918
1,150
7,113
As of July. Total DO's. Source: American Osteopathic Association, Chicago, IL.
1993
15,466
1,606
88,149
24,442
56,770
6,932
44,822
3.778
1,167
7,380
Source: Except as noted. American Medical Association, Chicago, IL, Physician Characteristics and Distribution in the U.S.
1994
15,555
1,775
94.870
28,912
58,839
7,119
(NA)
3,875
1,125
7,504
annual (copyright).
1395
15,888
1,843
97.052
31,254
58,749
7.049
(NA)
3,908
1,219
7,837
1996
15,907
1,877
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
(NA)
2000. proj.
16,112
1,934
79.660
26,490
47,790
5.380
(NA)
3,242
1,200
7,120
statistical
Abstracts
NA Not available.
1
Some nursing schools offer more than one type of program. Numbers shown for nursing are number
di nursing programs.
1997
Source: U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, Health United States, annual.
12/14/98
MON 13:19 FAX
003
Historical statisties of the
275-290
VITAL STATISTICS AND HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE
eries B 275-290. Physicians, Dentists, and Nurses; and Medical, Dental, and Nursing Schools: 1810 to 1970-Con.
Physicians 1
Medical schools
Dentists
4
Dental schools
Active professional
Professional nursing
graduate nurses
schools
Physi-
Rate per
cians
Rate per
Rate per
Year
Num-
100,000
admitted
Num-
Students
Grad-
Num-
100,000
Num-
Students
Grad-
Num-
100,000
Num-
Students
Grad-
ber
popula-
to U.S.
ber 3
ustes
her
popula-
ber 8
uates
ber
popula-
ber
untes
tion
as immi-
tion
tion
grunts
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
950
203,400
134
1,878
79
25,103
5,663
89,441
69
41
11,460
2,565
1375,000
249
1,203
98,712
25,790
950
191,947
128
74,856
50
949
201,277
135
1,141
78
23,670
5,094
41
10,132
1,574
1,216
88,817
21,379
948
77
22,739
5,643
40
8,996
1,766
1,245
91,643
34,268
947
77
23,900
6,389
82,990
68
40
8,287
2,226
1,253
106,900
40,744
946
77
23,216
5,826
39
7,274
2,666
1,271
128,828
36,195
945
202
77
24,028
5.136
39
*8,590
3,212
1,295
126,576
31,721
944
156
77
48,195
10,303
39
"9,014
2,470
1,307
112,249
28,276
943
218
76
22,631
6,223
39
8,847
1,926
1,297
100,486
26,816
942
180,496
134
290
77
22,031
5,163
39
*8,366
1,784
1,299
91,457
25,618
941
706
77
21,379
6,275
39
7,720
1,568
1,308
87,588
24,899
940
175,163
133
1,095
77
21,271
5,097
39
7,407
1,757
284,200
216
1,311
85,156
23,600
250
165,989
126
69,921
53
1939
1,384
77
21,302
5,089
39
7,331
1,794
1.328
82,095
22,485
1938
169,628
131
738
77
21,687
5,194
39
7,184
1.704
1,349
74,305
20,655
1937
533
77
22,095
5,377
39
7,397
1,739
1,389
73,286
20,400
1936
165,163
129
462
77
22,564
5,183
39
7,306
1,786
1,417
69,589
18,600
1935
304
77
22,888
5,101
39
7,175
1,840
1,472
67,633
19,600
1934
161,369
128
353
77
22,799
5,035
39
7,160
1,864
1933
187
77
22,466
4,895
39
7,508
1,98G
1932
259
76
22,135
4,936
38
8,031
1,840
1,781
84,290
25,312
1931
156,406
126
329
76
21,982
4,736
38
8,129
1,842
1,844
100,419
25,971
1930
390
76
21,597
4,565
38
7,813
1,561
1214,300
174
1930
153,803
125
71,055
5R
1929
152,503
125
398
76
20,878
4,446
40
8,200
2,442
1,885
78,771
23,810
1928
454
80
20,645
4,262
67,334
56
40
2,563
1927
149.521
126
486
80
19,662
4,035
40
10,333
2,642
1,797
77,768
18,623
1926
487
79
18,840
3,962
44
2,610
1925
147,010
127
540
80
18,200
3,974
64,481
56
43
11,863
2,590
1924
1,391
79
17,728
3,562
43
3,422
1923
145,966
130
704
R0
16,960
3.120
45
13,099
3,271
1922
458
81
15,636
2,520
45
1,765
1921
145,404
134
597
83
14,466
3,186
46
11,745
1,795
1920
459
85
13,798
3,047
46
906
103,900
98
1,755
54,963
14,980
1920
144,977
137
56,152
53
1919
236
85
13,052
2,656
46
3,587
1918
147,812
141
182
90
13,630
2,670
46
3,346
1917
326
96
13,764
3,379
45,988
44
46
3,010
1916
145,241
142
326
95
14,012
3,518
49
2,835
1915
476
96
14,891
3,536
49
2,388
1,509
46,141
11,118
1914
142,332
144
504
102
16,502
3,594
42,606
43
48
2,254
1913
508
107
17,015
3,981
51
2,022
1912
137,199
144
459
118
18,412
4,483
38,866
41
52
1,940
1911
429
122
19,786
4,273
54
1,742
1910
135,000
146
365
131
21,526
4,440
37,684
41
54
1,646
50,500
55
1,129
32,636
8,140
1910
151.132
164
39,997
43
1909
134,402
149
332
140
22,145
4,515
56
1,761
1908
504
151
22,602
4,741
36,670
41
55
2,005
1907
480
159
24,276
4,980
66
1,724
1906
134,688
158
725
162
25,204
6,364
35,238
41
55
1,519
1905
1,043
158
26,147
5,600
55
2,621
862
19,824
5,796
1904
128,950
157
907
160
28,142
5,747
32,204
39
56
2.168
1903
343
160
27,615
5,698
55
2,198
1902
123,196
156
116
160
27,501
5,009
28,109
36
56
2,294
1901
100
160
26,417
6,444
57
2,304
1900
119,749
157
160
25,171
5,214
25,189
38
57
2,091
482
11,164
3,456
1900
132.002
173
29,665
39
1898
115,524
157
23,911
33
54
1,894
1896
104,554
147
20;063
28
48
1,432
1893
103,090
154
37
1890
100,180
159
133
15,404
4,454
31
960
35
1,552
471
1890
104,805
166
17,498
28
1886
87,521
151
23
173
1880
82,000
163
100
11,826
3,241
14
315
15
323
167
1880
85,671
171
12,314
25
1870
60,000
160
76
10
147
1870
64,414
162
7,988
20
1860
55,055
175
65
5,606
18
8
64
1850
40,755
176
52
2,923
13
2
17
1840
36
1,000
6
1
1830
20
300
2
1820
10
100
1
1810
6
50
1
Denotes first year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.
For 1840 and 1926-1931, schools offering courses in dentistry: for 1850 1926,
NA Not available.
schools conferring degrees; for other years, schools in operation. Includes Puerto
$ Beginning 1960, includes osteopaths.
Rico.
, Beginning 1964, includes Puerto Rico; beginning 1960, includes osteopaths and their
6 Includes Hawaii and Puerto Rico beginning 1960 for number and students and
schools.
1952 for graduates.
, Approved medical and basic science schools.
, Census estimate adjusted to exclude student nurses enumerated as graduates.
Beginning 1958, excludes graduates of year stated.
8 Reflects enrollment of more than 1 class in some schools under accelerated program
in operation during World War II.
76
from
1996
Health and Nutrition
Hospital Facilities-Summary
127
126
6,201
latest available statistic
No. 183. Percent of Adult Persons with a Dental Visit Within Past Year, by Patient
No. 185. Hospitals-Summary Characteristics: 1980 to 1995
Characteristics: 1989 to 1993
Codes hospitals accepted for registration by the American Hospital Association; see text, section 3. Short-term hospitals have an
average patient stay of less than 30 days; long-term, an average stay of longer duration. Special hospitals Include obstetrics and
noninstitutional population, 25 years old and over. Date are age-adjusted. Estimates Interview are based Survey, on 586 one Appair or
priecology. eye, ear, nose, and throat: rehabilitation; orthopedic; and chronic and other special hospitals except psychiatric, tuber-
(Covers member civillan per sample household Excludes persons with unknown dental data Based on National Health
was alcoholism, and chemical dependency hospitals]
dik III]
ITEM
1980
1985
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1989
1990
1991
1993
Number
CHARACTERISTIC
58.2
BAD
M hospitals
62.3
6,965
6,872
58.9
6,720
6,649
6,634
6,539
6,467
6,374
With 100 beds of more
6,291
MON
3,755
3,805
Total
1
3,650
3,620
60.3
Non-Federal
3,611
3,572
3,558
3,492
3,376
60.9
65.1
59.1
6,606
25 to 34 years old
69.1
Community hospitals 1
6,529
6,380
6,312
64.8
BES
6,300
6,214
6,151
6,067
5,992
65.9
5,830
5.732
5,455
5,384
35 to 44 years old
62.8
620
5,342
5,292
5,261
Nongovernmental nonproft!
5,229
5,194
59.9
59.2
3,322
3,349
3,220
3,191
51.7
3,175
3,173
3,154
47.2
For profit
3,139
3,092
45 to 64 years old
45.8
49.6
730
805
769
749
738
563
723
717
719
752
65 years old and over
50.0
53.5
51.1
State and local government
1,778
1,578
1,466
1,444
1,429
65 to 74 years old
413
1,396
1,390
1,371
1,350
39.0
43.4
41.3
Long-term general and special
157
128
138
131
126
115
117
75 years old and over
Psychiatric
110
112
582
534
610
741
757
800
774
741
696
657
56.2
58.8
55.5
Tuberculosis
È
11
7
4
4
60.8
4
Federal
4
4
5
3
Male
61.4
65.6
359
343
340
337
334
325
316
307
299
Female
61.8
64.9
61.5
HI
White, non-Hispanic
43.3
44.3
47)
- (1.000):
49.1
Black, non-Hispanic
48.9
53.8
43.1
41
AS hospitals 3
1,365
1,309
1,224
1,211
1,197
1,174
1,158
1,128
1,081
Rate per 1,000 population 4
6.0
5.5
Hispanic origin
5.0
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.3
4.1
Beds per hospital
196
190
182
182
180
Years of school completed:
35.2
30
Non-Federal
180
179
177
172
36.9
41.2
1
1,248
1,197
1.124
1,113
SM
1,101
1,085
1,071
1,044
58.2
56.7
Community hospitals
1,004
Less than 12 years
61.3
988
(
1,001
933
928
924
733
921
916
902
873
12 years
73.9
75.7
72.2
Rate per 1,000 population
4.3
4.2
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.3
13 years of more
Nongovernmental nonprofit
692
707
660
657
656
656
649
For profit
637
610
El
87
104
Poverty status: 3
33.3
33.0
103
102
100
99
99
101
38.2
State and local government
106
M3
209
189
170
61.9
169
168
167
169
65.4
164
157
Below poverty
62.1
Long-term general and special
39
31
27
25
25
23
Frychiatric
21
19
19
At or above poverty
2 Persons of Hispene
215
169
160
158
150
139
131
Excerculosis
121
110
1 Includes all other races not shown separately and unknown education level and poverty status.
2
1
From
(Z)
(Z)
(Z)
(Z)
(Z)
1
(Z)
origin may be of any race. 3 For explanation of poverty level, see text, section 14.
117
112
100
98
95
89
87
84
78
Source: U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 1995.
bornes (bil. doL): 5
All hospitals
91.9
153.3
214.9
234.9
258.5
282.5
Ten-Federal
301.5
310.8
320.3
No. 184. Hospitals and Nursing Homes-Summary Characteristics: 1980 to 1993
84.0
141.0
Community hospitals 2
199.8
219:6
241.7
264.3
281.9
290.8
300.0
76.9
130.5
184.9
203.7
225.0
248.1
266.1
275.8
Nongovernmental nonprofit
285.6
55.8
96.1
136.9
150.7
166.8
183.8
197.2
For profit
204.2
209.6
[Except as Indicated, based on National Master Facility Inventory]
5.8
11.5
17.2
18.8
20.5
22.5
23.1
23.4
Sate and local government
26.7
15.2
22.9
30.8
34.2
37.7
41.8
45.8
48.1
49.3
FACILITIES UNDER-
FACILITIES WITH-
Long-term general and special
1.2
1.9
2.5
Rest-
2.7
2.9
2.7
2.7
Psychiatric
2.3
2.2
empty
5.8
8.3
12.0
12.9
13.5
YEAR AND TYPE OF FACILITY
Total
Non-
Fewer
75 or
dents
13.2
12.7
Tecerculasis
12.3
11.7
Propri-
25-74
005
0.1
0.1
(Z)
0.1
Gov't
than 25
more
(1,000)
Ford
(Z)
(Z)
0.1
0.7
0.4
etary
profit
beds
(1,000)
7.9
12.3
15.1
15.2
16.6
control
control
control
beds
bads
18.2
19.8
20.0
20.2
30,116
19,611
7,007
8,852
8,573
12,691
2,427
1111
- (1.000): 6
3,498
TIP
All hospitals
8,205
1,396
3,492
3,625
3,937
1980: All facilities
936
18,569
6,362
4,063
Non-Federal
4,165
4,236
4,289
8,498
4,270
4,273
34
Nursing homes
23,065
3,460
7,051
942
3,547
354
2,211
4,486
1,031
3.17'
3,213
Community hospitals 1
3,326
3,648
3,760
3,864
3,929
3,970
3,969
3,971
2,562
2,873
2,997
Hospitals
3,303
-3,420
3,535
3,620
3,677
Nongovernmental nonprofit
3,692
3,714
7,926
9,903
8,755
13,942
2,427
(IA)
2,066
2,216
2,454
21,399
2,533
2,624
32,600
3,275
1986: All facilities
4,514
325
For profit
2,692
2,711
2,719
2,702
2,150
874
189
221
261
273
281
285
289
301
6,954
2,230
1,176
3,548
290
All hospitals
3,848
690
25
Sate and local government
343
5,956
1,871
829
3,256
259
1,649
598
551
589
614
630
643
676
672
General
12
432
139
Lrg-term general and special
670
140
per
99
56
58
56
55
218
55
49
45
Psychiatric
267
Psychiatric
38
38
584
4
10
6
36
13
M
275
263
284
280
263
256
30
242
Chronic
44
1
(Z)
cerculosis
233
215
3
3
1
2
1
1
1
Tuberculosis
(NA!
form
1
1
4
3
1
1
20,223
4,378
9,613
6,605
9,426
1,553
279
299
288
303
301
306
320
301
3
Nursing homes
1,045
301
25,646
4,376
840
356
Name per 100 patients 6
8.779
2,145
1,203
3,431
326
2.077
329
398
462
5,611
1,788
711
3,112
290
1,690
3,631
3.18
482
504
525
548
1990: All hospitals 8
673
573
602
General
350
112
17
211
506
128
E
Dispetent visits (mil.)
272
263.0
734
282.1
352.2
V
368.2
387.7
417.9
435.7
Psychiatric
6
28
10
Emergency
453.6
483.2
34
27
2
5
82.0
80.1
1
89.9
92.8
93.5
95.8
Commis
97.4
96.0
Chronic
(Z)
99.9
1
1
3
4
3
73
59
60
63
67
60
83
40
43
Tuberculasis
0
6,580
2,048
3,367
310
2,010
4,260
781
3.70
1,167
1 Less than 500 beds
1993: All hospitals
1,697
660
3.046
260
1,586
3,557
634
3.401
or $50 million. 1 Short term (average length of stay less than 30 days) general and special (e.g.,
5,403
107
DI
SERVICE and gynecology; eye, ear, nose and throat; rehabilitation etc. except psychiatric. tuberculosis, alcoholism and chemical
General
737
266
358
113
24
242
471
Psychiatric
26
21
1
3
22
9
19
a Includes hospital units of Institutions. Excludes hospital units of institutions. Beginning 1989, number of beds
1
4
Chronic
4
3
1
2
2
(Z)
are I reporting period; prior years, average number in 12 month period. Based on Bureau of the Census estimated resident
personal as of July 1. Estimates reflect revisions based on the 1990 Census of Population.
Tuberculosis
Excludes new construction
- full-time equivalents of part-time personnel.
Represents zero. NA Not available. Z Fewer that 500. 1 For hospitals, 3 See foomote minimum 1, table of six 202. beds; for Includes nursing 1978 home as
Number of residents as of date of interview.
Sturte: American Hospital Association. Chicago, IL. Hospital Statistics, annual (copyright).
minimum of three beds.
5
for Alaska and South Dakota.
Estimated
Includes types not shown separately. Based on data from the American Home
Association.
Source: U.S. National Center for Health Statistics, unpublished data
Statistical
Abstracts
1997
900
12/14/98 16:57
617 432 0693
COUNTWAY ADMIN.
001/004
COUNTWAY LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
Reference & Education
Countway Library of Medicine
10 Shattuck Street
Boston, MA 02115
FAX COVER SHEET
DATE:
12/14/98
TO:
Josh 90TTheimes
PHONE:
FAX: 202-456-2505
FROM:
Lucretia McClure
PHONE: 617,432.2635
FAX: 617.432.3559
RE:
Number of pages including cover sheet: 5
Message
The American Medical Directory published in
1906 by american Medical Association
hists 128, 173 phy sicious in the u.s.
Please call if you Love questions
12/14/98 16:57
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COUNTWAY ADMIN.
002/004
M.J. Rosenau
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR
BUREAU OF THE CENSUS
S. N. D. NORTH, DIRECTOR
SPECIAL REPORTS
BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS
1904
of COMMERCE AND
DEPARTMENT UNITED 8 AMERICA LABOR .
STATES
OF
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1905
total amount designated as income was $17,175, and
As there were excluded from this report, so far ILS
would go but a small way toward paying cost of main-
was possible to distinguish them, all institutions CO
tenance.
ducted for private profit, it follows that the number
To strend to the wants of the children the services of
hospitals given for any community represents OF
680 paid employees were required.
those of a distinctly benevolent character and does r.
HOSPITALS.
indicate the whole extent of existing hospital faciliti
Thus Nevada is the only state not credited with a h.
Table XIV gives, by states and territories, a summary
pital, but presumably the need of hospitale for h
of the details presented for this class of institutions in
small population is met by private enterprises not
Table 2, with the number designated as public, private,
be classed as benevolent.
TABLE XIV.-HOSPITALS, BY STATES AND TERRITORIES.
NUMBER ON
Num-
NUMBER OF
NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS.
NUMBER OF PATIENTS
MEDICAL
ber of
TIENTS
STAFF.
institu-
100,000 OF P.
tions
Annual
STATE OR TERRI-
Num.
main-
subsidles
Income
LATION-
TORY.
ber of
taining
from pub.
from pay
Cost of
Re-
nurses.
lic funds,
patients.
mainte
train-
Total
Pub-
Admitted
main-
1908.
nance, 1003.
Pri-
Ecelesi-
On Jan.
ing
lic.
Vate.
astical
1,1904,
during
ing
Rext-
Visit.
1903.
On Dec.
Adml
Dec.31,
dept.
ing.
schools
1904.
for
31, 1904.
durl
1904.
190
nurses.
United States
1,493
20
881
442
71,427
1,064,512
71,580
2,868
15.914
21,541
867
82,276,888
$12,181,454
$18,200,849
$7.3
1,:
Alabama
9
2
8
4
283
4,591
211
8
90
96
Arizona
4
10
2
5
13,600
S
32,757
183
76,706
10.7
2,277
158
9
37
42
1
Arkansis
13
8
6
11,171
Б
311
32,360
90,436
113.8
8,124
257
16
1,'
49
89
8
California
50
14
23
18
2,018.
25,982
52.670
2,728
18.4
45,600
2.897
123
411
925
90
Colorado
0
82
8
15
12
811,809
1,450,123
1,812
180.0
13,140
1,176
9,
46
406
428
14
3,837
221,080
459,970
190.8
2.
Connecticut
21
2
18
1
759
17,708
759
82
217
291
Delaware
14
3
0
3
D
93,349
204,864
74
988
464,087
T.2
52
1
25
1,
30
2
Districtor Columbin
18
500
2
7
4
731
7,521
15,589
28,484
717
27.1
48
80G
Florida
280
11
17
9
7
97,286
2
199
101,648
1,786
176
291,221
238.3
9
5.
40
62
Georgia
5
17
6
8
8
1,854
18,97d
432
62,918
7,333
29.8
H38
21
117
168
11
33,500
53,677
162,017
14.1
Idaho
0
0
2
4
118
1,494
111
2
22
BG
Illinois
"
105
0
11
42
52
5,985
21,979
33,907
56.8
85,001
6,344
242
1,222
2,048
Indian Territory
61
15
0
22,820
0
2
13
905
1,365,200
2,165,847
101.8
37
y
13
1,
12
Indiana
1
0
81
-
12
15
868
13.590
11,136
14,547
7.0
813
23
314
857
Iowa
14
41
7
15
5,228
19
173,797
960
255.821
80.5
13,966
876
48
883
432
29
7,176
258,598
343,950
86.8
Kansas
28
0
13
10
790
9.135
603
86
194
241
15
Kentucky
29
6
15
4,600
8
1.097
100,182
184,387
37.9
11,209
878
28
261
314
Louisiana
13
10
4
8
8
11,900
85,424
1,807
253,487
19,912
38.5
1,042
42
151
1/7
5
Maine
12
1
10.200
10
1
378
67,958
20,345
6,274
09.4
405
1,
20
140
202
Maryland
8
32
1
20
88,000
6
126.771
1,633
29,435
281,640
67.1
1,621
108
323
525
18
126.002
311,706
719,921
129.2
1,
Massachusetts
92
13
68
12
4,513
73,485
4,450
208
1,154
1,647
07
Michigan
59
78,148
G
40
13
973,858
1,569
2,702,000
140.2
21,784
1,269
116
ci
431
626
Minnesota
y2
44
7
12
25
12,220
457.854
1,480
624,348
22,689
49.8
1,492
68
-158
585
Mississippi
21
6
2
4
0
2,939
472.92:
859
633,070
76.4
1.
2,872
182
16
30
Missouri
41
4
G6
S
23
24
3,430
6.052
3,178
3),872
9.1
50,014
2,946
126
526
TNB
31
8,277
459,393
919,860
89.2
1.
Montana
16
1
4
11
484
5,270
JBQ
1G
68
109
S
Nebrasks
17
1
6,895
9
140,924
300,369
169.0
8
454
1
0,463
426
10
147
Nevnda
231
11
1,774
150,400
175,078
39.9
New Hampshire
19
1
16
2
217
3,792
229
24
120
101
13
New Jersey
8.041
69,297
48
t;
91
110,207
58.5
11
2,810
38,845
2,872
69
601
695
30
99,449
268,896
602,529
118.8
1
New Mexico
11
2
0
J
573
2,177
685
16
20
65
1
New York
10.080
194
70,159
20
123
42
268,661
15,028
924.1
1
246.520
15,068
608
2,932
North Curolina
8,889
177
712.129
1,901,022
21
1
15
5
6,732,983
199.6
8
219
4,110
227
16
118
North Dakota
117
11
25.288
B
1
38,459
a
94,911
11.2
*
181
2,038
117
9
41
Ohio
86
2
0
74
B
46.462
89
27
48,154
81.0
5,561
51,997
3,523
145
998
1.376
43
27,480
591.600
1,423,246
196.1
1
Oklahoma
1
0
o
1
35
(1)
(1)
0
20
10
0
Oregon
0
6
0
9,408
4,105
2
B
321
6,945
365
(1)
7
87
Pennsylvania
99
3
984
14G
15
112
18
79,015
72,008
79.8
8,102
124,007
11,261
1
381
1,886
Rhode Island
2,633
106
725,554
9
1
1,085,306
7
1
2,637,071
160.1
495
1
9,249
462
1:
104
174
6
South Carolina
28,382
60,158
$
2
2
234,044
99.0
4
1
124
1,211
120
11
67
BO
B
1,000
20,728
54,319
8.4
South Dakota
S
I
2
5
142
1,609
98
6
56
Tennesscc
G1
1
500
18
8
2
&
49,427
54,313
488
10,028
23.0
44H
25
160
Texas
145
8
0
81
7
13
78.142
11
100,073
21.0
981
22,850
H23
45
211
Utah
823
12
7
9,034
212,780
2
8
2
852,410
24.1
201
Vermont
3.359
172
5
20
69
8
0
9
U
7
2
69,004
76,020
66.0
]
182
2,900
140
7
91
109
8
6.294
41,372
68,914
40.1
Virginia
19
1
17
1
G58
18,936
580
27
Washington
226
250
17
28
9,575
4
10
110,225
14
174,921
27.G
987
13,110
998
West Virginia
21
224
326
1G
20
5
9,752
220,767
12
169.6
8
299,400
470
0,210
969
Wisconsin
19
102
1G]
14
43
6
6,000
15
67,505
22
180,761
86.2
1,380
Wyoming
19,718
1,223
80
866
487
18
5
8
2,249
2
904,278
0
392.839
81
64.6
991
66
5
18
20
2
840
21,419
27,049
62.1
1 Not reported.
12/14/98 16:58
5617 432 0693
COUNTWAY ADMIN.
003/004
IN SICKNESS
AND
IN WEALTH
American Hospitals in
the Twentieth Century
ROSEMARY STEVENS
Basic Books, Inc., Publishers
1989
NEW YORK
12/14/98
16:58
617 432 0693
COUNTWAY ADMIN.
004/004
20
IN SICKNESS AND IN WEALTH
Cherities and Busines
table hospitals special and unique characteristics by 1900. The first was the
the American hospit
long acceptance of paying patients in U.S. hospitals, in a tradition that
native form of orga
went back to the establishment of the Pennsylvania Hospital in 1751-the
tals, a form to whic
first voluntary hospital in the American colonies. The second was the
mands for hospital 1
equally long tradition of government aid to private charitable endeavors.⁸
hospitals were also
The American hospital was already a hybrid.
patients. Paul Starr
the proprietaries fo
their own practices
lowing their medica
importance and influ
form itself was imp
Establishing the Power Base: Patterns of Allegiance
rizing hospitals in t
as businesses.
For physicians, 1
There was no standard definition of a "hospital" in 1900. American hospi-
preferable to admit 1
tals were a heterogenous group of institutions in terms of both function
by others, including
and size. They fell roughly into four categories of ownership: proprietary,
governments-alway
private charitable, religious, and governmental. The most prestigious hos-
bill private patients
pitals were organized as charities, by individuals who were usually not
private practice in inc
medical practitioners-and who had agendas of their own.
subsidy, for the sepa
Proprietary hospitals-that is, hospitals operated by proprietors or
cian practice relieved
owners-were nearest to the day-to-day routine of many private practi-
and any hospital oper
tioners, scattered across the country, who set up a few beds for the conve-
administration.
nience of paying patients, sometimes in their own homes. Proprietary
The traditional €
hospitals flourished in particular where other types of hospitals were un-
free to all hospital Pa
available, notably in the South and West. In North Carolina fifty-four of
by 1910, even in the
the sixty-five hospitals existing in 1916 were "stock hospitals," virtually
were still generally e
all of them new hospitals opened by surgeons.9
whom the hospital to
There may have been as many as 1,500 to 2,000 proprietary hospitals
medical billing for h.
in 1910 out of a total of over 4,000 hospitals of all kinds. 10 Eminent
the older eastern citi
surgeons established their own small hospitals for private patients who
Hospital in Chicago
preferred not to go to large institutions. Small-town doctors set up small
to bill patients admitt
units where no other hospital existed, and profit-oriented city specialists
practitioners who hel
designed their own exclusive treatment centers, chiefly for women's sur-
charitable hospitals. I
gery as this became a fashionable and lucrative field. Some of the profit-
saw hospitals (and th
making medical schools also owned hospitals as a sideline. In Louisville,
petitors. As the medic
Kentucky, for example, medical-school professors ran a hospital as a
members also sought
profit-making venture. Such hospitals were essentially small businesses in
matter of economics
character, intents, and methods.
The epitome of
Proprietary hospitals were important to the emerging structure of
doctors in private pri
12/14/98 17:00
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DATE:
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TO:
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PHONE:
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FROM:
Lucretia McClure
PHONE: 617.432.2635
FAX: 617.432.3559
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RE:
Number of pages including cover sheet: 5
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The American Medical Directory published in
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32
BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS.
With some exceptions, it appears to be the general
and ecclesiastical, and the number of patients on De
custom for parents or friends to make small payments
cember 31, 1904, and persons admitted during the year
for the care given children in the nurseries. The
per 100,000 of population.
total amount designated as income was $17,175, and
As there were excluded from this report, so far as
would go but a small was toward paying cost of main-
was possible to distinguish them, all institutions con
tepance.
ducted for private profit, it follows that the number di
To rttend to the wants of the children the services of
hospitals given for any community represents onl
680 paid employees were required.
those of a distinctly benevolent character and does DO
indicate the whole extent of existing hospital facilities
HOSPITALS.
Thus Nevada is the only state not credited with a hos
Table XIV gives, by states and territories, a summary
pital, but presumably the need of hospitals for he
of the details presented for this class of institutions in
small population is met by private enterprises not t
Table 2, with the number designated as public, private,
be classed as benevolent.
TABLE XIV.-HOSPITALS, BY STATES AND TERRITORIES
NUMBER ON
Num-
NUMBER OF ?
NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS.
NUMBER OF PATIENTS-
MEDICAL
ber of
TIENTS F1
STAFF.
Institu-
100.000 OF POI
tions
Annual
LATION-
Num.
main-
subsidies
Income
Cost of
STATE OR TERRI-
ber of
taining
from DUD-
from Day
mainte
TORY.
Re-
purses.
train-
lie funds.
patients
On Jan.
Admitted
main-
1903.
nance, 1903.
Pub-
Real-
Visit-
ing
1903.
On Dec.
Admit
Pri-
Eceleat-
Total.
lic.
astical.
1,1904.
during
ing
schools
durin
Tate
1904.
Dec. 81,
dent
ing.
1904.
for
1904
1904,
nurses.
United States
1,493
220
831
442
71,427
1,064,512
71,680
2,868
16,914
21,841
667
$2,276,830
$12,181,484
$28.200,809
57.3
1.30
Alabama
9
2
S
4
258
4,591
211
g
90
90
a
13,600
32,757
76,700
10.7
I
Arizona
10
2
5
8
183
2,277
158
9
87
4.1
1
11,171
52,280
90,436
118.8
1.66
Arkansas
13
8
5
5
911
8,124
257
16
49
80
8
2,04B.
25,982
52,670
18.4
2.
Culifornia
50
14
23
18
2,728
48,606
2.897
128
411
915
30
0
811,809
1,450,123
180.0
3.02
Colorado
$2
5
15
12
1,312
18,140
1,176
46
406
428
14
8,837
221,060
459,970
196.8
2.2
Connecticut
21
2
18
1
759
17,708
769
32
217
291
14
98,349
204,864
404,037
77.2
1,8
Delaware
3
0
8
0
74
988
52
1
25
30
2
500
7,624
29,481
27.1
5
Districtor Columbia.
13
2
7
4
781
16,589
717
48
306
240
11
97,286
101,648
291,222
289.3
5.2
Florida
17
9
7
1
199
1,786
176
9
40
62
5
1,364
18,976
69,318
29.9
a
Georgia
17
6
B
8
482
7,333
338
21
117
are
11
83,900
68,577
152,017
14.1
3
Idaho
6
0
2
4
11G
1,491
111
2
00
RO
2
0
21,979
33,907
50.M
7
Illinois
105
11
G
02
5,985
85,001
5,34
242
1,220
2,049
01
22,820
1,365,205
2,165,847
101.3
1,0
Indian Territory
13
0
0
2
48
905
37
3
18
12
1
0
18,590
14.147
7.6
1
Indiana
31
4
12
16
8G8
11,196
813
23
844
357
14
5,228
173,797
255,821
50.5
4
Iowa
41
7
15
19
980
13,995
676
48
388
432
29
7.176
253,598
343,960
96.8
:
Kanaas
28
0
18
10
790
9.186
565
36
194
241
18
4,600
100,182
184,357
37.0
-
Kentucky
29
0
15
B
1,097
11,209
B78
28
281
314
18
11,900
85,424
253,487
$8.6
Louisiana
10
4
8
8
1,807
19.912
1,042
42
151
1J7
6
10,200
67,968
200,340
69.4
1.:
Maine
12
1
10
1
878
6,274
105
20
140
202
8
$3,000
126,771
281,640
57.1
Maryland
82
1
26
6
1.688
28,435
1.621
108
828
825
18
126.002
311,706
719,921
129.2
1.1
Massachusetts
93
13
GB
12
1,618
78,485
4,450
206
1,154
1,617
67
73,148
973,358
2,702,648
145.2
ci
Michigan
D9
0
40
13
1.669
21,784
1,289
116
484
6:18
82
12,220
437,854
621,842
49.6
Minnesota
41
7
12
25
1,430
22,633
1,492
60
468
535
21
2,939
472.922
633,076
76.J
1.
Mississippi
6
2
4
0
859
2.372
152
15
30
41
4
8,480
5.052
31,872
9.)
Missouri
65
B
12
24
8,178
50,014
2,946
120
520
758
31
8,277
459,898
919,850
69.2
1.
Montana
16
1
4
11
484
5,270
400
10
AB
109
3
6,895
140,924
300,359
159.0
1.
Nebraska
17
1
B
8
151
6,463
426
10
147
as
11
1,774
156,400
175,078
39.0
Nevada
New Hampshire
19
1
16
=
247
8,792
229
24
126
101
13
8,641
09 297
116,207
53,0
New Jersey
48
6
91
11
2,310
38,845
2.372
69
501
095
so
99,449
258,326
801,529
113.6
1.
New Mexico
11
2
0
3
678
2,177
685
10
20
05
1
10,086
70,159
268.681
324.1
1.
New York
19'
29
123
42
15,028
246.520
15.088
608
2,982
3,899
117
712,129
1,951,022
6,732,933
199.6
3.
North Carolina
21
1
16
5
219
4.110
227
16
118
117
11
23,288
88,459
94,911
11.2
North Dakota
8
1
8
4
131
2,080
117
9
41
86
2
0
46,162
49,154
31.0
Ohio
74
6
39
27
5,561
51,997
5,629
145
998
1,376
49
27,480
591,800
1,428,245
126.1
1
Oklahoma
1
0
0
1
35
(¹)
(1)
0
20
10
0
0
8,403
4,105
(1)
I
Oregon
6
0
1
5
921
5,946
365
7
57
99
8
984
79,015
72.068
79.8
1
Pennsylvania
146
15
112
18
8,102
124,007
11,261
331
1,836
2,538
106
725,554
1,085,866
8,637,671
166.1
1
Rhode Island
9
1
7
1
495
0,249
462
23
104
174
6
38,882
60,468
284,044
98.0
1
South Carolina
8
2
4
2
124
1,211
120
11
57
GG
6
1,000
20,728
54,349
B 4
South Dakota
8
1
2
5
142
1,669
98
Б
66
G1
1
GOO
43,417
54,813
23.0
Tennessee
18
2
B.
483
10.628
448
25
160
145
8
0
78,142
160,073
21.0
Texas
31
7
18
12
981
22.556
828
45
211
323
12
9,034
212.720
952,410
24.1
Utah
7
12
S
15
201
9,389
172
5
30
59
8
0
89,004
76.626
06.0
1
Vermont
9
U
7
2
132
2,900
140
7
91
109
8
5,291
41,372
65,914
40.1
virginia
19
1
17
1
053
13,086
586
27
22G
250
17
9.675
119,235
174,921
27.6
Washington
28
4
10
14
987
19,110
998
21
IN
320
10
9,762
218,767
299.400
168.6
:
West Virginia
20
5
12
a
$70
6,218
809
19
102
101
14
6,000
67,565
130,701
35.2
Wisconsin
43
6
15
22
1,880
19,718
1,223
30
360
487
18
2,249
301,278
392.839
54.6
Wyoming
5
3
2
0
81
991
06
5
18
20
2
840
"1,419
27,049
62.1
1 Not reported.
HEALTH
"Before 1880 we knew nothing; after 1890 we knew it all; it was glorious ten years."
- William Segewick, bacteriologist
[Columbia, David Rosner, pg. 487]
NYC, Infant death rate per 1,000 births
1890 - 144
1990 - 9 NATIONALLY
Life Expectancy
1900: 47.3 years
1994: 75.7
"Between 1950 and 1990, there were profound changes in mortality and fertility, and by
considering them, one can best understand the momentous demographic transformation of this
period. Between 1950-1955 and 1965-1970, the world's birth declined slightly, from 38 to 34
birth for every 1,000 people, while the death rate decreased noticeably from 20 to 13 -- thus
explaining the acceleration of population growth. However, in the next twenty years, this growth
slowed down, as a result of the greater decline in birth rates (34 to 27) than in death rates (13 to
10)." -- Sabagh in Columbia History, pg. 546.
Black woman's life expectancy
1900 - 34 yrs.
1940 56
1980 74
1994 - 73.9
Causes of death, 1990
Heart disease - 281.3/100,000
Cancer - 205.2
Cerebrovascular disease - 58.9
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease - 39
Accidents - 35.1
Diabetes - 21.8
Motor vehicles - 16.3
HIV - 16.2
Suicide - 12
Homicide - 9.6
Causes of death, 1900
Major cardiovascular renal diseases - 345/100,000
Influenza, pneumonia - 202.2
TB - 194.4 (1997 - 16,237 deaths total = 6/100,000)
Gastritis, duodentitis, colitis - 142.7
Accidents - 72.3
Malignant neoplasms - 64
Diptheria - 40.3
Measles - 13.3
Cirrhosis of liver - 12.5
Whooping cough - 12.2
Diabetes - 11
According to Professor Sam Preston @ UPenn -- If 1900 health standards still prevailed ½ of
us would be dead.
- 18% of children died before the age of 5.
- all infectious diseases (of which TB was the biggest - 15% of deaths) accounted for over
½ of all deaths; today they only account for less than 10 percent.
Doctors and Hospitals, Nationally
1900 - 119,749 Doctors in 1900; 1,493 Hospitals in 1904 (earliest available)
1997 - 756,710 Doctors end of 1997; 6,201 Hospitals in 1996
Hospital population, NYC
1900 - 5,402
1910 - 21,815
Child care - children in poorhouses
"Degrading and vicious influences surround them in these insitutions, corrupting to both body
and soul. They quickly fall into ineradicable habits of idleness, which prepare them for a life of
pauperism and crime. Their moral and religious training is, in most cases, entirely neglected, and
their secular education is of the scantiest and most superficial kind. Self-respect is, in time,
almost extinguished, and a prolonged residence in a poorhouse leaves upon them a stigma which
clings to them in after years, and carries its unhappy influences through life."
- NY State Commissioners of Public
Charities, 1874
[Katz. pg. 104]
Child care
"The president of the 1893 convention of New York's County Superintendents of the Poor told
his colleagues that "child-saving work alone is the foundation of prosperity, happiness, and
heaven." Few would have disagreed, or even expressed surprise. Throughout the country, by the
1890s children had captured the energy and attention of social reformers with an intensity never
matched in other periods of American history."
- Katz, 1990s
[lbid., pg. 113]
HEALTH
"Before 1880 we knew nothing; after 1890 we knew it all; it was glorious ten years."
- William Segewick, bacteriologist
[Columbia, David Rosner, pg. 487]
NYC, Infant death rate per 1,000 births
1890 - 144
1990 - 9 NATIONALLY
Life Expectancy
1900: 47.3 years
1994: 75.7
"Between 1950 and 1990, there were profound changes in mortality and fertility, and by
considering them, one can best understand the momentous demographic transformation of this
period. Between 1950-1955 and 1965-1970, the world's birth declined slightly, from 38 to 34
birth for every 1,000 people, while the death rate decreased noticeably from 20 to 13 -- thus
explaining the acceleration of population growth. However, in the next twenty years, this growth
slowed down, as a result of the greater decline in birth rates (34 to 27) than in death rates (13 to
10). -- Sabagh in Columbia History, pg. 546.
Black woman's life expectancy
1900 - 34 yrs.
1940 56
1980 74
1994 - 73.9
Causes of death, 1990
Heart disease - 281.3/100,000
Cancer - 205.2
Cerebrovascular disease - 58.9
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease - 39
Accidents - 35.1
Diabetes - 21.8
Motor vehicles - 16.3
HIV - 16.2
Suicide - 12
Homicide - 9.6
Causes of death, 1900
Major cardiovascular renal diseases - 345/100,000
Influenza, pneumonia - 202.2
TB - 194.4 (1997 - 16,237 deaths total = 6/100,000)
Gastritis, duodentitis, colitis - 142.7
Accidents - 72.3
Malignant neoplasms - 64
Diptheria - 40.3
Measles - 13.3
Cirrhosis of liver - 12.5
Whooping cough - 12.2
Diabetes - 11
According to Professor Sam Preston @ UPenn -- If 1900 health standards still prevailed ½ of
us would be dead.
- 18% of children died before the age of 5.
- all infectious diseases (of which TB was the biggest - 15% of deaths) accounted for over
½ of all deaths; today they only account for less than 10 percent.
Doctors and Hospitals
1900 - 119,749 Doctors and 1,493 Hospitals in 1904 (earliest available)
1997 - 756,710 Doctors and 6,201 Hospitals
Hospital population, NYC
1900 - 5,402
1910 - 21,815
Child care - children in poorhouses
"Degrading and vicious influences surround them in these insitutions, corrupting to both body
and soul. They quickly fall into ineradicable habits of idleness, which prepare them for a life of
pauperism and crime. Their moral and religious training is, in most cases, entirely neglected, and
their secular education is of the scantiest and most superficial kind. Self-respect is, in time,
almost extinguished, and a prolonged residence in a poorhouse leaves upon them a stigma which
clings to them in after years, and carries its unhappy influences through life."
- NY State Commissioners of Public
Charities, 1874
[Katz, pg. 104]
Child care
"The president of the 1893 convention of New York's County Superintendents of the Poor told
his colleagues that "child-saving work alone is the foundation of prosperity, happiness, and
heaven." Few would have disagreed, or even expressed surprise. Throughout the country, by the
1890s children had captured the energy and attention of social reformers with an intensity never
matched in other periods of American history."
- Katz, 1990s
[lbid., pg. 113]
HEALTH
"Before 1880 we knew nothing; after 1890 we knew it all; it was glorious ten years."
- William Segewick, bacteriologist
[Columbia, David Rosner, pg. 487]
NYC, Infant death rate per 1,000 births
1890 - 144
1990 - 9 NATIONALLY
Life Expectancy
1900: 47.3 years
1994: 75.7
"Between 1950 and 1990, there were profound changes in mortality and fertility, and by
considering them, one can best understand the momentous demographic transformation of this
period. Between 1950-1955 and 1965-1970, the world's birth declined slightly, from 38 to 34
birth for every 1,000 people, while the death rate decreased noticeably from 20 to 13 -- thus
explaining the acceleration of population growth. However, in the next twenty years, this growth
slowed down, as a result of the greater decline in birth rates (34 to 27) than in death rates (13 to
10).' -- Sabagh in Columbia History, pg. 546.
Black woman's life expectancy
1900 - 34 yrs.
1940 56
1980 74
1994 - 73.9
Causes of death, 1990
Heart disease - 281.3/100,000
Cancer - 205.2
Cerebrovascular disease - 58.9
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease - 39
Accidents - 35.1
Diabetes - 21.8
Motor vehicles - 16.3
HIV - 16.2
Suicide - 12
Homicide - 9.6
Causes of death, 1900
Major cardiovascular renal diseases - 345/100,000
Influenza, pneumonia - 202.2
TB - 194.4 (1997 - 16,237 deaths total = 6/100,000)
Gastritis, duodentitis, colitis - 142.7
Accidents - 72.3
Malignant neoplasms - 64
Diptheria - 40.3
Measles - 13.3
Cirrhosis of liver - 12.5
Whooping cough - 12.2
Diabetes - 11
According to Professor Sam Preston @ UPenn -- If 1900 health standards still prevailed 1/2 of
us would be dead.
- 18% of children died before the age of 5.
- all infectious diseases (of which TB was the biggest - 15% of deaths) accounted for over
½ of all deaths; today they only account for less than 10 percent.
Doctors and Hospitals, Nationally
(1900
1900 - 119,749 Doctors' in 1900 1,493 Hospitals in-1904 (earliest available)
1997 - 756,710 Doctors end 6,201 Hospitals in 1996 (most recent)
Hospital population, NYC
1904
(00%
1900 - 5,402
1910 - 21,815
Child care - children in poorhouses
"Degrading and vicious influences surround them in these insitutions, corrupting to both body
and soul. They quickly fall into ineradicable habits of idleness, which prepare them for a life of
pauperism and crime. Their moral and religious training is, in most cases, entirely neglected, and
their secular education is of the scantiest and most superficial kind. Self-respect is, in time,
almost extinguished, and a prolonged residence in a poorhouse leaves upon them a stigma which
clings to them in after years, and carries its unhappy influences through life."
- NY State Commissioners of Public
Charities, 1874
[Katz, pg. 104]
Child care
"The president of the 1893 convention of New York's County Superintendents of the Poor told
his colleagues that "child-saving work alone is the foundation of prosperity, happiness, and
heaven." Few would have disagreed, or even expressed surprise. Throughout the country, by the
1890s children had captured the energy and attention of social reformers with an intensity never
matched in other periods of American history."
- Katz, 1990s
[Ibid., pg. 113]
Jonathan Orszag
12/15/98 11:19:02 AM
Record Type:
Record
To:
Joshua S. Gottheimer/WHO/EOP
CC:
Subject: Some stats
Benefits of Deficit Reduction
$17,000 For Every Family in Reduced Debt Burden. Without deficit reduction, the Federal debt
would be $1.2 trillion higher than it is today. That represents a reduction of $17,000 in each American
family's share of the Federal debt burden.
$1,600 Per Family in Tax Savings on Interest on Federal Debt. The interest that has been saved on
this debt totaled $112 billion over the past six years, corresponding to an average reduction of $1,600 per
family in the share of taxes necessary to pay interest on the Federal debt.
Interest Rates Are 2.5 Percentage Points Lower. The disappearance of the deficits the American
people faced in 1993 is estimated to lower interest rates over the long run by about 2-1/2 percentage
points.
More than $2,000 Per Year in Savings for Typical Family With $100,000 Mortgage. For a typical
American family with a home mortgage of $100,000, that's a savings of more than $2,000 a year in
mortgage payments. Like a tax cut, this places more cash in the hands of families and has been used in a
variety of ways to make families better off, such as making home improvements, buying a car, or paying
for college.
18 Million Families Have Refinanced their Mortgages -- Saving An Average of $1,800 per year in
Lower Mortgage Costs. In addition to lowering finance costs to purchase a home, falling mortgage
interest rates have allowed home owners to save money by refinancing their existing mortgages. As
mortgage interest rates fell below 7 percent in 1993, refinancings surged to nearly 5-1/2 million that
year. Those homeowners shaved about 2 percentage points off their mortgage rate on average, saving
about $1,800 a year in interest payments for a typical-sized loan. The stream of refinancings has
continued through 1998, with many families refinancing more than once. An additional 4-1/2 million are
expected in 1998. Since 1993, total mortgage refinancings have topped 18 million.
More than $1,300 in Savings for Students Over 10-Year Loan Period. Students leaving college with
student loans typically owe about $12,000 on average. With lower interest rates, the student's payments
are estimated to decline by more than $1,300 over a 10-year loan period.
Jonathan Orszag
12/15/98 11:26:37 AM
Record Type:
Record
To:
Joshua S. Gottheimer/WHO/EOP
CC:
Subject:
Typical Family Income Up $3,517 Since 1993. Last year, the median
family's income, adjusted for inflation, increased 3.0 percent (or $1,297) --
the fourth consecutive annual rise. Since President Clinton's Economic Plan
passed in 1993, median family income has increased from $41,051 in 1993
to $44,568 in 1997 -- that's a $3,517 increase in income, adjusted for
inflation. From 1988 to 1992, median family income fell $1,835, adjusted
for inflation.
Under President Clinton, The Typical African-American Household's Income
Is Up $3,354. The median income of African-American households rose 4.3
percent (or $1,029) last year. And since 1993, the median income of
African-American households has increased from $21,696 to $25,050 --
that's $3,354 or a 15-percent increase, adjusted for inflation, between 1993
and 1997.
Income of Typical Hispanic Household Up $2,553 in Past Two Years. In
1997, the income of the median Hispanic household, adjusted for inflation,
increased from $25,477 in 1996 to $26,628 in 1997 -- that's an increase of
$1,151 or 4.5 percent. Over the past two years, the income of the typical
Hispanic household has risen $2,553 -- or nearly 11 percent -- the largest
two-year increase in Hispanic income on record.
After Rising Sharply for 20 Years, Inequality Has Stabilized. After rising for
nearly 20 years, income inequality has not changed significantly over the
past four years. Since 1993, every income group -- from the most well-off
to the poorest -- experienced a real increase in their income.
Dard Fronkel
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Jules Verne, Edward Bellowy
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and American
799-6786
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Late 60-4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREDICTIONS
1.
Economic
2.
End of the World
3.
Equal Rights
4.
General
5.
Government and Politics
6.
Immigration
7.
Innovation
8.
The Presidency
9.
Thanking those before us
10.
Transportation
See tabs for source information -- each quote is cross-referenced to a numbered tab.
DEC-11-1998 12:27
CENSUS BUREAU HHES DIVI I
P.02
U.S. Department of Commerce
1990 CP-2-34
Economics and Statistics Administration
BUREAU OF THE CENSUS
1990 Census of Population
CENSUS '90
Social and Economic
Characteristics
New York
Section 2 of 3
OTB 15% of deaths
(Qall infectious disemen over 1/2 deaths
now under 1070
RESEARCH TASKS
No one may leave until all of these are completed
children died befor
1. GDP -1900, 1998 > MATTER 78Mg
5 = 18% (00)
2. Ranked cause of death - 1900, 1998
3. # of children who died in childbirth of childhood - 1900, 1998
JOSH now is bout Ii.
4. Names of diseases big then, nonexistent now -- probably same as #2
5. Poverty rates - 1900, 1998 - might be difficult, good luck
LoL
wJulor , Mkatz
unw
6.% of Americans who went to college - 1900, 1998 OR degrees granted 1990 ONLY
witcash
Mediu
7.% of Americans who graduated high school - 1900, 1998
Judith
1/2
levitt
8. How long did it take to travel from NY to SF (ratt
J
of us
9. GDP per manhour - 1998
would 17st
he here
10. Output per manhour 1990 or 1998 INDEXED - 1900, 1998
challs
if 1900
Rexing
11. U.S. Govt. Expenditures - 1998
health state
et
12. Occupations by % - 1998
knuf Pa
still prevaily
13. Energy sources - 1998
14. International trade (IM make ?% of GNP, EX ?) - 1998
15. # flights - Jeff's research, Arkansas airport opening - obviously 1900 # is 0
of
16. Miles of RR - 1998
17. Miles of Road - 1998
18. Total US car production - 1998
19. % of 18-21 yr. Olds in college - 1998,
20. # Baccalaureate degrees granted - 1998
21. Telephones, # of users - 1998
22. % of women working - 1900, 1998 leut
23. # of daily newspapers - 1900, 1998
24. # doctors, # hospitals - 1900 1998
Idoc + hospitals
were irrelevant
for
The Atlantic Monthly
July 1899
158
The Tenant.
by Jacob Riis
The Tenant.
159
is still another sweater, the public.
of the country. Brownsville was one of
are that a purely farming community
But we should not get the best of the slum
Only by its sufferance of the bargain
the earliest. Its projector was a manu-
might be established have not been re-
that way it would get the best of us,
11
counter and of sweatshop-made goods
facturer, and its motive profit. The re-
alized. Perhaps it was too much to ex-
instead. Would I shut out the new-
has the nuisance existed as long as it
sult was the familiar one, as nasty 8
pect. By bringing to the farmers their
comers? Sometimes, looking at it from
has. I am glad to believe that its time
little slum as ever the East Side had to
missing market, and work to the surplus
the point of view of the Barge Office and
PAGE
is passing away. The law has driven
show. We have it on our hands now
population, the mixed settlement plan
the sweatshop, I think I would. Then
the sweatshops out of the tenements,
in the Greater City, it came in with
bide fair to prove a step in the desired
there comes up the recollection of a pic-
and so deprived them of one of their
Brooklyn, and it is not a gain. Down
direction.
ture of the city of Prague that hangs in
chief props: there was no rent at all
in southern New Jersey several colonies
Some 18,500 acres are now held by
a Bohemian friend's parlor, here in New
to pay there. Child labor, which only
were started, likewise by speculators, in
Jewish colonists in New Jersey. In the
York. I stood looking at it one day,
years ago the Reinhard Commit-
the persecution of the early eighties, and
New England states, in the last eight
and noticed in the foreground cannon
tee' characterized as one =of the most
these also failed. The soil was sandy
years, 600 abandoned farms have been
that pointed in over the city. I spoke
extensive evils now existing in the city
and poor, and, thrown upon their own
occupied and are cultivated by refugees
of it, unthinking, and said to my host
of New York, a constant and grave men-
resources in a strange and unfriendly
from Russia. As a dairy farmer and a
that they should be trained, if against an
ace to the welfare of people," has
neighborhood, with unfamiliar and un-
poultry raiser, the Jew has more of an
enemy, the other way. The man's eye
been practically banished from the tailor-
remunerative toil, the colonists grew
immediate commercial grip on the situa-
flashed fire. Ha!" he cried, here,
ing trade. What organization among
discouraged and gave up in despair.
tion and works with more courage. At
yes When I think of that, I do not
the workers had failed to effect is ap-
The colonies were approaching final col-
Woodbine, sixty-five boys and girls are
want to shut the door.
parently going to be accomplished by
lapse, when the managers of the Baron
being trained in an agricultural school
Again, there occurs to me an experi-
direct pressure of an outraged public,
de Hirsch Fund in New York, who had
that has won the whole settlement the
ence the police had last summer in Mul-
opinion. Already manufacturers are
started and maintained a successful col-
friendly regard of the neighborhood.
berry Street. They were looking for a
FAX:
returning to their own factories, and
ony at Woodbine, in the same neighbor-
Of its pupils, cleven came out of tailor
morderer, and came upon a nest of Ital-
making capital of the fact among their
hood, took them under the arms and
shops, and ten had been office boys, mes-
ian thugs who lived by blackmailing
customers. The new law, which great-
inaugurated a new plan. They per-
sengers, or newsboys. To these, and to
their countrymen. They were curious
ly extends the factory inspector's power
suaded several large clothing contract
the trade schools now successfully oper-
about them, and sent their names to
over sweatshops, is an expression of
ors in this city to move their plants
ated by the de Hirsch Fund, we are to
Naples with a request for information.
this enlightened sentiment. It will put
down to the villages, where they would
look in the next generation for the an-
There came back such a record as none
New York a long stride ahead, and quite
be assured of steady hands, not so easily
swer to the old taunt that the Jew is a
of the detectives had ever seen or heard
up to Massachusetts. The inspector's
affected by strikes. For strikes in sweat-
trader, and not fit to be either farmer or
of before. All of them were notorious
ID:THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY
tag has proved, where the law was vio-
shops are often enough the alternative
(eraftsman, and for the solution of the
criminals, who had been charged with
lated, an effective weapon. It suspends
of starvation. Upon the land there
problem which he now presents in the
every conceivable crime, from burglary
all operation of the shop and removal of
would be no starvation. The managers
alum.
to kidnapping and maiming," and some
the goods until the orders of the inspect-
of the Fund built factories, bought the
I have spoken at length of the Jew
not to be conceived of by the American
or have been obeyed. But the tag
old mortgages on the farms, and put up
and the Italian, because they are our
mind. Five of them together had been
which shall finally put an end to sweat-
houses for the families which the con-
present problem. Yesterday it was the
sixty-three times in jail, and one no less
ing, and restore decent conditions, is not
tractors brought down with them. This
Irishman and the Bohemian. To-mor-
than twenty one times. Yet, though
the factory inspector's, I am persuaded,
effort at transplanting the crowd from
YOW it may be the Greek, who already
they were all under special surveil-
but a trades union label, which shall de-
the Ghetto to the soil has now been go-
undersells the Italian from his pusheart
lance," they had come here without let
serve public confidence. and receive it.
ing on for a year. At latest account,
in the Fourth Ward, and the Syrian,
or hindrance within a year. When I
We have much to learn yet, all of us. I
eight contractors and two hundred and
ho can give Greek, Italian. and Jew
recall that, I want to shut the door
think I can see the end of this trouble,
fifty families had been moved out. The
points at a trade. From Dalmatia a
quick. I sent the exhibit to Washing-
however, when the Italian's triumph in
colonies had taken on a new lease of
how immigration has begun to come,
ton at the time. But then, again, when
the sweatshop shall have proved but a
life and apparent prosperity. While it
and there are signs of its working fur-
I think of Mrs. Michelangelo in her
12/10 '98 11:40
barren victory, to his own gain.
is yet too early to pass suber judgment,
her east in the Balkan states, where
poor mourning for one child run over
In all I have said SO far, in these pa-
there seems to be good ground for hoping
there is no telling what is in store for
and killed, wiping her tears away and
pers, I have not gone beyond the limits
that a real way out has been found that
How to absorb them all safely is
going bravely to work to keep the home
of the old city, of Manhattan Island,
shall restore the Jew, at least in a mea-
question. Doubtless the Irishman,
together for the other five until the old-
in fact. I want now to glance for a
sure, to the soil from which he was barred
aving absorbed us politically, would be
est shall be old enough to take her fa-
moment at the several atteinpts made
so long. The experiment is of exceed-
to free us from all concern on that
ther's place: and when, as now, there
at colonizing refugee Jews in this part
ing interest. The hopes of its project
are by doing a like favor for them.
strays into my hand the letter from my
160
The Tenant.
The Tenant.
161
good friend, the woman doctor' in the
can approach it honestly, then, at all
their dire distress they had taken in a
for police appointment, - young men
slum, when her father had died, in which
events.
poor old man who was past working, and
largely the product of our public schools
12
she wrote The little scamps of the
When the country was in the throes
had kept him all winter, sharing with
in this city and elsewhere, and read in
street have been positively pathetic;
of the silver campaign, the newspapers
him what they had. He was none of
them that five of the original New Eng-
they have made such shy, boyish at-
told the story of an old laborer who
theirs they hardly even knew him, as
land states were England, Ireland,
PAGE
tempts at friendliness. One little chap
went to the subtreasury and demanded
it appeared. It was enough that he was
Scotland, Belfast, and Cork that the
offered to let me hold his top while it
to see the boss." He undid the strings
poorer than they," and lonely and
Fire Department ruled New York in the
was spinning, in token of affection," -
of an old leathern purse with fumbling
hungry and cold.
absence of the Mayor,- - I have some-
when I read that, I have not the heart
fingers, and counted out more than two
It was over here that the children of
times wished it did, and that he would
to shut anybody out.
hundred dollars in gold eagles. the hoard
Dr. Elsing's Sunday school gave out of
stay away awhile; and that Lincoln
Except, of course, the unfit, the crimi-
of a lifetime of toil and self-denial
the depth of their poverty fifty-four dol-
was murdered by Ballington Booth.
nal and the pauper, cast off by their own,
They were for the government. he said.
lars in pennies to be hung on the Christ-
But we shall agree, no doubt, that the
and the man brought over here merely
He had not the head to understand all
mas tree as their offering to the perse-
indictment of these papers was not of the
to put money into the pockets of the
the talk that was going, but he gathered
cuted Armenians. One of their teach-
men who wrote them, but of the school
steamship agent, the padrone, and the
from what he heard that the government
ers told me of a Bohemian family that
that stuffed its pupils with useless trash,
mine owner. We have laws to bar these
was in trouble, and that somehow it was
let the holiday dinner she brought them
and did not teach them to think. Nei-
out. Suppose we begin by being honest
about not having gold enough. So he
stand and wait, while they sent out to
ther have I forgotten that it was one of
with ourselves and the immigrant, and
had brought what he had. He owed it
bid to the feast four little ragamuffins of
these very men who, having failed, and
enforcing our own laws. In spite of a
all to the country, and now that she
the neighborhood who else would have
afterward got a job as a bridge police-
healthy effort at the port of New York,
needed it he had come to give it back.
gone hungry. I remember well a teach-
man, on his first pay day went straight
- I can only speak for that, - under
The man was an Irishman. Very likely
er in one of the Children's Aid Society's
from his post, half frozen as he was, to
FAX:
the present administration, that has not
he was enrolled in Tammany and voted
schools, herself a tenement child, who,
the settlement worker who had befriend-
yet been done. When the door has been
her ticket. I remember a tenement at
with breaking heart, but brave face,
ed him and his sick father, and gave
shut and locked against the man who
the bottom of a back alley over on the
played and sang the children's Christ-
him five dollars for some one who was
left his country for his country's good,
East Side, where I once went visiting
mas carols with them rather than spoil
poorer than they." Poorer than they !
whether by its assistance" or not, and
with the pastor of a mission chapel. Up:
their pleasure, while her only sister lay
What worker among the poor has not
when trafficking in the immigrant for
[in the attic there: was asfamily of fa
dying at home.
heard it It is the charity of the ten-
private profit has been stopped, then,
ther and daughter in two rooms that
I might keep on and fill many pages
ement that covers a multitude of sins.
perhaps, we shall be better able to de-
had been made of one by dividing
with instances of that kind, which sim-
There were thirteen in this policeman's
cide what degree of ignorance in him
off the deep dormer window. It was
ply go to prove that our poor human na-
family, and his wages were the biggest
constitutes unfitness for citizenship and
mid winter, and they bad no fire. He
ture is at least as robust on Avenue A
item of income in the house.
cause for shutting him out. Perchance
was a peddler but the snow had stalled
M up on Fifth Avenue, if it has half a
Jealousy, envy, and meanness wear no
ATLANTIC
then, also, we shall hear less of the cant
his pusheart and robbed them of their
chance, and often enough to restore one's
fine clothes and masquerade under no
about his being a peril to the republic.
only other source of income, a lodger
faith in it, with no chance at all and I
smooth speeches in the slums. Often
Doubtless ignorance is a peril, but the
who hired cot room in the attic for a few
might set over against it the product of
enough it is the very nakedness of the
selfishness that trades upon ignorance is
cents a night The daughter was not
pordid and mean environment which one
virtues that makes us stamble in our
a much greater. He came to us with-
able to work But she said, cheerfully,
has never far to seek. Good and evil
judgment. I have in mind the diffi-
out a country, ready to adopt such a
that they were getting along." When
go together in the tenements as in the
cult case that confronted some philan-
standard of patriotism as he found, at
it came out that she had not tasted solid
fine houses, and the evil sticks out some-
thropic friends of mine in a rear tene-
its face value, and we gave him the rear
food for many days, was starving, in
times merely because it lies nearer the
ment on Twelfth Street, in the person
tenement and slum politics. If he ac-
fact, indeed, she died within a year,
surface. The point is that the good
of an aged widow, quite seventy I should
cepted the standard, whose fault was it
of the slow starvation of the tenements
does outweigh the bad, and that the vir-
think, who worked uncomplainingly for
His being in such a hurry to vote that
that parades in the mortality returns un-
(tues that turn the balance are after all
a sweater all day and far into the night,
12/10 '98 11:42
he could not wait till the law made him
der a variety of scientific names which
those that make for good citizenship
pinching and saving and stinting herself,
a citizen was no worse, to my mind, than
all mean the same thing, she met her
anywhere, while the faults are oftenest
with black bread and chicory coffee as
the treachery of the upper class" na-
pastor's gentle chiding with the excuse
the accidents of ignorance and lack of
her only fare, in order that she might
tive, who refuses to go to the polls for
Oh, your church has many poorer than
training, which it is the business of so-
carry her pitiful earnings to her big, lazy
fear he may rub up against him there.
don't want to take your money."
mety to correct. I recall my discour-
lout of a son in Brooklyn. He never
This last let us settle with first, and
These were Germans, ordinarily held
rement when I looked over the exami-
worked. My friends' difficulty was a
see what remains of our problem. We to be close-fisted but I found that in
tion papers of a batch of candidates
very real one, for absolutely every at-
VOL. LXXXIV. NO. 502.
11
162
The Tenant.
The Vitality of Macaulay.
163
tempt to relieve the widow was wrecked
powerful bar against the slum. But
have to conclude that the advantage
to accept this privilege; how to make
upon her mother heart. It all went over
what, for instance, must the poor Jew
ends there. The boy who is learning
night school attractive to shiftless, indif-
13
the river. Yet one would not have had
understand, who is permitted to buy a
such lessons, how is it with him ?
ferent street boys is a difficult problem
her different.
live hen at the market, yet neither to
The president of the Society for the
to solve."
Sometimes it is only the unfamiliar
kill nor keep it in his tenement, and
Prevention of Cruelty to Children says
Perhaps it is only that he has lost the
PAGE
setting that shocks. When an East Side
who on his feast day finds a whole squad
that children's crime is increasing, and
key. Across the square, the Boys' Club
midnight burglar, discovered and pur-
of policemen detailed to follow him
he ought to know. The managers of
of St. Mark's Place, that began with a
sued, killed a tenant who blocked his
around and see that he does not do any
the Children's Aid Society, after forty-
handful, counts five thousand members
way of escape, a few weeks ago, his
of the things with his fowl for which he
six years of wrestling with the slum for
to-day, and is seeking a place to build
girl" gave him up to the police. But
must have bought it? Or the day la-
the boy, in which they have lately seemed
a house of its own. The school census
it was not because he had taken human
borer, who drinks his beer in a Raines
to get the upper hand, say in this year's
man announces that no boy in that old
life. " He was good to me," she ex-
law hotel," where brick sandwiches, con-
report that the East Side children are
stronghold of the " bread or blood"
plained to the captain whom she told
sisting of two pieces of bread with a
growing up in certain districts entirely
brigade need benceforth luiter in the
where to find him, but since he robbed
brick between, are set out on the coun-
neglected, and that the number of such
street because there is not room in the
the church I had no use for him." He
ter, in derision of the state law which
children increases beyonds the power
public school, and the brigade has dis-
had stolen, it seems, the communion
forbids the serving of drinks without
of philanthropic and religious bodies to
banded for want of recruits. The shop
service in a Staten Island church. The
meals (The Stanton Street saloon
cope properly with their needs." In the
is being shut against the boy, and the
thoughtless laughed. But in her igno-
keeper who did that was solemnly ac-
Tompkins Square Lodging House the
bars let down at the playground. But
rant way she was only trying to apply
quitted by a jury.) Or the boy, who may
evening classes are thinning out, and the
from Tompkins Square, nevertheless,
the standards of morality as they had
buy fireworks on the Fourth of July,
keeper wails: Those with whom we
came Jacob Beresheim, whose story I
been taught her. Stunted, bemuddled,
but not set them off ? These are only
have dealt of late have not been inclined
shall tell you presently.
FAX:
as they were, I think I should prefer to
ridiculous instances of an abuse that
Jacob A. Riis
take my chances with her rather than
pervades our community life to an ex-
with the woman of wealth and luxury
tent that constitutes one of the gravest
who, some years ago, gare a Christmas
perils. Insincerity of that kind is not
party to her lapdog, as on the whole the
lost on our fellow citizen by adoption,
sounder of the two, and by far the more
who is only anxious to fall in with the
THE VITALITY OF MACAULAY.
hopeful.
ways of the country and especially is it
All of which is merely saying that the
not lost on his boy.
theless, time has thrown out some hints
We shall see how it affects him. He
I.
country is all right, and the people are to
concerning their enduring quality. Tract
be trusted with the old faith in spite of
is the one for whom we are waging the
THE reign of Queen Victoria has been
number 90 is already old with heary
the slum. And it is true, if we remem-
battle with the slum. He is the to-mor-
the golden age of English prose. The
age Sartor Resartus is powerless to
ber to put it that way, - in spite of the
row that sits to-day drinking in the lesson
royal masters lived earlier, the mak-
arouse the youth of to-day; the period
slum. There is nothing in the slum to
of the prosperity of the big boss who de-
are of the English Bible, Milton, and
of Ruskin's tyranny is past and still
warrant that faith save human nature as
clared with pride upon the witness stand
Barke. Other masters of great fame
Macaulay's essays, though it is fifty years
yet uncorrupted. How long it is to re-
that he rules New York, that judges
Hooker, Browne, Addison, Bolingbroke
since they were first published, are read
ID:THE
main SO is altogether a question of the
pay him tribute, and that only when he
-have been scattered over other gener-
continually, from London to Melbourne,
sacrifices we are willing to make in our
says so a thing goes and that it is
ations but the prose of Victoria's reign
from New York to Singapore.
fight with the slum. As yet, we are told
all for what he can get out of it, just
has Newman, Ruskin, Carlyle, and Ma-
It is the fashion at present to speak of
by the officials having to do with the
the same as everybody clse." He sees
eaplay. Such diverse excellences of SO
Newman, Ruskin, and Carlyle with the
enforcement of the health ordinances,
corporations to-day pay blackmail and
high a reach have never appeared in Eng-
utmost deference, even for those who
which come closer to the life of the indi-
rob the people in return, quite according
land at one time before. In these men
dissent from their opinions but many,
vidual than any other kind, that the poor
to the schedule of Hester Street- Only
manner has 80 well matched matter that
both they who are fond of books and
12/10 '98 11:43
in the tenements are more amenable to
there it is the police who charge the
seems the order of nature for a priest
they who simulate such an affection, feel
the law than the better class." It is of
peddler twenty cents, while here it is the
write like Newman, a poet like Ruskin,
at liberty to speak of Macaulay as a sort
the first importance. then, that we should
politicians taking toll of the franchises,
prophet like Carlyle, an historian like
of literary demagogue. The objects of
have laws deserving of their respect,
twenty per cent. Wall Street is not or
Iscaulay. The diversity of these four,
admiration by a poet, a prophet, and a
and that these laws should be enforced,
dinarily reckoned in the slum, because of
from another, forbids any compari-
priest are more to the taste of the dainty
lest they conclude that the whole thing
certain physical advantages but, upon
; do you prefer a horseshoe, a salt-
than is the resolute, matter-of-fact man
is a sham. Respect for law is a very
the evidence of the day, I think we shall
lllar, or a bottle of cologne Never-
of business whom Macaulay celebrates.
POPULATION
Population
1900 - 76,304,799
1998 - 271,143,204
Population per square mile
1900 - 25.6
1998 - 76.7
Population by region
New England Division
+ 16256 86966
1900 - 5,592,017
1990 - 13,206,943
Middle Atlantic Division
1900 - 15,454,678
tereol
1990 - 37,602,286
East North Central Division
1900 - 15,985,581
274.9
1990 - 42,008,942
West North Central Division
1900 - 10,347,423
1990 - 17,659,690
127.5
22221.3
South Atlantic Division
4
1900 - 10,443,480
1990 - 43,566,853
68.9
East South Central Division
1900 - 7,547,757
1990 - 15,176,284
+1.85
West South Central Division
1900 - 6,532,290
1990 - 26,702,793
Mountain Division
254.6
3445
1900 - 1,674,657
1990 - 13,658,776
x5.4
55120
Pacific Division
1900 - 2,634,285
1990 - 39,127,306
27300
2/84
68900
Mean Center of Population
1900: Bartholomew County, Indiana
29484
1.85
51
2
60
100
1990: Crawford County, Missouri
5 degrees 24 minutes W, 1 degree 51 minutes S - WILL DO MILE CALCULATION FRIDAY
3) 54. 6mi/o + 5.4 60.9mi/0
85
001519
321.3m
40
60==Too 24 +
40127.5
30
SW
6/240
Immigration
1901-1910 - 8,795,000 immigrants
1900- 448,572
FY 1996 - 915,900
Immigration rate
Annual immigration per 1000 U.S. pop. - 1900 - 10.4
1995 2.7
Immigration, specific countries, 1900
India - 9
Mexico - 237
Gender
1900 - 51.1% Male
2000, etc. - 51.1% Female
% of Population over 65
1900 - 4% (3,099,000)
2000 - 11%
Cities over > 1,000,000
1900 - 3
Urban population
1900 - 39.7%
In 1900 only 14 percent of the world's pop. lived in cities
By 2000 more than half will
1900 - 30.2 million urban
1990 - 187 million urban
1900 - 45.9 million rural
1990 - 20 million rural
In 1980s, 90 % of the U.S.' population growth and 89% of its employment growth took place
"within the orbit" of large cities -- Jackson, in Columbia History, pg. 532
Live in State they were born in
1900 - 79%
Agriculture IM/EX, 1900
Ag. exports - $949 million and accounted for 65 % of the total (exports, I believe)
Food imports - $418 million, 51 % of all imports
"What was then in the nineteenth century beginning to be called the "world economy" climaxed
in a great expansive burst from 1896 to 1914. Then for the next twenty-five years, through the
1930s, the props of nineteenth-century capitalism were knocked away from the industrial
countries by organization disruption at the international level. Germany's violent inflation of
1923 was followed everywhere by volatile capital movements, currency instability, and the
domestic political struggles of social classes -- all issuing into widespread deflation after 1930,
long periods of prolonged and heavy unemployment, and ultimately the resumption of worldwide
war. Of the sources of growth so vigorously employed before 1914, only one -- developing
technological potential -- remained alive."
- William Parker
[Columbia History, pg. 267]
"Even in the heyday of the nineteenth century, factories where many hand operatives were
connected like pieces of machinery to a collection of machines around a single power source, as
in the spinning mills or on the assembly line for automobiles (or the disassembly line in meat
packing), industry offered many places where the small establishment, buying materials in
semifinished state and selling a part of a more complex product to be assembled elsewhere, could
survive and flourish."
- William Parker
[Ibid., pg. 271]
"Most of what farm families everywhere ate in 1900 came from their own farms. Their houses
and farm buildings had been built by themselves with the help of neighbors or local craftsmen.
Fuel of necessity came largely came largely from local sources. Those who had access to books,
newspapers, or magazines read them by daylight or by candles and gas lanterns in the evening.
Even those who weren't farmers relied on their own gardens, and livestock for a key portion of
their food supply. Those who lived in cities were the minority, and those who lived in town were
not far removed from families who made their living in the countryside. Farming, in other words,
was the world's primary occupation."
- B.F. Stanton
[Ibid., pg. 346]
Avg. Annual income
1900 - $411/yr.
1988 - $520/wk. ($26,000 yr.)
DEC-11-1998 12:27
CENSUS BUREAU HHES DIVI I
P.01
HOUSING AND HOUSEHOLD
ECONOMIC STATISTICS DIVISION
DATE: 12/11/98
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ADDRESS:
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TITLE OF DOCUMENT: 1990 Census Poverty Data for
New York City
FROM: Jean Tash
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ADDRESS:
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6000 Feldwood Rd
College Park, GA 30349
DEC-11-1998 12:28
CENSUS BUREAU HHES DIVI I
P.03
Table
178.
Poverty
Status
in
1989
of
Families
and
Persons:
1990-Con.
(Data based on sample and subject to sampling variability. see lext. For definitions of terms and meanings of symbols. see lext)
Place and [In Selected States]
County Subdivision [10,000 or
New Hartford
New Paltz
New Rochelle
New Windsor
Niegare Falls
Niskayuna
North Amity-
North Babylon
More Persons]
city
town
New York city
city
fown
ville CDP
CDP
New City CDP
town
town
ALL INCOME LEVELS IN 1989
9 250
5 934
2 181
17 171
6 329
1 755 718
16 433
5 424
3 080
4 992
Families
8 725
5 113
620
10 926
4 696
637 849
11 208
4 895
2 327
4 345
In owner-octupied housing unit
7 612
3 392
905 409
7 895
2 482
I 797
2 183
With related children under 18 years
4 783
2 507
1 085
I 393
082
535
3 454
1 627
404 620
3 365
944
668
864
With related children under 5 years
6 190
4 436
I 808
13 983
5 279
I 239 935
10 650
4 446
2 287
4 152
Householder worked in 1989
9 922
4 073
826 916
6 862
3 380
I 518
3 208
Householder worked year round full time in 1989
6 445
3 357
1 196
307
303
153
719
315
129 243
42)
166
247
246
Householder under 65 years with work disability
I 338
285
191
4 453
482
634 650
I 381
512
418
343
Householder foreign bom
353
119
54 789
932
54
70
66
Householder under 25 years
41
64
109
963
I 479
298
3 514
975
295 328
3 967
1 026
478
809
Householder 65 years and over
Householder high school graduate or higher
8 583
5 127
1 933
13 738
5 153
I 168 825
11 491
5 153
2 099
4 368
820
185
266 683
2 048
121
445
134
With public assistance income in 1989
215
186
76
With Social Security income in 1989
I 486
I 824
372
4 251
I 414
375 582
5 549
I 334
782
I 290
8 279
5 178
1 650
13 509
5 408
1 130 660
11 650
4 610
1 971
4 222
Married-cauple fundlies
6 066
2 963
533 856
4 835
2 196
I 064
1 921
With related children under 18 years
313
2 183
797
With related children under 5 years
266
983
420
2 873
I 521
251 356
2 015
887
387
811
Householder worked an 1989
7 479
3 927
I 385
11 383
4 645
875 620
7 868
3 972
1 544
3 593
Householder worked year round full time in 1989
5 928
3 033
958
8 205
3 660
610 979
5 524
3 098
I 069
2 668
Householder high school graduate or higher
7 708
4 486
I 503
11 154
4 481
797 278
B 257
4 613
I 389
3 711
847
I 260
241
2 764
771
209 580
3 216
865
368
626
Householder 65 years and over
329
138
79 337
612
54
201
62
With public assistance income in 1989
143
100
B
With Social Security income in 1989
I 236
1 532
285
3 256
I 109
256 003
4 242
I 169
538
I 003
Female Inveschelder, - husband present
700
601
400
2 919
660
508 463
4 040
526
883
614
I 306
329
324 124
2 689
254
603
223
With related children under 18 years
357
285
262
With related children under 5 years
91
82
115
492
71
133 058
I 204
48
232
43
Householder worked in 1989
473
395
297
2 067
453
277 924
2 306
399
601
464
Householder worked year round full time in 1989
321
240
157
I 376
286
160 710
1 014
221
337
287
Householder high school graduate or higher
634
503
322
2 065
469
297 199
2 760
452
585
524
Householder 65 years and over
75
195
44
580
122
68 175
628
141
100
128
With public assistance income in 1989
65
81
68
455
22
170 939
I 338
60
204
49
With Social Security income in 1989
198
226
59
741
214
92 415
I 025
139
194
222
Unrelated individuals for whom poverty status is
determined
I 637
2 921
2 144
11 159
2 456
1 440 888
" 558
I 998
I 913
1 518
I 901
Nonfomily householder
I 037
2 526
I 324
A 092
I 060 556
9 452
I 665
907
973
In owner-occupied housing unit
613
1 372
473
? 590
964
225 477
3 942
1 085
598
613
359
I 402
327
3 557
705
354 529
4 145
819
559
408
65 years and over
Persons for whom poverty status b determined
13 398
20 916
. 880
65 166
22 599
7 161 155
61 091
18 549
13 739
18 016
Persons 18 years and over
24 876
16 206
6 986
51 980
16 575
5 530 426
46 516
13 889
10 004
14 189
Persons 65 years and over
2 402
4 056
934
10 266
2 534
911 110
11 323
2 785
I 526
2 082
Related children under 18 years
8 514
4 683
I 886
13 343
6 002
1 641 870
14 477
4 660
3 710
3 795
Related children under 6 years
2 108
1 401
675
4 733
2 346
583 841
5 375
1 440
I 211
I 351
Related children 5 to 17 years
6 748
3 523
I 318
9 315
4 049
I 153 116
9 968
3 442
2 742
2 640
INCOME IN 1989 BELOW POVERTY LEVEL
Families
149
175
154
801
209
HRS
2 551
97
212
128
Percent below poverty level
1.6
2.9
7.1
4.7
33
16.3
15.5
1.8
6.9
2.6
In owner-occupied housing unit
97
74
26
179
107
24 456
472
49
55
106
With related children under 18 years
116
148
145
612
151
224 988
2 157
63
197
79
With related children under 5 years
42
85
94
310
89
114 385
248
46
90
34
Householder worked in 1989
77
99
102
326
64
8) 601
I 092
42
107
72
Householder worked year round full time in 1989
33
32
30
94
29
20 535
119
22
27
23
Householder under 65 years with work disability
16
2
14
67
26
45 681
361
9
18
8
Householder foreign born
26
9
17
275
19
103 303
183
14
-
19
Householder under 25 years
17
18
51
6
20 080
515
-
-
-
Householder 65 years and over
13
24
-
101
24
27 426
185
8
47
35
Householder high school graduate or higher
115
128
140
425
146
123 427
1 637
72
107
105
With public assistance income in 1989
32
34
35
231
21
136 295
218
10
108
4
With Social Security income in 1989
15
29
96
59
34 157
365
7
39
28
Mean income deficit (dollars)
5 452
4 989
4 253
5 258
4 647
6 376
5 289
6 480
5 336
3 584
Merried-ceuple fumilies
60
87
50
261
110
88 915
658
70
41
79
With related children under 18 years
27
67
50
130
75
58 392
468
44
34
53
With related children under 5 years
a
27
25
73
47
31 026
293
30
-
25
Householder worked in 1989
35
64
44
III
42
37 417
350
36
41
47
Householder worked year round full time in 1989
19
32
23
54
29
12 839
80
22
7
19
Householder high school graduate or higher
40
52
50
152
64
42 476
386
60
32
65
Householder 65 years and over
13
17
-
71
14
14 850
89
-
7
26
With public assistance income in 1989
2
-
-
6
20 587
157
-
9
With Social Security income in 1989
8
17
-
52
35
15 622
138
7
15
19
Mean income deficit (dollars)
4 513
4 886
2 671
5 305
3 941
6 138
5 204
6 069
3 059
3 368
Female householder, - husband present
80
as
104
442
9
179 357
I 773
27
161
45
With related children under 18 years
80
81
95
396
70
155 912
1 576
19
153
22
With related children under 5 years
25
58
69
204
36
78 299
907
16
80
9
Householder worked in 1989
33
35
58
163
16
37 662
704
6
66
21
Householder worked year round full time in 1989
5
-
7
32
-
6 109
34
J
20
Householder high school graduate or higher
66
76
90
231
76
73 254
1 158
12
75
36
Householder 65 years and over
I
7
30
10
10 789
96
6
30
9
With public assistance income in 1989
32
32
35
231
15
110 594
I 008
10
89
-
With Social Security income in 1989
7
12
44
24
16 031
222
-
14
9
Mean income deficit (dollars)
6 234
5 092
5 014
5 662
6 073
6 540
5 333
, 546
6 041
4 233
Unrelated individuals
334
397
698
2 276
352
360 038
3 163
168
564
155
Percent below poverty level
20.4
13.6
32.6
20.4
14.3
25.0
27.4
B.4
29.5
10.2
Nonfomily householder
117
291
287
I 315
189
215 557
2 304
124
147
77
In owner-occupied housing unit
59
163
39
191
107
23 097
536
46
68
32
65 years and over
84
215
41
906
113
103 105
954
85
235
43
Maan income deficit (dollars)
3 935
2 697
3 440
3 317
3 757
3 639
2 707
3 032
4 546
3 576
Persons
809
011
1 153
4 937
987
1 384 994
11 387
488
1 359
583
Percent below poverty level
2.4
4.6
13.0
1.6
4.4
19.3
18.6
26
9.9
3.2
Persons 18 years and over
578
675
928
3 646
743
887 995
6 776
354
927
389
Persons 65 years and over
105
255
41
I 069
165
150 322
I 286
103
304
106
Related children under 18 years
223
309
219
I 248
222
490 385
4 519
134
407
162
Related children under 6 years
61
97
114
483
129
180 177
2 119
74
142
37
Related children 5 10 17 years
170
214
120
875
114
341 088
2 756
68
276
125
Persons below 125 percent of poverty level
078
511
1 487
6 435
I 654
1 706 855
14 674
698
1 874
832
Persons below 200 percent of poverty level
847
3 600
2 139
12 051
3 235
2 583 698
24 637
641
4 219
819
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS
NEW YORK
1119
TOTAL P.03
EQUAL RIGHTS
"Still, women will never largely control the coercive or military functions of government."
- Van Buren Denslow
["Society Governed by Economic Laws, pg. 82, Tab 11]
"What is wanted for women is equal rights, equal admission to all social privileges; not a
position apart, a sort of sentimental priesthood."
- Harriet Taylor Mill, 1851
[Columbia 20th Century History, pg. 59]
POPULATION
Population
1900 - 75,994,575
1948-271,143,204 143,204
Population per square mile
1900 - 25.6
-1998-767
Mean Center of Population
1900: Bartholomew County, Indiana
1990: Crawford County, Missouri
5 degrees 24 minutes W, 1 degree 51 minutes S - WILL DO MILE CALCULATION FRIDAY
Life Expectancy
1900: 47.3 years
1994=75.7
Black woman's life expectancy
1900 - 34 yrs.
1940 56
1980 - 74
1744=73.9
Birth per 100 population
1980:3.23
wrong
Immigration
1901-1910 - 8,795,000 immigrants
1900=448,572
Immigration rate
F4 1996 = 915,900
Annual immigration per 1000 U.S. pop. - 1900 - 10.4
Immigreets
1995 - 2.7
Immigration, specific countries, 1900
India - 9
make ic
see attached table
Mexico - 237
Gender
1900 - 51.1% Male
2000, etc. - 51.1% Female
% of Population over 65
1900 - 4% (3,099,000)
2000 - 11%
Cities over > 1,000,000
1900 - 3
Urban population
1900 - 39.7%
Live in State they were born in
1900 - 79%
ECONOMIC
US Labor Force
1900: 28,500,000
1998 138,253,000
Annual hrs. Worked per person
1900: 2,707
1799
1979: 1,607
1998 =1284
GDP per manhour
1900: $1.29
1979: $8.28
1998
Output per man-hour
FIND 1990 Indexed
U.S. Govt. Debt
1900: $1,260,000,000
1998 5,600,207,160,013
U.S. Govt. Expenditures
1903: $1,700,000,000
Occupations, 1900, by %
Agriculture, forestry and fisheries - 38.4%
Mining - 2.6%
Manufacturing and hand trades - 21.5%
Construction - 5.6%
Transport/public utilities - 6.9%
Trade, finance and real estate - 10%
Education, professional, entertainment - 4%
Domestic, personal service - 9.5%
Government - 1% (1,400,000) incl., military
Federal civilians (312,000)
Energy sources, 1900
Coal - 3/4 fuel required by entire economy
International Trade, 1900
Imports made up 4.3% of US GNP and exports were 6.1%.
Agriculture IM/EX, 1900
Ag. exports - $949 million and accounted for 65% of the total (exports, I believe)
Food imports - $418 million, 51% of all imports
"What was then in the nineteenth century beginning to be called the "world economy" climaxed
TRANSPORTATION
Cars, total US production
1908: 63,500
MISCELLANEOUS
In 1900:
- in New Haven, Connecticut, a restaurant pioneers the hamburger
- US Postal Serv. issues 1st book of stamps
- Paper clip is patented
- Gasoline sold in drug stores by quart in bottles
- Average American factory has about 24 employees
HEALTH
Deaths per 100,000 population, 1900
TB - 194.4
Diptheria - 40.3
Whooping cough - 12.2
Measles - 13.3
Influenza and pneumonia - 202.2
TRANSPORTATION
Miles of surface roads
1900: 129,000 miles
Railroads
1900: 193,000 miles
EDUCATION
Black Women, Literacy
1900 - 40%
1980 - virtually all
Statistics of U.S. Businesses
http://www.census.gov/epcd/ssel_tabs/view/tab3_99b.html
U.S. Census Bureau Official
United States
Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial Division and
Enterprise Employment for 1995
All Industries
Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing
Mining
Construction
Manufacturing
Transport,Communication,Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Retail Trade
Finance,Insur.,Realty
Services
Non-Classifiable
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - ALL INDUSTRIES
Firms
5,369,068
4,807,533
469,869
76,222
15,444
Establishments
6,612,721
4,876,327
638,616
283,993
813,785
Employment
100,314,946
19,569,861
18,422,228
14,660,421
47,662,436
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
2,665,921,824
454,009,065
437,065,364
361,060,815
1,413,786,580
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
15,751,365,178
2,663,857,848
2,678,292,849
2,062,235,050
8,346,979,431
United States
1 of 6
12/7/98 6:14 PM
Statistics of U.S. Businesses
http://www.census.gov/epcd/ssel_tabs/view/tab3_99b.hml
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Ag. Serv., For., Fishing
Firms
107,253
102,382
4,347
387
137
Establishments
108,666
102,445
4,494
567
1,160
Employment
630,287
361,202
147,065
52,060
69,960
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
12,102,236
6,747,009
2,843,919
938,088
1,573,220
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
36,963,317
19,254,903
7,781,522
3,290,590
6,636,302
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Mining
Firms
21,585
18,178
2,469
536
402
Establishments
27,406
18,340
3,038
1,412
4,616
Employment
627,531
76,430
91,513
75,196
384,392
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
25,698,581
2,227,780
2,931,597
2,897,562
17,641,642
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
168,055,155
17,322,223
18,066,874
15,606,815
117,059,243
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
2 of 6
12/7/98 6:14 PM
Statistics of U.S. Businesses
http://www.census.gov/epcd/ssel_tabs/view/tab3_99b.html
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Construction
Firms
630,206
581,785
43,442
4,316
663
Establishments
636,580
582,009
44,195
5,635
4,741
Employment
5,040,598
2,211,245
1,594,071
696,278
539,004
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
147,320,503
54,555,927
48,325,397
23,866,174
20,573,005
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
667,763,006
260,599,062
207,511,531
106,397,358
93,255,055
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Manufacturing
Firms
330,310
242,338
66,235
16,821
4,916
Establishments
390,435
242,804
70,490
28,536
48,605
Employment
18,611,108
1,347,832
2,743,165
3,073,002
11,447,109
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
630,965,899
33,359,627
74,126,239
86,752,908
436,727,125
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
3,417,662,925
149,518,691
339,266,138
460,292,303
2,468,585,793
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
3 of 6
12/7/98 6:14 PM
Statistics of U.S. Businesses
http://www.census.gov/epcd/ssel_tabs/view/tab3_99b.html
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Transp.,Comm,Public Utilities
Firms
208,967
182,667
20,714
3,931
1,655
Establishments
285,654
184,846
26,974
12,957
60,877
Employment
5,924,706
725,709
798,021
628,665
3,772,311
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
200,893,921
16,366,530
19,514,278
17,602,270
147,410,843
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
1,026,766,996
77,576,329
82,737,853
75,831,589
790,621,225
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Wholesale Trade
Firms
405,435
345,929
47,849
8,321
3,336
Establishments
518,432
353,206
70,041
29,259
65,926
Employment
6,606,534
1,616,906
1,738,224
1,074,161
2,177,243
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
226,998,566
48,877,273
53,242,969
34,935,893
89,942,431
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
3,849,002,650
882,973,143
969,355,108
584,259,478
1,412,414,921
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
4 of 6
12/7/98 6:14 PM
Statistics of U.S. Businesses
http://www.census.gov/epcd/ssel_tabs/view/tab3_99b.html
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Retail Trade
Firms
1,099,619
967,681
115,689
13,305
2,944
Establishments
1,571,073
990,360
167,260
78,759
334,694
Employment
21,086,617
4,405,883
4,349,787
2,208,976
10,121,971
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
300,073,188
57,717,897
62,546,330
34,261,514
145,547,447
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
2,292,731,644
476,172,787
519,510,231
285,037,763
1,012,010,863
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Finance,Insurance,and Realty
Firms
433,790
400,691
24,395
5,716
2,988
Establishments
629,479
408,589
46,474
30,062
144,354
Employment
6,984,830
1,252,906
934,421
815,342
3,982,161
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
255,882,857
35,431,584
29,337,865
27,870,522
163,242,886
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
2,094,205,607
193,254,017
169,091,236
205,148,083
1,526,712,271
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
5 of 6
12/7/98 6:15 PM
Statistics of U.S. Businesses
http://www.census.gov/epcd/ssel_tabs/view/tab3_99b.ntml
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Services
Firms
2,114,127
1,918,185
154,867
32,610
8,465
Establishments
2,392,015
1,941,207
205,213
96,787
148,808
Employment
34,709,644
7,499,092
6,012,668
6,033,998
15,163,886
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
864,399,439
197,369,219
144,073,113
131,909,508
391,047,599
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
2,188,812,082
579,077,680
364,264,223
326,214,385
919,255,794
United States
The Number of Firms, Establishments, Employment, Annual Payroll, and Estimated Receipts by Industrial
Division and Enterprise Employment Size for 1995
Total
<20
20-99
100-499
500+
Total - Nonclassifiable Estabs
Firms
52,981
52,521
437
19
4
Establishments
52,981
52,521
437
19
4
Employment
93,091
72,656
13,293
2,743
4,399
Annual Payroll ($1,000)
1,586,634
1,356,219
123,657
26,376
80,382
Estimated Receipts ($1,000)
9,401,796
8,109,013
708,133
156,686
427,964
U.S. Census Bureau Last Revised 05/13/98
6 of 6
12/7/98 6:15 PM
Economy at a Glance
http://www.bls.gov/eag.text.html
Economy at a Glance
BS
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
A
'97
'97
'97
'98
'98
'98
Labor Market
Civilian Labor Force (1)
138,253
136,406
136,864
137,169
137,493
137,557
137,523
137,2
Unemployment (1)
6,496
6,289
6,392
6,409
6,393
6,529
5,8
Unemployment Rate (2)
4.4
4.8
4.6
4.7
4.7
4.6
4.7
4
Employees on Nonfarm Payrolls (1)
123,568
123,944
124,289
124,640
124,832
124,914
125,2
Hours, Earnings and Productivity
Average Weekly Hours (3)
34.6
34.7
34.7
34.8
34.7
34.6
34
Average Hourly Earnings (3)
12.43
12.47
12.50
12.54
12.59
12.63
12.
Employment Cost Index (4)
1.0
0.7
Productivity (5)
0.9
3.5
Prices
Consumer Price Index (6)
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.0
0
Producer Price Index (7)
0.0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.6
-0.1
-0.1
0
Footnotes:
(1) Seasonally adjusted, in thousands
(2) Seasonally adjusted, in percent
(3) For production and nonsupervisory workers on private nonfarm payrolls, seasonally adjusted
(4) Compensation, all civilian workers, seasonally adjusted, 3-month percent change
(5) Output per hour, nonfarm business, seasonally adjusted, percent change from previous quarter at annual rate
(6) All items, U.S. city average, all urban consumers, seasonally adjusted, 1982-84=100, 1-month percent change
(7) Finished goods, seasonally adjusted, 1982=100, 1-month percent change
(P) Preliminary
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
Data Home Page
BS
BLS Home Page
1 of 2
12/7/98 5:48 PM
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON
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HD 7102. 45 4558
486-3420
HE5623.62
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I
PAGE
5
60TH STORY of Level 1 printed in FULL format.
Copyright 1998 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Aviation Daily
June 19, 1998
SECTION: Vol. 332, No. 57; Pg. 489
LENGTH: 293 words
HEADLINE: Airlines Had $ 16.5 Billion Operating Profit In 1997, ICAO Reports
BODY:
The world's airlines posted revenues of $ 291 billion and an operating
profit of $ 16.5 billion last year, according to preliminary data published by
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Operating expenses
totaled $ 274.5 billion. The revenue total was up 3% while expenses increased
less than 2%. The global airline industry has never showed a double-digit
operating margin, according to ICAO's statistics, which date from 1947. Last
year's operating margin, the highest in a decade, is estimated at 5.7%.
Measured on a unit basis, the ICAO figures were not entirely positive.
Yields fell universally, reflecting increasing fare competition and a
higher-valued U.S. dollar. Operating revenue per available ton kilometer
dropped from 84.8 cents (U.S.) in 1996 to 81.5 cents in 1997. But cost per ton
kilometer fell too, from 81.1 cents to 76.9 cents. Total scheduled traffic rose
8% - international scheduled traffic was up 9% - and the load factor reached
69%, setting a record for the fourth straight year. International loads climbed
to 70%.
The airlines carried 1.448 billion passengers last year, up 4% from 1.39
billion in 1996. Freight ton growth was 12%, to 26.1 million tons. The
Asia/Pacific economic downturn had a negative effect on traffic growth. "For
the first time in five years, in 1997 the growth in ton kilometers performed by
airlines of Asia/Pacific was not the world's highest in regional growth and
indeed fell to just above the world average of 8%," ICAO said. Growth at
airlines in Latin America and the Caribbean was well above average. Carriers in
Europe, Africa and North America grew at rates close to the world average, and
airlines in the Middle East showed below- average growth.
LANGUAGE: ENGLISH
LOAD-DATE: July 01, 1998
= 3.9
Lewis L. Gould
The Presidency of
WILLIAM
McKINLEY
WILLIAM McKINLEY
The Presidency of
UNUM
E711
.G68
WH
by
Lewis L. Gould
2
McKINLEY TAKES OFFICE
Inauguration Day, March 4, 1897, was clear and crisp when
McKinley took the oath of office on the Senate steps of the Capitol.
As he read his inaugural address, "his voice was under perfect con-
trol, and his clear and well-modulated tones could be distinctly
heard by thousands of people."¹ The speeches that new presidents
deliver on such occasions rarely attain the oratorical or intellectual
distinction that those of Abraham Lincoln or Franklin D. Roosevelt
achieved. McKinley's remarks were not memorable, but in the
problems that he discussed and in the solutions that he advanced,
the incoming president provided a review of the nation's situation
as he assumed power.
Since McKinley's presidency occurred at the end of the 1890s,
estimates of the nation's population lacked the precision of the 1900
census. In 1890 the population of the United States was 62,979,766;
seven years later, according to a Bureau of the Census estimate, the
figure had risen to 72,189,000. The 1890 census reported 32,237,000
males in the population as compared with 30,711,000 women. Ten
years later the margin had widened slightly, with 38,816,000 men
and 37,178,000 females. The 1900 census also recorded 66,901,000
whites, 9,193,000 blacks, 238,196 Indians, 24,326 Japanese, and
89,863 Chinese in the nation.²
The majority of Americans, 39,817,386 in 1890 and 47,379,699
in 1900, lived in the northeastern and north-central areas of the
country. The South's population rose from 20,028,059 to 24,523,527
during these ten years, and the West was much less densely popu-
lated, with 3,102,269 people in the 1890 tally and 4,091,349 a decade
21
THE PRESIDENCY OF WILLIAM McKINLEY
later. The most populous states were, in order, New York, Penn-
sylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. Texas and Georgia led the South, and
California dominated the West.
During the 1890s the nation experienced a growing urban-
ization. There were 22,106,265 Americans who lived in the towns of
2,500 or more that the census called urban areas in 1890; whereas
40,841,449 resided in rural settings. When the century ended, the
urban population had swelled to 30,160,000, and the rural popu-
lation had increased to 45,834,654. In these ten years the number of
individuals living in cities of one million or more rose from 3,662,115
to 6,429,474. New York City encompassed more than 3,400,000 peo-
ple in 1900; Chicago and Philadelphia totaled 1,699,000 and
1,294,000 respectively. The two presidential candidates in 1896
came from more modest cities, ones which were more typical of the
urban experience. Canton, in northeastern Ohio, had fewer than
30,000 people; they depended on railroads, coal mining, and farm-
ing for their living. Lincoln, Nebraska, which claimed more than
50,000 inhabitants, was a hub for western railroads and the shipping
of agricultural goods.
Americans in 1898 moved across the United States on a railroad
system that had grown to 245,334 miles of track and that carried
501,067,000 passengers in that year. On 13,380,000 passenger miles,
the railroads earned $266,970,000 of their total operating income of
$1,247,326,000. Travelers could expect a large degree of personal
service if they were willing to pay a slightly higher fare. The mail
moved efficiently as well, and politicians around the country ex-
changed letters at a speed that would seem improbable eight dec-
ades later. Proponents of the railroads contended, with some
plausibility, that the United States led the world in rail service.
The depression of the 1890s was changing the American rail-
road system from the profusion of financially weak and overbuilt
companies of the late nineteenth century to the banker-supervised,
consolidated, and more stable communities of interest that charac-
terized the early years of the new century. Freight rates were steady
or actually declining, and the railroads were improving their phys-
ical plants. To critics of the rail lines or to the shippers who desired
lower rates, the railroad problem remained one of obtaining greater
regulation from the state or national government so that prices
would be lowered and rate discrimination would be prevented.
Strengthening the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission
(ICC) became a rallying point for railroad reformers, especially af-
ter the Supreme Court decided in 1897 that Congress had not given
22
McKINLEY TAKES OFFICE
the ICC the authority to establish rates. That situation did not
change during the McKinley administration, though by 1901 the
public pressure that produced regulatory legislation under Theodore
Roosevelt would show itself.
After an initial paragraph "invoking the guidance of Almighty
God," McKinley said that the new administration would confront
the difficulties of "the prevailing business conditions, entailing idle-
ness upon willing labor and loss to useful enterprises." It had been
nearly four years since the Panic of 1893 had signaled the start of a
severe depression, and the economy was still stagnant. Following
the initial sharp downturn between May 1893 and June 1894, the
outlook improved through the end of 1895. It was, however, far
from a complete recovery. The nation then experienced a second
harsh contraction, which commenced in December 1895 and en-
dured into 1897. "The country is suffering from industrial disturb-
ances from which speedy relief must be had," the new president
concluded.³
One measure of the impact of the depression was the gross
national product. Expressed in 1929 prices, it had averaged $27.3
billion between 1889 and 1893. The yearly average for the period
1892 to 1896 was only $29.6 billion, as compared with a yearly
figure of $37.1 billion between 1897 and 1901. Farm products
contributed an average of $6.8 billion annually to the total from
1892 to 1896, an increase over the $6.6 billion of the years 1889 to
1893. Nonfarm products stood annually at $19.7 billion in the four
predepression years, rose to $21.7 billion for the years 1892 to 1896,
and moved ahead to $27.4 billion during the years of McKinley's
presidency.
The work force that suffered through the slump of the 1890s
reflected the industrializing character of the economy. The number
of employed Americans rose from 23,740,000 in 1890 to 29,070,000
in 1900. Agriculture accounted for 9,990,000 of this total in 1890
and for 10,710,000 a decade later. In the nonfarm pursuits, manu-
facturing comprised 6,340,000 people in 1900, up from 4,750,000 ten
years before. Manufacturing had become, at the end of the 1890s,
a dominant part of the nation's economy. Construction in 1900 em-
ployed 1,660,000 people, 1,530,000 were in transportation, and
1,990,000 in trades, financial, and real-estate positions. There were
3,860,000 who worked in service employment, and another 300,000
had government jobs.
Working conditions and wages, which were those of an era
before social-welfare programs, mirrored the troubled state of the
23
THE PRESIDENCY OF WILLIAM McKINLEY
economy. The average work week was around fifty-nine hours in
these years, and the average annual income for all professions in
1897 was $411. With farm labor omitted, the total rose to $462.
As to the cost of living, students of the problem agreed that an
income below $500 a year placed an urban family of five people in
the Northeast at or below the subsistence level and was no more
than a minimum income in other northern urban centers. One and
three-quarters million children were listed as being employed in
some form of work in 1900.
Labor-union members made up only a small percentage of the
total working population. The 447,000 union members in 1897 were
centered in the railroad, building, metal, printing, and food indus-
tries. In manufacturing, union men worked almost six fewer hours
per week and received about thirteen cents more per hour than
their nonunion counterparts. Work stoppages rose slightly-from
1,066 in 1896 to 1,110 in 1897; they involved 416,000 employees, and
680 of the strikes dealt with wages and hours.
After the improvement in business conditions in 1895, the econ-
omy slid backward over the next year. Farm income and prices
struck their low points for the decade, and the unemployment rate
moved upward toward 20 percent. Only a modest improvement, to
15 percent, marked 1897; unemployment persisted in 1898 and was
still at around 8 percent two years after McKinley's term began. At
the time of the inauguration, a rise in orders for steel, a stronger
woolen industry, and prospects of larger farm exports led the corre-
spondent of the London Economist to write: "The general business
situation continues to move slowly in the direction of improvement."
Within a week, however, caution returned: "While the movement
of general trade, then, is unquestionably in the direction of im-
provement, it is seen to be halting, irregular, and thus far not up to
expectations."
The new president first addressed the issue that had agitated
the electorate so profoundly in 1896. "Our financial system needs
some revision; our money is all good now, but its value must not
further be threatened." The outgoing administration had incurred
substantial budget deficits, totaling $137,800,000 between 1894 and
1896; and McKinley believed that an "adequate revenue" had to
precede changes in the financial system. He proposed to name,
with congressional agreement, a commission to consider revision of
the banking and currency laws. Since the Republicans lacked a
dependable majority in the Senate, where silver advocates held the
balance of power, any more ambitious initiative was probably
24
420,918,669
McKINLEY TAKES OFFICE
536
doomed. The president did stress his commitment to government
supervision of the currency, and he was critical of "the several
forms of our paper money," which were, he thought, "a constant
embarrassment to the government and to a safe balance in the
Treasury." The currency that was in circulation in 1897 consisted
of gold coin ($517,590,000), gold certificates ($37,285,000), silver
dollars ($51,940,000), silver certificates ($357,849,000), treasury
notes of 1890 ($83,470,000) subsidiary silver ($59,616,000), in addi-
tion to $306,915,000 in United States notes and $226,318,000 in
national bank notes. On November 1, 1896, the amount of money
in circulation per capita was $22.63, only a slight rise from the
$22.55 of 1895. Since the last year of Harrison's presidency, the
amount of money in circulation per capita had fallen almost $2.00.5
The subject of monetary policy had been a political issue of
varying intensity since the Civil War. During the 1890s, advocates
of inflation through the free and unlimited coinage of silver at a
ratio of 16 to 1 with gold had pressed their proposal as an answer
to economic distress. The "silver men" contended that free coinage
would raise the depressed price level and also would provide funds
for agrarian America to escape the weight of debt. McKinley's vic-
tory had slowed but not stopped the silver proponents. "Those who
fought in the battle," Bryan announced, "will continue in the ranks
until bimetallism is restored."8
Supporters of the gold standard, who were centered in the
Northeast, regarded the 1896 result as a temporary escape from
financial chaos. The size of the vote for Bryan, however, served
notice that the issue remained alive, and the unsettled state of the
economy during the first half of 1897 kept the friends of the yellow
metal alert against attempts to alter the existing system. While the
administration had to wait for a more favorable congressional align-
ment in order to pursue monetary action, it endeavored to reassure
the gold constituency of its intentions. Speaking in Chicago in late
May, Secretary of the Treasury Gage said: "If any of you harbor
the suspicion that the Administration, but just now installed into
the responsibilities of high office, has forgotten or is likely to forget
the mandate of the people, whose voice in behalf of honest money
and sound finances rang out loud and clear in November last, put
that suspicion aside."
Between the extremes on the silver issue lay the third approach
-international bimetallism. Envisioning a multination agreement
to promote a wider use of the white metal. McKinley promised his
"constant endeavor to secure it by cooperation with the other great
25
Currency arculation
1997 - $ 420, 918,
669,536
RESEARCH TASKS
No one may leave until all of these are completed
1. GDP/-1900 1998
1996 996-87,636,000,000,00 - $ 7,636, 000,000,
2. Ranked cause of death - 1900, 1998
3. # of children who died in childbirth of childhood - 1900, 1998 -
Josh
4. Names of diseases big then, nonexistent now -- probably same as #2
MM 5. Poverty rates - 1900, 1998 - might be difficult, good luck JOSH
1994-2,217,000
76.% of Americans who went to college - 1900, 1998 OR degrees granted 1990 ONLY
WAT
1996 - 4 yrs. of alies or more - 23.6%
7.% of Americans who graduated high school 1900>1998
115-1996 ST.42 its 1996 81
NEOB
8. How long did it take to travel from NY to SF -KWO.
calculate 9. GDP per manhour - 1998
TOM
10. Output per manhour, 1990 or 1998 INDEXED - 1900, 1998
11. U.S. Govt. Expenditures - 199
i
$ 1,426,
12. Occupations by % - 1998
13. Energy sources - 1998
14. International trade (IM make ?% of GNP, EX ?) - 1998
15. # flights - Jeff's research, Arkansas airport opening - obviously 1900 # is 0
16. Miles of RR - 1994 222,000
17. Miles of Road - 1998 1995 - 3,912,224
18. Total US car production - 1998
19 % of 18-21 yr. Olds in college - 1998 - ? - High Ed
20. # Baccalaureate degrees granted - 1998
21. Telephones, # of users - 1998 1995 - 93.9% of howeholds
13
Consumpton
1995 - 90.6 quadrillion Blus
Petideum - 34.6
Nat-gas - 22.2
loal - 19.6
Nuclear energy power- 7.2
Renewable - 6.9
B 149-166
VITAL STATISTICS AND HEALTH AND MEDICAL CARE
Series B 149-166. Death Rate, for Selected Causes: 1900 to 1970
[Number of deaths, excluding fetal deaths, per 100,000 population. Prior to 1933, for death-registration area only; see general note for series B 1-220]
Scarlet
Gas-
Ty-
fever
Major
In-
tritis,
Tuber-
Syphilis
phoid
and
Whoop-
Malig-
Diabe-
cardio-
fluenza
duo-
Cirrho-
Motor
Acci-
All
culosis,
and its
and
strep-
Hepa-
Diph-
ing
Mea-
nant
tes mel-
vas-
and
denitis,
sis of
vehicle
dental
other
Suicide
all
seque-
para-
tococcal
titis
theria
cough
sles
neo-
litus
cular-
pneu-
enteri-
liver
acci-
falls
acci-
Year
forms
lae
typhoid
sore
plasms
renal
monia
tis,
dents'
dents'
fever
throat
diseases
and
colitis'
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
1970
2.6
0.2
(Z)
(Z)
0.5
(Z)
(Z)
(2)
162.8
18.9
496.0
30.9
0.6
15.5
26.9
8.3
21.2
11.6
1969
2.8
.3
(Z)
(Z)
.5
(Z)
(Z)
(Z)
160.0
19.1
501.7
33.9
.9
14.8
27.6
8.8
21.2
11.1
1968
3.1
.8
(Z)
(Z)
.4
(Z)
(Z)
(Z)
159.4
19.2
512.1
36.8
.3
14.6
27.5
9.3
20.7
10.7
1967
3.5
1.2
(Z)
(Z)
.4
(Z)
(Z)
(Z)
157.2
17.7
511.5
28.8
3.8
14.1
26.7
10.2
20.2
10.8
1966
3.9
1.1
(Z)
(2)
.4
(Z)
(Z)
.1
155.1
17.7
521.4
32.5
3.9
18.6
27.1
10.2
20.7
10.9
1965
4.1
1.3
(Z)
(Z)
.4
(Z)
(Z)
.1
153.6
17.1
516.4
31.9
4.1
12.8
25.4
10.3
20.1
11.1
1964
4.3
1.4
(Z)
(Z)
.4
(Z)
(Z)
.2
151.8
16.9
514.3
31.1
4.3
12.1
24.5
9.9
19.8
10.8
1963
4.9
1.4
(Z)
(Z)
.5
(Z)
(Z)
.2
151.3
17.2
527.8
87.5
4.4
11.9
23.1
10.2
20.1
11.0
1962
5.1
1.5
(Z)
(Z)
.5
(Z)
(Z)
.2
149.9
16.8
521.2
32.3
4.4
11.7
22.0
10.5
19.8
10.9
1961
5.4
1.6
(Z)
.1
.5
(Z)
(Z)
.2
149.4
16.4
511.4
30.1
4.3
11.3
20.8
10.2
19.4
10.4
1960
6.1
1.6
(Z)
.1
.6
(Z)
.1
.2
149.2
16.7
521.8
37.3
4.4
11.8
21.3
10.6
20.4
10.6
1959
6.5
1.7
(Z)
.1
.5
(Z)
.2
.2
147.3
15.9
515.9
31.2
4.4
10.9
21.5
10.6
20.1
10.6
1958
7.1
2.0
(Z)
.1
.5
(Z)
.1
.8
146.8
15.9
523.5
33.1
4.5
10.8
21.3
10.5
20:4
10.7
1957
7.8
2.2
(Z)
.1
.5
(Z)
.1
.2
148.6
16.0
523.4
35.8
4.7
11.3
22.7
12.1
21.1
9.8
1956
8.4
2.3
(Z)
.1
.5
.1
.2
8
147.8
15.7
510.5
28.2
4.5
10.7
23.7
12.1
20.9
10.0
1955
9.1
2.3
(Z)
.1
.5
.1
.3
.2
146.5
15.5
506.0
27.1
4.7
10.2
23.4
12.3
21.2
10.2
1954
10.2
3.0
(Z)
.1
.5
.1
.2
.3
145.6
15.6
496.1
25.4
4.9
10.1
22.1
12.3
21.5
10.1
1953
12.3
3.3
(Z)
.1
.5
.1
.2
.8
144.7
16.3
514.8
33.0
5.4
10.4
24.0
13.0
23.1
10.1
1952
15.8
3.7
.1
.2
.5
.1
.3
.4
143.8
16.4
511.9
29.7
5.6
10.2
24.3
13.5
24.0
10.0
1951
20.1
4.1
.1
.2
.4
.2
.6
.4
140.5
16.3
513.2
31.4
5.2
9.8
24.1
13.9
24.5
10.4
1950
22.5
5.0
.1
.2
.4
.8
.7
.8
139.8
16.2
510.8
31.3
5.1
9.2
23.1
13.8
23.7
11.4
1949
26.3
5.8
.1
.3
.4
.4
.5
.6
138.8
16.9
502.1
30.0
6.7
9.2
21.3
15.0
24.3
11.4
1948
30.0
8.0
.2
(Z)
.4
.8
.6
134.9
26.4
488.0
38.7
6.0
11.3
22.1
16.6
28.2
11.2
1947
33.5
8.8
.2
.1
.6
1.4
.8
132.3
26.2
491.0
43.1
5.6
10.4
22.8
16.7
29.7
11.5
1946
36.4
9.3
.3
.1
.9
is
.9
130.0
24.8
476.8
44.5
5.8
9.6
23.9
16.1
29.8
11.5
1945
39.9
10.6
.4
.2
1.2
1.3
.2
134.0
26.5
508.2
51.6
8.7
9.5
21.2
17.7
38.2
11.2
1944
41.2
11.2
.4
.8
is
1.4
1.4
128.8
26.3
500.5
61.6
9.9
8.6
18.3
17.0
36.0
10.0
1943
42.5
12.1
.5
.3
is
2.5
1.0
124.3
27.1
510.8
67.1
9.6
9.8
17.7
18.0
37.7
10.2
1942
43.1
12.2
.6
.3
1.0
1.9
1.0
122.0
25.4
479.5
56.7
8.8
9.4
21.1
16.6
38.5
12.0
1941
44.5
13.8
.8
.3
1.0
2.8
1.7
120.1
25.4
475.3
63.8
10.5
8.9
30.0
16.7
29.2
12.8
1940
45.9
14.4
1.1
.5
1.1
2.2
.5
120.3
26.6
485.7
70.3
10.3
8.6
26.2
17.2
29.8
14.4
1939
47.1
15.0
1.5
.7
1.5
2.3
is
117.5
25.5
466.3
75.7
11.6
8.3
24.7
17.5
28.1
14.1
1938
49.1
15.9
1.9
.9
2.0
3.7
2.5
114.9
23.9
456.8
80.4
14.3
8.8
25.1
19.5
27.2
15.3
1937
53.8
16.1
2.1
1.4
2.0
3.9
1.2
112.4
23.7
454.6
114.9
14.7
8.5
30.8
20.4
30.0
15.0
1936
55.9
16.2
2.5
1.9
2.4
2.1
1.0
111.4
23.7
461.1
119.6
16.4
8.3
29.7
20.8
34.9
14.3
1935
55.1
15.4
2.8
2.1
3.1
3.7
3.1
108.2
22.3
431.2
104.2
14.1
7.9
28.6
19.2
30.1
14.3
1934
56.7
15.9
3.4
2.0
3.3
5.9
5.5
106.4
22.2
430.0
96.9
18.4
7.7
28.6
18.8
32.0
14.9
1933
59.6
15.1
3.6
2.0
3.9
3.6
2.2
102.3
21.4
418.6
95.7
17.3
7.4
25.0
16.1
31.8
15.9
1932
62.5
15.4
8.7
2.2
4.4
4.5
1.6
102.8
22.0
418.2
107.3
16.1
7.2
23.6
14.8
32.4
17.4
1931
67.8
15.4
4.5
2.2
4.8
3.9
3.0
99.0
20.4
407.1
107.5
20.5
7.4
27.1
14.6
36.1
16.8
1930
71.1
16.7
4.8
1.9
4.9
4.8
3.2
97.4
19.1
414.4
102.5
26.0
7.2
26.7
14.7
38.4
15.6
1929
75.3
15.6
4.2
2.1
6.5
6.2
2.5
95.8
18.8
418.9
146.5
23.3
7.2
25.5
14.5
39.7
13.9
1928
78.3
16.4
4.9
1.9
7.2
5.4
5.2
95.7
19.0
419.1
142.5
26.4
7.5
23.2
14.1
40.8
13.5
1927
79.6
16.4
5.3
2.3
7.7
6.8
4.1
95.2
17.4
398.3
102.2
27.1
7.4
21.6
14.0
41.5
13.2
1926
85.5
17.1
6.4
2.5
7.4
8.8
8.3
94.6
17.9
410.6
141.7
32.9
7.2
19.9
14.0
43.3
12.6
1925
84.8
17.3
7.8
2.7
7.8
6.7
2.3
92.0
16.8
391.5
121.7
38.6
7.2
16.8
13.4
46.3
12.0
1924
87.9
17.8
6.6
3.1
9.3
8.1
8.2
90.4
16.4
383.4
115.2
33.7
7.3
15.3
13.1
45.4
11.9
1923
91.7
17.9
6.7
3.5
12.0
9.6
10.7
88.4
17.7
380.8
151.7
39.1
7.1
14.6
12.8
46.9
11.5
1922
95.3
18.0
7.4
3.6
14.6
5.5
4.3
86.2
18.3
366.6
132.3
38.9
7.4
12.4
12.1
43.8
11.7
1921
97.6
17.5
8.8
5.8
17.7
9.1
4.2
85.5
16.7
351.2
98.7
50.7
7.3
11.3
11.4
44.1
12.4
1920
113.1
16.5
7.6
4.6
15.3
12.5
8.8
83.4
16.1
364.9
207.3
53.7
7.1
10.3
11.8
47.9
10.2
1919
125.6
16.2
9.2
2.8
14.9
5.6
3.9
81.0
15.0
348.6
223.0
55.2
7.9
9.3
11.3
50.5
11.5
9.3
12.7
59.5
12.3
1918
149.8
18.7
12.3
3.1
14.0
17.0
10.8
80.8
16.1
387.0
588.5
72.2
9.6
1917
143.5
19.1
13.3
3.5
15.6
10.5
14.1
80.8
16.9
396.4
164.5
75.2
10.9
8.6
14.8
62.6
13.0
1916
138.4
18.6
13.2
3.1
13.9
10.5
11.4
81.0
16.9
389.4
163.3
75.5
11.8
7.1
15.1
59.4
13.7
1915
140.1
17.7
11.8
3.6
15.2
8.2
5.2
80.7
17.6
383.5
145.9
67.5
12.1
5.8
14.8
52.9
16.2
1914
141.7
16.7
14.7
6.6
17.2
10.2
6.8
78.7
16.2
374.5
132.4
75.1
12.5
4.2
15.0
57.5
16.1
64.5
15.4
1913
143.5
16.2
17.5
7.7
18.1
10.1
12.8
78.5
15.4
370.6
140.8
86.7
12.9
3.8
15.4
1912
145.4
15.1
16.1
6.0
17.6
9.2
7.2
77.0
15.1
375.7
138.4
79.6
13.1
2.8
15.4
62.6
15.6
1911
155.1
15.3
20.1
8.6
18.4
11.0
9.9
74.2
15.1
366.5
145.4
86.8
13.6
2.1
15.0
66.5
16.0
1910
153.8
13.5
22.5
11.4
21.1
11.6
12.4
76.2
15.3
371.9
155.9
115.4
13.3
1.8
15.4
67.0
15.3
1909
156.3
12.9
20.2
11.1
19.9
10.0
10.0
74.0
14.1
362.0
148.1
101.8
13.4
1.2
77.5
16.0
16.8
1908
162.1
12.4
23.4
12.4
21.9
10.7
10.6
71.5
13.8
356.7
150.9
112.5
13.5
8'
82.1
1907
174.2
12.4
28.2
9.3
24.2
11.3
9.6
71.4
14.2
389.8
180.0
115.0
14.8
.7
94.1
14.5
1906
175.8
14.1
30.9
7.3
26.3
16.1
12.9
69.3
13.4
364.3
156.3
123.6
14.1
.4
94.0
12.8
1905
179.9
13.8
22.4
6.8
23.5
8.9
7.4
73.4
14.1
384.0
169.3
118.4
14.0
81.3
13.5
1904
188.1
13.9
23.9
11.6
29.3
5.8
11.8
71.5
14.2
388.8
192.1
111.5
13.9
85.4
12.2
1903
177.2
13.2
24.6
12.3
31.1
14.3
8.8
70.0
12.7
364.4
169.3
100.3
13.5
81.4
11.3
1902
174.2
12.9
26.4
11.9
29.8
12.4
9.3
66.3
11.7
349.8
161.3
104.9
13.0
72.5
10.3
1901
189.9
12.5
27.6
13.6
33.5
8.7
7.4
66.4
11.6
347.7
197.2
118.5
13.1
83.8
10.4
72.3
10.2
1900
194.4
12.0
31.3
9.6
40.3
12.2
13.3
64.0
11.0
345.2
202.2
142.7
12.5
* Denotes first year for which figures include Alaska and Hawaii.
1906-1925, excludes automobile collisions with trains and streetcars, and motor-
Z Less than 0.05.
cycle accidents.
1 1900-1920, excludes aneurysm of the aorta.
0 1900-1921, includes legal executions; 1900-1908, food poisoning; and 1900-1905,
2 Includes neoplasms of lymphatic and hematopoietic tissues.
motor vehicle accidents.
$ All years, excludes pneumonia of newborn; 1900-1920, excludes capillary bronchitia.
, Includes Alaska.
4 All years, excludes diarrhea of newborn; 1900-1920, includes ulcer of duodenum.
58
100 Death
-46
per 1006
percup $ income 24,231
RESEARCH TASKS
No one may leave until all of these are completed
HS deg.
Colly
GDP - -1900, 1998 Tr
94,883
27, +10
1900
&
Ranked cause of death - 1900, 1998
1946 2,572,000
1,195,000
JSG
3. # of children who died in childbirth of childhood - 1900, 1998
4. Names of diseases big then, nonexistent now -- probably same as #2
JSEN
5
Poverty rates - 1900, 1998 - might be difficult, good luck
6.% of Americans who went to college - 1900, 1998 OR degrees granted 1990 ONLY
7.% of Americans who graduated high school - 190041998
19965 grady 2,274,000
8. How long did it take to travel from NY to SF 1900
9. GDP per manhour - 1998 _calculate Tom = 13.50 in '96
10 Output per manhour, 1990 or 1998 INDEXED - 1900, 1998
N. U.S. Govt. Expenditures - 1998
-
12.
Occupations by % - 1998
13. Energy sources - 1998
14 International trade (IM make (1996-2x-624-Million; ?% of GNP, EX ?) - 1998 1m 791, 364 m}?
15. # flights - Jeff's research, Arkansas airport opening - obviously 1900 # is 0
16, Miles of RR - 1998
17. Miles of Road - 1998
518142
1425754
18. Total US car production - 1998
2210012
4,15 M
19. % of 18-21 yr. Olds in college 1998
4153963 Digert of hizha ed
20. # Baccalaureate degrees granted - 1998
21. Telephones, # of users - 1998
Govt employer Federal = 2.9m
All you = 6.7 M
1996
61,857,000
22.% of women working - 1900, 1998
employed
58,501,000
11
women of are
23. # of daily newspapers - 1900, 1998
104,385,000
24. # doctors, # hospitals - 1900, 1998
YTSG
[ 4CALL #
HC59 .U4. [4
[
4AUTHOR
United Nations Development Programme
[4
[
4TITLE
Human development report. [4
[ 4PUB INFO
New York : Published for the United Nations Development Programm
[4
by Oxford University Press, 1990 [4
[
4DESCRIPT
V. ; 28 cm.
[4
[
4 FREQUENCY
Annual. [4
[ 4PUB DATE
1990 - [ 4
[ 4SUBJECT
Human capital. [4
[4
Economic development -- Social aspects.
[4
[ 4LIB. HAS
NEOB. [4
[4
OEOB. [4
[ 41 > HC59 . U4 OEOB [4
[4
LIB. HAS: Current year + 4 years [4
[4
Latest received: [4 1995
[4
[ 42
V
HC59 . U4 NEOB [4
[4
LIB. HAS: Current year [4
[4
Latest received: [4 1998
[4
TRANSPORTATION
Cars, total US production
1908: 63,500
1978 -
— flights ( Jeff's research)
Miles of RR - 1998
Miles of road - 1998
MISCELLANEOUS
In 1900:
- in New Haven, Connecticut, a restaurant pioneers the hamburger
- US Postal Serv. issues 1st book of stamps
- Paper clip is patented
- Gasoline sold in drug stores by quart in bottles
- Average American factory has about 24 employees
TRANSPORTATION - COMBINE
Miles of surface roads
1900: 129,000 miles
Railroads
1900: 193,000 miles
HEALTH
Deaths per 100,000 population, 1900
TB - 194.4 (1963 - 4.9)
Diptheria - 40.3
Whooping cough - 12.2
Measles - 13.3
Influenza and pneumonia - 202.2
"Before 1880 we knew nothing; after 1890 we knew it all; it was glorious ten years."
- William Segewick, bacteriologist
[Columbia, David Rosner, pg. 487]
NYC, Infant death rate per 1,000 births
1890 - 144
1990 - 9 NATIONALLY
Life Expectancy
1900: 47.3 years
75.7 yrs.
"Between 1950 and 1990, there were profound changes in mortality and fertility, and by
considering them, one can best understand the momentous demographic transformation of this
period. Between 1950-1955 and 1965-1970, the world's birth declined slightly, from 38 to 34
birth for every 1,000 people, while the death rate decreased noticeably from 20 to 13 -- thus
explaining the acceleration of population growth. However, in the next twenty years, this growth
slowed down, as a result of the greater decline in birth rates (34 to 27) than in death rates (13 to
10)." -- Sabagh in Columbia History, pg. 546.
Black woman's life expectancy
1900 - 34 yrs.
1940 56
1980 74
EDUCATION
Black Women, Literacy
1900 - 40%
1980 - virtually all
Compulsory school attendance
1900 - 32/45 states
% of 18-21 year olds in college
1900 - < 5%
- 1998
Baccalaureate degrees granted
1900 - 28,000 (c. 18 per 1,000 23 yr. olds)
- 1998
Avg. Days in school terms
145 days in public elementary and secondary schools
TECHNOLOGY
Telephones
1892 - 240,000 telephones for 70 million citizens
Private phones cost approximately $250 per year
Public pay phones cost 15 cents -- quite a bit for "back in the day"
1907 - 6 million phone users
1998
High technology
"Already, in the 1910s, following the development of long-distance wire transmission of sound,
high-energy, high-frequency transmitters had pioneered wireless telegraphy and the radio. The
late 1920s brought the first wireless transmission of visual images, and soon the age of the
television -- direct sound and visual communication from all over the earth -- dawned, adding to
books, newspapers, photographs, and moving pictures an immediate visual and auditory
experience, and an intimate -- though highly controlled, selective, and unidirectional -- view of
contemporary events and theatrical entertainment. By these means, the group of human activities
dependent on words, pictures and messages -- education, entertainment, politics, commerce, i.e.,
the "service" industries -- joined farming, mining, transportation and manufacture in waiting for
the deployment of "high tech."
- William Parker
[Columbia, pg. 266]
Science
"The twentieth century inherited from the nineteenth both the structures of acquired knowledge
and the social forms and institutions by which that knowledge could be preserved, reproduced,
and extended in the minds, thought patterns, and skills of succeeding generations of scientists,
engineers, and industrial workers. Its industrial history may begin than with science, and more
specifically with three sciences -- loose associations of organized thought and observation -- that
had been moving toward maturity and coalescence from the late seventeenth century. By 1900
they were called physics, chemistry, and biology. Over the following sixty years, they were
tumbled together like ice cubes in a shakers, melted down, and fused to one another. Something
called science probed into the molecules of the elements that combined them, penetrating at last,
in the 1930s and 1940s, under the hot lamps of wartime desperation, into the nuclei of the atoms,
and by an incomparable engineering achievement confirmed the equations of the physicists in an
explosive release of atomic energy, the harbinger of its risky harnessing for peaceful purposes."
- William Parker
[Columbia History of the 20th C., pg. 264]
Inventors
"With an inventive career extending into the twentieth century, Thomas Edison embodied the
transition from the "great individualists" to the large-scale R&D laboratories, which he helped to
establish. He made a host of inventions and took out more patents (1,093) than any other single
individual in patenting history, but this was due, in part, to his setting up large contract research
laboratories, first in Newark, new Jersey and later in Menlo Park, California. Among Edison's
staff at these laboratories were some of the outstanding engineers and scientists who later helped
to build up corporate in-house R&D in Germany and in Britain, as well as in the United States.
By the first decade of the twentieth century, although Edison was still making inventions,
the focus of inventive effort was shifting from the contract laboratory typified by Menlo Park,
Nicol Tesla's laboratories, or that of Edward Weston to the in-house industrial laboratories
established by such firms as Kodak (1895), General Electric (1900), or Du Pont (1902)."
- Christopher Freeman
[Columbia History, pg. 315]
"By 1914 it was clear that electricity had brought with it (as a result of numerous applications
and innovations) a newfound flexibility in most industrial processes, together with far better
working conditions."
- Christopher Freeman
[Ibid., pg. 329]
BENCHMARKS
Culture
1872
Yellowstone Park est.
1878
Phonograph (Edison)
1888
George Eastman introduces roll film
1890
Yosemite
1896
Modern Olympics
1905
First nickelodeon theatre in Pittsburgh
1908
Grand Canyon set aside
1912
Picasso's synthetic cubism
1921
Mies van der Rohe's all-glass skyscraper
1922
Commercial radio broadcasting
1927
Talking films - "The Jazz Singer"?
1935
Color slide films
1940s
Jackson Pollock's action painting
1942
Color prints
1947
Polaroid Land instant photo camera
1950s
Francis Bacon's grotesquely distorted men paintings
1956-58
Seagram building in New York
1973
Hancock Tower in Boston
Equal rights
1896
Plessy v. Ferguson
1898
International Council of Women meets in London
by 1914
Over 1,000 suffragists had gone to prison
1925
A. Philip Randolph elected President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car
Attendants
1954
Brown V. Board of Ed.
1963
Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique
1964
Civil Rights Act includes "sex"
1966
NOW organized
Technology, science, medicine
1876
Telephone
1882
Robert Koch's discovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis -- rise of bacteriology
1885
AT&T formed as American Bell Company long-distance arm
mid-1880s
Louis Pasteur vaccine against rabies
1890
Antitoxin for diptheria
1896
French disscovery of radioactivity
1902
Rediscovery of Mendelian biology (Mendel 1822-1884) - est. Mathematical
formulas predicting characteristics of organisms
1905
Relativity - motion @ constant velocity
1916
Einstein's general theory - throws in gravity, acceleration
1927
AT&T regular service NY to London, $75/3 minute call
by 1931
50,020 miles of crude-carrying trunk pipelines
1939
Fission, fusion discovered
1946
ENIAC - 18,000 vacuum tubes and weighing 30 tons
1970
1st Earth Day
1973
Endangered Species Act
1977
Clean Air and Clear Water Acts
1977
Trans Alaska Pipelinie System opened - $7.7 billion cost
Transportation
12/17/1903
Kitty Hawk
1914
1st scheduled airline -- St. Petersburg-Tampa
1918
US Mail by airplane
END OF THE WORLD
"My figures coincide in setting 1950 as the year that the world must go smash."
- Henry Adams
[Time, Oct. 15, 1992, pg. 90 (Lexus copy), Tab 1]
- A futurist in the 1890s predicted with scientific logic that New York City would be abandoned
as unfit for habitation by the 1930s.
[Joseph Hankin, speech, October 15, 1997, pg. 3 (Lexus), Tab 4]
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS
"In a few years, I believe many men who are now rather aimless, men who have disconsolately
watched the collapse of the old Liberalism, will be clearly telling themselves and one another of
their adhesion to this new ideal" -- the ideal of a new economy intelligently organized and
governed for the benefit of the many not the few.
- H.G. Wells (italic comments Alan Brinkley)
[Paper by Alan Brinkley, pg. 12, Tab 2]
"There is a question as old as history itself, always disputed, never settled Is government by
the people possible? And shall it prevail? Would that in the year 1999 or 2000 one could
come back to earth, in order to hear the answer. May it be favorable to democracy. And may it be
final!"
- Walter Besant
[Ibid., pg. 12, Tab 2]
"My contention is that the ideal government of the future will be a complex one -- that it will be
plastic and will not have one rule applicable to all races."
- David Goodman Croly, 1888
[Ibid., pg. 13, Tab 2]
"A simple and poor society can exist as a democracy on the bases of sheer individualism. But a
rich and complex society cannot so exist."
- Theodore Roosevelt
[Ibid., pg. 14, Tab 2]
"If I could only be President and Congress too for just ten minutes."
- Theodore Roosevelt
[Quotes, Tab 3]
"Public rights come first private interests second."
- Theodore Roosevelt
[Quotes, Tab 3]
"The government will grow more complex."
- Ignatius Donnelly
["More Complex Political and Social Reform, pg. 190, Tab 14]
On two party governance --
"The friction between these two parties will be conducive to the national health. Sometimes the
pendulum will swing one way and sometimes the other. But, in the long run, the average
representing the extreme view in neither party will dominate the destinies of the nation."
- Chauncey Mitchell Depew, U.S. Senator, 1893
["Two-Party System Remains Invigorating, pg. 85, Tab Z]
On laissez-faire
"The government will grow more complex perhaps in its details as increased numbers, greater
area, and larger interests require more machinery -- but it will grow more simple in purpose.
Instead of seeking to perform the work of the individual, it will content itself with "restraining
men from injuring one another." It will "leave them otherwise free to carry on their own pursuits
of industry and improvement," SO far as they do not interfere with the equal rights of others."
- William Jennings Bryan
["Government Nearer to the People, pg. 195, Tab 2]
Constitution
"Little indeed was the popular mind prepared for the extraordinary developments and the
remarkable series of events that brought about in 1999 the creation of the United States of the
Americas. In that memorable year all of the independent republics of Central and South America
had joined our union and were governed under the great Constitution of 1776, which is and
always will be, the most inspiring document that ever issued from the pen of man, one that will
continue to bless mankind as long as the sun retains its power and the earth gives forth its fruits."
- Bellamy, Looking Forward
["Looking Backward," pp. 11-12, Tab 5]
Patriotism
"As 'new occasions teach new duties,' this new peril demands a new patriotism -- not new in
spirit, but in manifestation; one which is civil rather than military; one which devotes itself to the
principle actually endangered; not a patriotism which constructs fortifications and builds navies,
but one which purifies politics and substitutes statesmen for demagogues; not one which "rallies
round the flag," so much as one which rallies round the ballot-box; not one which charges into
the deadly breach, but one which smashes the "machine"; not one which offers itself to die for
the country, but one that is willing to live for it, which is as much more heroic as it is more
difficult."
- ?
["The Twentieth Century City, pg. 109, Tab 12]
THANKING THOSE BEFORE US
"But we have faith that we shall not prove false to the memories of the men of the mighty past.
They did their work, and they left us the splendid heritage we now enjoy. We in our turn have an
assured confidence that we shall be able to leave this heritage unwasted and enlarged to our
children and our children's children. To do so we must show, not merely in great crises, but in
the everyday affairs of life, the qualities of practical intelligence, of courage, of men, of
hardihood, and endurance, and above all the power of devotion to a lofty ideal, which made great
the men who founded this Republic in the days of Washington, which made great the men who
preserved this Republic in the days of Abraham Lincoln."
- Theodore Roosevelt
[Inaugural Address, March 4, 1905, Tab 3]
INNOVATION
"Everything that can be invented already has been."
- Charles Duell, Director, U.S. Patent Office, 1899
[Joseph Hankin, speech, 10/15/97, pg. 3 (Lexus), Tab 4]
"The chief discoveries will consist in producing fire out of water, silver out of clay, strong and
permanent buildings out of paper, a locomotive force out of gravity, diamonds out of charcoal.. "
- Van Buren Denslow
["Society Governed By Economic Laws, pg. 82, Tab 11]
"If the advent of cheap gs should enable us to utilize sixty per cent of that power instead of
fifteen, it would put whip and spur to material development."
- ?
["The Twentieth Century City, pg. 155, Tab 12]
Biotech
"It gives me much satisfaction to predict that a marked change will take place in the science of
medicine. By 1993 doctors will prescribe no more than one-third of the drugs they now think
necessary. The true relation of the muscular to the organic system, and their combined influence
on the nervous system, will become more fully and generally understood. The combined action
of the patient's mind and muscles will be depended on instead of drugs to prevent, allay, and
cure disease."
- Edwin Checkley
["Marked Changes in Medicine, Theology, Education," pg. 173, Tab 16]
GENERAL
"In today, already walks tomorrow."
- Samuel Coleridge (British poet)
[Joseph Hankin, speech, 10/15/97, pg. 3 (Lexus), Tab 4]
"For students 18 to 21 years of age, who maybe in our classrooms this coming Fall, half of the
nations on Earth did not exist in their present form when they were born."
- Joseph Hankin
[Ibid., Tab 4]
"We stand on the threshold of a new Century, a century big with fate of the great nations of the
earth. It rests with us to decide whether in the opening years of that century we shall march
forward to fresh triumphs, or whether at the outset we shall deliberately cripple ourselves for the
contest."
- Theodore Roosevelt
[Nomination of McKinley, 6/1900, Tab 3]
"Yet there are others whose review of that pilgrimage convinces them that though the ascent of
man may be slow it is also sure; that if we compare each age with those which preceded it we
find that the ground which seems for a time to have been lost is ultimately recovered, we see
human nature growing gradually more refined, institutions better fitted to secure justice, the
opportunities and capacities for happiness larger and more varied, so that the error of those who
formed ideals never yet attained lay only in their forgetting how much time and effort and
patience under repeated disappointment must go to that attainment."
- James Bryce
[Social Institutions, pg. 718, Tab 12]
"Further, it is my hope, by 1993:
Government
- That politics will be understood to mean the science of pure and just government, and
not the mere means of enriching base, unprincipled, incompetent, and corrupt men.
Crime
- That it will be possible for women to walk from house to house, in city or country, in
safety; that girls may go to church or to school, or even take a harmless walk in the fields or
woods, without danger of being waylaid and murdered by their "natural protectors."
- That the persons who chance to witness a crime will not conceal and hush it up through
fear of being put in jail at witnesses, while the culprit goes free on bail.
Economic
- That the worth of human beings will not be reckoned by their banks accounts.
Biotech
- That this country will cease to be the cesspool into which are drained the disease,
criminality, and pauperism of all Europe
Constitution
- That all mature, rational, intelligent, and law-abiding persons will have an equal voice
in forming and administering the laws which they must obey.
Business
- The conscientious industry will win competence and comfort.
Biotech
- That health will be contagious, instead of disease."
- ?
["?", pg. 100, Tab 17]
Arts
"Turning the calendar back to 1898, critic W.J. Henderson sang the same melody in The New
York Times Illustrated Magazine:
First of all abolish the music halls in which the vulgar tunes set to still more vulgar words provide the
musical milk upon which the young of the masses are reared. Abolish the diabolical street pianos and hand
organs which disseminate their vile tunes in all directions and which reduce the musical taste of the
children in the residence streets to the level of that of the Australian bushman, who thinks noise and
rhythym are music
St. Augustine said pretty much the same thing in the fifth century A.D. in his treatise De Musica.
Elevated disgust with popular taste is constant; only the music changes."
- Richard W. Bulliet
[Columbia History of the 20th Century, pg. 31]
ECONOMIC
- Bellamy predicts the elimination of private property, but doesn't see a welfare state -- instead
"work is expected in the same way that good manners are. Freeloading is condemned by an
enlightened society and punished by solitary confinement. Even the few insane and disabled
want to do their part."
[Intro to Looking Backward, pp. 14-16, Tab 5]
"Society will be governed more by economic laws and less by judge-made and legislative law."
- Van Buren Denslow
["Society Governed by Economic Laws, pg. 80, Tab 11]
The New South
"In 1993 millions of dwelling houses will be artificially cooled in summer, as they are now
heated in winter."
- Felix L. Oswald
["National Population Under 300 Million, pg. 66, Tab 12
Equality of opportunity
"Mechanical power, on the other hand, can be indefinitely increased without any increase of
population. With its advent, therefore, came the possibility of general comfort and the ultimate
possibility of universal wealth. This possibility has awakened hope, and men begin to believe
that no class has been doomed to perpetual want and ignorance. Suffering is no longer deemed
necessary, but rather abnormal, and social reformers feel bound to find and remove its causes."
- ?
["The Twentieth Century City, pg. 120, Tab 13]
Global - NAFTA
"There will be free trade throughout the North American continent and possibly free trade with
all the world."
- Asa C. Matthews
["The United States of the Americas, " Pg. 50, Tab 15]
THE PRESIDENCY
"I think the President of the United States will have much less work on his hands than he has
now -- though the country will be twice as great and the government correspondingly larger. For
long before that time Presidents will cease to give personal consideration to a myriad of matters
which now consume their time and their energies. The President of the future will not, in my
opinion, pay any attention to minor appointments."
- Elijah Halford, personal secretary to
President Harrison
[Essay, pg. 62, Tab 6]
"In the Executive Mansion of 100 years hence, I think I can see the present building as the
central part. There is no doubt that this building will soon have to be enlarged. There is not room
enough in it for the family, for the office of the President, and for the social entertainments or
public levees which tradition requires the President to give. But I do not think the people will
ever consent to the destruction of this house. Too many memories cling about it; too many of the
great men and great events of the country's history have been associated with it."
- Elijah Halford, personal secretary to
President Harrison
[Ibid., pg. 62, Tab 6]
c:\intfall98\qte128.wpd
IMMIGRATION
"How well [Washington, Jefferson, etc.] built is told by the millions who came and are still
coming. Our first national census in 1790 produced as recorded population just under 4 million.
Three-fourths of them traced their ancestry to the British Isles, though most had considered
themselves American for several generations. There was already talk about further immigration,
proposing it should be selective and restrictive, but this was swept aside by the greatest mass
movement of people in all human history."
- Gerald Ford, 7/5/74
[Ford, 7/5/74, Public Papers, item 649, Tab 8]
"Immigrants came from almost everywhere, singly and in waves. Throughout our first century
they brought the restless drive for better lives and rugged strength that cleared the wilderness,
plowed the prairie, tamed the western plains, pushing into the Pacific and to Alaska. Like the
Mayflower Pilgrims and the early Spanish settlers, these new Americans brought with them
precious relics of the worlds they left behind -- a song, a story, a dance, a tool, a seed, a recipe,
the name of a place, the rules of a game, a trick of the trade."
- Gerald Ford
[Ibid., Tab 8]
TRANSPORTATION
Postal/Communications
"For letters there will be a postal telegraph, cheap and in almost universal use. There will also be
electrical post lines, carrying mail matter across the continent at a speed of 200 or 300 miles an
hour. Morning newspapers in all the large cities will be delivered at the breakfast tables of their
readers by this means, within a radius of 500 miles of the office of publication."
- Walter Wellman
("Revolutionary Improvements In Transportation, pg. 205, Tab 10]
Airplane
"Aerial navigation will come within the next century. It may not become universal or largely
commercial, but it will be used for special travel, for exploration or for pleasure. It will be
accomplished not by balloons -- since a balloon that floats in the air cannot be steered at will.
Rather, it will be realized by the aeroplanes in combination with stored electric energy, operating
through engines of marvelous power and lightness. Within 25 years, aerial navigation will solve
the mysteries of the North Pole and the frozen ocean."
- Walter Wellman
[Ibid., pg. 205, Tab 10]
Urban Transportation
"The most important improvement in the means of travel -- the one that will work greatest good
to mankind -- will be in metropolitan rapid transit The solution of the problem, in my opinion,
will be found not in underground railways -- which are never likely to become popular in
America. Rather, it will be found in elevated electric railways, enclosed with glass."
- Walter Wellman
[Ibid., pg. 206, Tab 10]
http://www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0027/tab22.txt
Table 22. Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1990
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census
Internet Release date: June 15, 1998
Density
Land
(average
area
popula-
(sq.
tion per
Rank
Place
Population
miles)
sq. mile)
1
New York city, NY
*
7,322,564
308.9
23,705
2
Los Angeles city, CA
3,485,398
469.3
7,427
3
Chicago city, IL
2,783,726
227.2
12,252
4
Houston city, TX
1,630,553
539.9
3,020
5
Philadelphia city, PA
1,585,577
135.1
11,736
6
San Diego city, CA
*
1,110,549
324.0
3,428
7
Detroit city, MI
1,027,974
138.7
7,411
8
Dallas city, TX
1,006,877
342.4
2,941
9
Phoenix city, AZ
*
983,403
419.9
2,342
10
San Antonio city, TX
935,933
333.0
2,811
11
San Jose city, CA
782,248
171.3
4,567
12
Baltimore city, MD
736,014
80.8
9,109
13
Indianapolis city, IN
*
731,327
361.7
2,022
14
San Francisco city, CA
723,959
46.7
15,502
15
Jacksonville city, FL
*
635,230
758.7
837
16
Columbus city, OH
632,910
190.9
3,315
17
Milwaukee city, WI
628,088
96.1
6,536
18
Memphis city, TN
*
610,337
256.0
2,384
19
Washington city, DC
606,900
61.4
9,884
20
Boston city, MA
574,283
48.4
11,865
21
Seattle city, WA
516,259
83.9
6,153
22
El Paso city, TX
*
515,342
245.4
2,100
23
Cleveland city, OH
505,616
77.0
6,566
24
New Orleans city, LA
*
496,938
180.6
2,752
25
Nashville-Davidson, TN
*
488,374
473.3
1,032
26
Denver city, CO
*
467,610
153.3
3,050
27
Austin city, TX
465,622
217.8
2,138
28
Fort Worth city, TX
*
447,619
281.1
1,592
29
Oklahoma City city, OK
*
444,719
608.2
731
30
Portland city, OR
437,319
124.7
3,507
31
Kansas City city, MO
*
435,146
311.5
1,397
32
Long Beach city, CA
429,433
50.0
8,589
33
Tucson city, AZ
*
405,390
156.3
2,594
34
St. Louis city, MO
396,685
61.9
6,408
35
Charlotte city, NC
395,934
174.3
2,272
36
Atlanta city, GA
394,017
131.8
2,990
37
Virginia Beach city, VA
*
393,069
248.3
1,583
38
Albuquerque city, NM
384,736
132.2
2,910
39
Oakland city, CA
372,242
56.1
6,635
40
Pittsburgh city, PA
369,879
55.6
6,653
41
Sacramento city, CA
369,365
96.3
3,836
42
Minneapolis city, MN
368,383
54.9
6,710
43
Tulsa city, OK
367,302
183.5
2,002
44
Honolulu CDP, HI
*
365,272
82.8
4,411
45
Cincinnati city, OH
364,040
77.2
4,716
46
Miami city, FL
358,548
35.6
10,072
47
Fresno city, CA
354,202
99.1
3,574
48
Omaha city, NE
335,795
100.6
3,338
49
Toledo city, OH
332,943
80.6
4,131
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50
Buffalo city, NY
328,123
40.6
8,082
51
Wichita city, KS
304,011
115.1
2,641
52
Santa Ana city, CA
293,742
27.1
10,839
53
Mesa city, AZ
288,091
108.6
2,653
54
Colorado Springs city, CO
281,140
183.2
1,535
55
Tampa city, FL
280,015
108.7
2,576
56
Newark city, NJ
275,221
23.8
11,564
57
St. Paul city, MN
272,235
52.8
5,156
58
Louisville city, KY
269,063
62.1
4,333
59
Anaheim city, CA
266,406
44.3
6,014
60
Birmingham city, AL
*
265,968
148.5
1,791
61
Arlington city, TX
261,721
93.0
2,814
62
Norfolk city, VA
261,229
53.8
4,856
63
Las Vegas city, NV *
258,295
83.3
3,101
64
Corpus Christi city, TX
257,453
135.0
1,907
65
St. Petersburg city, FL
238,629
59.2
4,031
66
Rochester city, NY
231,636
35.8
6,470
67
Jersey City city, NJ
228,537
14.9
15,338
68
Riverside city, CA
226,505
77.7
2,915
69
Anchorage city, AK *
226,338
1,697.6
133
70
Lexington-Fayette, KY
*
225,366
284.5
792
71
Akron city, OH
223,019
62.2
3,586
72
Aurora city, CO
*
222,103
132.5
1,676
73
Baton Rouge city, LA
219,531
73.9
2,971
74
Stockton city, CA
210,943
52.6
4,010
75
Raleigh city, NC
207,951
88.1
2,360
76
Richmond city, VA
203,056
60.1
3,379
77
Shreveport city, LA
198,525
98.6
2,013
78
Jackson city, MS
196,637
109.0
1,804
79
Mobile city, AL
196,278
118.0
1,663
80
Des Moines city, IA
193,187
75.3
2,566
81
Lincoln city, NE
191,972
63.3
3,033
82
Madison city, WI
191,262
57.8
3,309
83
Grand Rapids city, MI
189,126
44.3
4,269
84
Yonkers city, NY
188,082
18.1
10,391
85
Hialeah city, FL
188,004
19.2
9,792
86
Montgomery city, AL
187,106
135.0
1,386
87
Lubbock city, TX
186,206
104.1
1,789
88
Greensboro city, NC
183,521
79.8
2,300
89
Dayton city, OH
182,044
55.0
3,310
90
Huntington Beach city, CA
181,519
26.4
6,876
91
Garland city, TX
180,650
57.3
3,153
92
Glendale city, CA
180,038
30.6
5,884
93
Columbus city, GA
*
178,681
216.1
827
94
Spokane city, WA
177,196
55.9
3,170
95
Tacoma city, WA
176,664
48.0
3,681
96
Little Rock city, AR
175,795
102.9
1,708
97
Bakersfield city, CA
*
174,820
91.8
1,904
98
Fremont city, CA
*
173,339
77.0
2,251
99
Fort Wayne city, IN
173,072
62.7
2,760
100
Arlington CDP, VA
*
170,936
25.9
6,600
*See Notes for Individual Places.
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Table 12. Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1890
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census
Internet Release date: June 15, 1998
Rank Place
I Population 11 Rank I Place
1
New York city, NY
*
1,515,301
51
Lynn city, MA
2
Chicago city, IL
1,099,850
52
Lincoln city, NE
3
Philadelphia city, PA
1,046,964
53
Charleston city, SC
4
Brooklyn city, NY
*
806,343
54
Hartford city, CT
5
St. Louis city, MO
451,770
55
St. Joseph city, MO.
6
Boston city, MA
448,477
56
Evansville city, IN.
7
Baltimore city, MD
434,439
57
Los Angeles city, CA
8
San Francisco city, CA
298,997
58
Des Moines city, IA.
9
Cincinnati city, OH
296,908
59
Bridgeport city, CT.
10
Cleveland city, OH
261,353
60
Oakland city, CA
11
Buffalo city, NY
255,664
61
Portland city, OR
12
New Orleans city, LA
242,039
62
Saginaw city, MI
13
Pittsburgh city, PA
*
238,617
63
Salt Lake City city,
14
Washington city, DC
*
230,392
64
Lawrence city, MA
15
Detroit city, MI
205,876
65
Springfield city, MA
16
Milwaukee city, WI
204,468
66
Manchester city, NH
17
Newark city, NJ
181,830
67
Utica city, NY
18
Minneapolis city, MN
164,738
68
Hoboken city, NJ
19
Jersey City city, NJ
163,003
69
Savannah city, GA
20
Louisville city, KY
161,129
70
Seattle city, WA
21
Omaha city, NE
140,452
71
Peoria city, IL
22
Rochester city, NY
133,896
72
New Bedford city, MA
23
St. Paul city, MN
133,156
73
Erie city, PA
24
Kansas City city, MO
132,716
74
Somerville city, MA
25
Providence city, RI
132,146
75
Harrisburg city, PA
26
Denver city, CO
106,713
76
Kansas City city, KS
27
Indianapolis city, IN
105,436
77
Dallas city, TX
28
Allegheny city, PA
*
105,287
78
Sioux City city, IA
29
Albany city, NY
94,923
79
Elizabeth city, NJ
30
Columbus city, OH
88,150
80
Wilkes-Barre city, P
31
Syracuse city, NY
88,143
81
San Antonio city, TX
32
New Haven city, CT
86,045
82
Covington city, KY
33
Worcester city, MA
84,655
83
Portland city, ME
34
Toledo city, OH
81,434
84
Tacoma city, WA
35
Richmond city, VA
81,388
85
Holyoke city, MA
36
Paterson city, NJ
78,347
86
Fort Wayne city, IN.
37
Lowell city, MA
77,696
87
Binghamton city, NY.
38
Nashville city, TN
76,168
88
Norfolk city, VA
39
Scranton city, PA
75,215
89
Wheeling city, WV
40
Fall River city, MA
74,398
90
Augusta city, GA
41
Cambridge city, MA
70,028
91
Youngstown city, OH
42
Atlanta city, GA
65,533
92
Duluth city, MN
43
Memphis city, TN
64,495
93
Yonkers city, NY
44
Wilmington city, DE
61,431
94
Lancaster city, PA
45
Dayton city, OH
61,220
95
Springfield city, OH
46
Troy city, NY
60,956
96
Quincy city, IL
47
Grand Rapids city, MI
60,278
97
Mobile city, AL
48
Reading city, PA
58,661
98
Topeka city, KS
49
Camden city, NJ
58,313
99
Elmira city, NY
50
Trenton city, NJ
57,458
100
Salem city, MA
* See Notes for Individual Places.
1 of 1
12/10/98 6:20 PM
562
THE SATURDAY EVENING POST
Volume 172, No. 27
PUBLICK OCCURRENCES
That are Making HISTORY
The Newsst Developments In the Railroads of the World
A nation is known by Its transportation facilities. However abundant may be its natural
great fertility
has good rellroads. That is one reason why the United States so successfully leads. According
to Muthall, the British statistician, the wealth of this country exceeds that of Great Britain about
thirty five per cent., and In the survey of mankind he
The Going Away and Getting Back Habit
found nothing to compare with the United States. " In
not too much to say that the Hon's share of the credit
The Trolley and its Numerous Follings
A few days Ago at a Southern way station, which was
belongs to the transportation chapters of our history. "
While the modern rallroad has achieved almost perfec.
not of enough Importance for . ticket-seller, a typical negro
the rallroads are prosperous the country prospers.
then In its comforts and conveniences, the modern trolley
entered the train. There was upon his face the unwrinkled
There le no greater mistake than the popular Idea that very
distinctly falls in nearly everything in which It ought to be
happiness which springs from a mind that cannot tell the
low rates are a good thing. When a reliread does business
complete. In the first place, It costs a great deal less for
difference between an almanac and the Constitution of his
below cost It does more to disorganise trade than any other
operation and Its percentage of profit is a great deal more.
country, and that is thoroughly convinced that Abraham
mailgn Influence, and In the end the cont to the people is
Hundreds of millions of dollars have been made simply by
Lincoln is mill President. Of course he has a vote, but that
larger than If the rates had been excessive. A great diffi-
manipulating and combining the stocks and franchises. The
is snother matter. In this case he had something more sub.
culty In the past has been to get the railroads to keep their
Niagara of speculation has poured almost endless water Into
stantial to him than any slip of paper with a lot of names on
agreements with one another. Legislation against pools was
the capital on which the public must pay interest. There are
11-a tittle wad of bills and some silver change which he held
caused not 80 much by the fact of the pool Itself, but because
literally millions of working people in the United States who
with a conscious grip.
THE
In almost every Instance It was a scheme
give to these corporations from five to twenty per cent. of
The conductor asked:
that was used dishonestly. Congress
their dally wage. In many cities the charges are far beyond
Where do you want
undertook to settle the matter by the
all reason in comparison with the services rendered. When
to go?" The ebony
absolute prohibition of such an arrange-
a person appreciates that he is paying more for the privilege
citizen grinned and TO.
ment. But the brilliant Intellects that
of standing up and being trampled upon in a trolley than for
lased his hold on his
refiroads have undoubtedly reached
riding comfortably in a modern rellroad car, while the cost
fortune. Then he said:
some sort of working plan. They were
of the trulley is fully one half less than that of the reliroad,
Boss, I wants ter go
enabled to do this mainly by the few.
he will are how for the Injustice goes. But, like all corpora.
" fur me
great corporations getting control of the
tions which have become suddenly rich, and Into whose
en fetch me back ergin
refired situation of the country. One
pockets millions are flowing weekly, they have little concern
-all savin' a quarter
of the announcements le the Increase in
for the public. It is only that the Americans are the most
ter. spend when I git
refired rates. The refireads defend
patient people on earth that these things are tolerated.
off. The conductor
themselves on the score, that every.
The average trolley car in In Itself a cheap, Inadequate
made the ealculation,
thing else has been going up, and that
thing. Nine times out of ten It Is too small, and generally,
and all but twenty five
they have a right to get their share of
even in the bleakest weather, it is unheated. There is no
cents went to the soul.
the new prosperity. It remains to be
regard for the passengers' well-being. And yet, these same
less corporation whose
seen whether or not the Interstate Com-
trolley care are the largest money makers in the country,
Clouds
business It is to take
merce Commission will Interfere.
Great Is the forbearance of the American What a lovely
people somewhere and
Not for many years have there been
angel he will make!
then take them back
so few receiverships as during 1899, and
again. Here we have
it Is significant that the only Important
The Future of the Automobile
a humble manifesta.
one came from rate-cutting. The man-
lion. of the restlessness
agers of that road set out to get busi-
nut, after aN, let US Induige the feeling that the
of the human race.
ness whether it paid or not, and regard.
present trolley system is only temporary It is out of all
More or less acutaly It
less of the bad effects their action
reason that anything any unsatisfactory should endure the
possenses all of us. It
might have on other properties. The
processes of progress, and we see the coming of a better day,
has been the feeling al.
consequence was that they soon reached
when we may ait down and feel that we are getting the
on
most from the begin.
the end of their folly, and the courts
worth of our money The era of the automobile means a
ning, and It Is some
had to Intervene. The rate-cutter is
revolution In city and suburban transportation. It Is not a
what strange that In the
- GF. - - Country of the - York Pritess
always the brigand of the business.
speculation or a promise, but something close at hand.
episode In the Garden
Another significant development of
When we stop to think that there are nearly a hundred
How
of Eden some one has
JAMES J. HILL
the year is something which the greatest
manufacturing companies with a capital of almost five hun.
not suggested that the
prophet of a decade ago would never
dred million dollars already in the field to make automobiles
been
Arst templation may have been a round excursion ticket.
have foretold. It has always been a principle of our trans.
we know at once that the automobile has arrived at our doors.
are
told
Going away and getting back In the greatest fact In the
portation writers that a ton of freight could be moved on
weisee them the streets; (every day
daily life of the world. Whether It be a voyage around the
water seven times more cheaply than on land, and this Idea
Othey coine within the reach'of the people.r Then the thor's
earth, or a trip on the trolley to a bargain sale, or to the buel-
has provailed In the public mind for several generations.
oughtares are better paved, and as the improvement which Is
office, It all goes to make up the wonderful movement
Now the rellmad people openly claim that the railroads are
one of the certainties of municipal growth goes on, we can
which keeps the people constantly changing positions, and
beating the canals, and such men as Presi-
look forward to the
which forms in Its machinery the most stupendous operations
dents IIIII, of the Great Northern, and Cal-
time when the track.
civilization can show. It uses more wealth than any other
laway, of the New York Central, have
will, be removed
department of human endeavor, and " marshale In Its service
gone so far as to state that the lake-and
from the
function
armies greater than those of the nations.
canal route from the Great Lakes to the
when we shall glide
Atlantic can no longer compete with the
along comfortably
Pullmons to the Pyramids and Beyond
railroads-that is to say, the railroads can
and cheaply on rub
carry freight from Chicago to New York
ber tiream The
In the same part of the country where our colored
and
cheaper than It can be carried by water.
street railway mag
fellow citizen took his outing one of the first rellmade existed
In the matter of speed the developments
nates should not be
Just about half a century ago. The rall was a piece of world
during the year have not been unusual.
alarmed over this
with an Iron strip nalled along the top. Occasionally this
The late George B. Roberts, President of
for they ought to be
strip would curl up and throw the engine off the track, or
the Pennsylvania Railroad, used to say that
satisfied with the
bob up suddenly through the bottom of the flimey passenger
what the railroads needed was not to
wealth which they
coach. A distance of 140 miles was made In about thirty.
much one hundred miles an hour as to
now possess, In
three hours, and when " was announced that the schedule
make fifty miles an hour and keep " up.
the meanwhile, they
would be cut down to twenty-four hours the public remon-
This In at present the settled policy of the
shou remember
strated. Then the directors talked over a plan to put bales
great transportation companies.
that hat the people
of cotton along the sides of the care, so that If there were
want is not to much
accidents the passengers would have noft landing.
Distributing Surplus Population
cheaper fares, at.
places.
though such a thing
All this seems ridiculous, and It seems equally Incredible
A very interesting movement la under
as an extra charge
that the sleeping-co Is less than half a century old, and that
way In Russia. The reilroad across Siberia
for a transfer should
the first vestibule train appeared in June, 1886. 11 was not
through an Immense country practically
not exist In any
the
notil even later than this that the modern air-brake was gen.
without population, but the fact that the
American city, but
orally applied. The whole record of reliroading is wonder.
rellroad is there has Increased the value of
better service and
ful history, Now Instead of collon bales to fall upon we have
the land from ten to a hundred fold. It
more comfortable
traine that are practically Indestructible, care that match
has been found that various enterprises can
accommodations
kings' palaces in luxury and excell them in comfort, engines
be profitably conducted, and unquestionably
The American is
that travel faster than the wind, and schedules that are more
the rellroad needs towns and cities and
PHOTO - outdowest, PHILAGELPHIA
seldom unreason-
certain than the breakfast gongs In our own homes, In this
settled districts to yield it on Income for
able. We are all
country, which leads the world, there are already nearly
support. The Russians, who have awakened
P. A. B. WIDENER
willing to pay our
190,000 miles, of railway.
with rare seal to modern conditions, have
five cents if we get
But this la only, a, part of the story. In other quarters of
solved the dilemma by a bold policy. It is nothing more nor
a nickel's worth, but there is a feeling that we do not get it.
the world the work M going on., Russia to already transport.
lean than transplanting people from the crowded districts of
passengers most of the way over Biberia; and her railread
the Russian Empire to desirable places along the new rall.
will SOON be at the Pecific, And It will not be long before
road. In other cases the railroad went to the people; In this
The Romances of Transportation
the whistle of the engine will be heard at Peking, At this
case the people are being taken to the railroad. The new
Were all the romances of literature to die, new ones
time personally conducted excurations from Calro to Khartum
settlers are not only being given free passes and free land,
could be belit from the facts of transportation The best
are being advertised, and the traveler may alt in the Pullman
but; free toold and the various necessities for beginning a
man wins. The Influence of the transportation Interests upon
enjoying all the comforts of home with the delights of
new life in a new country. Rusela grants all this with a
the character of the country has been incalculable. Those
Egyptiant There will doubtiees come 1 time when
generous and almost prodigal hand, Of course, when every
who anticipated the great developments of the country, such
will all the way to the Cape of Good Hope.
thing gots in operation the las assessor will do the rest.
as James J. 11111 In rellroading and P. A. B. Widener in street
Then after that there will be a railroad along the tablelands
This Is another way of accomplishing the results that have
railways, who has recontly given one for charity in
of the throughout the length of
made this country so great and so strong. Once It was
Philadelphia, have profited enormously. Though transports
China swakening to the necessity of relireads, and they
necomary for the East to send food to aid the new settions of
tion has made many millionaires at the expense of the public,
will buttern Persia is now entertaining the Carr's acheme
the West; the West is not only helping to support the
" has also made thousands of better men for the good of the
Trailroad through her territory to the Indian Ocean:
East and filling Its banks, but le feeding the world.
public. That should be remembered.
384
The Nation.
[Vol. 69, No. 1795
THE CIVIL-SERVICE FABLE.
character, who, when they came home
the then Indian Board of Control. What
We are always glad when we see an
as "Nabobs," should be required to show
he sald was that a system of reform
Imperialist resorting to argument. based
where they got the money. These pos-
which was adapted to England would
sessions were then six months distant.
not suit India. Accordingly, two dif-
either on the facts of history or on
principles of human nature, In lieu of
There were no newspapers to speak of,
ferent bills, one for India and one for
boastings about the greatness and glory
no correspondents; and little or nothing
England, were passed the same year. 1853.
of the United States, the readiness of the
was known of what was going on In In-
The Indian bill left large powers of arbi-
American people "to take responsibill-
dia. But the English people determined
trary appointment to the Governors and
that the directors of the Company should
Commissioners, as the circumstances of
ty," and the folly of the Filipinos in
allowing themselves to be shot down like
not be allowed to send out social rub-
the country made necessary. But It pro-
game sooner than submit. When driven
bish, even for the government of ter-
vided that the Englishmen who left Eng-
to the wall by real Americans, and for-
ritory of which they knew 80 little, and
land to govern India, should have their
ced to concoct some theory for the benefit
In which they had BO little Interest. It
capacity ascertained by tests which
of those who are horrified by these mas-
WAS an English reform, made by Eng-
would send most American Jingoes to
lishmen, on English soil.
the lunatic asylum. In the same year,
Bacres, Jingoes some months ago got up
Reform began in England by Burke's
R8 we have said, the bill reforming the
a very ridiculous story that, by subdu-
speech on the "Economical Reformation
English civil service was passed. Both
ing and annexing the Phillppines. we
of the Civil and Other Establishments"
were the product of the determination
should get civil-service reform. which
we had found out we were unable to get
toward the end of the American war In
of Englishmen in England to amend the
1780. The plan was pursued under Pitt
English service at home and abroad, be-
at home because the wise McKinley did
not think it would be good for us. With-
until the outbreak of the French war
ginning in England Itself. The whole
in 1792. IL WILS necessarily suspended
story that England walted to bear from
in a few day we have discovered that
India in order to amend her own insti-
the fiction has effected a certain lodg-
during the war, but resumed in 1819.
ment in the minds of many plain people
It was continued steadily until the mid-
tutions. is a ridiculous Jingo Invention,
concocted to furnish a. ridiculous excuse
whose consciences had been sufficiently
dle classes broke into the aristocratic
for McKinley's Philippine war.
pricked by the "duck-hunting" of "the
government circle by the Reform Bill of
niggers" in the Philippines, to long to
1832. It was continued more vigorously
Jingoes must swallow the truth, how-
be able to tell of some good thing com-
than ever by the new reform Parlia-
ever unpalatable It may be, that the
ing for us white Protestant Christians as
ment. Their first work was the reform
growth of great nations whose greatness
a result of our war. They have accord-
of the new municipalities, a great un-
18 to be permanent. is endogenous. To
ingly taken up the professorial story
dertaking. We suppose some Jingo will
be great, a nation has to have enough
that, by conquering the Phillppines, we
some day maintain that this was not
manly determination, capacity, and love
shall have civil-service reform here at
done till the English people had news of
of country to reform its own Institutions
the reform in the Government of Se-
wherever it aces reform is needed, In-
home, inasmuch as It was only by con-
ringapatam, Benares, and Delhi. Other
stead of boasting and blowing and "tak-
quering India that the British got it in
minor reforms followed rapidly. Dis-
Ing responsibility." and then falling back
England.
This invention has been the more in-
content with the condition of the civil
to making money, and turning the whole
excusable because the whole story of the
service, BR being what John Bright called
matter over to the President. This is
way in which the British got their civil-
at that time "a system of outdoor relief
not the way to become great. England's
success at home and abroad comes not
service reform has been told with great
for the pauper members of the aristo-
cracy." grew steadily. After the great
from talking about reform, not from
lucidity, If with some prolixity, by an
American author, Mr. Dorman B. Eaton.
reforms in the revenue system begun by
perambulating the country and blather-
He shows, with abundant quotation from
Sir Robert Peel and continued by Mr.
ing about "the home and the flag." but
historical and legal documents, that the
Gladatone, the reformers at last laid
from having a good administration and
hold of the Government patronage in
being governed cautiously by her very
reform of the civil service in England
best men. The idea that her notions
was simply one of the many reforms on
1853.
of what her administration should be
which the British public entered eagerly
They first reorganized the customs Ber-
were wafted to her from her colonies on
after the reform of the franchise which
vice. They then obtained a report on the
the other side of the globe, in the shape
admitted the middle classes to a share
plan of throwing open the public service
of "shame." resembles the plan of mak-
In the government. In fact, the passion
to competitive examination. by two Eng-
ing children behave themselves at kin-
for better administration was one which
lish statesmen, Sir Stafford Northcote.
dergartens by putting fool's-cape on
took firm hold of the British mind after
afterwards Lord Iddesleigh, and Mr. C.
them. A8 a suggestion of how a great
the Revolution of 1688, and began to
E. Trevelyan. The Government then
work of government by a manly people
show itself with vigor and persistence
submitted this report to forty-one Eng-
came to be done, It simply illustrates
after the American war. So early as
lishmen of the highest standing in the
the childish and shallow character of the
1784 It had appeared in legislation ar-
public service and in the various profes-
Jingo mind.
resting the frightful corruption of the
sions-the masters of the leading public
directors of the East India Company in
schools, the leading professors at Ox-
their newly acquired Eastern posses-
ford and Cambridge, the heads of the
DISFRANCHISING THE NEGRO.
sions. They were using for the govern-
different departments of the public ser
ment of these possessions a horde of
vice, men eminent as writers on econo-
years ago the State of Mississip-
drunken, rascally, and broken-down re-
mical and social questions, such as John
adopted a new. constitution embracing
latives and dependents of their own,
Stuart Mill and Dr. Lyon Playfair, af-
provisions for keeping the voters
who were making their fortunes out of
terwards Lord Playfair. Each of these
away-from the polls: These consisted
the wretched natives by every species of
men handed in a written comment on the
of two parts. The frst was-a-poll-tax
peculation and extortion. The English
report to the Government. We have
of two which was, made
people. not the warriors. not the Illndus,
been carefully through them all. Three
an Indispensable requirement for the suf-
12
not the quarrelsome "strenuous people,"
or four doubted the practicability of the
frage. The tax might be increased to
determined that this should cease, and
now scheme. Three or four more defend.
three dollars by the action of the local
that the men who left England for the
ed the existing system against the at-
authorities, but it could not exceed that
government of these distant possessions,
tacks made on It. One only made any
sum. It applied to whites and blacks
which were still owned by the East In-
reference to India, namely. Sir Thomas
alike. The second: requirement was that
dia Company, should be men of decent
Redington, the Permanent Secretary of
be-able to read any
1.
[Vol. 69, No. 1795
Nov. 23, 1899]
The Nation.
385
home
the then Indian Board of Control. What
section of the Constitution of the State,
What le the meaning of attainder of
Constitution, a paper which seems to
show
he said was that a system of reform
or be able to understand the same when.
treason? What 18 the meaning of cor-
have no liking for the bill. He holds
pos-
which was adapted to England would
read to him; or to give a reasonable in-
ruption of blood? What is forfeiture?
the South to its responsibility to render
stant.
not suit India. Accordingly, two dif-
terpretation thereof. This also was ap-
What la the condition, or thing. that is
political justice to the blacks, now that
is of,
ferent bills, one for India and one for
plicable to whites and blacks alike, and
limited to the lifetime of the person
Its hands are free from any federal con-
thing
England, were passed the same year, 1853.
was held to be valid by the Supreme
-attainted? Is It the forfeiture or the
trol.
n In-
The Indian bill left large powers of arbl-
Court of the United States for. that rea-
corruption of blood? Suppose that a ne-
The most ominous and deplorable fea-
nined
trary appointment to the Governors and
son. In effect It put 60 many discour-
KΓo offers to vote and is asked to read
ture of the bill Is the schooling in dis-
hould
Commissioners, as the circumstances of
agements in the way of the negroes
and write that clause of the Constitution
honesty which It will give to the whites
rub-
the country made necessary. But It pro-
that they have not offered to vote in
and give a reasonable interpretation of
themselves. The ballot-stuffing process-
( ter-
vided that the Englishmen who left Eng-
any large numbers since the Constitu-
It. Even If he were learned in English
es which were Invented to cheat the
", and
land to govern India, should have their
tion took effect. As a general rule they
history, and had familiarized himself
negroes were turned by the whites
it. It
capacity ascertained by tests which
do not care to pay the poll-tax, since the
with the law of attainder as It existed in
against each other, after they had
Eng-
would send most American Jingoes to
paying of It does not Insure the right to
the seventeenth century. he would be
served their original purpose, and It Is
the lunatic asylum. In the same year,
vote, but merely brings them to the
helpless unless the election officers were
quite certain that any form of swindling
BB we have said, the bill reforming the
irke's
educational test which most of them
equally well instructed, and unless they
which the public are led to sanction,
English civil service was passed. Both
nation
would fail to pass.
were honorable men and lovers of truth.
and with which they familiarize them-
were the product of the determination
ents"
Now, a bill is before the Legislature of
His vote would be lost.
selves, will return before long to plague
of Englishmen in England to amend the
ar in
Georgia, still more drastic In its provi-
This is called an educational test by
the inventors in some unexpected way.
English service at home and abroad, be-
r Pitt
sions. It la known as the Hardwick
its framers, but such a character is
ginning In England Itself. The whole
war
bill, and It proposes an amendment of
taken from It by the second clause,
story that England waited to hear from
ended
the State Constitution in these terms:
which says that persons who were voters
COURSE OF THE BOER WAR.
India in order to amend her own insti-
1819.
"That no person shall be a competent
In any State on the 1st of January, 1867,
It is now about aix weeks since
tutions, is a ridiculous Jingo invention,
voter unless be shall be able to read and
mid-
concocted to furnish a ridiculous excuse
write any paragraph of the Constitution of
and their lineal descendants, shall not
hostilities began in South Africa, and
cratic
this State, and he shall be able to under-
be subject to this clause; that is, their
WC are in a position to estimate the
for McKinley's Philippine war
Bill of
stand any paragraph of such Constitution,
and to give a reasonable Interpretation
votes shall not be rejected for inability
plan of campaign. on either side, with
rously
Jingoes must swallow the truth, how-
thereto; provided, however, that no male
to read, or write, or understand, or In-
its measure of success or failure up to
'arlia-
ever unpalatable It may be, that the
person who was on January 1, 1867. or at
terpret any or all clauses of the Consti-
date. Gen Lord Wolseley reminded his
eform
growth of great nations whose greatness
any time prior thereto, entitled to vote un-
der the laws of the State wherein he then
tution. As all white men were voters
audience the other evening that war is
it un-
is to be permanent, is endogenous. To
resided, and no lineal descendant of such
then, and very few If any black men
not a game of chess, in which the more
:0 will
be great, a nation has to have enough
person. shall be denied the right to register
or vote at any election in this State by rea.
were, the Hardwick bill If adopted,
powerful Intellect wins from the very
LB not
manly determination, capacity, and love
son of his failure to possess the educational
would amount to disfranchisement of
Arst. It 18 rather a "game of ups and
ows of
of country to reform its own Institutions
qualifications provided for In this para-
the negroes at every place where a ma-
downs," and the really weaker player
of Se-
wherever It sees reform is needed, In-
graph."
jority of the election officers were of the
may secure an advantage at the start
stead of boasting and blowing and "tak-
This provision differs from that of
Other
opinion that the negroes did not under-
by reason of superior position. The
ing responsibility," and then falling back
Mississippi in two ways. The latter is
Dis-
stand all parts of the Constitution of the
Boers had all their chessmen on the
to making money, and turning the whole
alternative, using the word "or" In pre-
& civil
State. It should be remarked that If the
board at the opening. while the British
called
matter over to the President. This is
scribing the educational test. If the vot-
negro should happen to understand
had only about a third of theirs ready.
not the way to become great. England's
er can read any section of the Consti-
relief
rightly the clause first propounded to
Yet, from a military point of view, the
success at home and abroad comes not
tution of the State, or can understand It
aristo-
bim, the election officers can put an-
British have practically won the game
from talking about reform, not from
when read to him, he is entitled to vote,
great
other one before him and go through
by the very fact of not being at once
perambulating the country and blather-
provided he has paid his poll-tax. Abill-
;un by
with the whole Instrument before allow-
swept off the board.
ing about "the home and the flag." but
ly to read the English language is not
y Mr.
Ing him to vote.
That the Dutch forces planned and
from having a good administration and
an unreasonable requirement for voting.
t laid
It would be well If such a requirement
If we can Imagine an honest adminis-
expected to drive the Inferior English
being governed cautiously by her very
age in
were universal. The Georgia bill, how-
tration of the proposed law, It. would re-
army before them, and promptly occupy
best men. The Idea that ber notions
sult In making the negroes, In the course
the whole of Natal, is abundantly evi-
of what her administration should be
ever, makes the requirements of read-
ns ser-
were wafted to her from her colonies on
ing and understanding not alternative
of a few years, a race of jurisconsults,
dent. Their sudden ultimatum. their
on the
the other side of the globe, in the shape
but joint, and then puts In a third-
while the mass of whites would be as
swift taking of the aggressive and
service
that of giving a "reasonable Interpreta-
densely Ignorant of constitutional law
march over the border. were else pure
of "shame," resembles the plan of mak-
0 Eng-
tion" to the clauses in question.
as the plantation negroes are now. The
folly. The mass of the Boers undoubt-
Ing children behave themselves at kin-
thcote,
Incentive to education which the exer-
edly thought that they would whip the
dergartens by putting fool's-cape on
This provision puts It in the power of
Mr. C.
clse of the suffrage would Impel the
English easily. "We gave you several
them. As a suggestion of how a great
the election officers, or a majority of
t then
them, to reject any vote if they say
blacks to acquire, would gradually lift
good thrashings there once," sald a
work of government by a manly people
e Eng-
came to be done, it simply Illustrates
that the voter does not understand some
them to the superior place in point of
Boer officer to an English military man
in the
the childish and shallow character of the
particular clause of the State Constitu-
Intelligence. But nobody imagines that
at Laing's Nek in 1890; "you will need
profes-
tion, or If his interpretation of It la not
the proposed law would be honestly ad-
another thrashing by-and-by, and we
Jingo mind.
public
satisfactory to them. The election of-
ministered. Everybody knows that its
will give It to you." And an English
at Ox-
ficers themselves may be unable to un-
purpose is to enable the election officers
newspaper correspondent who was in
of the
derstand or rightly Interpret the clause
to reject negro votes wholesale under
Gen. Joubert's camp at Sandspruit as
DISFRANCHISING THE NEGRO.
IIc ser-
In question. Their interpretation may
the pretence of an educational test.
late as October 12, reports that the con-
econo-
A few years ago the State of Mississip-
be entirely wrong, they may not agree
Although the bill has received the
fidence of the Boers in the certainty of
18 John
pl adopted a new constitution embracing
among themselves as to the true In-
votes of a majority of the committee of
their success was "unbounded."
air, af-
provisions for keeping the педто voters
terpretation, but that makes no differ-
the House, there Is a strong minority
"They never doubted for a moment that,
( these
away from the polls. These consisted
ence as regards the voter. If a. majority
opposed to it, and throughout the State
having once crossed Laing's Nek, they would
on the
of two parts. The first was a poll-tax
of them think that his Interpretation of
It has evoked vigorous opposition among
march straight down to Durban, destroying
the mere handful of British in their path.
e have
of two dollars per head, which was made
It la inadequate, he loses the right to
the whites. Among the opponents is
As for Cape Colony, that would rise on
Three
an indispensable requirement for the suf-
vote. Take, for example, this clause of
the present Governor of the State, Allen
every side to welcome them. Only a very
few of the more educated among the I're-
of the
frage. The tax might be increased to
the United States Constitution, which 18
D. Candler. Gov. Candler is In favor
torinns contemplated the possibility of de-
defend-
three dollars by the action of the local
repeated In some of the State Constitu-
of leaving the suffrage as it now stands,
feat, and even they, after a week in the
camp. were caught by the general conta-
the at-
authorities, but It could not exceed that
tions:
and of promoting measures of concilia-
gion
de any
sum. It applied to whites and blacks
"No attainder of treason shall work cor-
tion and friendship between the two
This was not mere vain-glory. The
Thomas
alike. The second requirement was that
ruption of blood or forfeiture except during
races. Booker Washington been In-
tary of
every voter should be able to read any
the life of the person attainted.'
Boers knew their own strength better
terviewed on the subject by the Atlanta
than the British did. Lord Wolseley has
June 1899
Harpers Monthly Macyazi
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN SCIENTIFIC
MEDICINE.
BY HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, M.D.
I.
originator of the practice was the Ger-
A
LTHOUGH Napoleon Bonaparte,
man physician Avenbrugger, who pub-
First Consul, was not lacking in
lished a book about it as early as 1761.
self - appreciation, he probably did not
This book had even been translated into
realize that in selecting a physician for
French, then the language of interna-
his own needs he was markedly influ-
tional communication everywhere, by Ro-
encing the progress of medical science as
zière de la Chassagne, of Montpellier, in
a whole. Yet SO strangely are cause and
1770; but no one other than Corvisart
effect adjusted in human affairs that this
appears to have paid any attention to
simple act of the First Consul had that
either original or translation. It was
very unexpected effect. For the man
far otherwise, however, when Corvisart
chosen was the envoy of a new method
translated Avenbrugger's work anew,
in medical practice, and the fame which
with important additions of his own, in
came to him through being physician to
1808. By this time a reaction had set in
the First Consul, and subsequently to the
against the metaphysical methods in med-
Emperor, enabled him to promulgate the
icine that had previously been so allur-
method in a way otherwise impracticable.
ing; the scientific spirit of the time was
Hence the indirect but telling value to
making itself felt in medical practice;
medical science of Napoleon's selection.
and this, combined with Corvisart's fame,
The physician in question was Jean
brought the method of percussion into
Nicolas de Corvisart. His novel method
immediate and well-deserved popularity.
was nothing more startling than the now
Thus was laid the foundation for the
familiar procedure of tapping the chest
method of so-called physical diagnosis,
of a patient to elicit sounds indicative of
which is one of the corner-stones of mod-
diseased tissues within. Every one has
ern medicine.
seen this done commonly enough in our
The method of physical diagnosis as
day, but at the beginning of the century
practised in our day was by no means
Corvisart, and perhaps some of his pu-
completed, however, with the work of
pils, were probably the only physicians
Corvisart. Percussion alone tells much
in the world who resorted to this simple
less than half the story that may be eli-
and useful procedure. Hence Napoleon's
cited from the organs of the chest by
surprise when, on calling in Corvisart,
proper interrogation. The remainder of
after becoming somewhat dissatisfied with
the story can only be learned by apply-
his other physicians, Pinel and Portal,
ing the ear itself to the chest, directly
his physical condition was interrogated
or indirectly. Simple as this seems, no
in this strange manner. With character-
one thought of practising it for some
istic shrewdness Bonaparte saw the utili-
years after Corvisart had shown the
ty of the method, and the physician who
value of percussion. Then, in 1815, an-
thus attempted to substitute scientific
other Paris physician, René Théophile
method for guess-work in the diagnosis
Hyacinthe Laënnec, discovered, almostby
of disease at once found favor in his
accident, that the sound of the heart-beat
eyes, and was installed as his regular
could be heard surprisingly through a
medical adviser.
cylinder of paper held to the ear and
For fifteen years before this Corvisart
against the patient's chest. Acting on
had practised percussion, as the chest-
the hint thus received, Laënnec substi-
tapping method is -called, without suc-
tuted a hollow cylinder of wood for the
ceeding in convincing the profession of
paper, and found himself provided with
its value. The method itself, it should
an instrument through which not merely
be added, had not originated with Corvi-
heart sounds, but murmurs of the lungs
sart, nor did the French physician for a
in respiration, could be heard with al-
moment claim it as his own. The true
most startling distinctness.
WILLIAM J. MORTON.
The possibility of associating the vary-
ment which its originator thought hardly
ing chest sounds with diseased conditions
worth naming until various barbarous
of the organs within appealed to the fer-
appellations were applied to it by others.
tile mind of Laënnec as opening new
after which Laënnec decided to call it
vistas in therapeutics, which he deter-
the stethoscope, a name which it has ever
mined to enter to the fullest extent prac-
since retained.
ticable. His connection with the hos-
In subsequent years the form of the
pitals of Paris gave him full opportunity
stethoscope, as usually employed, was
in this direction, and his labors of the
modified, and its value augmented by a
next few years served not merely to es-
binauricular attachment; and in very
tablish the value of the new method as
recent years a further improvement has
an aid to diagnosis, but laid the founda-
been made through application of the
tion also for the science of morbid anat-
principle of the telephone; but the essen-
omy. In 1819 Laënnec published the
tials of auscultation with the stethoscope
results of his labors in a work called
were established in much detail by Laën-
Traité d' Auscultation Médiate, a work
nec, and the honor must always be his
which forms one of the landmarks of
of thus taking one of the longest single
scientific medicine. By mediate auscul-
steps by which practical medicine has in
tation is meant of course the interroga-
our century acquired the right to be con-
tion of the chest with the aid of the little
sidered a rational science. Laënnec's ef-
instrument already referred to, an instru-
forts cost him his life, for he died in 1826
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN SCIENTIFIC MEDICINE.
41
of a lung disease acquired in the course
II.
of his hospital practice; but even before
I have just adverted to the fact that
this his fame was universal, and the
Napoleon Bonaparte, as First Consul and
value of his method had been recognized
as Emperor, was the victim of a malady
all over the world. Not long after, in
which caused him to seek the advice of
1828, yet another French physician, Pi-
the most distinguished physicians of
orry, perfected the method of percus-
Paris. It is a little shocking to modern
sion by introducing the custom of tap-
sensibilities to read that these physicians,
ping, not the chest directly. but the tin-
except Corvisart, diagnosed the distin-
ger or a small metal or hard rubber
guished patient's malady as " gale réper-
plate held against the chest-mediate
cutée "-that is to say, in idiomatic Eng-
percussion, in short. This perfected the
lish, the itch "struck in." It is hardly
methods of physical diagnosis of diseases
necessary to say that no physician of to-
of the chest in all essentials; and from
day would make SO inconsiderate a diag-
that day till this percussion and auseul-
nosis in the case of a royal patient. If
tation have held an unquestioned place
by any chance a distinguished patient
in the regular armamentarium of the
were afflicted with the itch, the sagacious
physician.
physician would carefully hide the fact
Coupled with the new method of phys-
behind circumlocutions, and proceed to
ical diagnosis in the effort to substitute
eradicate the disease with all despatch.
knowledge for guess work came the
That the physicians of Napoleon did oth-
studies of the experimental physiologists
erwise is evidence that at the beginning
-in particular, Marshall Hall in England.
of the century the disease in question en-
and François Magendie in France; and
joyed a very different status. At that
the joint efforts of these
various workers led
presently to the aban-
donment of those se-
vere and often irra-
tional depletive meth-
ods-blood-letting and
the like-that had pre-
viously dominated med-
ical practice. To this
end also the "statis-
tical method," intro-
duced by Louis and his
followers, largely con-
" thought hardly
tributed; and by the
trious barbarous
close of the first third
d to it by others.
of our century the idea
ecided to call it
was gaining ground
which it has ever
that the province of
therapeutics is to aid
the form of the
nature in combating
employed, was
disease, and that this
augmented by a
may often be better ac-
t; and in very
complished by simple
mprovement has
means than by the he-
plication of the
roic measures hitherto
e; but the essen-
thought necessary. In
1 the stethoscope
a word, scientific em-
1 detail by Laën-
piricism was begin-
st always be his
ning to gain a hear-
1e longest single
ing in medicine, as
medicine has in
against the metaphys-
e right to be con-
ical preconceptions of
e. Laënnec's ef-
the earlier genera-
r he died in 1826
tions.
RUDOLF VIRCHOW.
42
HARPER'S NEW MONTHLY MAGAZINE.
time, itch, instead of being a most plebeian
purely local disease of the skin, due to a
malady, was, SO to say, a court disease.
perfectly definite cause, and the dire in-
It enjoyed a circulation, in high circles
ternal conditions formerly ascribed to it
and in low, that modern therapeutics has
have really no causal connection with it
quite denied it; and the physicians of the
whatever. This definite cause, as every
time gave it a fictitious added importance
one nowadays knows, is nothing more or
by ascribing to its influence the existence
less than a microscopic insect which has
of almost any obscure malady that came
found lodgment on the skin, and has bur-
under their observation. Long after Na-
rowed and made itself at home there.
poleon's time, gale continued to hold this
Kill that insect, and the disease is no
proud distinction. For example, the im-
more; hence it has come to be an axion
aginative Dr. Hahnemann did not hesitate
with the modern physician that the itch
to affirm, as a positive maxim, that three-
is one of the three or four diseases that
fourths of all the ills that flesh is heir to
he positively is able to cure, and that very
were in reality nothing but various forms
speedily. But it was far otherwise with
of gale répercutée."
the physicians of the first third of our cen-
All of which goes to show how easy it
tury, because to them the cause of the dis-
may be for a masked pretender to impose
case was an absolute mystery.
It is true that here and there a
physician had claimed to find an
insect lodged in the skin of a suf-
ferer from itch, and two or three
times the claim had been made
that this was the cause of the mal-
ady, but such views were quite ig-
nored by the general profession,
and in 1833 it was stated in an
authoritative medical treatise that
the cause of gale is absolutely
unknown." But even at this time,
as it curiously happened, there
were certain ignorant laymen who
had attained to a bit of medical
knowledge that was withheld from
the inner circles of the profession.
As the peasantry of England before
Jenner had known of the curative
value of cow-pox over small-pox,
SO the peasant women of Poland
had learned that the annoying
skin disease from which they suf-
fered was caused by an almost in-
visible insect, and, furthermore,
had acquired the trick of dislodg-
ing the pestiferous little creature
with the point of a needle. From
them a youth of the country, F.
Renucci by name, learned the open
secret. He conveyed it to Paris
LOUIS PASTEUR.
when he went there to study med-
icine, and in 1834 demonstrated it
to his master, Alibert. This physi-
on credulous humanity; for nothing is
cian, at first sceptical, soon was onvinced,
more clearly established in modern know-
and gave out the discovery to the med-
ledge than the fact that gale répercutée"
ical world with an authority that led to
was simply a name to hide a profound
early acceptance.
ignorance; no such disease exists. or ever
Now the importance of all this, in the
did exist. Gale itself is a sufficiently
present connection, is not at all that it
tangible reality, to be sure; but it is a
gave the clew to the method of cure of a
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN SCIENTIFIC MEDICINE.
43
1, due to a
single disease. What makes the discov-
Trichina spiralis. After the discovery
he dire in-
ery epochal is the fact that it dropped a
was published, it transpired that similar
cribed to it
brand-new idea into the medical ranks
specks had been observed by several ear-
ion with it
-an idea destined, in the to
lier investigators, but no one had pre-
e, as every
prove itself a veritable bomb-the idea,
viously suspected, or, at any rate, demon-
"g more or
namely, that a minute and quite unsus-
strated their nature. Nor was the full
which has
pected animal para-
nd has bur-
site may be the cause
ome there.
of a known,
sease is no
widely prevalent,
e an axion
and important hu-
at the itch
man disease. Of
iseases that
course the full force
id that very
of this idea could
erwise with
only be appreciated
I of our cen-
in the light of later
e of the dis-
knowledge; even
at the time of its
and there a
coming it sufficed to
I to find an
give a great impetus
in of a suf-
to that new medical
wo or three
knowledge, based on
been made
microscopical stud-
of the mal-
ies, which had but
ere quite ig-
recently been made
profession,
accessible by the in-
tated in an
ventions of the lens-
treatise that
makers. The new
S absolutely
knowledge clarified
at this time,
one very turbid med-
ened, there
ical pool, and pointed
laymen who
the way to the clar-
t of medical
ification of many
ithheld from
others.
e profession.
Almost at the same
gland before
time that the Polish
the curative
medical student was
er small-pox,
demonstrating the
n of Poland
itch mite in Paris, it
1e annoying
chanced, curiously
ich they suf-
enough, that anoth-
in almost in-
er medical student,
CRAWFORD W. LONG.
furthermore,
this time an English-
After R crayon portrait taken at the time of his discovery of the anaesthetic properties of
k of dislodg-
man, made an anal-
sulphuric other.
ittle creature
ogous discovery, of
eedle. From
perhaps even greater
3 country, F.
importance. Indeed, this English dis-
story of the trichina made out for a long
rned the open
covery in its initial stages slightly ante-
time after Owen's discovery. It was not
d it to Paris
dated the other, for it was in 1833 that
till 1847 that the American anatomist
to study med-
the student in question, James Paget,
Dr. Joseph Leidy found the cysts of
monstrated it
interne in Saint Bartholomew's Hospital,
trichina in the tissues of pork; and an-
This physi-
London, while dissecting the muscular
other decade or so elapsed after that be-
vasconvinced,
tissues of a human subject, found little
fore German workers, chief among whom
V to the med-
specks of extraneous matter, which, when
were Leuckart, Virchow, and Zenker,
ty that led to
taken to the professor of comparative an-
proved that the parasite gets into the hu-
atomy, Richard Owen, were ascertained,
man system through ingestion of infect-
all this, in the
with the aid of the microscope, to be the
ed pork, and that it causes a definite set
at all that it
cocoon of a minute and hitherto un-
of symptoms of disease, which hitherto
d of cure of a
known insect. Owen named the insect
had been mistaken for rheumatism, ty-
44
HARPER'S NEW MONTHLY MAGAZINE.
phoid fever, and other maladies. Then
of medication by inhalation, and carried
the medical world was agog for a time
out some most interesting experiments
over the subject of trichinosis; govern-
fifty years earlier, and it was doubtless
ment inspection of pork was establish-
his experiments with nitrous oxide gas
ed in some parts of Germany; American
that gave the clew to one of the American
pork wasexcluded altogether from France;
investigators; but this was the sole con-
and the whole subject thus came promi-
tribution of preceding generations to the
mently to public attention. But impor-
subject, and since the beginning of the
tant as the trichina parasite proved on its
century, when Davy turned his attention
own account in the end, its greatest im-
to other matters. no one had made the
portance, after all, was in the share it
slightest advance along the same line
played in directing attention at the time
until an American dentist renewed the
of its discovery in 1833 to the subject of
investigation. Moreover, there had been
microscopic parasites in general.
nothing in Davy's experiments to lead
The decade that followed that discov-
any one to suspect the possibility that a
ery was a time of great activity in the
surgical operation might be rendered pain-
study of microscopie organisms and mi-
less in this way; and, indeed, the sur-
croscopic tissues, and such men as Ehren-
geons of Europe had acknowledged with
berg and Henle and Bory Saint Vincent
one accord that all hope of finding a
and Kölliker and Rokitansky and Remak
means to secure this most desirable end
and Dujardin were widening the bounds
must be utterly abandoned-that the sur-
of knowledge of this new subject with
geon's knife must ever remain a synonym
details that cannot be more than referred
for slow and indescribable torture. By
to here. But the crowning achievement
an odd coincidence it chanced that Sir
of the period in this direction was the
Benjamin Brodie, the acknowledged lead-
discovery made by the German J. L.
er of English surgeons, had publicly ex-
Schoenlein in 1839, that it very common
pressed this as his deliberate though re-
and most distressing disease of the scalp,
gretted opinion at a time when the quest
known as favus, is really due to the
which he considered futile had already
presence and growth on the scalp of a
led to the most brilliant success in Amer-
vegetable organism of microscopic size.
ica, and while the announcement of the
Thus it was made clear that not merely
discovery, which then had no transatlan-
animal. but also vegetable organisms of
tic cable to convey it, was actually on its
obscure, microscopie species have causal
way to the Old World.
relations to the diseases with which man-
The American dentist just referred to,
kind is afflicted. This knowledge of the
who was, with one exception to be noted
parasites was another long step in the di-
presently, the first man in the world to
rection of scientific medical knowledge;
conceive that the administration of a
but the heights to which this knowledge
definite drug might render a surgical op-
led were not to be scaled, or even recog-
eration painless, and to give the belief
nized, until another generation of work-
application, was Dr. Charles W. Wells, of
ers had entered the field.
Hartford, Connecticut. The drug with
which he experimented was nitrous oxide;
III.
the operation which he rendered painless
Meantime, in quite another field of
was no more important than the extrac-
medicine, events were developing which
tion of a tooth-yet it sufficed to mark a
led presently to a revelation of greater
principle; the year of the experiment was
immediate importance to humanity than
1844.
any other discovery that had come in the
The experiments of Dr. Wells, how-
century, perhaps in any field of science
ever, though important, were not suffi-
whatever. This was the the
ciently demonstrative to bring the matter
pain dispelling power of the vapor of sul-
prominently to the attention of the medi-
phurictether, inhaled by a patient under-
cal world. The drug with which he ex-
going a surgica operation. This discovery
perimented proved not always reliable,
came solely out of America, and it stands
and he himself seems ultimately to have
curiously isolated, since apparently no
given the matter up, or at least to have
minds in any other country were trending
relaxed his efforts. But meantime a
toward it even vaguely. Davy, in Eng-
friend, to whom he had communicated
land, had indeed originated the method
his belief and expectations, took the mat-
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN SCIENTIFIC MEDICINE.
45
d carried
ter up, and with unremitting zeal carried
of the physician, could accomplish such a
eriments
forward experiments that were destined
miracle. But scepticism vanished before
doubtless
to lead to more tangible results. This
the tests which any surgeon might make,
xide gas
friend was another dentist, Dr. William
and which surgeons all over the world
American
J. Morton, of Boston, then a young man,
did make within the next few weeks.
sole con-
full of youthful energy and enthusiasm.
Then there came a lingering outery from
ns to the
He seems to have felt that the drug with
a few surgeons, notably some of the Pa-
g of the
which Wells had experimented was not
risians, that the shock of pain was bene-
attention
the most practicable
made the
one for the purpose,
ame line
and so for several
ewed the
months he experi-
had been
mented with other
to lead
allied drugs, until
(t.y. that a
finally he hit upon
ered pain-
sulphurie ether, and
the sur-
with this was able
iged with
to make experiments
inding a
upon animals, and
rable end'
then upon patients in
t the sur-
the dental chair, that
synonym
seemed to him abso-
ure. By
lutely demonstrative.
that Sir
Full of eager en-
Iged lead-
thusiasm, and abso-
bliely ex-
lutely confident of
hough re-
his results, he at once
the quest
went to Dr. J. C.
d already
Warren. one of the
in Amer-
foremost surgeons of
ent of the
Boston, and asked
"ansatlan-
permission to test his
lly on its
discovery decisively
on one of the patients
ferred to,
at the Boston Hospi-
be noted
tal during a severe
world to
operation. The re-
ion of a
quest was granted;
argical op-
the test was made
the belief
in September, 1846,
Wells, of
in the presence of
Irug with
several of the fore-
ous oxide;
most surgeons of the
d painless
city and of a body
lie extrac-
of medical students.
SIR JOSEPH LISTER.
to mark a
The patient slept qui-
iment was
etly while the sur-
geon's knife was plied, and awoke to as-
ficial to the patient, hence that anasthe-
ells, how-
tonished comprehension that the ordeal
sia-as Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes had
not suffi-
was over. The impossible, the miracu-
christened the new method-was a pro-
the matter
lous, had been accomplished.
cedure not to be advised. Then, too, there
the medi-
Swiftly as steam could carry it-slowly
came a hue-and-cry from many a pulpit
ch he ex-
enough we should think it to-day-the
that pain was God-given, and hence, on
; reliable,
news was heralded to all the world. It
moral grounds, to be clung to rather than
y to have
was received in Europe with incredulity,
renounced. But the outery of the antedi-
st to have
which vanished before repeated experi-
luvians of both hospital and pulpitquick-
cantime a
ments. Surgeons were loath to believe
ly received its quietus; for soon it was
municated
that ether, a drug that had long held a
clear that the patient who did not suffer
k the mat-
place in the subordinate armamentarium
the shock of pain during an operation
46
HARPER'S NEW MONTHLY MAGAZINE.
rallied better than the one who did SO
Alabama. As to Dr. Jackson, it is sufficient
suffer, while all humanity outside the
to say that he seems to have had some
pulpit cried shame to the spirit that
vague inkling of the peculiar properties
would doom mankind to suffer needless
of ether before Morton's discovery. He
agony. And so within a few months
even suggested the use of this drug to
after that initial operation at the Boston
Morton, not knowing that Morton had
already tried it; but
this is the full measure
of his association with
the discovery. Hence
it is clear that Jack-
son's claim to equal
share with Morton in
the discovery was un-
warranted, not to say
absurd.
Dr. Long's associa-
tion with the matter
was far different, and
altogether honorable.
By one of those coin-
cidences SO common in
the history of discov-
ery, he was experiment-
ing with ether as a
pain-destroyer simulta-
neously with Morton,
though neither SO much
as knew of the exist-
ence of the other.
While a medical stu-
dent he had once in-
haled ether for the in-
toxicant effects, as oth-
er medical students
were wont to do, and
when partially under
influence of the drug
he had noticed that a
chance blow to his
shins was painless.
This gave him the idea
THEODOR SCHWANN.
that ether might be
used in surgical oper-
ations; and in subse-
Hospital in 1846, ether had made good its
quent years, in the course of his prac-
conquest of pain throughout the civilized
tice in a small Alabama town, he put
world. Only by the most active use of
the idea into successful execution. There
the imagination can we of this present
appears to be no doubt whatever that
day realize the full meaning of that vic-
he performed successful minor opera-
tory.
tions under ether some two or three
It remains to be added that in the sub-
years before Morton's final demonstra-
sequent bickerings over the discovery-
tion; hence that the merit of first using
such bickerings as follow every great ad-
the drug, or indeed any drug, in this
vance-two other names came into promi-
way belongs to him. But unfortunate-
nent notice as sharers in the glory of the
ly Dr. Long did not quite trust the
new method. Both these were Americans
evidence of his own experiments. Just
-the one, Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of Bos-
at that time the medical journals were
ton; the other, Dr. Crawford W. Long, of
full of accounts of experiments in which
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN SCIENTIFIC MEDICINE.
47
is sufficient
painless operations were said to be per-
might seem to have a very slight connec-
ave had some
formed through practice of hypnotism,
tion with medicine. Moreover, the chief
liar properties
and Dr. Long feared that his own suc-
worker in the field was not himself a
liscovery. He
cess might be due to an incidental hyp-
physician. He was a chemist, and the
f this drug to
notic influence rather than to the drug.
work in which he was now engaged was
t Morton had
Hence he delayed announcing his appar-
the study of alcoholic fermentation in
tried it but
ent discovery until he should have op-
vinous liquors. Yet these-studies-
e full measure
portunity for further tests oppor-
the way for the most important advances
sociation with
tunities did not come every day to the
that medicine has -made in any century
overy. Hence
country practitioner. And while he wait-
toward the plane of true science and to
ar that Jack-
ed, Morton anticipated him, and the dis-
this man more than to any other single
aim to equal
covery was made known to the world
individual it might almost be said more
th Morton in
without his aid. It was a true scientific
than to all other individuals-wa due this
very was un-
caution that actuated Dr. Long to this
wonderful Ivance. It is almost super-
fluous to add that the name of this mar-
d, not to say
delay, but the caution cost him the credit,
which might otherwise have been his, of
vellous chemist was Louis Pasteur.
giving to the world one of the greatest
The studies of fermentation which
ong's associa-
h the matter
blessings that science has ever conferred
Pasteur entered upon in 1854 were aimed
different, and
upon humanity.
at the solution of a controversy that had
r honorable.
A few months after the use of ether
been waging in the scientific world with
of those coin-
became general, the Scotch surgeon Sir
varying degrees of activity for a quarter
SO common in
J. Y. Simpson discovered that another
of a century. Back in the thirties, in the
ry of discov-
drug, chloroform, could be administered
day of the early enthusiasm over the
asexperiment-
with similar effects; that it would, indeed,
perfected microscope, there had arisen a
in many cases produce anmesthesia more
new interest in the minute forms of life
I ether as a
royer simulta-
advantageously even than ether. From
which Leeuwenhoek and some of the oth-
with Morton,
that day till this surgeons have been
er early workers with the lens had first
either so much
more or less divided in opinion as to the
described, and which now were shown to
of the exist-
relative merits of the two drugs; but this
be of almost universal prevalence. These
the other.
fact, of course, has no bearing whatever
minute organisms had been studied more
medical stu-
upon the merit of the first discovery of
or less by a host of observers, but in par-
had once in-
the method of anæsthesia. Even had
ticular by the Frenchman Cagniard La-
er for the in-
some other drug subsequently quite ban-
tour and the German, of cell-theory fame,
effects, as oth-
ished ether, the honor of the discovery of
Theodor Schwann. These men, working
ical students
the beneficent method of anæsthesia would
independently, had reached the conclu-
nt to do, and
have been in no wise invalidated. And
sion, about 1837, that the micro organ-
artially under
despite all cavillings, it is unequivocally
isms play a vastly more important rôle
of the drug
established that the man who gave that
in the economy of nature than any one
noticed that a
method to the world was William Jen-
previously had supposed. They held, for
blow to his
nings Morton.
example, that the minute specks which
as painless.
largely make up the substance of yeast
IV.
e him the idea
are living vegetable organisms, and that
er might be
This discovery of the anæsthetic power
the growth of these organisms is the
surgical oper-
of drugs was destined presently, in addi-
cause of the important and familiar pro-
tnd in subse-
tion to its direct beneficences, to aid great-
cess of fermentation. They even came to
of his prac-
ly in the progress of scientific medicine,
hold, at least tentatively, the opinion that
town, he put
by facilitating those experimental studies
the somewhat similar micro-organisms to
cution. There
of animals from which, before the day
be found in all putrefying matter, animal
vhatever that
of anæsthesia, many humane physicians
or vegetable, had a causal relation to the
minor opera-
were withheld, and which in recent years
process of putrefaction.
two or three
have led to discoveries of such inestimable
This view, particularly as to the nature
il demonstra-
value to humanity. But for the moment
of putrefaction, was expressed even more
of first using
this possibility was quite overshadowed
outspokenly a little later by the French
drug, in this
by the direct benefits of anæsthesia, and
botanist Turpin. Views SO supported
unfortunate-
the long strides that were taken in scien-
naturally gained a following; it was
ite trust the
tific medicine during the first fifteen years
equally natural that so radical an inno-
iments. Just
after Morton's discovery were mainly in-
vation should be antagonized. In this
journals were
dependent of such aid. These steps were
case it chanced that one of the most
ents in which
taken, indeed, in a field that at first glance
dominating scientific minds of the time,
VoL. XCIX.-No. 589.-7
48
HARPER'S NEW MONTHLY MAGAZINE.
that of Liebig, took a firm and aggressive
at all except for the presence of the liv-
stand against the new doctrine. In 1839
ing micro-organisms. A piece of meal,
he promulgated his famous doctrine of
for example, suspended in an atmosphere
fermentation, in which he stood out firm-
free from germs, will dry up gradually,
ly against any vitalistic" explanation
without the slightest sign of putrefaction,
of the phenomena, alleging that the pres-
regardless of the temperature or other
ence of micro organisms in fermenting
conditions to which it may have been
and putrefying substances was merely in-
subjected.
cidental, and in no sense causal. This
There was nothing in these studies
opinion of the great German chemist was
bearing directly upon the question of
in a measure substantiated by experiments
animal diseases, yet before they were fin-
of his compatriot Helmholtz, whose ear-
ished they had stimulated progress in
lier experiments confirmed, but later ones
more than one field of pathology. At
contradicted, the observations of Schwann,
the very outset they sufficed to start
and this combined authority gave the
afresh the inquiry as to the rôle played
vitalistic conception a blow from which
by micro-organisms in disease. In par-
it had not rallied at the time when Pas-
ticular, they led the French physician
teur entered the field. Indeed, it was
Devaine to return to some interrupted
currently regarded as settled that the
studies which he had made ten years
early students of the subject had vastly
before, in reference to the animal disease
overestimated the importance of micro-
called anthrax, or splenic fever, a disease
organisms.
that cost the farmers of Europe millions
And so it came as a new revelation to
of francs annually through loss of sheep
the generality of scientists of the time,
and cattle. In 1850, Devaine had seen
when, in 1857 and the succeeding half-
multitudes of bacteria in the blood of
decade, Pasteur published the results of
animals who had died of anthrax, but he
his researches, in which the question had
did not at that time think of them as
been put to a series of altogether new
having a causal relation to the disease.
tests, and brought to unequivocal demon-
Now, however, in 1863, stimulated by
stration.
Pasteur's new revelations regarding the
He proved that the micro-organisms do
power of bacteria, he returned to the
all that his most imaginative predecessors
subject, and soon became convinced,
had suspected, and more. Without them,
through experiments by means of inoc-
he proved, there would be no fermenta-
ulation, that the microscopie organisms
tion, no putrefaction decay of any
he had discovered were the veritable and
tissues, except by the slow process of oxi-
the sole cause of the infectious disease
dation. It is the microscopic yeast plant
anthrax.
which, by seizing on certain atoms of the
The publication of this belief in 1863
molecule, liberates the remaining atoms
aroused a furor of controversy. That a
in the form of carbonic acid and alco-
microscopic vegetable could cause a viru-
hol, thus effecting fermentation; it is an-
lent systemic disease was an idea alto-
other microscopic plant-a bacterium, as
gether too startling to be accepted in a
Devaine had christened it-which in a
day, and the generality of biologists and
similar way effects the destruction of or-
physicians demanded more convincing
ganic molecules, producing the condition
proofs than Devaine as yet was able to
which we call putrefaction. Pasteur
offer.
showed, to the amazement of biologists,
Naturally a host of other investigators
that there are certain forms of these
all over the world entered the field.
bacteria which secure the oxygen which
Foremost among these was the German
all organic life requires, not from the
Dr. Robert Koch, who soon corroborated
air, but by breaking up unstable mole-
all that Devaine had observed, and car-
cules in which oxygen is combined; that
ried the experiments further in the direc-
putrefaction, in short, has its foundation
tion of the cultivation of successive gen-
in the activities of these so-called anae-
erations of the bacteria in artificial media,
robic bacteria.
inoculations being made from such pure
In a word, Pasteur showed that all the
cultures of the eighth generation, with
many familiar processes of the decay of
the astonishing result that animals thus
organic tissues are, in effect, forms of
inoculated at once succumbed to the dis-
fermentation, and would not take place
ease.
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN SCIENTIFIC MEDICINE.
49
3 of the liv-
Such experiments seem demonstrative,
holic beverages, though not at the hands
ce of meat,
yet the world was unconvinced, and in
of Pasteur himself. Struck by the bound-
atmosphere
1876, while the controversy was still at
less implications of Pasteur's revelations
gradually,
its height, Pasteur was prevailed upon
regarding the bacteria, Dr. Joseph Lister
'utrefaction,
to take the matter in hand. The great
(the present Lord Lister), then of Glasgow, is
re or other
have been
chemist was becoming more and more ex-
set about as early as 1860 to make a won-
clusively a biologist as the years passed,
derful application of these ideas. If pu-
and in recent years his famous studies of
trefaction is always due to bacterial de-
iese studies
the silk-worm diseases, which he proved
velopment, he argued, this must apply
question of
due to bacterial infection, and of the ques-
as well to living as to dead tissues; hence
ey were fin-
progress in
tion of spontaneous generation, had given
the putrefactive changes which occur in
sology. At
him unequalled resources in microscopi-
wounds and after operations on the hu-
ed to start
cal technique. And so when, with the
man subject, from which blood-poisoning
aid of his laboratory associates Duclaux
SO often follows, might be absolutely pre-
rôle played
and Chamberland and Roux, he took up
vented if the injured surfaces could be
se. In par-
the mooted anthrax question, the scien-
kept free from access of the germs of
h physician
tific world awaited the issue with bated
decay.
interrupted
breath. And when, in 1877, Pasteur was
In the hope of accomplishing this re-
e ten years
ready to report on his studies of anthrax,
sult, Lister began experimenting with
imal disease
he came forward with such a wealth of
drugs that might kill the bacteria without
ver, a disease
demonstrative experiments-experiments
injury to the patient, and with means to
ope millions
the rigid accuracy of which no one would
prevent further access of germs once a
loss of sheep
for a moment think of questioning-going
wound was freed from them. How well
ne had seen
to prove the bacterial origin of anthrax,
he succeeded, all the world knows; how
the blood of
that scepticism was at last quieted for all
bitterly he was antagonized for about a
thrax, but he
time to come.
score of years, most of the world has al-
( of them as
Henceforth no one could doubt that
ready forgotten. As early as 1867, Lister
the disease.
the contagious disease anthrax is due ex-
was able to publish results pointing tow-
imulated by
clusively to the introduction into an an-
ard success in his great project; yet so in-
egarding the
imal's system of a specific germ-a mi-
credulous were surgeons in general that
urned to the
croscopic develops there.
even some years later the leading sur-
convinced,
And no logical mind could have a rea-
geons across the Channel had not so much
eans of inoc-
sonable doubt that what is proved true
as heard of his efforts. In 1870 the sol-
ic organisms
of one infectious disease would some day
diers of Paris died, as of old, of hospital
veritable and
be proved true also of other, perhaps of
gangrene; and when in 1871 the French
tious disease
all, forms of infectious maladies.
surgeon Alphonse Guérin, stimulated by
Hitherto the cause of contagion, by
Pasteur's studies, conceived the idea of
elief in 1863
which certain maladies spread from in-
dressing wounds with cotton in the hope
rsy. That a
dividual to individual, had been a total
of keeping germs from entering them, he
cause a viru-
mystery, quite unillumined by the vague
was quite unaware that a British contem-
in idea alto-
terms miasm, humor," virus," and
porary had preceded him by a full decade
accepted in a
the like cloaks of ignorance. Here and
in this effort at prevention, and had made
biologists and
there a prophet of science, as Schwann
long strides toward complete success. Lis-
e convincing
and Henle, had guessed the secret; but
ter's priority, however, and the superi-
L was able to
guessing, in science, is far enough from
ority of his method, were freely admitted
knowing. Now, for the first time, the
by the French Academy of Science, which
investigators
world knew, and medicine had taken an-
in 1881 officially crowned his achieve-
ed the field.
other gigantic stride toward the heights
ment, as the Royal Society of Loudon
the German
of exact science.
had done the year before.
corroborated
By this time, to be sure, as everybody
ved, and car-
V.
knows, Lister's new methods had made
l' in the direc-
Meantime in a different, though allied,
their way everywhere, revolutionizing
uccessive gen-
field of medicine there had been a com-
the practice of surgery, and practically
tificial media,
plementary growth that led to immedi-
banishing from the earth maladies that
om such pure
ate results of even more practical impor-
hitherto had been the terror of the sur-
heration, with
tance. I mean the theory and practice
geon and the opprobrium of art. And
animals thus
of antisepsis in surgery vance,
these bedside studies, conducted in the
ed to the dis-
like the other, came as a direct outgrowth
end by thousands of men who had no
of Pasteur's fermentation studies of alco-
knowledge of microscopy; had a large
50
HARPER'S NEW MONTHLY MAGAZINE.
share in establishing the general belief
the air; and he did not hesitate to assert
in the causal relation that micro-organ-
his belief that the method would prove
isms bear to disease, which by about the
susceptible of generalization "-that is
year 1880 had taken possession of the
to say, of application to other diseases
medical world. But they did more; they
than the particular one in question.
brought into equal prominence the idea
Within a few months he made good
that, the cause of a diseased condition be-
this prophecy, for in February, 1881, he
ing known, it may be possible as never
announced to the Academy that, with
before to grapple with and eradicate that
the aid, as before, of his associates MM.
condition.
Chamberland and Roux, he had produced
The controversy over spontaneous gen-
an attenuated virus of the anthrax mi-
eration, which, thanks to Pasteur and
crobe, by the use of which he could pro-
Tyndall, had just been brought to a termi-
tect sheep, and presumably cattle, against
nation, made it clear that no bacterium
that fatal malady.
need be feared where an antecedent bac-
This announcement was immediately
terium had not found lodgement; Lister-
challenged in a way that brought it to
ism in surgery had now shown how much
the attention of the entire world. The
might be accomplished toward prevent-
president of an agricultural society, real-
ing the access of germs to abraded sur-
izing the enormous importance of the sub-
faces of the body, and destroying those
ject, proposed to Pasteur that his alleged
that already had found lodgement there.
discovery should be submitted to a deci-
As yet, however, there was no inkling of a
sive public test. He proposed to furnish
way in which a corresponding onslaught
a drove of fifty sheep, half of which were
might be made upon those other germs
to be inoculated with the attenuated vi-
which find their way into the animal
rus by Pasteur. Subsequently all the
organism by way of the mouth and the
sheep were to be inoculated with viru-
nostrils, and which, as was now clear, are
lent virus, all being kept together in one
the cause of those contagious diseases
pen, under precisely the same conditions.
which, first and last, claim so large a
The protected" sheep were to remain
proportion of mankind for their victims.
healthy; the unprotected ones to die of
How such means might be found now
anthrax; so read the terms of the propo-
became the anxious thought of every im-
sition. Pasteur accepted the challenge;
aginative physician, of every working
he even permitted a change in the pro-
micro-biologist.
gramme by which two goats were substi-
As it happened, the world was not
tuted for two of the sheep, and ten cattle
kept long in suspense. Almost before
added; stipulating, however, that since
the proposition had taken shape in the
his experiments had not yet been extend-
minds of the other leaders, Pasteur had
ed to cattle, these should. not be regarded
found a solution. Guided by the empir-
as falling rigidly within the terms of the
ical success of Jenner, he, like many oth-
test.
ers, had long practised inoculation exper-
It was a test to try the soul of any man,
iments, and on the 9th of February, 1880,
for all the world looked on askance, pre-
he announced to the French Academy of
pared to deride the maker of so preposter-
Science that he had found a method of
ous a claim as soon as his claim should
so reducing the virulence of a disease
be proved baseless. Not even the fame
germ that, when introduced into the sys-
of Pasteur could make the public at large,
tem of a susceptible animal, it produced
lay or scientific, believe in the possibility
only a mild form of the disease, which,
of what he proposed to accomplish. There
however, sufficed to protect against the
was time for all the world to be informed
usual virulent form exactly as vaccinia
of the procedure, for the first " prevent-
protects against small-pox. The particu-
ive" inoculation, or vaccination, as Pas-
lar disease experimented with was that
teur termed it, was made on the 5th of
infections malady of poultry known fa-
May, the second on the 17th; and another
miliarly as chicken cholera." In Octo-
interval of two weeks must elapse before
ber of the same year Pasteur announced
the final inoculations with the unattenu-
the method by which this attenuation
ated virus. Twenty-four sheep, one goat,
of the virus," as he termed it, had been
and five cattle were submitted to the pre-
brought about-by cultivation of the dis-
liminary vaccinations. Then, on the 31st
ease germs in artificial media, exposed to
of May, all sixty of the animals were in-
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN SCIENTIFIC MEDICINE.
51
esitate to assert
oculated, a protected and an unprotected
VI.
od would prove
one alternately, with an extremely vir-
In the production of the rabies vaccine
zation "-that is
ulent culture of anthrax microbes that
Pasteur and his associates developed a
other diseases
had been in Pasteur's laboratory since
method of attenuation of a virus quite dif-
1 question.
1877. This accomplished, the animals were
ferent from that which had been employed
he made good
left together in one enclosure, to await
in the case of the vaccines of chicken chol-
bruary, 1881, he
the issue.
era and of anthrax. The rabies virus was
emy that, with
Two days later, the 2d of June, at the
inoculated into the system of guinea-pigs
associates MM.
appointed hour of rendezvous, a vast
or rabbits, and, in effect, cultivated in the
1e had produced
crowd, composed of veterinary surgeons,
systems of these animals. The spinal
he anthrax mi-
newspaper correspondents, and farmers
cord of these infected animals was found
th he could pro-
from far and near, gathered to witness
to be rich in the virus, which rapidly be-
y cattle, against
the closing scenes of this scientific tour-
came attenuated when the cord was dried
ney. What they saw was one of the
in the air. The preventive virus, of va-
as immediately
most dramatic scenes in the history of
rying strengths, was made by maceration
it brought it to
peaceful science-a scene which, as Pas-
of these cords at varying stages of desic-
re world. The
teur declared afterward, amazed the as-
cation. This cultivation of a virus with-
ral society, real-
sembly." Scattered about the enclosure,
in the animal organism, suggested, no
tance of the sub-
dead, dying, or manifestly sick unto death,
doubt, by the familiar Jennerian method
that his alleged
lay the unprotected animals, one and all;
of securing small-pox vaccine, was at the
nitted to a deci-
while each and every protected animal
same time a step in the direction of a new
posed to furnish
stalked unconcernedly about with every
therapeutic procedure which was destined
f of which were
appearance of perfect health. Twenty of
presently to become of all-absorbing im-
e attenuated vi-
the sheep and the one goal were already
portance-the method, namely, of so-called
quently all the
dead; two other sheep expired under the
serum-therapy, or the treatment of a dis-
ated with viru-
eyes of the spectators; the remaining
ease with the blood serum of an animal
together in one
victims lingered but a few hours longer.
that has been subjected to protective in-
ame conditions.
Thus in a manner theatrical enough, not
oculation against that disease.
were to remain
to say tragic, was proclaimed the une-
The possibility of such a method was
ones to die of
quivocal victory of science. Naturally
suggested by the familiar observation,
as of the propo-
enough, the unbelievers struck their col-
made by Pasteur and numerous other
the challenge;
ors and surrendered without terms; the
workers, that animals of different species
nge in the pro-
principle of protective vaccination, with
differ widely in their susceptibility to va-
ats were substi-
a virus experimentally prepared in the
rious maladies; and that the virus of a
, and ten cattle
laboratory, was established beyond the
given disease may become more and more
ever, that since
reach of controversy.
virulent when passed through the systems
vet been extend-
That memorable scientific battle marked
of successive individuals of one species,
not be regarded
the beginning of a new era in medicine.
and, contrariwise, less and less virulent
the terms of the
It was a foregone conclusion that the
when passed through the systems of succes-
principle thus established would be still
sive individuals of another species. These
oul of any man,
further generalized; that it would be ap-
facts suggested the theory that the blood
on askance, pre-
plied to human maladies; that, in all
of resistant animals might contain some-
of so preposter-
probability, it would grapple successful-
thing directly antagonistic to the virus,
is claim should
ly, sooner or later, with many infectious
and the hope that this something might
even the fame
diseases. That expectation has advanced
be transferred with curative effect to the
public at large,
rapidly toward realization. Pasteur him-
blood of an infected susceptible animal.
n the possibility
self made the application to the human
Numerous experimenters all over the
complish. There
subject in the disease hydrophobia, in
world made investigations along the line
1 to be informed
1885, since which time that hitherto most
of this alluring possibility, the leaders
first prevent-
fatal of maladies has largely lost its ter-
perhaps being Drs. Behring and Kitasato,
ination, as Pas-
rors. Thousands of persons, bitten by
closely followed by Dr. Roux and his as-
on the 5th of
mad dogs, have been snatched from the
sociates of the Pasteur Institute of Paris.
th; and another
fatal consequences of that mishap by this
Definite results were announced by Beh-
ist elapse before
method, at the Pasteur Institute in Paris,
ring in 1892 regarding two important dis-
h the unattenu-
and at the similar institutes, built on the
eases-tetanus and diphtheria-but the
sheep, one goat,
model of this parent one, that have been
method did not come into general notice
itted to the pre-
established all over the world, in regions
until 1894, when Dr. Roux read an epoch-
'hen, on the 31st
as widely separated as New York and
marking paper on the subject at the Con-
nimals were in-
Nha-Trang.
gress of Hygiene at Buda-Pesth.
52
HARPER'S NEW MONTHLY MAGAZINE.
In this paper, Dr. Roux, after adverting
erywhere. What it had accomplished
to the labors of Behring, Ehrlich, Boer,
was regarded as but an carnest of what
Kossel, and Wasserman, described in de-
the new method might accomplish pres-
tail the methods that had been developed
ently when applied to the other infectious
at the Pasteur Institute for the develop-
diseases.
ment of the curative serum, to which
Efforts at such applications were imme-
Behring had given the since familiar
diately begun in numberless directions—
name antitoxine. The method consists,
had, indeed, been under way in many a
first, of the cultivation, for some months,
laboratory for some years before. It is
of the diphtheria bacillus (called the
too early yet to speak of the results
Loeffler bacillus, in honor of its dis-
in detail. But enough has been done to
coverers) in an artificial bouillon, for the
show that this method also is suscepti-
development of a powerful toxine capa-
ble of the widest generalization. It is
ble of giving the disease in a virulent
not easy at the present stage to sift that
form.
which is tentative from that which will
This toxine, after certain details of me-
be permanent; but SO great an authority
chanical treatment, is injected in small as Behring does not hesitate to affirm
but increasing doses into the system that to-day we possess, in addition to the
of an animal care being taken to grad-
diphtheria antitoxine, equally specific
uate the amount so that-the-animal does
antitoxines of tetanus, cholera, typhus-
not succumb to the disease. After a cer-
fever, pneumonia, and tuberculosis-a
tain course of this treatment it is found
set of diseases which in the aggregate
that a portion of blood serum of the ani-
account for a startling proportion of the
mal so treated will act in a curative way
general death-rate. Then it is known
if injected into the blood of another ani-
that Dr. Yersin, with the collaboration of
mal, or a human patient, suffering with
his former colleagues of the Pasteur In-
diphtheria. In other words, according to
stitute, has developed, and has used with
theory, an antitoxine has been developed
success, an antitoxine from the microbe
in the system of the animal subjected to
of the plague which recently ravaged
the progressive inoculations of the diph-
China.
theria toxine. In Dr. Roux's experience
Dr. Calmette, another graduate of the
the animal best suited for the purpose
Pasteur Institute, has extended the range
is the horse, though almost any of the
of the serum-therapy to include the pre-
domesticated animals will serve the pur-
vention and treatment of poisoning by
pose.
venoms, and has developed an antitoxine
But Dr. Roux's paper did not stop with
that has already given immunity from
the description of laboratory methods. It
the lethal effects of snake bites to thou-
told also of the practical application of the
sands of persons in India and Australia.
serum to the treatment of numerous cases
Just, how much of present promise is
of diphtheria in the hospitals of Paris-
tentative; just what are the limits of the
applications that had met with a grati-
methods-these are questions for the fu-
fying measure of success. He made it
ture to decide. But, in any event, there
clear that a means had been found of
seems little question that the serum treat-
coping successfully with what had been
ment will stand as the culminating
one of the most virulent and intractable
achievement in therapeutics of our cen-
of the diseases of childhood. Hence it
stury: It is the logical outgrowth of
was not strange that his paper made a
those experimental studies with the mi-
sensation in all circles, medical and lay
croscope begun by our predecessors of
alike.
the thirties, and it represents the pres-
Physicians from all over the world
ent culmination of the rigidly experi-
flocked to Paris to learn the details of the
mental method which has brought med-
open secret, and within a few months the
icine from a level- of fanciful empiricism
new serum-therapy had an acknowledged
to the plane of a rational experimental
standing with the medical profession ev- science.
Employment-Industry and Occupation
415
No. 648. Occupations of the Employed, by Selected Characteristics: 1996
in thousands. Annual averages of monthly figures. For civilian noninstitutional population 25 to 64 years old. Based on
Current Population Survey; see text, section 1, and Appendix III]
Mana-
Tech./
SEX, RACE, AND
Total
gerial/
sales/
Precision
Operators/
Service
1
Farming,
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
employed
profes-
adminis-
produc-
fabrica-
forestry,
sional
trative
tion
2
tors
3
fishing
Male. total 4
56,297
17,155
10,845
4,719
10,881
10,640
2,057
than a high school diploma.
6,580
347
476
881
1,762
2,442
671
school graduates, no college
18,036
1,983
2,932
1,782
5,179
5,359
800
than a bachelor's degree
14,755
3,576
College Less graduates
3,774
1,479
3,255
2,300
372
16,925
11,249
3,664
577
684
539
213
White
48,545
15,299
9,407
3,594
9,689
8,650
1,907
Less than a high school diploma
5,504
305
400
645
1,518
2,018
617
High school graduates, no college
15,444
1,792
2,535
1,307
4,684
4,393
734
Less than a bachelor's degree
12,662
3,195
3,241
1,166
2,898
1,812
351
College graduates
14,935
10,007
3,231
476
588
426
205
Black
5,357
996
896
883
835
1,644
103
Less than a high school diploma
810
24
50
176
172
345
43
High school graduates, no college
2,066
137
285
390
376
832
45
Less than a bachelor's degree
1,542
262
373
254
241
399
12
College graduates
940
572
188
64
46
68
2
Female, total
48,084
16,210
19,135
7,382
1,076
3,751
530
Less than a high school diploma
3,953
230
789
1,574
203
1,035
121
High school graduates, no college
16,085
2,305
7,693
3,465
501
1,920
202
Less than a bachelor's degree
14,433
4,073
7,443
1,854
268
657
135
College graduates
13,614
9,602
3,211
487
103
140
72
White
40,083
14,060
16,236
5,582
857
2,838
509
Less than a high school diploma
3,089
186
670
1,163
154
802
115
High school graduates, no college
13,503
2,050
6,787
2,608
405
1,459
193
Less than a bachelor's degree
11,905
3,512
6,134
1,430
219
476
133
College graduates
11,585
8,311
2,644
382
80
101
69
Black
5,920
1,485
2,144
1,470
133
679
9
Less than a high school diploma
621
30
87
334
22
145
3
High school graduates, no college
2,064
203
706
719
63
369
5
Less than a bachelor's degree
2,027
448
1,041
358
37
142
College graduates
1,208
806
310
60
11
22
Represents or rounds to zero.
1
Includes private household workers.
2 Includes craft and repair.
3 Includes laborers.
4
Includes other races, not shown separately.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, unpublished data.
No. 649. Employment, by Industry: 1970 to 1996
(In thousands, except percent. See headnote, table 627. Data from 1985 to 1990, and also beginning 1995, not strictly
comparable with other years due to changes in industrial classification)
1996
INDUSTRY
1970
1980
1990 1
1995 1
Percent
Total
Female
Black
Hispanic2
Total employed
78,678
99,303
118,793
124,900
126,708
46.2
10.7
9.2
Agriculture
3,463
3,364
3,223
3,440
3,443
25.3
2.9
17.7
Mining
516
979
724
627
569
13.2
4.6
6.6
Construction
4,818
6,215
7,764
7,668
7,943
10.0
6.6
10.4
Manufacturing
20,746
21,942
21,346
20,493
20,518
32.0
10.5
10.1
Transportation, communication, and
other public utilities
5,320
6,525
8,168
8,709
8,817
28.6
14.6
8.2
Wholesale and retail trade
15,008
20,191
24,622
26,071
26,497
47.2
8.8
10.1
Wholesale trade
2,672
3,920
4,669
4,986
4,956
29.8
6.8
9.8
Retail trade
12,336
16,270
19,953
21,086
21,541
51.2
9.3
10.2
Finance, insurance, real estate
3,945
5,993
8,051
7,983
8,076
58.4
9.1
7.0
Services
3
20,385
28,752
39,267
43,953
45,043
61.9
12.1
8.3
Business and repair services
3
1,403
3,848
7,485
7,526
8,087
36.8
11.0
10.8
Advertising
147
191
277
267
276
55.1
4.1
6.1
Services to dwellings and buildings
(NA)
370
827
829
871
47.9
17.6
21.3
Personnel supply services
(NA)
235
710
853
866
58.4
19.6
11.1
Computer and data processing
(NA)
221
805
1,136
1,340
33.0
7.6
4.2
Detective/protective services
(NA)
213
378
506
540
22.7
22.6
8.2
Automobile services
600
952
1,457
1,459
1,630
14.5
9.3
15.3
Personal services
3
4,276
3,839
4,733
4,375
4,358
68.7
14.3
16.0
Private households
1,782
1,257
1,036
971
936
89.1
17.8
25.2
Hotels and lodging places
979
1,149
1,818
1,495
1,504
54.4
15.5
17.0
Entertainment and recreation
717
1,047
1,526
2,238
2,386
44.0
8.7
9.8
Professional and related services
3
12,904
19,853
25,351
29,661
30,085
69.2
12.3
6.5
Hospitals
2,843
4,036
4,700
4,961
5,041
76.1
16.5
6.7
Health services, except hospitals
1,628
3,345
4,673
5,967
6,158
79.2
13.8
6.4
Elementary, secondary schools
6,126
5,550
5,994
6,653
6,711
74.9
11.8
7.5
Colleges and universities
(*)
2,108
2,637
2,768
2,787
52.2
10.7
6.0
Social services
828
1,590
2,239
2,979
3,102
60.7
17.3
8.6
Legal services
429
776
1,215
1,335
1,303
56.0
4.9
4.9
Public administration
$
4,476
5,342
5,627
5,957
5,802
44.4
16.5
6.6
NA Not available.
,
See footnote 2. table 619.
2
Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race.
3
Includes industries
4
Included with elementary/secondary schools.
5
not shown separately.
Includes workers involved in uniquely governmental
activities, e.g., judicial and legislative.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, monthly, January issues; and unpublished data.
Dec11fri.wpd
Page 4
Staff Contact: Samuel Berger
1:25 pm-
PHOTO OPPORTUNITY
1:30
pm
OVAL OFFICE
Staff Contact: Julia Payne
WHITE HOUSE PHOTO ONLY
1:35
pm-
BRIEF MEETING/PHOTO OPPORTUNITY WITH U.S.
1:45
pm
AMBASSADOR TO IRELAND MICHAEL SULLIVAN
OVAL OFFICE
Staff Contact: Samuel Berger
WHITE HOUSE PHOTO ONLY
1:45
pm-
MEETING
2:15
pm
OVAL OFFICE
Staff Contact: Samuel Berger
2:15
pm-
BRIEFING
2:30
pm
OVAL OFFICE
Staff Contact: Ann Lewis, Julianne Corbett
2:30 pm-
TAPE RADIO ADDRESS
3:00
pm
ROOSEVELT ROOM
Remarks: Jordan Tamagni
Staff Contact: Ann Lewis, Julianne Corbett
3:00 pm-
PHONE AND OFFICE/DOWN TIME
7:00
pm
OVAL OFFICE/RESIDENCE
EVENING OFF
BC/HRC RON
THE WHITE HOUSE
WASHINGTON, DC
1995
tari
are 2 % Z
Minim
/
065 ii "
Const
6
Mant.
16
Transpilomm
7
Services
35%
wholesal actil Trade - -21%
Finave = theat Estal, insurance - -6 is
2020
59.12
22. % of women working - 1900, 1998
23. # of daily newspapers
1900,/1998
24. # doctors, # hospitals - 1900, 1998 - JOSH
323
168, M. in 1996 of these 25 + over
18. 3 but W.S. grads
33.6 were L.S. grads
17.3 some college, no degree
7-2 Associates
1538 Bachelors's
7-8 Advanced
Daily newspapers - 1996
Daily Newspupers - 1400
Morning +Evening = 2,226
lioning - 686
Evening - 846
lanked death nase, 1994
Heart disease 381.3/100,000
2052 5
Cancer
Cerebrovascular diseases 58.9
Accidents
35.1
Motor vehicles
16.3
Chronic distructive
39.0
pulmonary diseases
Diabetes
21.8
16.2
HIV
12.0
Suicide
9.6
Homicide
1996
Ex - #624, 767, 000, 4
was $ 791, 364, 000, 000 10
7.636 Trillion
1
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